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Making Media Content John A. Fortunato Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): John A. Fortunato
ISBN(s): 9780805847482, 0805847480
Edition: Kindle
File Details: PDF, 1.35 MB
Year: 2005
Language: english
Making Media Content
The Influence
of Constituency Groups
on Mass Media
 LEA’s COMMUNICATION SERIES
Jennings Bryant and Dolf Zillmann, General Editors

Selected titles include:

Berger • Planning Strategic Interaction: Attaining Goals Through

Communicative Action
Bryant/Zillmann • Media Effects: Advances and Theory in Research,
Second Edition
Ellis • Crafting Society: Ethnicity, Class, and Communication Theory
Greene • Message Production: Advances in Communication Theory
Reichert/Lambiase • Sex in Advertising: Perspectives on the Erotic
Appeal
Shepherd/Rothenbuhler • Communication and Community
Singhal/Rogers • Entertainment Education: A Communication
Strategy for Social Change
Zillmann/Vorderer • Media Entertainment: The Psychology of Its
Appeal

For a complete list of titles in LEA’s Communication Series, please

contact Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers at
www.erlbaum.com
 Making Media Content
The Influence
of Constituency Groups
on Mass Media

John A. Fortunato
University of Texas

LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS

2005 Mahwah, New Jersey London
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

Copyright © 2005 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in
any form, by photostat, microform, retrieval system, or any
other means, without prior written permission of the
publisher.

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers

10 Industrial Avenue
Mahwah, New Jersey 07430
www.erlbaum.com

Cover design by Sean Sciarrone

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Fortunato, John A.
Making media content : the influence of constituency groups on
mass media / John A. Fortunato
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8058-4748-0 (cloth : alk. paper)
1. Mass media. 2. Content analysis (Communication) I. Title.

P91.F673 2005
302.23—dc22 2004056416
CIP

ISBN 1-4106-1384-4 Master e-book ISBN

 To My Mother and Father:

The most fortunate thing is something I had

nothing to do with. It occurred the moment
I was born to great parents.

Thank You for Everything.

 Contents

Preface xi

About the Author xv

Introduction 1

I: Media Powers

1 The Mass Media Responsibility 15

Marketplace of Ideas 19
Suggested Readings 24

2 Mass Media Use 25

Uses and Gratifications 26
Active Audience: Interpretation of Messages 31
Media Dependency 35
Individual Media Dependency 35
Factors of Individual Media Dependency 37
Organizational Media Dependency 40
Suggested Readings 44

3 Mass Media Selecting and Framing 46

Selection 48
Framing 50
vii
viii CONTENTS

Agenda Setting 54
Framing and Content Providers 58
Framing and the Audience 61
Theoretical Overview 64
Suggested Readings 66

II: The Internal Mass Media Organization

4 Establishing the Mass Media Organization: Routines, 71

Branding, and Promotion
Media Routines: Allocation of Resources 74
Media Routines and Branding 78
Brand Communication and Promotion 86
Suggested Readings 90

5 Ownership 92
Concern of Corporate Ownership of Media
Organizations 93
The Political Economy Approach to Mass
Communication 95
No Concern of Corporate Ownership of Media
Organizations 98
Diversity of Media Content 103
Recruitment and Socialization 107
Ownership and Promotion 109
Suggested Readings 114

6 Day-to-Day Decision Makers 115

Gatekeeping 118
The Hierarchy of the Gatekeeping Process: Practitioner
Perspective 123
Dave Anderson and The New York Times 128
Internal Mass Media Summary 130
Suggested Readings 131
 CONTENTS ix

III: The External Mass Media Organization:

Constituency Groups

7 Mass Media Organization Interaction With Content 135

Providers
The Public Relations Function 136
Public Relations Practitioner Perspective 140
The Nature of the Interaction 145
The Nature of the Interaction: Sources 148
Government Sources 152
The Office of Global Communications 155
The Interaction Summary 157
Suggested Readings 159

