CAE ATPL Ground Training Series

062 Radio Navigation

Book 12
EASA Edition 2020

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A Introduction

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II
A Introduction

Edition 2020

062 Radio Navigation

III
 2 050.01 = Subject. Section
C A B

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written as a series of numbers separated by points.

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IV
A Other Publications

CAE ATPL Ground Training Series

Book 1: Subject 010 - Air Law

Book 2: Subject 021 - Aircraft General Knowledge: Airframes and Systems

Book 3: Subject 021 - Aircraft General Knowledge: Electrics and Electronics

Book 4: Subject 021 - Aircraft General Knowledge: Powerplant

Book 5: Subject 022 - Aircraft General Knowledge: Instrumentation

Book 6: Subject 031 - Mass and Balance

Book 7: Subject 032 - Performance

Book 8: Subject 033 - Flight Planning and Monitoring

Book 9: Subject 040 - Human Performance and Limitations

Book 10: Subject 050 - Meteorology

Book 11: Subject 061 - General Navigation

Book 12: Subject 062 - Radio Navigation

Book 13: Subject 070 - Operational Procedures

Book 14: Subject 081 - Principles of Flight

Book 15: Subject 090 - Communications

Book 16: Subject 100 - Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes (KSA)

V
A Table of Contents

Radio Navigation

062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory............................ 2

01.00 Basic Principles.................................................................................3
01.01 Electromagnetic Waves.........................................................3
01.02 Frequency, Wavelength, Amplitude, Phase Angle.............6
01.03 Frequency Bands, Sidebands, Single Sideband..................9
01.04 Pulse Characteristics.......................................................... 14
01.05 Carrier, Modulation............................................................ 16
01.06 Kinds of Modulation
(Amplitude, Frequency, Pulse, Phase).................................16
02.00 Antennas........................................................................................ 20
02.01 Characteristics.................................................................... 20
02.02 Polarisation......................................................................... 22
02.03 Types of Antennas.............................................................. 23
03.00 Wave Propagation......................................................................... 31
03.01 Structure of the Ionosphere
and its Effect on Radio Waves..............................................31
03.02 Ground Waves..................................................................... 35
03.03 Space Waves........................................................................ 36
03.04 Propagation with the Frequency Bands.......................... 37
03.05 Doppler Principle................................................................ 37
03.06 Factors Affecting Propagation.......................................... 40

062.02 Radio Aids............................................................... 52

01.00 Ground Direction Finding (DF)..................................................... 53
01.01 Principles............................................................................. 53
01.02 Presentation and Interpretation...................................... 55
01.03 Coverage and Range........................................................... 57
01.04 Errors and Accuracy........................................................... 57
02.00 Non-Directional Radio Beacon (NDB)/Automatic
Direction Finding (ADF)................................................................. 59
02.01 Principles............................................................................. 59
02.02 Presentation and Interpretation...................................... 64
02.03 Coverage and Range........................................................... 78
02.04 Errors and Accuracy........................................................... 79
02.05 Factors Affecting Range and Accuracy............................. 81
03.00 VHF Omnidirectional Radio Range (VOR):
Conventional VOR (CVOR) and Doppler VOR (DVOR)................ 83
03.01 Principles............................................................................. 83
03.02 Presentation and Interpretation...................................... 91

VI
A Table of Contents

03.03 Intentionally Left Blank................................................... 104

03.04 Errors and Accuracy......................................................... 104
04.00 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)..................................... 107
04.01 Principles........................................................................... 107
04.02 Presentation and Interpretation.................................... 113
04.03 Coverage and Range......................................................... 114
04.04 Intentionally Left Blank ................................................... 115
04.05 Factors Affecting Range and Accuracy........................... 115
05.00 Instrument Landing System (ILS).............................................. 118
05.01 Principles........................................................................... 118
05.02 Presentation and Interpretation.................................... 126
05.03 Coverage and Range......................................................... 131
05.04 Errors and Accuracy......................................................... 133
05.05 Factors Affecting Range and Accuracy........................... 137
06.00 Microwave Landing System (MLS)............................................. 139
06.01 Principles........................................................................... 139
06.02 Presentation and Interpretation.................................... 143
06.03 Coverage and Range......................................................... 146

062.03 RADAR................................................................... 150

01.00 Pulse Techniques......................................................................... 151
01.01 Pulse Technique and Associated Terms........................ 151
02.00 Ground Radar.............................................................................. 157
02.01 Principles........................................................................... 157
02.02 Presentation and Interpretation.................................... 162
03.00 Airborne Weather Radar............................................................ 164
03.01 Principles........................................................................... 164
03.02 Presentation and Interpretation.................................... 168
03.03 Coverage and Range......................................................... 168
03.04 Errors, Accuracy, Limitations.......................................... 174
03.05 Factors Affecting Range and Accuracy........................... 174
03.06 Application for Navigation............................................... 179
04.00 Secondary Surveillance Radar and Transponder.................... 185
04.01 Principles........................................................................... 185
04.02 Modes and Codes............................................................. 187
04.03 Presentation and Interpretation.................................... 193

062.04 Intentionally Left Blank...................................... 199

062.05 Intentionally Left Blank...................................... 200

062.06 Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs)... 202

01.00 Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs)........................... 203
01.01 General............................................................................... 203

VII
0 Section 1 Table of Contents

01.02 Operation........................................................................... 205

01.03 Errors and Factors Affecting Accuracy........................... 216
02.00 Ground-, Satellite-, and Airborne-Based
Augmentation Systems ............................................................. 220
02.01 Ground-Based Augmentation Systems (GBASs)........... 220
02.02 Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems (SBASs)........... 225
02.03 Intentionally Left Blank ................................................... 231
02.04 Airborne-Based Augmentation Systems (ABASs)......... 231

062.07 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN).............. 233

01.00 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) Concept ..................... 235
01.01 PBN Principles................................................................... 235
01.02 PBN Components.............................................................. 240
01.03 PBN Scope.......................................................................... 241
02.00 Navigation Specifications .......................................................... 243
02.01 Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required
Navigation Performance (RNP)....................................... 243
02.02 Navigation Functional Requirements............................ 243
02.03 Designation of RNP and RNAV Specifications............... 244
03.00 Use of Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) ......................... 247
03.01 Intentionally Left Blank................................................... 247
03.02 Intentionally Left Blank................................................... 247
03.03 Specific RNAV and RNP System Functions..................... 247
04.00 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) Operations................. 251
04.01 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) Principles......... 251
04.02 On-Board Performance Monitoring and Alerting......... 252
04.03 Abnormal Situations........................................................ 254
04.04 Database Management.................................................... 255
05.00 Requirements of Specific RNAV and
RNP Specifications...................................................................... 256
05.01 RNAV 10............................................................................. 256
05.02 RNAV 5................................................................................ 256
05.03 RNAV 1/RNAV 2/RNP 1/RNP 2.......................................... 257
05.04 Intentionally Left Blank................................................... 259
05.05 Required Navigation
Performance Approach (RNP APCH).............................. 259
05.06 Required Navigation Performance
Authorisation Required Approach
(RNP AR APCH).................................................................. 264
05.07 Advanced Required Navigation
Performance (A-RNP)....................................................... 266

Glossary Index................................................................... 267

VIII
0 Section 1 Table of Contents

INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

1
 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

0 Section 1 Table of Contents

Basic Radio Propagation Theory

1
01.00 Basic Principles........................................................... 3
01.01 Electromagnetic Waves...................................................................3
01.02 Frequency, Wavelength, Amplitude, Phase Angle.......................6
01.03 Frequency Bands, Sidebands, Single Sideband............................9
01.04 Pulse Characteristics.................................................................... 14
01.05 Carrier, Modulation....................................................................... 16
01.06 Kinds of Modulation (Amplitude, Frequency, Pulse, Phase).......16

02.00 Antennas................................................................... 20
02.01 Characteristics............................................................................... 20
02.02 Polarisation.................................................................................... 22
02.03 Types of Antennas......................................................................... 23

03.00 Wave Propagation.................................................... 31

03.01 Structure of the Ionosphere and its Effect on Radio Waves.......31
03.02 Ground Waves............................................................................... 35
03.03 Space Waves.................................................................................. 36
03.04 Propagation with the Frequency Bands..................................... 37
03.05 Doppler Principle........................................................................... 37
03.06 Factors Affecting Propagation..................................................... 40

2
 1 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

01.00 Basic Principles

01.01 Electromagnetic Waves
01 State that radio waves travel at the speed of light, being approximately 300 000 km/s
02 Define a ‘cycle’: a complete series of values of a periodical process

Cycle of a Periodical Process

The unit-vector (R) rotates at a constant angular speed (ω) starting at 0° and passing 90°, 180°,
270°, 360°, when it starts another revolution. The movement of the vector is projected on a
2-dimensional plane, e.g., when the vector is at 45° the projection is Y45°, at 90° the projection is Y90°

The value of the projection Y at any angle (a) is calculated by using the sine of the angle:

Ya = R × sin a

The projection of a complete revolution of the unit-vector draws a sine curve, which includes all
the angles from 0° to 360°. A complete set of variable values is called a cycle.

The time the vector takes to make a complete revolution (i.e., from T0 to T4) is called the period.

Figure 1.1.1 The sine function

Alternating current (AC) is a good example of a periodic process, the voltage and the current
021.09.01.03 cycles periodically.

Waves

In physics, a wave is defined as a periodic disturbance of the particles of a substance which

may be propagated without net movement of the particles, such as in the passage of undulating
motion, heat, or sound

When a long rope is oscillated at one end, an undulating motion called a transverse wave
travels down the rope as shown in figure 1.1.2.

3
1 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

Figure 1.1.2 Standing wave

Vibrations created by a tuning fork compress the surrounding air and transmit a soundwave.

Figure 1.1.3 Soundwaves

4
1 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

Figure 1.1.4 Transverse waves

Figure 1.1.5 Electromagnetic wave (EMW)

5
1 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

Electromagnetic Wave (EMW)

An oscillating electrical charge in a conductive wire radiates an electrical field (E) and a magnetic
field (H). The fields oscillate in phase and are perpendicular to each other as shown in figure
1.1.5.

The combined electrical and magnetic field is an electromagnetic wave (EMW) which radiates in
all directions from the wire at the speed (c).

Speed of an EMW

Unlike sound waves or waves on a rope, electromagnetic waves do not require a material medium
to propagate, they can travel through empty space.

The EMW speed of propagation (c, for celerity) through vacuum is constant at the speed of light:
299,792,458 m/s (approximately 300,000 km/s). The speed varies slightly, depending on the
electrical properties of the medium through which it travels, like air for example. For practical
use in this course, 3x108 m/s will be used or 300 m/µs (1 µs = 10 - 6 seconds)

c = 3×108 m/s

01.02 Frequency, Wavelength, Amplitude, Phase Angle

01 Define ‘frequency’: number of cycles occurring in 1 second expressed in Hertz (Hz)
02 Define ‘wavelength’: the physical distance travelled by a radio wave during one cycle
of transmission
03 Define ‘amplitude’: the maximum deflection in an oscillation or wave
04 State that the relationship between wavelength and frequency is: wavelength (𝜆) = speed
of light (c) / frequency (f)
05 Define ‘phase angle’: the fraction of one wave expressed in degrees from 000° to 360°
06 Define ‘phase angle difference/shift’: the angular difference between the corresponding
points of two cycles of equal wavelength, which is measurable in degrees (°)

Frequency

The frequency of a wave is the number of cycles per second expressed in hertz (Hz) and is an
inverse function of the period (T) of a cycle (the lenght of time it takes to generate one cycle of a
radio wave); similarly the period is an inverse function of the frequency.

6
1 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

Wavelength

Figure 1.1.6 Wave period

The wavelength (𝜆) is the physical distance a wave travels during one cycle of transmision.

Figure 1.1.7 Wavelength

Amplitude

The amplitude is the maximum value obtained during a cycle; it refers to the maximum strength
of the radio wave.

