Basic concepts in venti/ation

Airflow through bui/dings

Airf/ow around bui/dings
Prediction of ventilation
Venti/ation standards

INTRODUCTION
Ventilation is the replacement of used inside air by outside air and it has three
majo/ functions: supply of fresh ai/; body cooling and structural cooling or
heating. Air movement through buildings can be induced by the stack effect, wind
pressure or mechanical means such as fans, evaporative coolers, air-condition-
ers and heaters. The factors that affect air flow through buildings are external
features and factors, number and size of openings, position of openings and
opening components. Air flow around buildings is determined by the shape,
height, orientation and planning of buildings. Ventilation is predicted by
mathematical formulae or with the aid of models. Minimum ventilation standards
provide for supply of fresh ail; body cooling and structural cooling.

6.1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN VENTILATION

Ventilation is the replacement of used inside air by outside air. Cross ventilation is
ventilation achieved by placing openings in opposite walls of an enclosure. Natural
ventilation is ventilation achieved without mechanical aids, but by stack effect and
wind pressure. Comfort cooling is the use of air movement for body cooling. Air
movement refers to the circulation of air within a space and is not necessarily
 associated with ventilation. Infiltration is uncontrolled air flow into or through a
building especially via gaps in doors and windows. Ventilation is measured in air
Function Fre5h Body Structural changes per hour. Ventilation has three major functions - those of supply of fresh
hir cosling cooling
air, body cooling and structural cooling/heating. See table 6.1.

Kequired in 411 in w ~ in hot

~ n dry The supply of fresh air by replacing used internal air by external air is required in
occupied humid condition5 all occupied buildings. This removes carbon dioxide, odours, vapours, gases from
buil d i w conditions cooking and tobacco smoke. A minimum rate of ventilation is established according
to the usage of the space. Body cooling by ventilation is achieved through the
5uitable All sirgle High infernal evaporation of sweat from the skin and increased heat 1 ~frofns the skin by forced
buildti~~ buildinqs bat~Ked h e a t convection. This is usually known as air movement. The cooling effect is achieved
bui kit ng ty
by air velocity and not by low temperature.
Adequaq
of mBh64
Ventilation may also be used for structural cooling or heating. This is dependent on
-4t4cK adqwte not adqwfe a-significant temperature difference between inside and outside air. To cool the
&ect adqwte building, the temperature of external air must be lower. The cool air from outside
is drawn into the warm interior where it lowers the air temperature and cools the
-wind a d q t e g d if adeqwke building. The reverse is the case when external air is used to heat the building
pressure avaihble interior.

- m e d w l i l not may be not.

n e c e s r y desirdble neces- ry 6.2 AIR FLOW THROUGH BUILDINGS
~qu'ired 1 100 10
change per Ventilation in buildings can be achieved through:
hour - the stack effect due to difference in temperature between the air
within and outside the building.
air movement induced by wind pressure.
mechanical means.

THE STACK EFFECT

The stack effect refers to the movement of air as a result of differences in air
pressure of two bodies of air at different temperatures. Thus when there is a
significant difference in the temperature of air within and outside a building
possessing appropriate air inlets and outlets, air movement results.. If for example
the temperature outside the building is lower than that inside, then cold air \vill
enter through the lower inlet and warm air will rise and exit through the upper
outlet. See figyre 6.1.

The rate-of ventilation achieved is directly proportional to the area of the inlet,. and
the square root of the difference in temperature between hiside and outside air, and
the difference in height between the inlet and outlet. The rate of ventilation is also
af'fected by the ratio of the area of outlet to area of inlet. This ratio determines the
correction factor. Ventilation rate increases with increase in the ratio of the area of
the outlet to that of the inlet. See table 6.2.

Stack effect usually produces some air movement even for small differences in
temperature and height. In warm humid conditions, such as in Lagos, stack effect
cannot be relied upon to provide adequate cooling by air movement, even with large
'windows. This is due to the low difference in temperature between the inside and
the outside. In hot dry climates, stack effect can provide structural cooling at night
time, especially during the hot season.