8 Advertisers 161
The Advertising Function 163
Sponsorship and Product Placement 166
Advertiser Influence on Content 173
The Advertising Summary 185
Suggested Readings 186

9 Audience 187
The Audience Function in Relation to Content Providers
and Advertisers 189
Suggested Readings 194

Conclusion 195
Basic Generalizations of the Mass Media Content
Decision-Making Process 197
Process Suggestions 200

References 205

Author Index 223

Subject Index 229

x CONTENTS

Tables
4.1 Monthly Cable Channel Subscription Costs: New York 85
Market
6.1 Mass Media Internal Decision Making 131
7.1 Baron’s (2003) Public Relations Rules for the New 140
Media Environment
8.1 Advertising Rate in Time Magazine: Interest Editions 181
8.2 Advertising Rate in Time Magazine: Geographic 182
Editions
8.3 USA Today Advertising Rates 182

Figures
I.1 The Process of Mass Media Content Decision Making 9
2.1 Factors of Individual Media Dependency in Predicting 40
Media Use
5.1 Media Ownership Promotion and Desired Audience 110
Movement
8.1 Objectives of an Advertising Strategy 164
 Preface

The idea for Making Media was conceived when I was asked to teach a
media business course. Upon organizing the class, I first attempted to
finish the statement, “The media business is …” This statement led to a
few central questions necessary to study the mass media business:
What are the goods or services that the organizations of the mass media
produce? How do these mass media organizations develop and distrib-
ute their products? How do the aspirations of the business aspects of the
mass media coexist with any societal responsibilities? And, how do the
people who work in the mass media deal with all of the pressures that
are incorporated into decision making involved in their job?
In responding to the initial question of what is it that mass media or-
ganizations produce (i.e., the media business is …), I arrived at the
general conclusion that the primary business of the mass media is to
produce content—fill the broadcast hours, the print pages, the Internet
site. Before forming any ideas of how the mass media function to in-
form or to entertain, or before responding to why people use the me-
dia, it must be recognized that all decision making emanates from the
mass media responsibility to produce content.
The questions of the standards and practices of how these mass me-
dia organizations arrive at producing their content are more compli-
cated than responding to what is the media business. Media can be a
very ambiguous term, with each mass media organization having a dif-
ferent audience reach, different resources to gather and distribute con-
tent, and different types of content they desire. This ambiguity makes
producing a volume that encompasses any singular explanation of the
mass media industry virtually impossible. To try to limit this immense
xi
xii PREFACE

field, this book focuses on national news, as this content has the impor-
tant function of helping move the democracy forward.
Determining what becomes content is a powerful position for a
mass media organization. The people employed by these organiza-
tions have the ability to select and frame the content that will poten-
tially be seen, heard, or read by the audience. In thinking of the
business of media as the production of content, however, the mass
media organizations are not acting unilaterally. For example, mass
media organizations need advertisers to buy time and space on their
broadcast or in their publication. Advertisers are, however, most inter-
ested in reaching an audience to promote their products. Mass media
organizations thus need to obtain quality content so as to attract an au-
dience. Finally, people with content are using the mass media to reach
the audience. All of these constituency groups are constantly, simulta-
neously trying to influence the content decision-making process, with
all of these efforts converging at the mass media organizations’ deci-
sion-making efforts.
The purpose of the media business course I was asked to teach, and
eventually the purpose of this book, became to examine the mass me-
dia industry and provide insight into the complex relationships be-
tween the mass media organization and the various constituency
groups that try to, and in some instances do, influence the media busi-
ness. The rationale for achieving this purpose is that the mass media
are such an important component of society, with a tremendous im-
pact on the daily functions of so many people as well as on the daily
functions of the government, other industries, and the economy as a
whole. Because of the mass media’s profound impact on society, it is
important for people to have some understanding about their business
practices and how they gather, organize, and distribute their content.
My simple goal is for people to learn something about how the mass
media operate and to provide some insight into the complex processes
of an important industry so that they can better evaluate what they are
seeing, hearing, or reading.
To achieve this goal I implement two tactics. The first tactic is to ex-
amine some of the essential communication literature that has already
provided tremendous insight into the media industry. The second tac-
tic is to provide some commentary from people in the mass media and
the various constituency groups with which a mass media organization
must interact. This combination of a theoretical overview and practi-
tioner perspective will hopefully create a more complete explanation
of the decision-making process.
From the project’s inception until its publication, many people are
deserving of credit. At the earliest stages, the members of the St. Peter’s
 PREFACE xiii

College communication and English departments were very helpful.

