The circulation of carbon on earth in which atmospheric carbon dioxide is

converted to organic nutrients through photosynthesis and is again converted back to the
inorganic state by respiration, decay, or combustion. The atmosphere, the oceans, vegetation,
rocks, and soil forms the major carbon reserve of our planet.

Transfer of carbon commonly spoken as the carbon cycle

1) Plant assimilate CO2 from atmosphere in to the organic compounds using energy from the
sun.
2) Humans and higher animals obtain energy from the plants and return waste and residue to
the soil.
3) Micro and Macroorganism digest these organic materials releasing nutrients for plants and
leaving CO2 and humus as stable materials.
4) CO3 and HCO3 of Ca,Mg,K etc are removed in leaching.
5) But eventually C is return to the cycle form of CO2
6) The total CO2 is released to atmosphere where it again available for plant assimilation.
Co2 absorbs IR rays,as its conc. Increases, average temp of earths lower atmosphere rises-
Global warming.

• Ways to reduce the atmospheric carbon dioxide

Reduce the emission
Store the carbon in terrestrial, oceanic and aquic ecosystem,
carbon sink
Definition: A carbon sink is any system, like a forest, ocean, or soil, that absorbs and stores
carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere, effectively reducing the amount of CO2 in the
air.
• Carbon sequestration may be carried out by pumping carbon into 'carbon sinks' an
area that absorbs carbon.
• Natural sinks - Oceans, forests, soil, wetland etc.
• Artificial sinks - Depleted oil reserves, unmineable mines, etc.
CARBON SEQUESTRATION
Definition- Carbon sequestration is the process by which carbon dioxide (CO2) is removed
from the atmosphere and stored in long-term carbon sinks such as forests, soil, and oceans.
Carbon sequestration is a critical component of efforts to mitigate climate change by reducing
the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Carbon capture has been in use for years. The oil and gas industries have used carbon capture
for decades as a way to enhance oil and gas recovery. Only recently have we started thinking
about capturing carbon for environmental reasons?
There are three main steps to carbon capture and storage (CCS):
• Trapping and separating the CO2 from other gases
• Transporting this captured CO2 to a storage location.
• Storing that CO2 far away from the atmosphere (underground or deep in the ocean)

TYPES OF CARBON SEQUESTRATION

There are two main types of carbon sequestration:
1. Natural Carbon Sequestration: This occurs through natural processes, such as:
o Forests: Trees and plants absorb CO₂ from the atmosphere through
photosynthesis and store it in their biomass (leaves, trunks, roots). This can be
achieved through afforestation, reforestation
o Oceans: Marine plants like phytoplankton absorb CO₂, and the ocean can
store carbon in deep waters for long periods. However, this process can also
have negative impacts on ocean ecosystems, such as ocean acidification.
o Soil: Carbon can be stored in soil as organic matter, especially in healthy,
undisturbed ecosystems like wetlands and forests.
2. Artificial or Geologic Carbon Sequestration: This is a human-driven process where
CO₂ is captured from industrial sources (like power plants) and injected into
underground rock formations, such as depleted oil and gas fields or deep saline
 aquifers. The goal is to keep CO₂ from reaching the atmosphere and to safely store it
over long periods. Mineral Carbon Sequestration -This type of sequestration
involves the conversion of CO2 into stable mineral forms through chemical reactions.
Geological Carbon Sequestration:
This involves the injection of CO2 deep underground into geological formations such
as depleted oil and gas reservoirs, saline aquifers, or coal seams.
The CO2 is trapped underground and prevented from entering the atmosphere.

ADVANTAGES
1. Climate change Mitigation:
Sequestering carbon can help to reduce the concentration of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere, which can slow down the rate of climate change and mitigate its impacts.
2. Biodiversity Conservation:
Many carbon sequestration methods, such as afforestation and reforestation, can also help to
protect and restore ecosystems, which can support biodiversity and provide a range of
ecological services
3.Economic Opportunities
Some carbon sequestration methods, such as sustainable forestry practices or the use of
biomass for energy production, can provide economic benefits to local communities and
support rural development.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Land-use Change
Some carbon sequestration methods, such as afforestation or bioenergy plantations, may
require the conversion of natural ecosystems or agricultural land, which can lead to
biodiversity loss and land-use conflicts.
2. Technical Limitations
Some carbon sequestration methods, such as carbon capture and storage (CCS), may require
significant technical and infrastructure investments, which can be costly and
challenging to implement.
Carbon credits are permits that allow the owner to emit a certain amount of carbon dioxide
or other greenhouse gases (GHGs). One credit allows the emission of one ton of carbon
dioxide or the equivalent of other greenhouse gases.
Carbon trading, also known as carbon emissions trading, involves buying and selling
carbon credits or permits to help reduce overall greenhouse gas emissions.