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1 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

Relationship Between Frequency and Wavelength

Recall from physics that speed is the distance covered divided by the time it travels, i.e., V = d/t.
Applied to the propagation of an EMW, where V is the speed of light (c), d is the wavelength (𝜆)
and t is the period (T), it becomes:

c = λ/T

As the period (T) is 1 over the frequency:

c=λxf
λ=c/f
f=c/λ

The units are c in m/s, f in hertz (Hz) and 𝜆 in metres

A radio wave has a frequency of 300 kHz; the wavelength is:

𝜆=c/f
𝜆 = 3x108 / 3x105 = 1,000 m or 1 km
An ILS transmitter has a wavelength of 2.75 metres; the frequency is:
f = c/𝜆
f = 3x10 / 2.75 = 109.1x106 Hz or 109.1 MHz
8

Phase Angle

The phase is the relationship in time between the successive states of an oscillating or repeating
system, e.g., an alternating electric current or a light or sound wave.

The phase angle is the fraction of one wave expressed on degrees from 000° to 360°, 360 degrees
(2π radians) corresponding to one complete cycle.

Phase Angle Difference / Shift

The phase angle difference / shift is the angular difference between the corresponding point of two
cycles of equal wavelength, which is measurable in degrees. Some radio navigation systems (i.e.,
the VOR) use the comparison of phase between two signals to define navigational information. To
compare phases between two radio waves it needs the following:

• The two signals being compared must have the same frequency, otherwise any phase
comparison would be meaningless.
• One signal will be designated the reference signal and the other a variable signal.
• The comparison must yield a positive result.

8
1 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

Figure 1.1.8 Phase difference

In the example in figure 1.1.8, starting at zero phase on the reference wave (point A), we observe
that the reference wave has travelled through a phase angle of 270° before zero phase is reached
on the variable wave (point B), hence the phase difference is 270°.

The relationship can also be found mathematically. At the origin the phase of the reference wave
is 0° (= 360°) and the phase of the variable wave is 090°. Subtracting the instantaneous phase
of the variable wave from the instantaneous phase of the reference wave gives the same result,
note the result must always be positive. Reference – variable = 360° – 90° = 270°.

01.03 Frequency Bands, Sidebands, Single Sideband

01 List the bands of the frequency spectrum for electromagnetic waves:
02 State that when a carrier wave is modulated, the resultant radiation consists of the carrier
frequency plus the additional upper and lower sidebands
03 State that HF meteorological information for aircraft in flight (VOLMET) and HF two-way
communication use a single sideband
04 State that the following abbreviations (classifications according to International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) regulations) are used for aviation applications: N0N:
carrier without modulation as used by non-directional radio beacon (NDBs); A1A: carrier
with keyed Morse code modulation as used by NDBs; A2A: carrier with amplitude
modulated Morse code as used by NDBs; A3E: carrier with amplitude modulated speech
used for communication (VHF-COM)

Frequency Bands

The radio waves used in aviation are part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which extends from
30 kHz (LF – low frequency) to 300 GHz (EHF – extremely high frequency). For convenience, it is
divided into seven frequency bands. These are shown in the frequencies and wavelengths bands
table in figure 1.1.9.

9
 1 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

Figure 1.1.9 Frequency band table

Radio waves are used to carry information, for example voice or digital data information, these
radio waves, when carrying information, are called carrier waves (CW)

The frequencies LF, MF, HF, VHF, UHF, SHF and EHF are used as carrier waves.

• LF and MF are used for ground-air transmissions over long distances.

• HF is used for ground-air and air-ground transmissions over long distances.
• For ground-air and air-ground transmissions over short distances VHF and UHF are used.
• Radar applications use frequencies from UHF to EHF.
062.01.01.06 The process to add information on a CW is called modulation, which will be detailed in 062.01.01.06.

Sidebands

Frequencies of LF and higher are not audible by human ear, that can listen to frequencies
between 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Human voice frequency extends from 300 to 3,000 Hz, which cannot be
propagated over long distances.

To transmit information of low frequency over long distances a carrier wave of high frequency
(CW) is used (typically HF and VHF), which is modulated by the information.

10
1 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

When a high frequency wave is modulated by information it propagates:

• The carrier wave (CW)

• An upper sideband (USB), which includes the CW and the information
• A lower sideband (LSB), which includes the CW and the information

Figure 1.1.10 Sidebands

Single Sideband

There is redundancy in double sideband transmissions in that the information is contained in

both the upper and lower sidebands. Additionally, the original carrier wave, having served its
purpose to get the audio information into radio frequencies, is now redundant. So, it is possible
to remove one of the sidebands and the carrier wave because the remaining sideband contains
all the information. This is known as single sideband (SSB) operation.

11
1 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

Figure 1.1.11 Single sideband

The bandwidth of the transmitted dual sideband radio wave is larger than the transmitted upper
single sideband (USB) alone. The larger the bandwidth the more transmission power is required
for a given range. So, a smaller bandwidth at a given transmitter power will reach a longer
distance compared to a dual sideband transmitter.

This SSB and CW suppressed process is used in long range two-way voice communications and
for meteorological information for aircrafts in flight (VOLMET), both transmit in the HF band.

International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

In order to easily identify the characteristics and information provided by radio signals used
for aviation applications, a list of designators has been devised. They comprise 3 alphanumeric
symbols: a letter, a number and a letter.

• The first symbol defines the type of modulation of the main carrier.
• The second symbol defines the nature of the signal used for the modulation.
• The third symbol defines the type of information carried.
Figure 1.1.12 shows different types of modulation.

12
 1 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

Figure 1.1.12 ITU designators table

Typical examples used in non-directional beacon (NDB) are N0N/A1A and N0N/A2A:

• NON: defines a carrier without modulation and no information, also called a pure
carrier wave.
• A1A: defines a carrier with keyed Morse code modulation
• A2A: defines a carrier with amplitude modulated Morse code
062.02.02.01.13 NDB/ADF is covered in 062.02.02.01.13

VHF communication is identified as A3E, dual sideband amplitude modulated voice broadcast.

13
1 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

HF communication is identified as J3E, SSB CW suppressed amplitude modulated voice broadcast.

01.04 Pulse Characteristics

01 Define the following terms that are associated with a pulse string: pulse length; pulse
power; continuous power

Pulse Technique

The pulse technique is the transmission of radio energy in very short bursts. Each burst of energy
is in a pulse form of a predetermined shape. The duration of the pulse is equal to the pulse length
(PL in µs), the time interval between consecutive pulses is the pulse recurrence period (PRP in µs)

The duration of a pulse covers a distance in space equal to the time multiplied by the
propagation speed.

Figure 1.1.13 Pulse length and PRP

PLm = PLμs × cm/μs

Example
A pulse length of 1 µsec covers a distance of:
1 µs x 300 m/µs = 300 meters

The number of pulses per second is called the pulse repetition frequency (PRF in pulses-per-second
(pps)) and is equal to 1/PRP:

14
1 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

Example
A PRP of 1250 µsec is equal to a PRF of:
1 / 1250 x 10 - 6s = 0.0008 pps
Note that the unit of PRP needs to be converted into seconds to give a PRF in pulses-per-second.

Figure 1.1.14 Pulse power

Pulse Power

Each pulse is transmitted at regular intervals by the transmitter with a given power called the
peak power (PP) stored in the pulse. The longer the pulse the more power it can carry. Out of the
successive peaks of power an average power, or continuous power (PC) is defined in function of
the pulse length and the pulse recurrence period.

Example
For a peak power of 750 kW to transmit pulses of 50 µs every 500 µs, the average power is:
750 kW x 50/500 = 75 kW

15
 1 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

01.05 Carrier, Modulation

01 Define ‘carrier wave’: the radio wave acting as the carrier or transporter
02 Define ‘modulation’: the technical term for the process of impressing and transporting
information by radio waves.

Carrier Wave

Radio waves are used to carry information, for example voice or digital data information, these
radio waves, when carrying information, are called carrier waves (CW)

Modulation

062.01.01.06
The process to add and transporting information on a CW is called modulation.

01.06 Kinds of Modulation (Amplitude, Frequency, Pulse, Phase)

01 Define ‘amplitude modulation’: the information that is impressed onto the carrier wave by
altering the amplitude of the carrier
02 Define ‘frequency modulation’: the information that is impressed onto the carrier wave by
altering the frequency of the carrier
03 Define ‘pulse modulation’: a modulation form used in radar by transmitting short pulses
followed by larger interruptions
04 Define ‘phase modulation’: a modulation form used in GPS where the phase of the carrier
wave is reversed

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Amplitude modulation is when the amplitude (Am) of a lower frequency information signal, for
example voice, modulates (i.e., varies) the amplitude (Ac) of a higher frequency carrier wave.

• In amplitude modulation the information is included in the carrier’s amplitude variation.

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1 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

Figure 1.1.15 Amplitude modulation

AM is used in aviation for VHF/HF communication and ADF/VOR and ILS navigation systems

Depth of Modulation
The ratio between the amplitude of the modulating wave (Am) and the amplitude of the carrier
wave (Ac) is called the depth of modulation:

D.o.M. (%) = Am / Ac

Usual values are between 60 and 90%. When the value is more than 100%, it will lead to distortion
in the transmission. Some radio navigation systems (e.g. localiser, glideslope) make use of the
variation in depth of modulation between to signals to define guidance information.

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1 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

Frequency Modulation (FM)

In frequency modulation, the amplitude of the information wave frequency modifies

the frequency of the carrier wave.

The change in the carrier wave frequency is dependent on the rise and fall of the amplitude
of the modulating wave frequency: the greater the amplitude, the greater the frequency
deviation. The frequency of the modulating wave determines the rate of change of frequency
within the modulated carrier wave.

Figure 1.1.16 Frequency modulation

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1 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

FM is used for sound broadcasting (for example, music radio stations), the bandwidth permitted
by international agreements is 150 kHz, compared to 9 kHz allowed for AM. In general, therefore,
FM is unsuitable for use on frequencies below VHF.
For voice communications the bandwidth can be considerably reduced whilst still maintaining
the integrity of the information, this is known as narrow band FM (NBFM). Typically, NBFM
systems have a bandwidth of 8 kHz, which is greater than the 6 kHz permitted for aeronautical
communications and the 3 kHz used in HF communications; therefore, NBFM communication
systems are not yet used in aviation.

Pulse Modulation

Pulse modulation is used extensively in radar systems and for data exchange in communications
systems. An intermittent carrier wave is formed by the generation and transmission of a sequence
of short period pulses.

Phase Modulation

In phase modulation the phase of the carrier wave is modified by the input
signal (phase of the carrier wave is reversed). In binary phase shift keying
(BPSK) a 180° phase shift represents a binary status change from 0 to 1 or
1 to 0. This is the simplest case of phase modulation, which only allows low flow of information.

There are other types of phase modulation, which use many degrees of phase shift or
combinations of amplitude and phase modulations. This allows simultaneous transmission of
large amounts of information at high flow rates

There are two cases used in navigation systems: MLS and GPS.

GPS uses binary phase shift keying, MLS uses differential phase shift keying.

Figure 1.1.17 Phase modulation

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2 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

02.00 Antennas
02.01 Characteristics
01 Define ‘antenna’: an antenna or aerial is an electrical device which converts electrical power
into radio waves, and vice versa.
02 State that the simplest type of antenna is a dipole, which is wire of length equal to one half
of the wavelength
03 State that an electromagnetic wave always consists of an oscillating electric (E) and
an oscillating magnetic (H) field which propagates at the speed of light
04 State that the E and H fields are perpendicular to each other. The oscillations are
perpendicular to the propagation direction and are in phase.

Introduction

Antennas or aerials are the means by which radio energy is radiated and received (an
electrical device converts electrical power into radio waves and vice versa). The type
of antenna used will be determined by the function the radio system is required to perform.
This chapter will look at the principles which are common to all antennas, and at the specialities
required for particular radio navigation systems.

It should be noted that the properties of an antenna apply equally when used to transmit or
to receive electromagnetic waves.