The advertising department at the University of Texas at Austin has
been extremely supportive of my efforts. Conversations with Dr. Max
McCombs from the University of Texas were always insightful. I also
need to recognize the communication Ph.D. program at Rutgers Uni-
versity for the incredible training I received—I am always thankful. The
careful review and suggestions from Dr. Robert Wicks were invaluable
in the evolution of the project. Finally, Linda Bathgate was very patient
and supportive in assisting me in this work. I could not have asked for a
better advocate for this project.
I would like to acknowledge the people who helped me coordinate
interviews and offered assistance in providing data: Edward Farmer,
John Gault, Kelley Gott, Terry Hemeyer, and Peter King. I am greatly ap-
preciative of the people who willingly gave up some of their time and
allowed themselves to be interviewed. The hope was their profes-
sional perspective would illuminate some of the critical concepts:
Mark Beal, Mike Bevans, Karen Blumenthal, Mandy Bogan, Lorraine
Branham, Tom Breedlove, Sally Brooks, Mike Emanuel, Kelley Gott,
Terry Hemeyer, Peter King, Alain Sanders, Bob Sommer, Rachel
Sunbarger, David Wald, Jeff Webber, David Westin, Kinsey Wilson, and
Clint Woods.

—John A. Fortunato
 About the Author

John A. Fortunato, PhD is an assistant professor at the University of

Texas at Austin in the Department of Advertising, College of Communi-
cation. He previously was the chair of the communication program at
St. Peter’s College. Dr. Fortunato wrote The Ultimate Assist: The Rela-
tionship and Broadcast Strategies of the NBA and Television Networks
(Hampton Press). His research articles have appeared in Public Rela-
tions Review, Communications and the Law, New Jersey Journal of
Communication, Fordham Intellectual Property, Media & Entertain-
ment Law Journal, Rutgers Law Record, and Journal of Sport Manage-
ment special issue on sports media. Before earning his PhD from
Rutgers University, he gained industry experience as a production as-
sistant for NBC Sports, including NFL Live, NBA, Showtime, and the
1992 and 1996 Summer Olympics, and as a part-time sports producer
for WWOR-TV Channel 9 (New York).

xv
 Introduction

As an industry with such a profound impact on society, it seems the

mass media and their functions would be greatly understood by the
general public. The mass media, however, can be one of the more mis-
interpreted and misunderstood industries. The term mass media can
be better understood by breaking down the meaning of each of the two
words. When used as an adjective, the word mass denotatively means
large. Because of communication technological advances, mass is ap-
propriate in describing the current media environment, as the media
are at unprecedented size. The term mass indicates size but also con-
veys a sense of speed with which information can reach the many. It
can simply be stated that every time technology changes, the commu-
nication and mass media environment changes. Through the technol-
ogy of cable, satellite, and Internet communication vehicles there are
more opportunities for gathering, distributing, and retrieving mass me-
dia content and these opportunities are almost certain to grow.
The term media is much more difficult to define. The term is ambig-
uous but often used in a monolithic fashion. For example, hearing
statements such as, “The media are to blame” or “The media are blow-
ing this story out of proportion” are not uncommon. By using the term
media in a general, all-encompassing manner, certain mass media
organizations are immediately elevated to a higher status and others
disparaged by being lumped together into one entity. Mass media orga-
nizations are not homogenous and differ in some fundamental ways:
(a) size: the resources (money, equipment, and personnel) that the
particular media organization has access to, the amount of time and
space they have to fill content, and the audience reach of their output;
1
2 INTRODUCTION

