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CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

TOPIC 1: Cell, Basic Structure of All Living Creatures
The Cell Theory
1. All organisms are made of one or more cells.
2. The cell is the basic unit of all living things
3. All cells come from existing cells.
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Name Memorable phase Description

Plasma membrane Cell’s fortification Separates the interior of the
cell from the outside
environment

Cytoplasm Cell’s environment Fluid part enclosed by the

membrane, contains
organelles

Nucleus Cell’s brain Contains most of the genetic

material , in the form of DNA

Endoplasmic reticulum Cell’s pipe system Smooth ER- System of

metabolic processes
Rough ER- Protein
manufacturing ribosomes

Golgi apparatus Cell’s delivery center It tags vesicles and proteins

to help them get carried to
their destinations

Centrosome Cell’s anchor Organizes and produces the

microtubules of the cell’s
cytoskeleton

Mitochondria Cell’s powerplant Produce energy for the cell,

break down carbohydrates
and some durations lipids to
form molecule ATP

Ribosome Cell’s factories Translate RNA into proteins

Lysosome Cell’s stomach Vesicles filled with digestive

proteins can absorb
something and break it down
into recyclable pieces

Peroxisome Cell’s firemen Vesicles that defend (or

neutralize) the cell from free
radicals
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Cytoskeleton Cell’s shapeshifter It modifies the cell’s shape

and ensures mechanical
resistance

Vacuole Cell’s compartments Enclosed storage vessels

which are filled with water
containing inorganic and
organic molecules

Anatomy of Human Cells

 Red Blood cells
 Ovum Cell
 Nerve cell
 Columnar epithelial cell
 Smooth muscle cell
 Bone cell
 Sperm Cell

Kinds of cells: they belong to the group of organisms

eukaryota or eukarya, which is one of the
A. Eukaryotic cell three domains of life.
- Eukaryota, whose members are known as - defined as cells containing organized
eukaryotes, is a device domain of nucleus and organelles which are
organisms whose cells have a nuclues. enveloped by membrane-bound
- All animals, plants, fungi and many organelles.
unicellular organisms, are eukaryotes.
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- Examples of eukaryotic cells are plants,

animals, protists, fungi. Their genetic
material is organized in chromosomes.
- Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus enclosed Cell Wall
within the nuclear membrane and form
large and complex organisms. Protozoa, • A cell wall is a rigid structure present
fungi, plants, and animals all have outside the plant cell. It is, however,
eukaryotic cells. They are classified under absent in animal cells.
the kingdom Eukaryota. • It provides shape to the cell and helps
- They can maintain different environments in cell-to-cell interaction.
in a single cell that allows them to carry • It is a protective layer that protects
out various metabolic reactions. This the cell from any injury or pathogen
helps them grow many times larger than attacks.
the prokaryotic cells. • It is composed of cellulose,
hemicellulose, pectins, proteins, etc.

Cytoskeleton

Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells • The cytoskeleton is present inside the

cytoplasm, which consists of
microfilaments, microtubules, and
 The features of eukaryotic cells are as fibres to provide perfect shape to the
follows: cell, anchor the organelles, and
 Eukaryotic cells have the nucleus stimulate the cell movement.
enclosed within the nuclear membrane.
 The cell has mitochondria. Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Flagella and cilia are the locomotory
• It is a network of small, tubular
organs in a eukaryotic cell.
structures that divides the cell surface
 A cell wall is the outermost layer of the
into two parts: luminal and
eukaryotic cells.
extraluminal.
 The cells divide by a process called
Endoplasmic Reticulum is of two
mitosis.
types:
 The eukaryotic cells contain a
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
cytoskeletal structure.
contains ribosomes.
 The nucleus contains a single, linear DNA,
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum that
which carries all the genetic information.
lacks ribosomes and is therefore
smooth