The Dipole Antenna

There are two basic types of aerial used for receiving and transmitting basic communications: the
half-wave dipole (the simplest type, which is a wire of length equal to one half of the wavelength)
and the Marconi or quarter-wave aerial. With the dipole aerial the power is fed to the centre of
the antenna and radiates in all directions perpendicular to the aerial.

Figure 1.2.1 Half-wave dipole

20
2 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

The Marconi aerial is set on, but insulated from, a conductive surface which acts as the second
part of a dipole, with the radio energy radiating perpendicular to the aerial. Because of the better
aerodynamic qualities, Marconi aerials are used on aircraft.

Figure 1.2.2 Quarter-wave dipole

For an aerial to operate with maximum efficiency, it must have the correct length for the
wavelength in use. As the names imply the ideal length for an aerial is half or quarter of the
wavelength being transmitted.

However, whilst we regard the speed of propagation of electromagnetic energy as being

constant, this is only true in a specified medium. If the energy passes from one medium to
another the speed will change. In the case of electromagnetic energy, the denser the medium
the slower the speed.

The means by which energy is carried between the aerial and transmitter or receiver is dependent
on the frequency in use and the power levels. At low and medium frequencies, a simple wire is
adequate to carry the signal over reasonable distances with little energy loss. As frequency
increases, the power losses increase and into HF and VHF a twin wire feeder is more efficient. At
UHF frequencies, the power losses in these simple feeders become unacceptably high and a
coaxial cable is required.
In the upper part of the UHF band and in the SHF and EHF bands, the use of dipole or Marconi
aerials is precluded because of the high energy losses and the way the energy is produced. At
these frequencies a waveguide is used to carry the energy to or from the aerial. The waveguide
is a hollow, rectangular metal tube. The internal dimensions of the tube are determined by the
frequency in use, being half the wavelength.

The Electromagnetic Wave

An oscillating electrical charge in an antenna radiates an electrical field (E) and a magnetic field
(H). The fields oscillate in phase and are perpendicular to each other.

The combined electrical and magnetic fields form an electromagnetic wave (EMW) which radiates
in all directions from the antenna at the speed of light (c).

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02.02 Polarisation
01 State that the polarisation of an electromagnetic wave describes the orientation of the plane
of oscillation of the electrical component of the wave with regard to its direction of propagation

Polarised Waves

The polarisation of radio waves is defined as the plane of the electric field and is dependent
on the plane of the antenna. A vertical aerial will emit radio waves with the electrical field
in the vertical plane, and hence, produce a vertically polarised wave, and a horizontal aerial will
produce a horizontally polarised wave.

To receive maximum signal strength from an incoming radio wave, it is essential the receiving
aerial is in the same plane as the polarisation of the wave, so a vertically polarised radio
wave would require a vertical aerial. Vertical and horizontal polarisations are used for radio
communication and navigation systems

Circular polarisation can be produced in a variety of ways, one of which uses a helical antenna.
In circular polarisation the electrical (and hence magnetic) field rotates at the frequency of the
radio wave. The rotation may be right-handed or left-handed dependent on the orientation
of the aerial array. Circular polarisation is used in satellite navigation systems.

Polar Diagrams

A polar diagram is used to show the radiation or reception pattern of an aerial. It is simply a line
joining all points of equal signal strength and is generally a plan view perpendicular to the plane
of radiation or reception. From here on we will talk about radiation only, but the same principle
applies to reception.
A dipole aerial radiates most energy at right angles to the aerial with signal strength decreasing
towards the ends of the aerial, where there is no radiation. A three-dimensional representation
of radiation from such an aerial would be a torus, centred on the centre point of the aerial.

Figure 1.2.3 Polar of an antenna

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02.03 Types of Antennas

01 Name the common different types of directional antennas: loop antenna used in old automatic
direction finding (ADF) receivers; parabolic antenna used in weather radar; slotted planar array
used in more modern radars
02 Explain “antenna shadowing”
03 Explain the importance of antenna placement on aircraft

Directional Antennas

Many systems require the directional emission or reception of energy, e.g., radar, ILS, MLS, and
many more. How this directivity is achieved depends on the frequency and application. The
simplest way to achieve directivity is to add a reflector. This reflector re-radiates the energy 180°
out of phase. The resulting polar diagram shows no signal behind the reflector and increased
signal in front of the aerial. Other elements, known as directors, may be added in front of the
aerial and are smaller than the aerial itself.

Figure 1.2.4 Directional antenna

All will recognise this as being the type of aerial array used for the reception of television signals.
The directors have the effect of focussing the signal into (or out of) the aerial, giving a stronger
signal than that which would be generated by a simple dipole.

The common different types of directional antennas are:

• Loop antenna used in old automatic direction finding (ADF) receivers

• Parabolic antenna used in weather radar
• Slotted planar array used in more modern radars

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2 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

The Loop Antenna

In the automatic direction finder (ADF), a loop aerial is used to detect the direction of
an incoming signal.

Figure 1.2.5 Loop antenna

Figure 1.2.6 Loop antenna

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2 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

When the loop is aligned with the incoming signal, then there is a phase difference between the
signals in each of the vertical elements of the loop and there will be a net flow of current from the
loop. If the loop is placed at right angles to the incoming signal, then the induced currents will be
equal and will cancel each other out giving a zero output.

The resulting polar diagram will have two distinct nulls which can be used to determine the
direction from which the radio wave is coming. How this principle is utilised will be discussed in
detail in the chapter on non-directional beacon (NDB)/automatic direction finding (ADF).

The Parabolic Antenna

The parabolic dish is widely used as a ‘reflector’: The open end of a waveguide, positioned at the
focal point (F) of the parabola (the centre of curvature), directs the radio wave energy towards the
dish. The energy from the open waveguide, reflected by the dish (FYA and FXB) as parallel rays, will
be equal, and the transmitted wavefront will be made up of parallel rays that are all in phase.

Figure 1.2.7 Parabolic antenna

In principle, a very narrow pencil beam should be produced, but, apart from the region very
close to the antenna, the beam diverges. In effect, the parabolic reflector converts a point source
of energy (the open waveguide) at the focal point into a plane wavefront of uniform phase.
In addition, due to uneven reflection, some of the energy ‘spills out’ of the reflector to form side
lobes. These contain sufficient energy to produce valid returns outside the main lobe or beam.

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Figure 1.2.8 Directional polar diagram

Figure 1.2.9 Radar antenna

The Slotted Antenna

Modern weather radar development has introduced a different type of antenna: the flat plate
array, phased array, or slotted planar array antenna. The antenna is a ‘flat plate’ with numerous
waveguide-size slots cut into it. The individual slots are fed with electromagnetic energy from
behind the plate, and the transmitted radar beam is therefore a result of the interaction of the
numerous individual beams.

This type of antenna is more efficient than the parabolic reflector: it ‘wastes’ much less energy
in the side lobes and, for a given frequency, the radiated energy is concentrated into a narrower
beam. Since the flat plate array is a more efficient means of transmission, radars incorporating
this technology require less power.

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2 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

The advantages of slotted planar array over parabolic reflectors are:

• Narrow beam
• Reduced side lobes
• Less power required for a given range

With the slotted array antenna technology, it is possible to control the phase of the signal
feeding each slot individually, which makes it possible to control the main beam vertical tilt
without moving the antenna in the vertical plane.

Antenna Shadowing

When a radio wave is transmitted by an omnidirectional antenna, assume line-of-sight between

transmit (Tx) and receive (Rx) antennas, the received signal level is expected to be the same
at the same distance independently of the receiver location around the transmitter. That would
be true, if there are no obstacles and the wave propagates over a plain surface.

Figure 1.2.10 Antenna shadowing

But uneven terrain, intervening high ground, mountains, man-made structures, etc., cause
wave propagation to be stopped (screened), reflected, or bent (scalloping), all of which give rise
to received signal power fluctuation, or fading. This is known as shadowing, or shadow fading.

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2 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

Figure 1.12.11 Antenna shadowing with uneven terrain

Antenna Placement

Each radio communication and navigation system have antennas. Some antennas are used
to transmit and receive (VHF/HF comms, SSR, DME, weather radar), others to only receive (LOC,
GS, VOR, ADF, markers, GPS). For safer operations, system redundancy requires at least two, or
more, systems, e.g., 2 VHF comms, 2 LOC, etc.

Most, but not all, aircraft antennas are located at the bottom of the fuselage on the aircraft’s
longitudinal axis, as most radio stations are located on the ground. The weather radar is located
at the nose of the aircraft covered by a composite material dome called the radome.

Figure 1.2.12 Aircraft antennas

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Figure 1.2.13 Aircraft antenna

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2 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

Radio Transmission System

To transmit information wirelessly, a basic radio system is used and must include the following
minimum equipment:

• At the transmission station: a transmitter and a transmitting antenna

• At the receiving station: a receiver and a receiving antenna
• Both antennas must have the same orientation (i.e., the same polarisation)

Figure 1.2.14 Basic radio system

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3 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

03.00 Wave Propagation

Introduction

The term propagation simply means how the radio waves travel through the atmosphere.
Different frequency bands use different propagation paths through the atmosphere. The
propagation path often determines the uses to which a particular frequency band can be put in
either communication or navigation systems. The different propagation paths associated with
particular frequencies can also impose limitations on the use of those frequencies.

Several factors affect the propagation of radio waves and need to be considered when discussing
the propagation paths.

There are three propagation paths to be considered for aviation purposes, shown in figure 1.3.1.

Figure 1.3.1 Wave propagation diagram

03.01 Structure of the Ionosphere and its Effect on Radio Waves

01 State that the ionosphere is the ionised component of the Earth’s upper atmosphere
from approximately 60 to 400 km above the surface, which is vertically structured in
three regions or layers.
02 State that the layers of the ionosphere are named D, E and F layers, and their depth
varies with time.
03 State that electromagnetic waves refract from the E and F layers of the ionosphere
are called sky waves.
04 Explain how the different layers of the ionosphere influence wave propagation.

The Ionosphere

The ionosphere (ionised component of the Earth’s upper atmosphere) extends upwards from
an altitude of about 60 km to 400 km. In this part of the atmosphere, the pressures are very
low (at 60 km the atmospheric pressure is 0.22 hPa) and, hence, the gaseous atoms are widely
dispersed. Within this region, incoming solar radiation (which varies in cycles of eleven years)
at ultra-violet and shorter wavelengths interacts with the atoms raising their energy levels and
causing electrons to be ejected from the shells of the atoms. Since an atom is electrically neutral,
the result is negatively charged electrons and positively charged particles known as ions.

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The electrons are continually attempting to reunite with the ions, so the highest levels of
ionisation will be found shortly after midday (about 1400 local time), when there is a balance
between the ionisation and the decay of the ionisation with the electrons re-joining the ions,
and the lowest, just before sunrise. In summer, the ionisation levels will be higher than in winter,
and ionisation levels will increase as latitude decreases, again because of the increased intensity
of the solar radiation.

Increased radiation from solar flares is unpredictable but can give rise to exceptionally high
levels of ionisation, which in turn can cause severe disruption of communication and navigation
systems, particularly those which are space based. It is not unusual for communication
(and other) satellites to be shut down during periods of intense solar flare activity to avoid damage.

As the incoming solar energy is absorbed by the gaseous atoms, the amount of energy available
to ionise the atoms at lower levels reduces and, hence, the levels of ionisation increase with
increase in altitude. However, because the normal atmospheric mixing processes associated
with the lower levels of the atmosphere are absent in the higher levels, gravitation and terrestrial
magnetism affect the distribution of gases. This means that the increase in ionisation is not
linear, but the ionised particles form into discrete layers.

Figure 1.3.2 Ionospheric layers

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The ionisation is most intense at the centre of the layers, decreasing towards the lower and
upper edges of the layers. The characteristics of these layers vary with the levels of ionisation
and their depth varies with time.

• The D-layer, the lowest of these layers, appears at an average altitude of 75 km.
This is a fairly diffused area which, for practical purposes, forms at sunrise and
disappears at sunset.
• The E-layer appears at an average altitude of 125 km and is present day and night.
The E-layer reduces in altitude at sunrise and increases in altitude after sunset.
The F-layer appears at an average altitude of 225 km. The F-layer splits into two at sunrise and
re-joins at sunset, with the F1-layer reducing in altitude at sunrise and increasing in altitude after
sunset. The behaviour of the F2-layer is dependent on the time of year. In summer, it increases in

Figure 1.3.3 Ionospheric layers variations

altitude and may reach altitudes in excess of 400 km, and in winter, it reduces in altitude.