The cooling produced by stack effect can be increased by better design-of openings.
Inlets should be on the windward side of buildings with outlets on the leeward side. ~1.1creV = rate of venliildion
The difference in height between inlet and outlet should be maximized: Window dt = t e m p e r a t u r e diffs rmce
areas should be large, with bigger outlets. Jr; = internal 4ir t e m p e r d f u r e
AIR FLOW THROUGH BUILDINGS INDUCED BY WIND PRESSURE At = area of in let
Wind pressure is the major force responsible for air flow through buildings. The air
K correttion facior (K= 0-117
movement produced by stack effect is often of little magnitude and insufficient for for Ao= A i )
body cooling. Wind pressure and stack effect often act together to create air h height
= differehce in
movement within buildings. The use of mechanical aids is usually employed only if between inlet and ovtlet
the air movement induced by wind pressure and stack effect is insufficient. The aim Ao= area of outlet
of design is usually to maximize wind pressure for air movement, especially in the
warm humid climate in the southern part of the country. The exception to this rule
includes situations where the wind is dusty, cold and unwelcome, such as is
 experienced during the harmattan. There are also cases where the wind is so strong
that it causes destpwt,ion, tearing roofs off buildings, for exapple in Sokoto.

When the wind strikes a building it is slowed down but at the same time it exerts a
pressure on the building. The pressure exerted is directly proportional to the square
of the wind velocity. See figure 6.2. The slowing down of the air forms a relatively
stagnant air mass on the windward face of the building. The wind is deflected above
and around this mass. It however travels some distance before it regains its original
direction due to its tendency to maintain a straight path (momentum). Stagnant air
masses are thus formed on other surfaces of the building, although at reduced
pressure, resulting in suction. The combined effect of pressure on the windward side
and suction on the leeward side is to encourage air flow through the building. This
will occur when there is an inlet on the windward side and an outlet on any of the
leeward sides. See figure 6.3.

AIR FLOW THROUGH BUILDINGS BY MECHANICAL MEANS .

The use of mechanical aids for ventilation is usually combined with general comfort
requirements. These aids therefore often provide:
- air movement
- humidification or dehumidification
W here - cooling
% = area o f . oui-let
- heating

A; = area of inlet These mechanical aids are fans, evaporative coolers, air conditioners and heaters.

FANS
'Ibble 6.2 Electric fans are very useful in providing necessary air movement for body cooling,
rate in
C&rec.tion factors for ventilation especially in the warm humid climates in the southern part of the country. Types
relati'on fo ihlef and ouHef ~ i z e of electric fans include ceiling fans, wall mounted fans, standing fans, table fans and
extract h.Extract fans cannot be used for body coohug since they suck and do not
blow air; they may however be used to assist the stack effect and remove odours and
vapours.
 Wind def lzcfcd
7

Plan
5 c cfion

@=
G=
prrssvre
'&uctia
-I
Wind *cssure 1 5~~ti0n

where P = wind pressure (N/m2)

V = wind velotijy (tn/s)

Plan 1

Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3

Wind pr-re on buildiw Wind pressvvc and &ion oma
building
 EVAPORATIVE COOLERS
These are used for both cooling and humidification, especially in hot dry climates,
similar to the hot dry season (April) experienced in the n o r t h 6 part of'Nigeria.
These coolers work on the principle that water absorbs heat from the atmosphere
when evaporating. This lowers the room temperature. 'At the same time the
Row of POrow evaporated water increases the relative humidity of the air, causing humidification.
The wind scoop and the desert cooler employ this principle. The wind scoop
catches the wind with the aid of properly oriented shafts projecting above roof level.
The wind is channelled through charcoal constantly wetted by earthenware pots.
The desert cooler has an electric fan blowing air through a wet fabric kept damp
by a small pump feeding on a reservoir. See figure 6.4.

AIR CONDITIONERS
Wind scoop Air conditioners provide both cooling and humidification and are sometimes the best
solution in difficult climates especially for offices and public buildings. Their major
drawback is cost of acquisition and maintenance. Air conditioners may be large
uppurwoir plants, small units or split units. The use or otherwise of air conditioning should b e
decided early in design since this will affect the size of openings.
w e f fdbt-it
HEATERS
Heaters are usually unnecessary in the ~ i ~ e r i climate.
an However, they can create
I '
additional comfort during the cold harmattan period, especially when combined with
I: humidification. Small portable units are often adequate and built-in heating systems
unnecessary.
iW
-- 4 bwerpump
and reservoir
NEED FOR HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS
The need for heating and cooling systems is usually determined by comfort conditions
Desert cooler (humidity and temperature) and the duration of that condition. The cost of installing
these sitems is however usually high and many familes remain without them, even
Figure 6.4 when the climatic conditions justify their installation. In such cases, flexible,use of
n\e wind 5c00p and daeeri- coaler space, outdoor living and sleeping as well as clothing are common alternatives. See
table 6.3.
 595ttrn Criteria b r . t i o n ( w n th5) Requirement
hi gh temperature hevet- not required
and hvmidity 1 Desirable
2 ~ i g h l ydesirebk
>/3 Deirable; need for
cr- venfi lqtion