(b) delivery mechanism of the message: print, audio, video, and

Internet based; and (c) scope: the types of content they provide to the
audience. Add in the quality of content produced and the decision-
making philosophies of each mass media organization, as well as the
skills and philosophy of each individual who is a part of the content de-
cision-making process, and there can be as many definitions of media
as there are organizations that produce content.
Disparities of how content is gathered, distributed, and retrieved by
the audience can exist among mediums or even within one medium.
Clear disparities exist among the different mediums by simple trans-
mission capabilities of audio, video, and print; how quickly the mass
media organization can distribute that content; and how quickly,
when, and where the audience can access that content. Within one
medium the disparities exist more on the amount of resources and the
types of content that the mass media organizations are trying to gather
and distribute to the audience.
To amplify the difficulty of defining media, disparities can exist
within one mass media organization, using essentially one medium
and producing content of only one genre. For example, look at the
components of NBC News, which are made up of:

• NBC Nightly News

• The Today Show
• Dateline NBC
• Meet the Press
• MSNBC (Imus in the Morning, Hardball with Chris Matthews,
Countdown with Keith Olberman, and Scarborough Country)
• CNBC
• Local affiliates NBC News

Each of these television programs (therefore, a similar delivery mecha-

nism) has a far different mandate in the types of stories they are looking
for, the types of content they produce, the amount of time and analysis
they provide to each story, and the overall resources devoted to each of
these programs despite all being within the single genre of news. In ad-
dition to the television programs, NBC News has its own Internet site,
msnbc.msn.com, which has links to stories on news, business, sports,
entertainment, technology science, and health. On the Internet site
there is also a link to Newsweek magazine and all of the individual NBC
News programs. The larger television networks, such as NBC, are more
than just a news organization. The news division is but one area of a
larger mass media organization, as NBC has its prime-time division,
sports division, daytime division, and late night programming division.
 INTRODUCTION 3

All of these divisions can draw some of the resources away from the
news division. NBC is also part of a larger corporation, General Electric,
which is involved in numerous other industries that can potentially
draw resources away from NBC.
Thus, the difficulty in describing the decision-making process of
mass media content is that not all mass media organizations are the
same, and in fact, no two are the same. When you factor in the individ-
ual aspect of every person that has a role in the decision-making pro-
cess, the difficulty in offering a description is only exacerbated. Trying
to develop any generalities or standard operating procedures for the
mass media industry as a whole is next to impossible.
Although mass media organizations are different and using the term
media in any generic fashion that encompasses all types of mass me-
dia organizations is incorrect, there are some critical similarities
among all mass media organizations. The initial major similarity is that
all mass media organizations need content. No industry exists without
a product or service to offer customers, which it hopes customers will
desire. A second similarity emerges as every mass media organization,
whether entertainment or news oriented, needs content to attract an
audience. Within this need, the personnel at all mass media organiza-
tions have to obtain quality content and make critical decisions in eval-
uating their options and determining which content to provide to an
audience. With the mass media being limited by time and space avail-
able, content is always subject to a complex decision-making process
of what will appear on the air, in print, or on the Internet. Once a story or
issue has been selected to receive exposure, decisions still need to be
made about how that content will be presented or framed to the audi-
ence. Framing decisions include the location (the lead story of a news
broadcast or somewhere in the middle, the front page above the fold in
a newspaper or on the back page, what first appears when visiting an
Internet site or a link that needs to be clicked to another site), overall
time spent on a particular story, and pictures or language to be used in
the story.
Shoemaker and Reese (1996) defined content as “the complete
quantitative and qualitative range of verbal and visual information dis-
tributed by the mass media” (p. 4). For this book, content is simply de-
fined as the messages that the audience actually has the potential to
see, hear, read, or click onto—the messages that are given exposure by
a mass media organization that the audience has the opportunity to
retrieve. Through this definition there is an indication that some stories
never become content and are not exposed to a mass audience.
The decision-making process of what becomes and does not be-
come content is even more critical for the national news media. The
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