The structure of the ionosphere gives stable conditions by day and by night. Around dawn and dusk,
however, the ionosphere is in a transitional state, which leads to what can best be described as
electrical turbulence. The result is that around dawn and dusk, radio navigation and communication
systems using the ionosphere are subject to excessive interference and disruption.

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Sky Waves

The ionisation levels in the layers increase towards the centre of the layer. This means that as
a radio wave (electromagnetic waves) transits a layer, it encounters an increasing density of ions as it
moves to the centre of the layer and decreasing density as it moves out of the layer. If the radio waves
travel across the layer at right angles, they will be retarded but will maintain a straight path. However,
if the waves penetrate the layer at an angle, they will be refracted away from the normal as they
enter, tthen back towards the normal as they exit the layer. If the radio wave refracts to the earth
horizontal before it reaches the centre of the layer, then it will continue to refract and will return
to the surface of the earth as a sky wave. (Electromagnetic waves refract from E and F layers of
the ionosphere.)

Although the process to make a sky wave is due to the refraction of the wave when it passes through
the different ionisation levels, sky waves are also defined as waves reflected from the ionosphere.

Sky Waves and Frequency

The amount of refraction experienced by the radio waves is dependent on both the frequency
and the levels of ionisation.

• The D-layer, which exists during the day only reflects LF, MF is absorbed completely,
and HF goes through and is attenuated.
• The E-layer maintains a stable altitude, it experiences a high ionisation level during
the day and light at night. It reflects the LF, MF radio waves especially during
the night, and the lower HF (3 MHz) waves.
• The F-layer reflects the lower end of HF waves during the night. During the day,
the F-layer splits in two layers: low F1 and high F2. The F1-layer reflects the lower
HF waves, and the F2-layer reflects the higher HF waves.
• VHF radio waves, transmitted from a ground station or a space station, refract slightly
and go through the ionosphere, which allows communications with navigation and
communication satellites.
• For a given receiver location, the frequency used by night should be about half
the frequency used in day light, due to the disappearance of the D-layer.

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Figure 1.3.4 Sky waves and frequency

03.02 Ground Waves

01 Define ‘ground or surface waves’: the electromagnetic waves travelling along the surface
of the Earth.

Ground or Surface Waves

Surface or ground wave propagation exists (electromagnetic waves traveling along the surface
of the Earth) at frequencies from LF to HF bands. The portion of the wave in contact with the
surface of the earth is retarded causing the wave to bend round the surface of the earth, a
process known as diffraction. The range achievable is dependent on several factors:

• The frequency
• The surface over which the wave is travelling
• The polarisation of the wave
As the frequency increases, surface attenuation increases, the surface wave range decreases,
and the range reachable with frequencies above HF is negligible.

The losses due to attenuation by the surface of the earth are greater over land than over sea,
because the sea has good electrical conductivity (i.e., it acts like an electrical line, which helps
to conduct the wave’s electrical field). Hence, greater ranges are attainable over the sea, with
vertical polarised radio waves, which are generally used at these lower frequencies. A horizontally
polarised wave will be attenuated very quickly and give very short ranges.

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Figure 1.3.5 Ground waves

03.03 Space Waves

01 Define ‘space waves’: the electromagnetic waves travelling through the air directly from
the transmitter to the receiver.

Space Waves

Radio waves, which propagate in a straight line between a transmitter and a receiver, as visible
light does, are called space waves. Space waves are available across the entire radio frequency
bands but are the only propagation path for VHF band and above.

Space waves are limited in range by the line of sight (i.e., the radio horizon, which is slightly
beyond the optical horizon due to some atmospheric refraction).

Figure 1.3.6 Space waves

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03.04 Propagation with the Frequency Bands

01 State that radio waves in VHF, UHF, SHF and EHF propagate as space waves.
02 State that radio waves in LF, MF and HF propagate as surface/ground waves and sky waves.

Propagation Paths

Each frequency band below VHF has a primary propagation path and a secondary path. LF and
MF bands propagate mainly as ground waves, and the HF band propagates mainly as sky waves.

The secondary path is useful but can also be a source of errors. LF and MF bands may have sky
062.02.02.04 waves at night causing errors in the ADF navigation system.

The HF band has surface waves as a secondary path which is useable within a limited range.

All frequencies from VHF and higher propagate only as space waves, as the frequency is too high
to use surface waves due to ground absorption, and too high to be refracted by the ionosphere.

Note: Any receiver in line of sight of a transmitter will receive space waves, whatever the
transmitter frequency.

Figure 1.3.7 Frequency and propagation path table

03.05 Doppler Principle

01 State that the Doppler effect is the phenomenon where the frequency of a wave will
increase or decrease if there is relative motion between the transmitter and the receiver.

The Doppler Effect

The Austrian physicist, Christian Doppler (1803-1853), predicted the Doppler effect in connection
with light waves in the 19th century, but it also holds true for sound and radio waves, and can be
defined as: ‘an increase (or decrease) in the frequency of radio wave, sound, light, or other waves as the
source (e.g. a transmitter-TX) and observer (e.g. a receiver RX) move towards (or away from) each other.’

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A simple analogy of the Doppler effect would be a visit to the beach. Standing still in the water,
the waves rolling in splash you at, for example, four waves per minute. If you walk into the sea,
you are progressively reducing the space between each wave and therefore, they splash you
more frequently than four times per minute. The rate at which the waves are produced has not
changed, but you perceive that the rate has increased. The faster you walk into the sea, towards
the waves, the greater the rate at which they will strike you. Conversely, if you walk back towards
the shore, you are effectively stretching out the distance between each wave, and therefore, the
waves will strike you less frequently.
The Doppler effect causes the sudden change in pitch noticeable in a passing siren, as well as
the red or blue shift seen by astronomers.

The Doppler principle is used in navigation systems, such as Doppler VDF and Doppler VOR,
to define a direction or radar to define motion speed.

The difference between the transmitted frequency (FTX) and the received frequency (FRX) is called
the Doppler shift or Doppler frequency (Fd), which varies with the relative speed (V) between the
transmitter and the receiver and is also a function of the transmitter frequency (FTX).

The Doppler frequency Fd is positive when the transmitter and/or the receiver is/are moving
towards each other and is negative when moving away from each other.

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Figure 1.3.8 Doppler effect

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03.06 Factors Affecting Propagation

01 Define ‘skip distance’: the distance between the transmitter and the point on the surface
of the Earth where the first sky waves return arrives.
02 State that skip zone/dead space is the distance between the limit of the surface wave and
the sky wave.
03 Describe ‘fading’: when a receiver picks up two signals with the same frequency, and the signals
will interfere with each other causing changes in the resultant signal strength and polarisation.
04 State that radio waves in the VHF band and above are limited in range as they are
not reflected by the ionosphere and do not have a surface wave.
05 Describe the physical phenomena ‘reflection’, ‘refraction’ ‘diffraction’, ‘absorption’
and ‘interference’
06 State that multipath is when a signal arrives at the receiver via more than one path
(the signal being reflected from surfaces near the receiver)

Sky Wave

HF radio waves which are reflected by the ionosphere (due to ionospheric refraction) return
to the Earth surface, which happens when the angle between the wave and the normal at
the transmitter is equal to the critical angle. The critical angle is dependent on the frequency
(the higher the frequency, the larger the angle) and the ionisation level of the ionosphere
(the higher the ionisation, the smaller the angle). HF radio also propagates ground waves useable
within a limited range (about 50 to 150 NM).

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Definitions

The skip distance is the distance between the transmitter and the first sky wave return, which
varies with the frequency, the time of the day, and the ionospheric status. The attainable range
may be from 1,300 to 2,200 NM.

The skip zone/dead space is the distance between the point where the ground waves are
completely attenuated to the first sky wave (distance between the limit of the surface wave and
the sky wave).

Figure 1.3.9 Sky wave

Increasing the transmitted frequency increases the skip distance, because the critical angle
increases, and the waves refract at a higher altitude. Due to the increase of frequency, the
ground waves range reduces due to higher attenuation. The combination of the increase of the
skip distance and the reduced ground wave range increases the skip zone/dead space.

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Fading

Figure 1.3.10 Space and reflected waves

Transmissions with the same frequency following different paths can occur for a number of
reasons, e.g., reflections, and can arrive at a receiver simultaneously. However, the two signals
will not necessarily be in phase. In extreme cases, the two signals will be in anti-phase and will
cancel each other out. Signals going in and out of phase are indicated by alternate fading (i.e.,
gradually become weak) and strengthening of the received signal (the signals will interfere with
each other causing changes in the resulting signal strength and polarisation).

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Figure 1.3.11 Wave combination

The combination of the space and reflected waves at the receiver antenna is a resultant wave,
which may be stronger or weaker depending on the phase difference, if any.

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VHF and Above Propagation

Space waves are limited in range by the line of sight as the frequencies are too high for surface
waves and sky waves. The range is dependent on the height of the transmitter and the height
of the receiver as they are not reflected by the ionosphere and do not have a surface wave.

Figure 1.3.12 Line-of-site transmission

The range (R) from the receiver to the transmitter is calculated as follows:

R = 1.23 × (√HTX + √HRX )

R is given in in nautical miles (NM)

H is the height above mean see level (MSL) in feet

Example
What is the minimum altitude at which an airplane can receive a signal from a VHF transmitter
at a range of 160 NM, if the transmitter is located at 324 ft MSL?

160 NM = 1.23 × (√324 + √HRX)

HRX = ( (160-1.23×18)/1.23 )2
HRX ≅ 12,560 ft

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Rounded to 13,000 ft, it would be the minimum altitude of the airplane to contact the VHF station.

Reflection

In physics, reflection is the throwing back by a body or surface of light, heat, sound, and
electromagnetic waves (EMW). It depends on the nature and the size of the obstacle, the
wavelength and the incidence angle (ai).

Figure 1.3.13 Wave reflection

The reflection of an EMW by an obstacle or the ground changes the phase of the wave and
in some conditions of incidence angle varies the polarisation. Efficient reflection from an object
depends upon its size in relation to the wavelength:

• Shorter wavelengths are reflected more efficiently.

• Smaller (larger) objects reflect shorter (longer) wavelength.
062.03.00.00 A typical system which uses the reflection properties is the primary radar.

But reflection properties may create multipaths and lead to errors, i.e., reflected waves and
space or ground waves combine resulting in interferences (e.g., fading).

Refraction

In physics, refraction is the fact or phenomenon of light or radio waves changing direction when
passing obliquely through the interface between one medium (N1) and another (N2) or through
a medium of varying density. Each substance is given a coefficient, the refractive index (N or µ),
to enable calculations to be performed.

The direction of the refracted wave depends on:

• The medium of the incident wave (N1) and the medium of the refracted waves (N2)
• The angle of incidence (ai)
• If the incident wave is normal with the surface there is no refraction

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Refraction is a function of frequency:

• Lower frequencies refract the most

• Refraction is negligible with VHF frequencies and above
The direction of the incident (ai) and refracted (ar) angles are related by the Snell-Descartes law.

N1 sin ai = N2 sin ar

Figure 1.3.14 Refracted wave

N is the refractive index of the medium, for example N of vacuum is 1.0, air is almost 1 (1.00029),
water is 1.33, glass varies between 1.5 and 1.7 and diamond is 2.42.

Example
A radio wave hits a water surface with an angle of 30°, what is the refracted angle?

Nair x sin 30° = Nwater x sin a

Sin a = 0.5 / 1.33 = 0.37594 , a = 22°

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A visual example of refraction is shown in figure 1.3.15.

Figure 1.3.15 Refraction

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Diffraction

In physics, diffraction is the process by which a beam of light or an electromagnetic wave is

spread out as a result of passing through a narrow aperture or across an edge.