Eva p a t ive high t ~ t ? p % r ~ k u ~ e never not requird

coo!@fj humidity (25% 1 l~xvry
2 Kig hly
deirable
a3 desirsble
fir t'emper~bre>35Oc M ever not rzzqvirad
~ondikioners or 1 luxury
temper-bre >30°C 2 d~irable
and humidity >70% 83 hkhly desirabte
day ternpevxt~re<l6~C never luxurg
and diuwl range(KR 1 Aeirable

a d d i u r ~ 1rqnge 33 permanent hedf ing

>1 P C required

LMe 6.3
Heed for heating and maliq aids
 FACTORS AFFECTING AIR FLOW THROUGH BUILDINGS
Factors affecting air flow through buildings are:
external features and factors
- number and size of openings
- position of openings
opening components

i
X
EXTERNAL FEATURES AND FACTORS
The air flow in bud- is affected by external features and factors. The wind speed
and direction as well as dust content combined with the building shape and
orientation are very important. Dusty winds should be avoided or filtered by
vegetation. Building orientation should take maximum advantage of wind direction.
External features such as barriers and vegetation also play an important role as they
may create wind shadows and channel air flow. The situation of the building with
respect to other buildmgs should ensure adequate spacing to avoid wind shadows and
achieve air movement.

NUMBER AND SIZE OF OPENINGS

For effective cross ventilation there must be at least two openings, an inlet and an
outlet, on opposite, or at least adjacent walls of an enclosure. Furthermore, there
should be no full partition separating the inlet from the outlet. In a case where
there is only one opening, the air movement within the room remains negl@ble even
for high external winds speeds. In fact, comfort conditions worsen at higher wind
speeds due to pressure build up. See table 6.4.

The area of both inlet and outlet, combined with the relative position of inlet and
outlet as well as the wind direction has a marked effect*on the rate of air flow.
Generally, the average air velocity increases with:
increase in size of inlet and outlet
- increase in size of outlet with respect to the inlet.
 Wind
Inlet fjize
direction
1/3 2 /3 3/3

Perpendicular

none

Oblique

none

Nob : For room5 with& he

ct-055 ~enf.ilaiion inlet size is fhe proportion of window width to
wall length
Table 6.4
Effect of window size and wind direcbn on averye air velocitiee in kr'ldi ngs
 POSITION OF OPENINGS
The position of outlets (on the leeward side) and that of inlets (on the windward
side) has a marked effect on the pattern of air flow within an enclosure. This
influence can be observed both ia plan and section.

In plan, the air velocity distribution is affected by the relative position of inlet and
outlet for a given wind direction. The incoming air stream takes the shortest course
of least resistance to the outlet. Thus openings located diagonally will cause air flow
through the centre of the room. When openings are situated directly opposite each
other on one side of opposite walls or close together on adjacent walls the larger
portion of the room will remain unventilated. See table 6.5.

In section, the position of the outlet has little effect on air flow patterns. The inlet
can be low, high, or central. Low inlets tend to direct the air flow towards the floor
while high inlets direct the air flow towards the ceiling. Centrally placed inlets
produce air flow in the general direction of the external wind. For multistorey
buildings, with centrally placed inlets, the wind flow is deflected towards the floor on
the ground floor while it is deflected towards the ceiling on upper floors. See figure
6.5.