Structure of Eukaryotic Cell

Plasma Membrane
Nucleus
• The plasma membrane separates the cell
from the outside environment. • The nucleoplasm enclosed within the
• It comprises specific embedded proteins, nucleus contains DNA and proteins.
which help in the exchange of substances • The nuclear envelop consists of two
in and out of the cell. layers- the outer membrane and the
inner membrane. Both the membranes
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are permeable to ions, molecules, and • Leucoplasts that are colourless and
RNA material. store oil, fats, carbohydrates, or
Ribosome production also takes place proteins.
inside the nucleus.
Examples of Eukaryotic Cells
Golgi Apparatus
• Eukaryotic cells are exclusively found
• It is made up of flat disc-shaped
in plants, animals, fungi, protozoa, and
structures called cisternae.
other complex organisms. The
• It is absent in red blood cells of
examples of eukaryotic cells are
humans and sieve cells of plants.
• They are arranged parallel and
concentrically near the nucleus.
• It is an important site for the formation
of glycoproteins and glycolipids. Plant Cells

Ribosomes • The cell wall is made up of cellulose,

which provides support to the plant. It
These are the main site for protein has a large vacuole which maintains
synthesis and are composed of the turgor pressure. The plant cell
proteins and ribonucleic acids. contains chloroplast, which aids in the
Mitochondria process of photosynthesis.

• These are also known as “powerhouse Fungal Cells

of cells” because they produce • The cell wall is made of chitin. Some
energy. fungi have holes known as septa
• It consists of an outer membrane and which allow the organelles and
an inner membrane. The inner cytoplasm to pass through them.
membrane is divided into folds called
cristae. Animal Cells
• They help in the regulation of cell
• These do not have cell walls. Instead,
metabolism.
they have a cell membrane. That is
why animals have varied shapes. They
Lysosomes
have the ability to perform
• They are known as “suicidal bags”
phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
because they possess hydrolytic
enzymes to digest protein, lipids, Protozoa
carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.
• Protozoans are unicellular organisms.
Plastids Some protozoa have cilia for
• These are double-membraned locomotion. A thin layer called pellicle
structures and are found only in plant provides supports to the cell.
cells. These are of three types:
• Chloroplast that contains chlorophyll
and is involved in photosynthesis.
• Chromoplast that contains a pigment
called carotene that provides the
plants yellow, red, or orange colours.
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material is present in a region in the

cytoplasm known as the nucleoid. They
B. Prokaryotic cell
may be spherical, rod-shaped, or spiral. A
- lack both, a well-defined nuclues and prokaryotic cell structure is as follows:
membrane- bound cell organelles.
Examples of prokaryotes are blue-green • Capsule– It is an outer protective
algae, bacteria and mycoplasma, among covering found in the bacterial cells, in
prokaryotes, bacteria are the most addition to the cell wall. It helps in
common and multiply very fast. moisture retention, protects the cell
when engulfed, and helps in the
- is a type of cell that does not have a true attachment of cells to nutrients and
nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. surfaces.
Organisms within the domains Bacteria
and Archaea are based on the prokaryotic • Cell Wall– It is the outermost layer of
cell. the cell which gives shape to the cell.

- A prokaryotic cell consists of a single • Cytoplasm– The cytoplasm is mainly

membrane and therefore, all the composed of enzymes, salts, cell
reactions occur within the cytoplasm. organelles and is a gel-like
They can be free-living or parasites. component.

Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cell • Cell Membrane– This layer surrounds

the cytoplasm and regulates the entry
1. They lack a nuclear membrane. and exit of substances in the cells.
2. Mitochondria, Golgi bodies,
chloroplast, and lysosomes are absent. • Pili– These are hair-like outgrowths
3. The genetic material is present on a that attach to the surface of other
single chromosome. bacterial cells.
4. The histone proteins, the important
• Flagella– These are long structures in
constituents of eukaryotic
the form of a whip, that help in the
chromosomes, are lacking in them.
locomotion of a cell.
5. The cell wall is made up of
carbohydrates and amino acids. • Ribosomes– These are involved in
6. The plasma membrane acts as the protein synthesis.
mitochondrial membrane carrying
respiratory enzymes. • Plasmids– Plasmids are non-
7. They divide asexually by binary chromosomal DNA structures. These
fission. The sexual mode of are not involved in reproduction.
reproduction involves conjugation. • Nucleoid Region– It is the region in
the cytoplasm where the genetic
material is present.
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
A prokaryotic cell does not have a nuclear
membrane. However, the genetic
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Components of Prokaryotic Cells • A cell wall is then formed