Figure 1.3.16 Diffraction

This phenomenon allows EMW which propagate over edges of objects (e.g., hills and mountain
peaks), with dimensions equal to or lower than the wavelength, to bend towards the ground
(i.e., ground waves).

Figure 1.3.17 Diffracted waves

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Diffraction is a function of frequency:

• Lower frequencies diffract the most.

• Diffraction is negligible with VHF frequencies and above.

Attenuation

Attenuation is the term given to the loss of signal strength in a radio wave, due to absorption
and the inverse square law as it travels outward from the transmitter.

Absorption

As the radio wave travels outwards from a transmitter the energy is absorbed and scattered
by the molecules of air and water vapour, dust particles, water droplets, vegetation, the surface
of the earth and the ionosphere. The effects of this absorption are the following.

• Atmospheric absorption: Increases as frequency increases and is a very significant

factor above about 1GHz.
• Surface absorption: Increases as frequency increases, a part of the energy
is refracted into the ground. The propagation is better over sea than over land.
• Ionospheric absorption: Decreases as frequency increases.

Inverse Square Law

The EMW radiation from an antenna spreads out as the surface of a sphere so the power
available decreases with increasing distance from the transmitter. For example, if, at a certain
distance from a transmitter (R), the power density (P1) is 4 Wm-2 at double the distance (2R) that
energy will be spread over an area of 4 m2 and the power density will be 1 Wm-2.

Figure 1.3.18 Transmitted power density

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3 062.01 Basic Radio Propagation Theory

The power available at a receiver is proportional to the inverse of the square of the range.

The received signal power (PR) is:

PT = transmitted power
K = factor which contains antenna parameters and losses
R = distance from transmitter to receiver

For a given transmitter power the maximum range (RMAX) is function of:
RMAX ∝ √(PT )

An increase in the power output of a transmitter will increase the range, within the limits of the
inverse square law.

To double the range of a radio transmitter would require the power to be increased by a factor of 4.

Interferences

As discussed previously, multipath signals reaching the receiver antenna cause interference
(signal arrives at the receiver via more than one path, i.e., fading). Examples of multipaths are:

• Space wave with reflected wave

• Space wave with sky wave
• Ground wave with reflected wave
• Ground wave with sky wave

Static Interference

There is a large amount of static electricity generated in the atmosphere by weather, human
activity, and geological activity. The effect of static interference is greater at lower frequencies,
whereas at VHF and above, the effect of interference is generally negligible. However, radio
waves travelling through the ionosphere will collect interference at all frequencies. Additionally,
the circuitry in the receivers and transmitters also produces static interference. The static, from
whatever source, reduces the clarity of communications and the accuracy of navigation systems.

The strength of the required signal compared to the amount of interference is expressed as a signal
to noise ratio (S/N) and for the best clarity or accuracy the unwanted noise needs to be reduced to
the lowest possible levels, for example for NDBs ICAO recommend a S/N of 3:1 (or 10 dB).

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0 Section 2 Table of Contents

2
Radio Aids

01.00 Ground Direction Finding (DF)................................ 53

01.01 Principles........................................................................................ 53
01.02 Presentation and Interpretation................................................. 55
01.03 Coverage and Range..................................................................... 57
01.04 Errors and Accuracy...................................................................... 57

02.00 Non-Directional Radio Beacon (NDB)/Automatic

Direction Finding (ADF)............................................ 59
02.01 Principles........................................................................................ 59
02.02 Presentation and Interpretation................................................. 64
02.03 Coverage and Range..................................................................... 78
02.04 Errors and Accuracy...................................................................... 79
02.05 Factors Affecting Range and Accuracy....................................... 81

03.00 VHF Omnidirectional Radio Range (VOR):

Conventional VOR (CVOR) and
Doppler VOR (DVOR)................................................ 83
03.01 Principles........................................................................................ 83
03.02 Presentation and Interpretation................................................. 91
03.03 Intentionally Left Blank.............................................................. 104
03.04 Errors and Accuracy.................................................................... 104

04.00 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)................ 107

04.01 Principles...................................................................................... 107
04.02 Presentation and Interpretation............................................... 113
04.03 Coverage and Range................................................................... 114
04.04 Intentionally Left Blank ............................................................. 115
04.05 Factors Affecting Range and Accuracy..................................... 115

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0 Section 2 Table of Contents

2
05.00 Instrument Landing System (ILS)......................... 118
05.01 Principles...................................................................................... 118
05.02 Presentation and Interpretation............................................... 126
05.03 Coverage and Range................................................................... 131
05.04 Errors and Accuracy.................................................................... 133
05.05 Factors Affecting Range and Accuracy..................................... 137

06.00 Microwave Landing System (MLS)........................ 139

06.01 Principles...................................................................................... 139
06.02 Presentation and Interpretation............................................... 143
06.03 Coverage and Range................................................................... 146

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01.00 Ground Direction Finding (DF)

01.01 Principles
01 Describe the use of a ground DF.
02 Explain the limitation of range because of the path of the VHF signal.

VHF Ground Direction Finding - VDF

The use of the VHF ground direction finding (VDF) provides a means of determining the aircraft
bearing from a ground station, which is able to measure the direction (i.e., the bearing) of a
received radio transmission from an aircraft.

The service operates on VHF frequencies from 118 to 137 MHz, which is the frequency band of
aircraft communication radio.

Military airfields provide direction-finding service in the UHF band, so-called UDF.

The principle of operation is based on a VHF Comm ground receiver combined with a directional
antenna system. The antenna is either:

• a set of two pairs of dipoles perpendicular to each one in conjunction with a single
omnidirectional aerial, known as an Adcock aerial, or
• a set of dipoles placed in a circle, known as a phase, or a Doppler VDF antenna.
The equipment required on board the aircraft is a VHF Comm transmitter/receiver.

Due to VHF space wave propagation the available range is limited by line of sight.

Use of VDF

The pilot uses VDF to request from the ATC controller a magnetic (or true) bearing to or from
the station, and the request is transmitted only using the VHF voice communication on the
listed frequencies.

The ground station uses bearings from incoming VHF calls to survey the traffic in
uncontrolled airspace.

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Figure 2.1.1 VDF Adcock antenna Figure 2.1.2 VDF antenna

If the VHF comm transmitter on an aircraft is tuned and the transmitter is activated, the aerials
at the VDF unit will detect the incoming transmission and each aerial element will feed a signal
to the VDF ground receiver. Since the aerial elements will all be at slightly different distances
from the source of the signal, each will detect a slightly different phase of that signal at the same
instant. The value of these detected phase differences will be directly related to the direction of
the incoming signal. The phase differences are used to drive the bearing indicator on the
controller station.

Figure 2.1.3 VDF system

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Figure 2.1.4 VDF bearing indication

01.02 Presentation and Interpretation

01 Define the term ‘QDM’: the magnetic bearing to the station.
02 Define the term ‘QDR’: the magnetic bearing from the station.
03 Explain that by using more than one ground station, the position of an airplane can be
determined and transmitted to the pilot.

QDM and QDR

• The QDM is the magnetic bearing TO the station from the aircraft (i.e., the aircraft’s
magnetic heading to steer (assuming no wind) to reach the VDF station) used mainly
for station homing and/or let-downs using published procedures.
• The QDR is the magnetic bearing FROM the station to the aircraft, also called radial.
• The QUJ is the true bearing TO the station from the aircraft.
• The QTE is the true bearing FROM the station to the aircraft.

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Figure 2.1.5 QDM/QDR

Triangulation

By using more than one ground station, the position of an airplane can be determinated and transmitted
to the pilot. The pilot may request QDM/QDR or QTE bearings from three stations within range and use
the information to fix its position. If there are sufficient ground stations, linked to an ATCC, the aircraft’s
position can be fixed using auto-triangulation and the position transmitted to the pilot.

All ATC stations listen to the international distress VHF frequency 121.5 MHz. When VDF is equipped,
they fix the position of the emergency call by using triangulation.

Figure 2.1.6 VDF triangulation

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01.03 Coverage and Range

01 Use the formula: 1.23 x √transmitter height in feet + 1.23 x √receiver height in feet, to
calculate the range in NM.

Maximum Usable Range

Space waves are limited in range by the line of sight as the frequencies are too high for surface
waves and sky waves. The range is a function of the height of the transmitter and the height
of the receiver.

The range (R) from the receiver to the transmitter is calculated as follow:

R = 1.23 × (√(HTX )+√(HRX ))

R is given in in nautical miles (NM).
H is the height above mean see level (MSL) in feet.

01.04 Errors and Accuracy

01 Explain why synchronous transmissions will cause errors.
02 Describe the effect of ‘multipath signals’
03 Explain that VDF information is divided into the following classes according to ICAO Annex 10:
- Class A: accurate to a range within 2°; - Class B: accurate to a range within 5°; - Class C:
accurate to a range within 10°; - Class D: accurate to less than Class C

Multiple Transmissions

The ATC station can only deal with one radio call at the time. Therefore, if an aircraft is in communication
with the station, others need to wait till the end of the communication before they can transmit.
If two or more aircrafts transmit at the same time, the frequency is momentarily blocked. Synchronous
transmissions by two or more aircraft will cause momentary errors in bearings.

Multipath Signals

Transmissions following different paths can occur for a number of reasons, e.g., reflections, and
can arrive at a receiver simultaneously. However, the two signals will not necessarily be in phase.
In extreme cases, the two signals will be in anti-phase and will cancel each other out. Signals
going in and out of phase are indicated by alternate fading (i.e., gradually become weak) and
strengthening of the received signal.

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Figure 2.1.7 Multipaths signals

VDF Classification

In practice, only QDM and QDR are normally used. The accuracy of the bearing is measured
in degrees. Bearings (VDF information) are categorised, in accordance with the ICAO Annex 10
defined classifications, as given in the following list:

• Class A accurate within ± 2°

• Class B accurate within ± 5°
• Class C accurate within ± l0°
• Class D accuracy less than Class C
Normally, bearing maximum accuracy Class B is delivered.

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02.00 Non-Directional Radio Beacon (NDB)/Automatic

Direction Finding (ADF)
02.01 Principles
01 Define the acronym ‘NDB’: nondirectional radio beacon.
02 Define the acronym ‘ADF’: automatic direction-finding equipment.
03 State that the NDB is the ground part of the system.
04 State that the ADF is the airborne part of the system.
05 State that the NDB operates in the LF and MF frequency bands.
06 State that the frequency band assigned to aeronautical NDBs according ICAO Annex 10
is 190-1750 kHz.
07 Define a ‘locator beacon’: an LF/MF NDB used as an aid to final approach usually with
a range of 10-25 NM.
08 State that commercial radio stations transmit within the frequency band of the NDB.
09 State that according to ICAO Annex 10, an NDB station has an automatic ground
monitoring system.
10 Describe the use of NDBs for navigation.
11 Describe the procedure to identify an NDB station.
12 Interpret the term ‘cone of confusion’ in respect of an NDB.
13 State that the NDB station emits a N0N/A1A or a N0N/A2A signal.
14 State the function of the beat frequency oscillator (BFO).
15 State that in order to identify a N0N/A1A NDB, the BFO circuit of the receiver has to be activated.
16 State that on modern aircraft, the BFO is activated automatically.

NDB – ADF System

The NDB is the ground station, which transmits an omnidirectional radio signal in the LF and
MF band to provide an aid for navigation and non-precision approaches to airports.

The ADF is the equipment on board the aircraft, which automatically finds the direction of the
transmitted NDB signal.

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Figure 2.2.1 Diffraction

The NDB, Non-Directional Beacon

The NDBs transmit (assigned according ICAO annex 10) at the allocated frequencies 190 kHz
(upper LF band) – 1,750 kHz (MF band) a vertically polarised signal, which propagate as surface
waves. There are two types of NDBs:

• En-route NDBs: These have an average radius of rated coverage (i.e., a range) of
50 NM or more, up to several hundred NM.
• Locator (L or Lctr): Is a LF/MF NDB used as an aid for final approach procedures. The
locator has an average radius of rated coverage between 10 and 25 NM.
Note that part of the NDB frequency band is also used by commercial radio broadcasting stations.