OPENING COMPONZNTS
Opening components are very important in determining the velocity and pattern of
air flow. See figure 6.6. These components include:
- canopies (horizontal shading devices)
- louvres and venetian blinds
- sashes
- variously hung windows
- mosquito screens
Fi4ure 6.5 - curtains
Effect of oprning p5ition in ,sedion on
air flow through building3 Canopies direct the air flow towards the ceiling but this can be reversed towards the
floor by leaving a gap between the canopy and the opening. Louvres and venetian
blinds direct the air flow upwards or downwards according to their angle of
Space and acfivity Ventihtion rate

Fair Good Fair

odovr removal (per perwn)
Ompat;onden4ty 5m2/per50n 8 5 23 18 7.2- 2.0
10m2/peremn 5 3 l8 11 0-4- 0.7
1!3m2/pe~n 3 1.5 11 5.5 0.1-0.25
Remova I of t o k o ~ ~ w l c e ( p average
er 7 25
5moKer) :
WC ( 4 . 5 m 3 ) 6 * 2 2*
WC and bthroom (12m3) 12 * 44 *
Kit~hen(lorn2).fa ~ o n edn d i o n
&~ccoKing,nor? d k r bentf3urf~lce~ 1 0 ~ 390 13
Electric cooking, ditb 75 270 3
G a s t~okihg,q bsor h ' t 5ur faces 46 166 5.5
El e d r i c cooKing, ditto 22 72 2.7
~ ~ h t r of o l ~ o o k i nO&IJVC
~ 0019 33 120 4

Minimum for whole dwelling :t

Mini m urn 1
To avoid odours and 5tuffine55 2
To avoid condenation (but at the
expense bF inwasing heat 1665) 4

Tcible 6 . 7
Minimum venkil&m require m e n k
Notes; .
* Infer rnittent arfi fiusl
ventlld t i n only
t PcpenAmt qn dwelling ~ i z eand dendiy of a v p f i o n . b p r t h l l y h;g her
yak65 m y be vequired in 5rnaller m d more d m t ~ l ya c u p ; u l dwelling^
 inclination. Sashes deflect the air flow upwards but reversible pivot sashes can
deflect it downwards. Top hung outward4pening windows deflect air towards the
ceiling. Side hung windows deflect air towards the hinged side when open outwards
and vice-versa. Roller shutters deflect wind downwards when partially open.
Mosquito screens and curtains reduce air flow to a very large extent. Mosquito
Ef Fect of c a m pies
screens, depending on material and perforation, may reduce air flow by 30% to 70%.
For nylon screens, reduction is about 35%. Thig should be kept in mind when
calculating size of openings for effective ventilation.

Venefian blind 300rnrn louvre5

6.3 AIR FLOW AROUND BUILDINGS
Effect' d louvves The wind flow around a building plays an important role in determining the air flow
pattern within the building. Data concerning wind speed and direction are gathered
during site analysis. The wind data are usually taken at 3 hourly intervals at a
height of 10 metres above ground level. The shape, height, orientation and planning
of the building will affect air flow around it.

WIND PRESSURE AND SUCTION

The wind creates a pressure on the windward-side of the building and suction of the
leeward side. This creates air movement within the building in the general direction
of the wind The wind is deflected over the roof and around the sides of the building,
creating a suction. For wind acting at an angle to a rectangular building, pressure is
Effect of w i n g devices and experienced on the two windward sides while suction is experienced on the other
shuttee two. Suction and pressure on an Lshaped building follow the same principles. See
figure 6.7.

EFFECT OF OTHER BUILDINGS

Figure 6.6 The proximity and height of neighbouring buildings 'also af'fect wind flow patterns.
Effect of window components on air For two buildings arranged across the direction of wind flow, the wind is channelled
flow pattern between them, creating stronger suction than for frewtanding buildings. See figure
6.8. When the buildings are arranged in the direction of wind flow, the second
building experiences suction fi-omd sides. When the second building is taller a wind
 Cvvvedroof
CSuction

\
Plc %ctangfikrr buildi-
Wind d i n g on brher

Corner
stveam

5tredm
Figurc 6.7 Figure 6.8
Wind flow round buildings Effect of neighbouring buildings on wirdflow
@) channeUing of wind. (b)interaction oF low
a d high-rise bui\dings.(c) wind flow a r d
building5
 pressure may be experienced on upper floors. There may occur a wind flow under
the second building in the presence of open spaces.
wind direction
-r, THE WIND SHADOW EFFECT
The wind, on meeting a building in its path, creates pressure on the windward part
mf h and suction on the leeward side. The area where this suction is effective represents
the wind shadow of the building. In the wind shadow, the direction of air flow is
opposite to that of the wind direction. Buildings placed in the wind shadow of other
Section buildings will suffer from poor ventilation, except in special cases. Buildings are
b) The di5tance between buildings spaced at least six times their height to avoid this effect. See figure 6.9. Staggering
aoulb exceed 6 fimes t h e height has also been found to be effective. The wind shadow effect should however not be
overemphasized in designs. Land is expensive, and such wide spacing is uneconomical
in large cities. The spacing required may also be reduced when air velocities are high
or when cross ventilation is not essential for comfort. In critical cases staggering, low
building heights, well designed openings or finally mechanical aids may provide
workable solutions.