between each DNA, dividing the
The prokaryotic cells have four main
cell into two daughter cells.
components
B. Sexually by conjugation
1. Plasma Membrane - It is an outer
protective covering of phospholipid
molecules which separates the cell Examples of Prokaryotic Cells
from the surrounding environment.
A. Bacterial Cells
2. Cytoplasm- It is a jelly-like
• These are unicellular organisms
substance present inside the cell.
found everywhere on earth from
All the cell organelles are
soil to the human body.
suspended in it.
• They have different shapes and
3. DNA- It is the genetic material of
structures.
the cell. All the prokaryotes
• The cell wall is composed of
possess a circular DNA. It directs
peptidoglycan that provides
what proteins the cell creates. It
structure to the cell wall.
also regulates the actions of the
• Bacteria have some unique
cell.
structures such as pili, flagella and
4. Ribosomes- Protein synthesis
capsule.
occurs here.
• They also possess
extrachromosomal DNA known as
NOTE: Some prokaryotic cells possess cilia plasmids.
and flagella which helps in locomotion. • They have the ability to form
A prokaryotic cell lacks certain tough, dormant structures known
organelles like mitochondria, endoplasmic as endospores that helps them to
reticulum, and Golgi bodies. survive under unfavourable
conditions. The endospores
become active when the conditions
are favourable again.

B. Archaeal Cells
• Archaebacteria are unicellular
organisms similar to bacteria in
Reproduction in Prokaryotes shape and size.
• They are found in extreme
A. Asexually by binary fission environments such as hot
Binary Fission springs and other places such
• The DNA of an organism as soil, marshes, and even
replicates and the new copies inside humans.
attach to the cell membrane.
• The cell wall starts increasing in
size and starts moving inwards.
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• They have a cell wall and How does a prokaryotic cell divide?
flagella. The cell wall of archaea
Prokaryotic cells undergo asexual
does not contain peptidoglycan.
reproduction. Most prokaryotic cells divide by
• The membranes of the archaea
binary fission, where the cells divide into two
have different lipids with a
daughter cells.
completely different
stereochemistry. Why is the process of cell division in
• Just like bacteria, archaea have prokaryotic cells different from that in
one circular chromosome. They eukaryotes?
also possess plasmids.
Prokaryotic cells are simpler than eukaryotic
cells. They do not have a nuclear membrane
What are the structural features of surrounding their DNA, therefore, cell
prokaryotic cells? division is different than that in eukaryotes.
The prokaryotic cell structure is When did the prokaryotic cells evolve?
composed of:
The first prokaryotic cells evolved around 3.5
• Cell wall billion years ago. The eukaryotic cells were
• Cell membrane formed after the prokaryotic cells and are
• Capsule believed to have evolved from them.
• Pili
• Flagella What are the difference between
• Ribosomes EUKARYOTIC AND PROKARYOTIC CELLS?
• Plasmids
Prokaryotic cell:
How is the prokaryotic cell structure
1. The cell which lacks a well-defined
different from that of the eukaryotic
nucleus is called prokaryotic cells.
cell?
2. These cells have a primitive
Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus. The organization of genetic material.
nucleus is devoid of the nuclear membrane. Eukaryotic cell:
On the contrary, the nucleus of the 1. The cell having a well-defined
eukaryotic cells is enclosed by a nuclear
nucleus is called a eukaryotic cell.
membrane. A prokaryotic cell also lacks
2. It lacks respiratory enzymes.
mitochondria and chloroplast, unlike a
eukaryotic cell.