Carbon trading refers to the system in which countries, companies, or other entities can trade
carbon credits or allowances as a way of reducing global carbon emissions.
The idea is to create an economic incentive for reducing carbon emissions by assigning a cost
to carbon emissions. There are a few different types of carbon trading systems, and they
generally fall into two broad categories: Cap-and-Trade and Carbon Offsetting. Let's go
over the main types:
1. Cap-and-Trade (Emissions Trading Systems - ETS)
This is one of the most common and established forms of carbon trading. In a Cap-and-
Trade system, a government or regulatory body sets a cap on the total amount of greenhouse
gases (GHGs) that can be emitted by all participating entities (e.g., companies, countries).
The total emissions allowed under the cap are divided into "carbon allowances," where each
allowance represents the right to emit one metric ton of CO₂ (or its equivalent).
Example: The European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) is one of the largest
and most well-known cap-and-trade systems.
2. Carbon Offsetting
Carbon offsetting allows companies or individuals to compensate for their emissions by
investing in projects that reduce or remove an equivalent amount of carbon from the
atmosphere. These projects may include things like:
• Reforestation and afforestation (planting trees to absorb CO₂)
• Renewable energy projects (e.g., wind, solar, or hydroelectric power)
• Methane capture (collecting methane from landfills or agricultural operations)
• Energy efficiency projects (helping companies or communities reduce energy use)
In this model, companies or individuals buy carbon credits from projects that are certified to
reduce emissions. One credit typically represents one ton of CO₂ equivalent emissions
reduced or removed.
Example: Programs like the Verified Carbon Standard (VCS) , ensuring they are real,
additional, and permanent.
3. Carbon Tax with Trading
Some countries have adopted a hybrid approach that combines carbon taxes with carbon
trading. In this system:
• Carbon Tax: Companies are taxed based on their carbon emissions (e.g., a price per
ton of CO₂ emitted).
• Trading Mechanism: The government may allow businesses to trade their emissions
rights or buy offsets in the market to meet their tax obligations, thus giving them
flexibility in how they comply.
Example: British Columbia, Canada, operates a carbon tax system where businesses can
offset a portion of their emissions by purchasing carbon credits.
4. Voluntary Carbon Markets
Voluntary carbon markets operate outside of government-mandated regulatory frameworks.
In these markets, businesses and individuals purchase carbon credits or offsets voluntarily,
either to meet self-imposed sustainability goals or to enhance their reputation by taking
climate action.
Example: A company might voluntarily purchase carbon offsets to neutralize its carbon
footprint from air travel or product manufacturing.
5. Baselines and Credit Mechanisms (Project-based Mechanisms)
These credits are issued based on the "baseline" emissions, which represent the emissions that
would have occurred without the project.
• Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Under the Kyoto Protocol, CDM allowed
countries or companies in developed nations to invest in emission reduction projects
in developing countries. These projects could earn carbon credits (Certified Emission
Reductions - CERs) that could be traded internationally.
• Joint Implementation (JI): Similar to CDM, but with projects between developed
countries. Credits earned are called Emission Reduction Units (ERUs).
Example: A company might install a wind farm in a developing country to earn carbon
credits through CDM, which can then be sold to other entities in the market.
6. International Carbon Markets (Linking and Global Mechanisms)
In international carbon markets, different carbon trading systems can be linked together. This
means that countries or regions with their own cap-and-trade systems can allow businesses to
trade carbon credits across borders.
• Paris Agreement mechanisms: As part of the Paris Agreement, countries have the
opportunity to link their carbon markets to facilitate emissions reductions on a global
scale.
• Carbon border adjustment mechanisms (CBAMs): Some countries are considering
implementing CBAMs, which would require importers to pay for carbon emissions
embedded in goods imported from countries with less stringent environmental
policies.