6.4 PREDICTION OF VENTILATION

There are two basic methods used for the prediction of air flow through and around
buildings. The first involves the use of mathematical formulae while the second
makes use of models.

PREDICTION OF VENTILATION BY MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE

There are many formulae for the prediction of airflow through and around builcbgs.
Cb') The buildinq~ should k ~taggered See figure 6.10. Many of these are beyond the scope of an introductory text. This
in layout is the premise of the air-conditioning and services engineer. The IHVE guide and
the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals are recommended for further reading.
Fiquw 6.9
L a y a t to avoid ha dew &fed PRESSURE DUE TO WIND FLOW
The pressure due to wind flow is given as the product of a constant (0.613) and the
square of the wind velocity. It is measured in pascals. See equation 6.4a Some
standard values of wind velocities are given by the IHVE guide. These are a guide
only and it should be remembered that wind velocity increases with height. These
values are:
open country
suburban areas where P Ip~5ra14)
= wind pre~~5we
city centre V = wind velocihj (tn/~)

AIR FLOW THROUGH OPENINGS Equation 6.4b

T ere are two equations used to determine the rate of air flow through an opening.
Y 2 ?t gives this in terms of the pressure difference and the second in terms of the
G
where V = rate of airflow (m3/5)
air velocity.
A = area OF opening (m2)
The rate of air flow 0 is the product of a constant (0.827), the area of the pda pre55we difference across
(a)
opening and the pressure difference across the opening. See equation 6.4b. the opening (W-15)
Equaf ion 6 . 4 ~
(b) The rate of air flow 0 is the product of the effectiveness of the opening, the
area of the opening and the wind velocity. The effectiveness of the opening
has a value between 0.5 and 0.6. For winds blowing at an angle of 45 degrees where V = rate of airflow lm3/5)
to the opening, the rate of air flow should be reduced by 50%. See equation E = e f f ~ t i v e n e ~ofs apening
6.4~. A = are4 of~pening(m2)
V = wind vela;ih.j (m/5)
RATE OF HEAT GAIN OR LOSS
The rate of heat k or loss through structural ventilation is given by the product Equation 6.4d
of the ventilation 3, the difference in temperature between internal and external
air, the volumetric specific heat of air and a correction factor. The volumetric specific
[Gzq
W here Q = rate of heat 1-5 or gain (W)
heat of air is: 1220 J/m3 deg C at 20°C and 1180 J/ms deg C at 30°C. See equation V = ventilatim rate (nis/~)
6.4d. t = f empemture difference -
internal a~d external air (OC)
PREDICTION OF AIR FLOW WITH P73E AID OF MODELS K correcfion f d o r
Mathematical formulae are incapable of absolutely predicting air flow through and c = volumetric 6peL;ficheat of
around buildings. The most reliable are measurements taken in actual buildings. air ( ~ / d d e g C )
This can however be done only after the building has been constructed; and as such Figure 6.10
is of limited value in evaluating a proposed design. The favoured method is to bthemtical for muhe for prediction of
construct a model of the proposed building and evaluate it in a wind irnulator.
 There ate two types of wind simulators: the openjet wind simulator and the wind
tunnel. h o k e generators are used to show the pattern of wind flow and miniature
instruments measure wind velocity and pressure.
Form ofdiy C~ohAiHon5 M e s