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

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- The nucleus is not well defined - The nuclear region well-defined

and is called the nucleoid. nucleus with a nuclear
- A single length of only membrane
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - Several lengths of genetic
material (chromosomes)
- Small ribosomes containing DNA are wound
- No other cell organelles around certain proteins.
- Larger ribosomes
- Several organelles like
Examples: Bacteria, Blue- green mitochondria, endoplasmic
algae (Cyanobacteria) reticulum, chloroplasts, etc

Examples: Euglena, Amoeba, and

all plants and animals

When did the first eukaryotic cell originated from deep folds in the plasma
evolve? membrane
• The first eukaryotic cells evolved
about 2 billion years ago. This is
Evolution of the Eukaryotic Cell
explained by the endosymbiotic theory
that explains the origin of eukaryotic ENDOSYMBIOSIS:
cells by the prokaryotic organisms.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are 1. Start with two independent bacteria
believed to have evolved from 2. One bacterium engulf the other
symbiotic bacteria. 3. One bacterium now lives inside the other
4. Both bacteria benefit from the
arrangement
5. The internal bacteria are passed on from
Cell Evolution
generation to generation
Endosymbiotic theory: - Prokaryotes
existed first. Eukaryotes evolved from • Endosymbiosis theory was proposed by
prokaryotes that begin to live within one Lynn Margulis
another. • Endosymbiosis theory states that larger
bacterial cells lost their cell walls and
Proof: Mitochondria & Chloroplasts have engulfed smaller bacterial cells
their own DNA, so they existed • Eukaryotes come from prokaryotes
independently as bacteria at one time; this is • Symbiosis means “living together’”
how eukaryotes evolved from prokaryote
ancestors
Mitochondria and chloroplast originated as THREE DOMAINS OF LIFE AND THEIR
bacterial cells that came to live inside larger CHARACTERISTICS
cells
The three-domain system biological
Most membrane-enclosed organelles classification of life, which classifies life on
including the nucleus, ER and golgi probably the planet into three different domains –
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Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryote, was into a different category – and hence a
put forth by American microbiologist and different domain. There is a great deal of
physicist Carl Woese in 1990. diversity in this domain, such that it is
next to impossible to determine how
Alongside the three-domain system, there
many species of bacteria exist on the
exists a six kingdom system of life, i.e.
planet.
Archaebacteria (comprising ancient
bacteria), Eubacteria (comprising true
• ARCHAEA
bacteria), Protista (comprising one-celled
- Archaea are prokaryotic cells which are
organisms), Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
typically characterized by membranes
While Archaebacteria and Eubacteria
that are branched hydrocarbon chains
constitute the Archaea and Bacteria domains
attached to glycerol by ether linkages.
respectively, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and
The presence of this ether containing
Animalia together form the Eukaryote
linkages in Archaea adds to their ability of
domain of life.
withstanding extreme temperature and
highly acidic conditions.