NDB’s Automatic Ground Monitoring System

For each NDB, suitable means shall be provided to enable detection of any of the following
conditions at an appropriate location:

• A decrease in radiated carrier power of more than 50 percent below that required for
the rated range
• Failure to transmit the identification signal
• Malfunctioning or failure of the means of monitoring itself

Use of NDBs

En-route NDBs are used for homing, holding fix, terminal, and airway navigation. Locators are
used for runway approach procedures (i.e., let-down procedures), holding fix, missed approach
procedures, and may be used as a supplement to the ILS outer and middle marker beacons,
called locator outer marker (LO or LOM) and locator middle marker (LM or LMM).

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NDB Identification

Each NDB is individually identified by a two or three-letter international Morse code group,
transmitted at a rate corresponding to approximately 7 words per minute. For NDBs with
an average radius of rated coverage 50 NM or less, that are primarily approach and holding aids
in the vicinity of an aerodrome, the identification shall be transmitted at least three times each
30 seconds, spaced equally within that time period.

Figure 2.2.2 NDB identification

Cone of Confusion

A cone of confusion (or cone of ambiguity) extending at an angle of 40° either side of the NDB
exists overhead the NDB transmitter during which the aircraft does not receive any signals. The
diameter of the cone increases with aircraft height (h).

Figure 2.2.3 NDB cone of confusion

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NDB Types of Emission

There are two types of emission:

• Unmodulated emission N0N A1A

• Modulated emission N0N A2A
The N0N part is the transmission of an unmodulated carrier wave.

The A1A part is the emission of an interrupted unmodulated carrier wave.

Figure 2.2.4 Unmodulated NDB signal

An NDB is recognised as a N0N A1A when its published identification is underlined.

Figure 2.2.5 Unmodulated NDB identification

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The A2A part is the emission of an amplitude modulated carrier wave.

Figure 2.2.6 Modulated NDB signal

Beat Frequency Oscillator – BFO

The identification of the modulated NDB consist of modulating the carrier wave in amplitude
(A2A) with a tone of 400 or 1,020 Hz in order to give the Morse code.

The identification of the unmodulated NDB (A1A) consists of the momentary interruption of
the carrier wave in a short sequence, which forms the Morse code. But there is a problem: the
frequency of the carrier wave (usually between 200 and 500 kHz) is too high to be audible by
human ear, which has an audible range of 20 to 20,000 Hz.

To listen to the identification of a NON A1A NDB, a system called the beat frequency oscillator
(BFO), must be activated (switched ON) by the pilot to identify the NDB and remains on as long as
the beacon is used to navigate. Modern airplanes select the BFO automatically.

The BFO may be momentarily selected ON when a A2A NDB is used to listen to a tone, which
confirms a received signal.

The BFO generates a low frequency of 299 kHz, which is mixed with the NDB carrier wave (CW)
frequency (e.g., 300 kHz). This process is called a heterodyne mixing, and the results are the
sum, the CW, the 299 kHz, and finally the difference of the two signals, which is filtered out to
the audio system.

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Figure 2.2.7 Beat frequency oscillator – BFO

02.02 Presentation and Interpretation

01 Name the type of indicators commonly in use:- electronic display; - radio magnetic indicator
(RMI); - fixed-card ADF (radio compass); - moving-card ADF
02 Interpret the indications given on RMI, fixed-card and moving-card ADF displays.
03 Given a display, interpret the relevant ADF information.
04 Calculated the true bearing from the compass heading and relative bearing.
05 Convert compass bearing into magnetic bearing and true bearing.
06 Describe how to fly the following in-flight procedures according to ICAO Doc 8168
Volume 1: - homing and tracking, and explain the influence of wind; - interceptions;
- procedural turns; - holding patterns

The Automatic Direction Finder – ADF

The ADF system on board the aircraft consists of:

• An antenna system
• A receiver
• Indicators

The antenna system includes a combination of a directional loop antenna and an omnidirectional
sense antenna. Both antennas capture the vertically polarised signal transmitted by an NDB.
The magnetic component of the electromagnetic wave induces currents in the loop and in the
sense antennas, and the resultant output is treated by the receiver to define the direction and
sense from where the signal is coming from.

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Figure 2.2.8 ADF loop and sense antennas

The receiver is controlled by the ADF control panel, which is used to tune the NDB frequency.
The control panel has a mode selector with usually three modes: OFF, ADF and ANT, and
the BFO control.
ADF must be selected for navigation and NDB identification.
ANT (for antenna) selection allows to listen to the NDB identification tone or vocal broadcast.
The tuned receiver amplifies the signal from the antennas and transmits the direction and sense
information to the indicators.

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Figure 2.2.9 ADF control panel

Type of Indicators

The ADF information may be presented on analogue instruments:

• Fixed card relative bearing indicator (RBI)

• Moving-card RBI
• Radio magnetic indicator (RMI)

Figure 2.2.10 ADF indicators

The ADF information may be presented on digital instruments:

• Navigation display (ND)

• Electronic horizontal situation indicator (EHSI)
022.13.03.03 The ADF information may be displayed in MAP, FULL, and EXPANDED modes.

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Figure 2.2.11 NDB on EFIS

Indicator’s Information

In ADF indication, the needle always points to the beacon, and it shows the relative direction to
the NDB seen from the aircraft. This direction is called the relative bearing (RB) and is measured
in degrees (0° to 360° positive values) from the aircraft’s nose clockwise to the station’s bearing
(needle’s pointer).

Figure 2.2.12 Fixed card RBI

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On a moving-card indicator, the magnetic heading of the aircraft is set by rotating the HDG knob
to the value of the direct reading compass compensated for any deviation. The readings are
the relative bearing (RB) and the QDM (pointer)/QDR (tail), if the heading is set correctly.

Figure 2.2.13 Moving card RBI

The radio magnetic indicator (RMI) is continuously synchronised with the aircraft magnetic
heading source (i.e., compass system, INS, or IRS). Two needles are usually displayed to show
the ADF 1 and ADF 2 navigational information

• Relative bearings 1 and 2

• Magnetic bearing to stations 1 and 2, i.e., QDM 1 and 2
• Magnetic bearing from stations 1 and 2, i.e., QDR 1 and 2
Note that if the heading source is lost or erratic, the only correct information is the relative
bearing and the QDM/QDR are unreliable.

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Figure 2.2.14 RMI

Figure 2.2.15 QDM – QDR

Note:
The QDR is the reciprocal (i.e., 180°) of the QDM only if Earth’s magnetic variation is the same at
both aircraft and station locations.

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Figure 2.2.16 QDR and convergency

Bearing Calculations

The relation between QDM, magnetic HDG, and RB is as follows:

QDM = HDG + RB
or
RB = QDM - HDG

Example
The aircraft magnetic heading is 330° and ADF 1 needle indicates a QDM of 090°. The relative
bearing RB is:
090 – 330 = -240° (+360) = 120°, as RB is given as a positive value.

The aircraft magnetic heading is 330° and ADF 2 needle indicates a QDM of 030°. The relative
bearing RB is:
030 – 330 = -300° (+360) = 060°

True, Magnetic, and Compass Headings

Recall from the subject 022 AGK Instrumentation the following about the application of variation
and deviation corrections:

• To define the true heading (TN) out of the magnetic heading (MN), the variation must
be applied.
022.03.01.01 • To define the magnetic heading (MN) out of the compass heading (CN), the deviation
022.03.02.01
must be applied.

TN = MN ± VAR

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Apply the following rule:

• If variation is West (-), magnetic is best.

• If variation is East (+), magnetic is least.

MN = CN ± DEV

Apply the following rule:

• If deviation is West (-), compass is best.

• If deviation is East (+), compass is least.

Example
Consider no wind, i.e., heading equals the bearing.
To fly a true bearing of 127° and the local variation is 17° East, the magnetic heading is:
MN = TN – VAR (East) = 127 – 17 = 110°
To fly the magnetic heading using the direct reading compass, the compass heading with a
deviation 9° West is:
CN = MN + DEV (West) = 110 + 9 = 119°

Plotting ADF Bearings

To plot a bearing on a navigation map, the magnetic bearings determined by the ADF receiver
must be converted into true bearings. As the bearing is measured at the aircraft, the variation to
convert to a true bearing must be applied at the aircraft location.

Figure 2.2.17 Variation at aircraft location

Variation at the aircraft is 8°W, the QTE = 060 – 8 = 052° (variation West, magnetic is best)

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In-Flight ADF Procedures

An aircraft is required to maintain track(s) (TRK) when:

• Flying airway centre line between NDBs

• Holding over an NDB or locator
• Carrying out a let-down procedure at an airfield based solely upon
NDB(s)/locator(s) or NDB(s)/locators combined with other navaids
• Requested by ATC to intercept and maintain a track or airway centre line
• Carrying out interceptions
In no-wind conditions, the heading to fly is equal to the required track. In windy conditions,
the aircraft drifts left/right off track, and the heading is corrected to compensate for the drift
(nose into the wind).

The following items are in accordance with ICAO Doc 8168 Volume 1 - Part 1 – Section 4.

Homing

To home to an NDB, fly direct to the beacon maintaining the relative bearing (RB) 360° even in
case of crosswind, which results in following a curved track.

Figure 2.2.18 Homing to an NDB

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Tracking

To achieve a required 330° track inbound to an NDB (QDM = 330°), with a crosswind, the correct
method is to allow for the anticipated drift, therefore maintaining a constant track. If the drift
is 25°, port drift is anticipated, so 25° is added to the track. The aircraft is heading 355° with a
relative bearing of 335°.

Figure 2.2.19 Tracking an NDB

Interception

An interception procedure is to be applied when the angle of difference (AOD) between the
actual QDR (radial) and the required QDR is significant (10 degrees or more).

Intercepting a new track requires three steps:

• Determine the actual QDR.

• Identify the required QDR to or from the station.
• Decide on ‘attack’ (i.e., the heading to steer from your present position to
the required track).

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The following questions should be considered:

• Is it an inbound or an outbound interception?

• What is the influence of the wind?
• How far is the NDB?
• What is the speed?

Figure 2.2.20 Interception of an NDB bearing

Procedural Turns

• Turns specified in the following procedures are all rate one turns, 3°/s or 180°/min.
• The inbound and outbound tracks to/from an NDB must be followed with an accuracy
within 5° of the required bearing.
• Wind corrections must be applied on inbound/outbound tracks, timing, and bank angle

Reversal Procedures

The procedure turn is a manoeuvre in which a turn is made away from the designated track,
followed by a turn in the opposite direction, to allow the aircraft to intercept and proceed
inbound to the designated track. Procedure turns are designated left or right according to the
direction of the initial turn.

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The 45°/180° procedure turn starts at a facility or fix and consists of:

• A straight leg with track guidance; the leg may be timed or may be limited by a radial
or DME distance
• A 45° turn
• A straight leg without track guidance, which is timed 1 minute (for category A and B or
1 minute and 15 seconds (category C, D, and E)
• A 180° turn in the opposite direction to intercept the inbound track
Using the same principle, a 80°/260° procedure turn may be published.

Figure 2.2.21 Procedure turns

The base turn consists of a specified outbound track and timing from a facility, followed by a
turn to intercept the inbound track. The outbound track and/or the timing may be different for
the various categories of aircraft.

Figure 2.2.22 Base turns

Holding Pattern or Racetrack

When density of traffic or bad weather delay an aircraft’s landing at an airport, the air traffic
controller directs it to a holding area.

Racetrack procedures are used where sufficient distance is not available in a straight segment
to accommodate the required loss of altitude and when entry into a reversal procedure is
not practical. They may also be specified as alternatives to reversal procedures to increase
operational flexibility.

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A racetrack procedure consists of:

• a turn from the inbound track through 180° from overhead the facility or fix on to
the outbound track, for 1, 2, or 3 minutes, followed by
• a 180° turn in the same direction to return to the inbound track.
As an alternative to timing, the outbound leg may be limited by a DME distance or intersecting
radial/bearing.