6.5 VENTIMION STANDARDS

haprative 35 -37 below ~ C I ~ W
Cooling 37 -40 b l o w 2570f'h-l Ventilation is required to provide fresh air, body cooling and structural cooling. This
&a pwcits
can be achieved by stack effect, by wind pressure or mechanically. Table 6.6 shows
i rauu
wW
the conditions under which each type of ventilation is required and the method by
maximum
tmpcvatur- which it may be achieved. When mechanical aids are used, the choice of the
- appropriate aid depends on the severity of the climatic conditions. Minimum
J% cooh'ng 35 -375 30-60% Hvmidih'dk ventilation rates must provide adequate fresh air and the need for this varies with
-
375-90 20 50"/0 ~ e q b i r d the occupation density and purpose of the enclosure. Table 6.7 gives the minimum
40 4 2 5 0 -45% relative
whet^ ventilation requirements (Ref. 3, p 175).
42.5-45 0 - 40% humidity
below
i5
W- 15%
TESTS AND EXERCISES
Air -ling 31
*nd &.-humid- 33 -- 3335 below 310c
above 7070air m-
6.1 Explain the term "copvection" in buildings. Illustrate with sketches how the
size and position of openings affect air exchange in buildings.
ifidion 35 - 37-5above 60% 6.2 M a t is:-
37-5-40 above 50% a. Stack effect
40 -45 ubWe S09b
b. Pressure differences
in respect of air exchange in buildings?
6.3 What is cross-ventilation?
6.4 Discuss natural and induced cross-ventilation.
6.5 What influence has the following on cross-ventilation:
Tub1c 6.6
a. inlet and extract fans b. pools and fountains
b n d i t i ' o n s under whih mehani-l
c. partitions d. spacing of buildings
mling may be neus-ry to d i m e e. hedges and trees f. window levels
c~nfblt 6.6 What are the functions of ventilation?
6.7 Describe the action of the wind scoop and desert cooler.
5paca and activity Ven ti ldtion rdte

P
6aod Fair 6 0 4 fair
odovr removaI ( p r per9t-d
ompabden4ty 5m2/person 8 5 23 18 1-2- 2 . 0
10m2/peeon 5 3 16 11 0-4-0.7
13 mZ/ p e w n 3 1.5 11 5.5 0.1- 0.25
Rem ova I of b k o 5 m ~ k ( p eaverage
r 7 25
5moKer) :
WC ( 4 . 5 ~ 1 ~ ) 6 * 2 2* 3
WC and bathroom (12m3) 12 * 44 * 1.5
K i t ~ h e (lam2)
n +&prevent~ o n enwtion
d
&5 -King, non a b r bent surfaces 108 390 13
Electric ccaking, ditto 75 270 3
G a s cookit-g, 4 bsorben't 5ur faces 46 166 5.5
El e d r i c cooKing, d;ff o 22 72 2.7
~ o h t r o of
l tooking od6ut-S only 33 120 4

Minimum for whole dwelling

Minim urn
'To avoid odours a n d 5tuffine55
To avoid t o n d e n a t i o n (buf at the
expense of inmasing heat 1645) 4

Table 6 . 7
Minimum ventil&otl requirements
Notes ;
* )ntcrmit#ent artifidil vent34+ion only
t PcpenAart on A w l l i n g 4izc A& olenity of mzcuprtion. b p w t h l i y h;g her
~atcsmay be vequired in smaller and more dmsely e c c u p i 4 dwd~t't~~c
REFERENCES
Aronin, J.E. (1953). Architecture and Clhate. Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York.
-
Chrenko, F.A. ed. (1974). Bedford's Basic Principles of i/enilation and Heating. H. K.
Lewis, London.
Evans, M. (1980). Housing, Climate and Comfort The Architectural Press, London.
Givoni, B. (1976). Man, Climate And Architecture. Second Edition. Applied Science
Publishers Ltd., London.
Jennins, B.H. (1978). The Therm4 Environment: Conditioning And Control Harper and
Row, New York.
Koenigsberger, O.H., Ingersoll, T.G., Mayhew, A. and Szokolay, S.V. (1974). Manual of
7iopicd Housing And Building, Part 4 Climatic Design. Longman, London.
Lee, P.H.K. (1953). Physiologica/ Objectiwq /n Hot M/le/ Housing. USAID, Washington.
Lippsmeier, G. (1968). Building /n The ?Topics.Verlag Georg D.W. Callwey, Munchen.
.Markus, TA. and Morris, E.N. (1980). Buildings, Clinnale and Energy! Pitman International,
London.
Marsh, P. (1977). Air And Rain Penetration of Buildings. The Construction Press Limited,
Lancaster.
Olgyay, V. (1963). Design With Climate - Biocljmatic Approach Jo Architectural
Regiona/ism. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
Petherbridge, P. (1974). "Limiting The Temperatures In Naturally Ventilated Buildings In
Warm ClimateS". /n: Building Research Establishment Current Paper 7/74.
Webb, C.G. (1960). "Ventilation In Warm Climates". /n: British Research Station Overseas
Building Note Number 66. Building Research Establishment.