• BACTERIA Examples of Archaea

- A member of a large group of unicellular
- Extreme halophiles – organisms which
microorganisms which have cell walls but
thrive in highly salty environment
lack of organelles and an organized
- Hyperthermophiles – organisms which
nuclues, including some that can cause
thrive in extremely hot environment
disease.
- Are single-celled organisms that are
• EUKARYA
pretty much everywhere: inn the ground,
- As the name suggests, the Eukaryote are
in the ocean, on your hand and in your
eukaryotic cells which have membranes
gut. While some are harmful, most are
that are pretty similar to that of bacteria.
not - and some are even beneficial to
Eukaryote are further grouped into
human health. In many cases, humans
Kingdom Protista (algae, protozoans,
live in symbiosis with bacteria,
etc.), Kingdom Fungi (yeast, mold, etc.),
maintaining a mutually beneficial
Kingdom Plantae (flowering plants, ferns,
relationship without even knowing it.
etc.) and Kingdom Animalia (insects,
- are ubiquitous, mostly free-living
vertebrates, etc.).
organisms often consisting of one
biological cell. They constitute a large
- Not all Eukaryotes have a cell wall, and
domain of prokaryotic microorganisms.
even if they do they don’t contain
Typically a few micrometres in length,
peptidoglycan as bacteria do. While cells
bacteria were among the first life forms
are organized into tissues in case of
appear on earth, and are present in most
kingdom Plantae as well as kingdom
of its habits.
Animalia, the presence of cell walls is only
- Even though bacteria are prokaryotic
restricted to the members of kingdom
cells just like Archaea, their membranes
Plantae.
are made of unbranched fatty acid chains
attached to glycerol by ester linkages.
Cyanobacteria and mycoplasmas are the
best examples of bacteria. Each of these three domains recognized by
biologists today contain rRNA which is
- As they don’t have ether containing
unique to them, and this fact in itself forms
linkages like Archaea, they are grouped
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the basis of three-domain system. While the nuclear membrane, the distinct biochemistry
presence of nuclear membrane differentiates and RNA markers differentiate Archaea and
the Eukarya domain from Archaea domain Bacteria domains from each other.
and Bacteria domain – both of which lack
The 4 major types of biomolecules
 carbohydrates
 lipids
 nucleic acids
 proteins

 Nucleic acids, namely DNA and RNA

Function: Storing an
organism’s genetic code—
Genetic code is the the
sequence of nucleotides that
determines the amino acid sequence
of proteins

 Protein has 20 different amino acids;

the order in which they occur plays a
fundamental role in
Topic 2: determining protein structure and
function
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY Function:
- Transporters, moving nutrients and
- is the branch of biology that seeks to
other molecules in and out of cells
understand the molecular basis of
- Acts as enzymes and catalysts for
biological activity in and between
the vast majority of chemical
cells, including molecular synthesis,
reactions that take place in living
modification, mechanisms, and
organisms
interactions.
- Form antibodies and hormones
- The study of chemical and physical
- influence gene activity.
structure of biological macromolecules
- coined by an American scientist,
 Carbohydrates are built from four
Warren Weaver in the year 1938.
types of sugar units—
monosaccharides, disaccharides,
BIOMOLECULES oligosaccharides (2-10),
and polysaccharides(10 or more).
- also called biological molecule Function:
- any of numerous substances that are - source of stored energy
produced by cells and living - acting as chemical messengers
organisms. - Form membranes, which separate
- Have a wide range of sizes and cells from their environments and
structures and perform a vast array of compartmentalize the cell interior,
functions. giving rise to organelles, such as
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the nucleus and the mitochondrion, in always bond together, as do cytosine

higher (more complex) organisms. and guanine.
All biomolecules share in common a
Molecular basis of inheritance is
fundamental relationship between structure
the study of genes, hereditary and
and function, which is influenced by factors
genetic variations which explains how an
such as the environment in which a given
offspring looks similar to its maternal or
biomolecule occurs.
paternal features. DNA, RNA and genetic
 Lipids, for example, are hydrophobic code are the fundamental parts of the
(“water-fearing”); in water, many molecular basis of inheritance and are
spontaneously arrange themselves in responsible to transmit genes from parents
such a way that the hydrophobic to offspring.
ends of the molecules are protected
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
from the water, while the hydrophilic
ends are exposed to the water. This - a self-replicating material that is
arrangement gives rise present in nearly all living organisms as
to lipid bilayers, or two layers the main constituent of chromosomes. It
of phospholipid molecules, which form is the carrier of genetic information.
the membranes of cells and - the fundamental and distinctive
organelles. characteristics or qualities of someone or
In another example, DNA, which is a very something, especially when regarded as
long molecule—in humans the combined unchangeable
length of all the DNA molecules in a single - It contains units of biological building
cell stretched end to end would be about 1.8 blocks called nucleotides.
metres (6 feet), whereas the cell nucleus - DNA is a vitally important molecule for
is about 6 μm (6 10-6 metre) in diameter— not only humans but also most other
has a highly flexible helical structure that organisms. DNA contains our hereditary
allows the molecule to become tightly coiled material and our genes, the things that
and looped make us unique.
-
This structural feature plays a key role in
enabling DNA to fit in the cell nucleus, where
it carries out its function in coding genetic
traits.