Figure 2.2.23 Racetrack procedure holding patterns

Figure 2.2.24 Standard holding patterns

Figure 2.2.25 Non-standard holding patterns

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Figure 2.2.26 Example of NDB approach

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02.03 Coverage and Range

01 State that the power of the transmitter limits the range of an NDB.
02 Explain the relationship between power and range.
03 Describe the propagation path of NDB radio waves with respect to the ionosphere and the
Earth surface.
04 Explain that the interference between sky waves and ground waves leads to ‘fading’.
05 Define that the accuracy the pilot has to fly the required bearing in order to be considered
established during approach, according to ICAO Doc 8168, has to be within 5°.
06 State that there is no warning indication of NDB failure.

Transmitter Power vs Range

The range is proportional to the square root of the transmitter power output, i.e., to double the
range, the power output of the transmitter must be increased by a factor of 4. As absorption is
less over sea than over land, the NDB range is greater over sea (3 × √P) than over land (2 x √P).
At the lower end of the NDB’s frequencies, the attenuation is less than the higher frequencies,
and the diffraction effect is greater at lower frequencies. Therefore, the lower the frequency, the
longer the available range.

NDB Propagation Paths

The main propagation path of the NDB is by ground waves, and space waves when a receiver is
in line of sight of the transmitter. During the day the NDB signal is absorbed by the ionospheric
D-layer, but at night, and especially at dawn and dusk, the signal is reflected by the ionospheric
E-layer back to the ground. The reflected waves may interfere with the ground waves, which may
lead to fading.

Accuracy and Coverage

The accuracy of ADF is +/-5° within the NDB designated operational coverage (DOC), by day
only. The DOC of an NDB is the maximum range where the required accuracy is guaranteed
(except any aircraft’s compass errors), which is published in the state aeronautical information
publication (AIP).

To use an NDB in a navigation/approach procedure, the ADF receiver must be tuned

to the correct frequency and be identified. Listening to the audio identification must be
continuous, as long as the NDB is used for the ongoing navigation, because the ADF system
does not generate a warning indication (e.g., an off flag) for NDB failure.

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Figure 2.2.27 NDB/Locator DOC table

02.04 Errors and Accuracy

01 Explain ‘coastal refraction’: as a radio wave travelling over land crosses the coast, the wave
speeds up over water and the wave front bends
02 Define ‘night/twilight effect’: the influence of sky waves and ground waves arriving at the
ADF receiver with a difference in phase and polarisation which introduce bearing errors.
03 State that interference from other NDB stations on the same frequency may occur at night
due to sky-wave contamination.

Coastal Refraction

Radio waves speed up over water due to the reduced absorption of energy (attenuation)
compared to that which occurs over land. This speeding up causes the wave front to bend
(refract) away from its normal path and pull it towards the coast. Refraction is negligible at 90° to
the coast but increases as the angle of incidence increases.

Figure 2.2.28 Coastal refraction

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For an aircraft flying over the sea the error puts the aircraft position closer to the coast than its
actual position.

The effect can be minimised by:

• Using NDBs on or near to the coast

• Flying higher
• Using signals that cross the coast at or near to 90°

Figure 2.2.29 Coastal refraction

Figure 2.2.30 Coastal refraction

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Night / Twilight Effect

By day, the D-region absorbs signals in the LF and MF bands. At night, the D-region disappears,
allowing sky wave contamination of the surface wave being used. This arises for two reasons:
phase interference of the sky wave with the surface wave because of the different paths and
the induction of currents in the horizontal elements of the loop aerial. The effect first becomes
significant at 70 - 100 NM from the NDB. The effect is manifested by fading of the audio signal and
the needle ‘hunting’ and is worst around dawn and dusk, when the ionosphere is in transition,
which introduce bearing errors.

Other stations transmitting on the same frequency may interfere the signal of the in-use NDB

Figure 2.2.31 Night effect

due to sky wave contamination.

02.05 Factors Affecting Range and Accuracy

01 Describe diffraction of radio waves in mountainous terrain (mountain effect).
02 State that static radiation energy from a cumulonimbus cloud may interfere with the radio
wave and influence the ADF bearing indication.
03 Explain that the bank angle of the aircraft causes a dip error.

Mountain Effect

Mountainous areas can cause reflections and diffraction of the transmitted radio waves to
produce errors in ADF systems. These errors will increase at low altitude and can be minimised
by flying higher.

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Figure 2.2.32 Mountain effect

Static Interferences

There are two types of static interferences that can affect the performance of ADF: precipitation
static and thunderstorms.

• Precipitation static: Is generated by the collision of water droplets and ice crystals
with the aircraft. It causes a reduction in the signal/noise ratio, which affects
the accuracy of the bearings and can, in extreme circumstances, completely mask
the incoming signal. The indications on the RMI/RBI will be a wandering needle, and
the audio will have a background hiss.
• Thunderstorms: Have very powerful discharges of static electricity across
the electromagnetic spectrum, including LF and MF. These discharges cause bearing
errors in the ADF. A static discharge in a cumulonimbus cloud (CB) will be heard as
a loud crackle on the audio, and the needle will move rapidly to point to the CB.
When there are several active cells close together, it is possible for the needle
to point to them for prolonged periods. Care must be taken in the use of ADF when
thunderstorm activity is forecast. It has been said that during a thunderstorm,
the only sensible use of the ADF is to indicate where the active cells are.

Dip Error

A loop aerial is designed to use vertically polarised waves for direction finding. If the incoming
wave has significant horizontal component of polarisation, it may momentarily downgrade
the ADF accuracy leading to bearing errors during a turn with significant angle of bank, which is
referred to as a dip error.

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03.00 VHF Omnidirectional Radio Range (VOR):

Conventional VOR (CVOR) and Doppler VOR (DVOR)
03.01 Principles
01 Explain the working principle of VOR using the following general terms: - reference phase;
- variable phase; - phase difference
02 State that the frequency band allocated to VOR according to ICAO Annex 10 is VHF, and the
frequencies used are 108.0 – 117.975 MHz.
03 State that the frequencies within the allocated VOR range 108.0 – 111.975 MHz, which have
an odd number in the first decimal place, are used by instrument landing system (ILS).
04 State that the following types of VOR are in operation: - conventional VOR (CVOR):
a first-generation VOR station emitting signals by means of a rotating antenna. - Doppler VOR
(DVOR): a second generation VOR station emitting signals by means of a combination of fixed
antennas utilising the Doppler effect.; - en-route VOR for use by IFR traffic; - terminal VOR
(TVOR): a station with a shorter range used as part of the approach and departure structure
at major aerodromes. - test VOR (VOT): a VOR station emitting a signal to test VOR indicators
in an aircraft.
05 State that automatic terminal information service (ATIS) information is transmitted
on VOR frequencies.
06 List the three main components of VOR airborne equipment: -the antenna; - the receiver;
- the indicator
07 Describe the identification of a VOR in terms of Morse code letters and additional plain test.
08 State that according to ICAO Annex 10, a VOR station has an automatic ground
monitoring system.
09 State that failure of the VOR station to stay within the required limits cause the removal
of identification and navigational components from the carrier or radiation to cease.

Introduction

The VHF omni-directional range (VOR) produces bearing information usually aligned with
magnetic north at the VOR location. It is practically free from static interference and is not
affected by sky waves, which enables it to be used day and night. VOR has the following uses:

• Marking the beginning, the end, and centre line of airways or sections of airways
• As a let-down aid at airfields using published procedures
• As a holding point for aircraft
• As a source of en-route navigational position lines
There are two VOR stations in use:

• Conventional VOR (CVOR)

• Doppler VOR (DVOR)

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The Working Principle – CVOR

VOR bearing is obtained by phase comparison.

Figure 2.3.1 Working principle

An aircraft’s VOR receiver measures the phase difference (angular difference) between two
signals from the VOR transmitter.

• A reference signal of 30 Hz frequency modulated omnidirectional, which produces

constant phase regardless of a receiver’s bearing from the VOR.
• A variable phase signal (directional) of 30 Hz amplitude modulated created by
a rotating transmission pattern.
The 30 Hz FM reference signal is synchronised with the 30 revolutions per second rotating
directional AM signal such that:

• The two 30 Hz modulations are in phase to an aircraft’s VOR receiver when it is due
magnetic north of the VOR beacon.
• The phase difference measured at any other point will equate to the aircraft’s
magnetic bearing from the VOR.

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Figure 2.3.2 Phase Comparison

The two 30 Hz signals are modulated differently (AM/FM) to prevent interaction and merging
at the aircraft’s receiver. The rotating resultant polar diagram, which provides the directional
information, is created by combining the polar diagrams of the rotating loop and reference
signal. In early VORs, the loop rotation was mechanical, but modern VORs use electronic circuitry.

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Figure 2.3.4 CVOR principle

The Working Principle – DVOR

Doppler VORs are second generation VORs. Although their transmission frequencies are the
same, the transmitted bearing accuracy is improved as the transmissions are less sensitive to
site error. Aircraft receivers are compatible with both CVOR and DVOR, which have different
transmission processes:

• The reference signal is AM.

• The variable phase directional signal is FM.

Figure 2.3.5 DVOR principle

The variable signal is generated by (usually) 48 transmitter antennas placed in a circle, which
commutate at a rate of 30 revolutions per second (i.e., 30 Hz). The successive transmissions are
sensed by a VOR receiver as a wave modulated in frequency.

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Figure 2.3.6 DVOR station

VOR Transmission Frequencies

VOR beacons operate, according to ICAO Annex 10, within the VHF band between 108.0 and
117.975 MHz as follows:

• 40 channels between 108 -112 MHz, which are shared with the instrument landing
system (ILS), but only those with even decimals and even decimals plus 0.05 MHz are
VOR frequencies:
• 108.0, 108.05, 108.20, 108.25, 108.40, 108.45, ..., 111.975 MHz. These channels are
normally used by short range VORs and terminal VORs (TVOR).
and

• 120 channels, 112 - 117.95 MHz

All the channels are separated by 50 kHz.

Types of VOR in Operation

CVOR and DVOR

Terminal VOR (TVOR) station transmits at low power with shorter range, is used at major airfields
for departure and approach procedures.

Test VOR (VOT) is found at certain airfields and broadcasts a fixed omnidirectional signal for
a 360° test radial. It is used to test the accuracy of an aircraft’s indicators before IFR flight.
The radial indicated should be within 4° from radial 360° (i.e. 356° - 004°).

VOR True: VORs are calibrated to be orientated Magnetic North, but some stations located at
high latitudes, with large magnetic variation changes, are orientated True North. For example:
Resolute Bay (YRB) VOR nearby Resolute Bay airport (CYRB) (N74°43’1 – W94°55’10) located
within the Canadian’s Northern domestic airspace (NDA).

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Figure 2.3.7 Northern and southern domestic airspace

C/DVOR, TVOT may transmit an automatic terminal information service (ATIS) on the carrier wave
in amplitude modulation.

VOR Aircraft Equipment

The equipment consists of:

• Antenna(s)
• Receiver(s)
• Indicators
On large aircrafts (CS-25), two VOR sets, VOR 1 and VOR 2, are installed for fail-safe operations.
Each set includes an antenna and a receiver.

Aircraft VOR antennas are placed horizontally to match the VOR station polarisation.

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The VOR receiver discriminates the 30 Hz variable and reference signals, which are compared to
define the bearing from the tuned VOR station. The bearing information is sent to the OBI, RMI,
and HSI indicators, and is available for the flight management and guidance system (FMGS) and
electronic flight information system (EFIS).

The receiver demodulates from the carrier wave the VOR identification Morse code, and when
applicable, the ATIS.

Figure 2.3.8 VOR receiver

VOR Identification

The VOR provides for the simultaneous transmission of a signal of identification on the
radio frequency carrier. The identification consists of two or three letters transmitted in the
international Morse code at a rate of approximately seven words per minute. One of these
identification signals may take the form of a voice identification.

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If a VOR is transmitting the identification TST, it indicates that the VOR is on test and the bearing
information should not be used. (TST)

Figure 2.3.9 VOR identification

On aeronautical charts, VORs are identified by the following common symbols.