MOLECULAR BASIS OF HEREDITY

 DNA consists of long chains of

nucleotides lying parallel to one
another.
 Each nucleotide has a backbone of
sugar and phosphate linked to a
base. What is the structure of DNA?
 There are four complementary bases
A collection of nucleotides makes a DNA
in DNA: adenine and thymine, which
molecule. Each nucleotide contains three
components:
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• a sugar
• a phosphate group What does DNA do?
• a nitrogen base DNA contains the instructions that are
necessary for an organism to grow,
develop, and reproduce. These
The sugar in DNA is called 2-deoxyribose. instructions exist within the sequence of
These sugar molecules alternate with the nucleotide base pairs.
phosphate groups, making up the
“backbone” of the DNA strand. DNA helps your body grow
Each sugar in a nucleotide has a nitrogen Your cells read this code three bases at a
base attached to it. There are four different time to generate proteins that are essential
types of nitrogen bases in DNA for growth and survival. The DNA sequence
that houses the information to make a
• adenine (A) protein is called a gene.
• thymine (T)
• cytosine (C) Each group of three bases corresponds to
• guanine (G) specific amino acids, which are the building
blocks of proteins. For example, the base
pairs T-G-G specify the amino
acid tryptophan, while the base pairs G-G-
C specify the amino acid glycine.

Some combinations, like T-A-A, T-A-G, and

T-G-A, also indicate the end of a protein
sequence. This tells the cell not to add more
amino acids to the protein.

Proteins contain different combinations of

The two strands of DNA form a 3-D structure amino acids. When placed together in the
called a double helix. When illustrated, correct order, each protein has a unique
DNA looks like a spiral ladder in which the structure and function within your body.
base pairs are the rungs, and the sugar-
phosphate backbones are the legs. How do you get from the DNA code to a
protein?
Additionally, it’s worth noting that the DNA First, the two DNA strands split apart. Then,
in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells is linear, special proteins within the nucleus read the
meaning that the ends of each strand are base pairs on a DNA strand to create an
free. In a prokaryotic cell, the DNA forms intermediate messenger molecule.
a circular structure.
This process creates the messenger
DNA Structure molecule RNA (mRNA). mRNA is another type
of nucleic acid. It travels outside the nucleus,
- DNA is a long polymer made up of serving as a message to the cellular
many smaller units called nucleotides machinery that builds proteins.
- A nucleotide consists of a phosphate
group, 5 carbon sugar and nitrogenous In the second step, specialized components
base of the cell read the mRNA’s message three
- DNA contains 4 nitrogenous bases base pairs at a time and work to assemble a
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protein, amino acid by amino acid. This Something that may play a large role in the
process is called translation. DNA damage associated with aging is
damage due to free radicals. However, this
DNA damage and mutations one mechanism of damage may not be
The DNA code is prone to damage. According sufficient to explain the aging process.
to estimates, tens of thousands of DNA Several factors may also be involved.
damage events occur every day in each of
our cells. Damage can occur due to errors in One theory as to why DNA damage
DNA replication, free radicals, and accumulates as we age concerns evolution.
exposure to UV radiation. It’s thought that DNA damage is repaired
more faithfully when we’re of reproductive
Your cells have specialized proteins that can age and having children. After we’ve passed
detect and repair many cases of DNA our peak reproductive years, the repair
damage. There are at least five major DNA process naturally declines.
repair pathways.
Another part of DNA that may be involved in
Mutations are permanent changes in the aging is telomeres. Telomeres are stretches
DNA sequence. Changes in the DNA code can of repetitive DNA sequences at the ends of
negatively impact how the body produces your chromosomes. They help protect DNA
proteins. from damage, but they also shorten with
each round of DNA replication.
If the protein doesn’t work properly, diseases
can develop. Some diseases that occur due Studies associate telomere shortening with
to mutations in a single gene include cystic the aging process. Some lifestyle factors
fibrosis and sickle cell anemia. such as obesity, exposure to cigarette
smoke, and psychological stress can also
Mutations can also lead to the development contribute to telomere shortening.
of cancer. For example, if genes coding for
proteins involved in cellular growth mutate, Where is DNA found?
cells may grow and divide out of control. DNA is present in our cells. The exact
Some cancer-causing mutations are location of it depends on the type of cell.
heritable, while others develop through
exposure to carcinogens like UV radiation, Eukaryotic cells
chemicals, or cigarette smoke. In a eukaryotic cell, DNA is within the
nucleus.
But not all mutations are bad. Some are Prokaryotic cells
harmless, while others contribute to our In prokaryotic cells, DNA resides in the
diversity as a species. middle of the cell, called a nucleoid, coiled
tightly.
Changes that occur in at least or more than 1
of the population are called polymorphisms. RNA
Examples of some polymorphisms are hair (Ribonucleic Acid)
and eye color. is a nucleic acid present in all living cells that
has structural similarities to DNA. Unlike
DNA and aging DNA, however, RNA is most often single-
Unrepaired DNA damage can accumulate as stranded. An RNA molecule has a
we age, helping to drive the aging process. backbone made of alternating
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phosphate groups and the sugar ribose,

rather than the deoxyribose found in DNA PROTEIN
highly complex substance that is present in
Attached to each sugar is one of four bases: all living organisms. Proteins are of great
adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C) or nutritional value and are directly involved in
guanine (G). the chemical processes essential for life.
Different types of RNA exist in cells:
messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA The importance of proteins was recognized
(rRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA). In addition, by chemists in the early 19th century,
some RNAs are involved in regulating gene including Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob
expression. Certain viruses use RNA as their Berzelius, who in 1838 coined the
genomic material. term protein, a word derived from the
Greek prōteios, meaning “holding first
Different types of RNA exist in cells: place.”
• messenger RNA (mRNA),
• ribosomal RNA (rRNA) A protein molecule is very large compared
• transfer RNA (tRNA). with molecules of sugar or salt and consists
In addition, some RNAs are involved in of many amino acids joined together to form
regulating gene expression. Certain viruses long chains, much as beads are arranged on
use RNA as their genomic material. a string.
messenger RNA (mRNA)
There are about 20 different amino acids
molecule in cells that carries codes from that occur naturally in proteins. Proteins of
the DNA in the nucleus to the sites similar function have similar amino
of protein synthesis in acid composition and sequence.
the cytoplasm (the ribosomes).
Basic players in molecular biology: DNA,
The molecule that would eventually become RNA and proteins
known as mRNA was first described in 1956
by scientists Elliot Volkin and Lazarus What they do is this:
Astrachan
WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) BIOCHEMISTRY IN AN ORGANISM

molecule in cells that forms part of Biochemistry combines biology and

the protein-synthesizing organelle known as chemistry to study living matter. It powers
a ribosome and that is exported to scientific and medical discovery in fields
the cytoplasm to help translate the such as pharmaceuticals, forensics and
information in messenger RNA (mRNA) into nutrition. With biochemistry, you will study
protein chemical reactions at a molecular level
to better understand the world and develop
transfer RNA (tRNA) new ways to harness these.

small molecule in cells that carries amino Biochemistry leads us to an understanding

acids to organelles called ribosomes, where of structures and functions of DNA which
they are linked into proteins. is the genetic carrier in all living organisms.
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