Figure 2.3.10 VOR symbols

VOR Automatic Ground Monitoring System

VOR beacons are monitored by an automatic site monitor located in the radiation field.
The monitor warns the control point and remove either the identification and the navigational
signals or switch off the beacon in the event of the following:

• Bearing information change exceeding 1°

• A reduction of 15% in the modulation components, of either the 30 Hz modulation, or
the subcarrier frequency (9,960 Hz), or both
• A failure of the monitor itself
When the main transmitter is switched off, a standby transmitter is brought online and takes time
to stabilise. During this period the bearing information can be incorrect, and no identification is
transmitted until the changeover is completed.

Hence, do not use the facility when no identification is heard. It is vital to monitor a terminal VOR
let down into an airfield.

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Cone of Confusion

A cone of confusion (or cone of ambiguity) extending at an angle of 50° either side of the VOR
exists overhead the VOR transmitter during which the aircraft does not receive any signals.
The diameter of the cone increases with aircraft height (h).

Figure 2.3.11 VOR cone of confusion

03.02 Presentation and Interpretation

01 Read off the radial on an RMI.
02 Read off the angular displacement in relation to a preselected radial on a horizontal
situation indicator (HSI) or omnibearing indicator (OBI).
03 Explain the use of the TO/FROM indicator in order to determine aircraft position relative
to the VOR considering also the heading of the aircraft.
04 Interpret VOR information as displayed on HIS, CDI and RMI.
05 Describe the following in-flight VOR procedures according to ICAO Doc 8168 Volume 1:
- tracking, and explain the influence of wind when tracking; - interceptions; - procedural
turns; - holding patterns
06 State that when converting a radial into a true bearing the variation at the VOR station has
to be taken into account.

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The Radio Magnetic Indicator – RMI

The RMI is continuously synchronised with the aircraft magnetic heading source. Two needles
are usually displayed to show the VOR 1 and VOR 2 navigational information:

• Relative bearings 1 and 2

• Magnetic bearing to stations 1 and 2, i.e., QDM 1and 2
• Magnetic bearing from stations 1 and 2, i.e., radial (QDR)1and 2
Usually the RMI is used to display VOR and ADF bearings, two selectors are used to select VOR 1
or ADF 1 and VOR 2 or ADF 2.

Note that if the heading source is lost or erratic the only correct information is the radial/QDM
bearing, and the relative bearing is unreliable.

Figure 2.3.12 Radio magnetic indicator (RMI)

The Omnibearing Indicator – OBI

This instrument displays VOR information and is widely used in light aircraft. The instrument
indicates the displacement of the aircraft with respect to a bearing (to or from the VOR station)
which has been selected on the omnibearing selector (OBS).

The indicator is typical with the azimuth deviation scale having a circle and four dots on each
side of the centre. As the circle itself counts as the first dot this is a five-dot display with each dot
indicating approximately a 2° displacement from the selected VOR bearing. Full scale deflection
therefore represents 10°, or more.

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This displacement (or deviation) is presented by a course deviation indicator bar (CDI) on
the indicator. The displacement of the bar depends on the angular position of the aircraft
relative to the selected bearing and is independent of the aircraft heading. In other words, for
a given position and bearing selection, the heading of the aircraft does not affect the display on
a deviation indicator.

Figure 2.3.13 Omnibearing indicator (OBI)

Figure 2.3.14 OBI independent of heading

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OBI, VOR Displayed Information

A centred CDI indicates that the aircraft is on the selected radial from or to the VOR. If the aircraft
is not on the selected radial, the indications are:

• Aircraft left of the selected radial, CDI indicates a fly right.

• Aircraft right of the selected radial, CDI indicates a fly left.
In addition to the Left/Right display, the OBI shows a TO or a FROM flag depending on whether:

• The aircraft’s QDM is within about 80° of the bearing selected, in which case
TO flag appears.
• The aircraft’s QDR is within about 80° of the bearing selected, in which case
FROM flag appears.
This leaves two sectors about 20° wide in which an indeterminate TO/FROM indication is obtained.

If the VOR transmissions are faulty or the aircraft is out of range or the airborne power supply is
inadequate, an OFF flag appears.

Figure 2.3.15 OBI CDI and TO/FROM indications

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Figure 2.3.16 OBI CDI and TO/FROM indications 2

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Figure 2.3.17 VOR failure

Note on Radial Selection

To keep the deviation bar sense correct when flying a track TO or FROM a VOR station,
the aircraft’s heading should be about the same as the track selected on the omnibearing selector
(plus or minus any drift allowance).

As the equipment normally includes an automatic TO/FROM flag, the rule to be followed to keep
the deviation bar sense correct is:

• When inbound to a VOR, select the inbound track on the OBS, so that a ‘TO’ indication
is in view.
• When outbound from a VOR, select the outbound track on the OBS so that a ‘FROM’
indication is in view.

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Figure 2.3.18 OBI – Radial inbound or outbound

The Horizontal Situation Indicator – HSI

Figure 2.3.19 Horizontal situation indicator (HSI)

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The HSI is continuously synchronised with the aircraft magnetic heading source. The arrowhead
shows the required course, set by the pilot.

The TO/FROM indicator will be decided by the instrument.

• If the actual radial, which the aircraft is on, is within 90° of the course set, then FROM
will be shown.
• If the actual radial is more than 90° from the course set, then TO will be shown.
The course deviation indicator (CDI) shows the angular difference between the required course
and the actual VOR Radial the aircraft is on.

• 1 Dot = 5°, full scale deflection = 10°

An HSI may be either a 2 dot or 5 dot display.

Full scale deflection will always be 10° (i.e. 2 dot display: 1 dot = 5°, 5 dot display: 1 dot = 2°).

Aircraft heading is taken into consideration in displaying a fly left or fly right indication. However,
as the instrument includes heading, it is able to determine the best direction to turn to achieve
the required radial.

Figure 2.3.20 OBI – Radial inbound or outbound

Plotting VOR Bearings

To plot a bearing on a navigation map, the magnetic bearings determined by the VOR receiver
must be converted into true bearings. As the bearing is created at the VOR station, the variation
to convert to a true bearing must be applied at the VOR location.

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In-Flight VOR Procedures

An aircraft is required to maintain track(s) (TRK) when:

• Flying airway centre line between VORs

• Holding over an VOR
• Carrying out a let-down procedure at an airfield based solely upon VOR navaid
• Requested by ATC to intercept and maintain a track or airway centre line
• Carrying out interceptions
In no wind conditions, the heading to fly is equal to the required track. In windy conditions, the aircraft
drifts left/right off track and the heading is corrected to compensate the drift (nose into the wind).

To fly those procedures the same technics described in the ADF chapter (062.02.02.06) are used
for VOR tracking, interceptions, and procedural turns, with the added value of using OBI or HSI
062.02.02.06 instruments and RMI.

VOR Radial Tracking

To track the required 330° radial inbound to a VOR (QDM = 330°), with a crosswind, the correct
method is to fly a heading, including the wind correction, to maintain the HSI course deviation
indicator (CDI) centred.

Figure 2.3.21 VOR radial tracking

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VOR Radial Interception

An interception procedure is to be applied when the angle of difference (AOD) between

the actual QDR (radial) and the required QDR is significant (10 degrees or more).

Intercepting a new track requires three steps:

• Determine the actual QDR.

• Identify the required QDR to or from the station.
• Decide on ‘attack’ (i.e. the heading to steer from your present position to
the required track).
The following questions should be considered:

• Is it an inbound or an outbound interception?

• If using an OBI, which radial must be set?
• What is the influence of the wind?
• How far is the VOR?
• What is the speed?

Figure 2.3.22 VOR radial tracking outbound

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Figure 2.3.23 VOR radial tracking inbound

Procedural Turns

• Turns specified in the following procedures are all rate one turns, 3°/s or 180°/min.
• The inbound and outbound tracks to/from an NDB must be followed with an accuracy
within 5° of the required bearing.
• Wind corrections must be applied on inbound/outbound tracks, timing, and bank angle

Figure 2.3.24 Procedural turns

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Holding Pattern or Racetrack

A racetrack procedure consists of:

• A turn from the inbound track through 180° from overhead the facility or fix on to
the outbound track, for 1, 2, or 3 minutes, followed by
• A 180° turn in the same direction to return to the inbound track
As an alternative to timing, the outbound leg may be limited by a DME distance or published
intersecting radial.

Figure 2.3.25 Racetrack on VOR fix

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Example of a VOR Based Procedure

Figure 2.3.26 Jeppesen map ANT VOR 29

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03.03 Intentionally Left Blank

03.04 Errors and Accuracy
01 Define that the accuracy the pilot has to fly the required bearing in order to be considered
established on a VOR track when flying approach procedures, according to ICAO Doc 8168,
has to be within the half-full scale deflection of the required track.
02 State that due to reflections from terrain, radials can be bent and lead to wrong
or fluctuating indications, which is called ‘scalloping’.

VOR Errors

Site errors and propagation errors are caused by the fact that, having left the VOR site with ±1°
accuracy, the transmissions are further affected by terrain and distance. At considerable range
from the VOR, bends or scalloping can occur. VOR scalloping is defined as an imperfection or
deviation in the received VOR signal. It causes the signal to bend as a result of reflections from
buildings or terrain, and it causes the CDI to slowly or rapidly shift from side to side.

Figure 2.3.27 VOR site and propagation errors

Airborne equipment errors are caused by aircraft equipment assessing and converting the phase
differences to 1° of bearing; maximum aircraft equipment error should be ± 4°.

VOR Accuracy

The above errors are aggregated to give a total error of ± 5°.

The pilot has to fly the required radial within one half-full scale deviation to be established
on the VOR track.

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Designated operational coverage (DOC)

The DOC, specified as a range and altitude, e.g. a DOC of 50/25 published in AIPs means that an
aircraft should not experience co-frequency interference within 50 NM of a VOR beacon, up to a
height of 25,000 ft. The DOC may also vary by sectors, and it is valid day and night. Use of a VOR
outside its DOC can lead to navigation errors.

Figure 2.3.28 VOR co-frequency interferences

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Figure 2.3.29 VOR DOC Table

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04.00 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

04.01 Principles
01 State that DME operates in the UHF band.
02 State that the system comprises two basic components: - the aircraft component:
the interrogator. - the ground component: the transponder.
03 Describe the principle of distance measurement using DME in terms of transmission from
the interrogator and reply from the transponder on different frequencies.
04 Explain that the distance measured by DME is slant range.
05 Illustrate that a position line using DME is a circle with the station at its centre.
06 State that the pairing of VHF an UHF frequencies (VOR/DME) enables the selection of two
items of navigation information from one frequency setting.
07 Describe, in the case of co-location with VOR and ILS, the frequency pairing and
identification procedure.
08 State that military UHF tactical air navigation (TACAN) stations may be used for DME information.

Introduction

At localities where for operational reasons, or because of air traffic control reasons such as air
traffic density or proximity of route, there is a need for more precise navigation service than that
provided by VOR, distance measurement equipment (DME) shall be installed and maintained in
operation as a complement to VOR.

Distance measuring equipment (DME) is a secondary radar system that enables an aircraft to
establish its range from a ground station. A pilot obtains accurate magnetic bearings from a VOR
beacon and accurate slant ranges from a DME.

Figure 2.4.1 DME Slant range

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Secondary Radar System

The secondary radar system is a two-way data communication system, which consists of two
main components:

• An interrogator, which transmits interrogation pulses and receives replies from

the transponder.
• A transponder, which receives the interrogation pulses and replies to the interrogator
with data information pulses.
The DME includes:

• The interrogator transmitter/receiver installed in the aircraft

• The transponder transmitter/receiver installed in the ground station

Figure 2.4.2 DME operation

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DME System

Figure 2.4.3 DME system

Principle of Operation

The DME system operates at frequencies between 960 and 1215 MHz in the UHF band at 1 MHz
spacing and vertically polarised. This provides 252 channels numbered 1X to 126X and 1X to
126Y. The DME frequency is paired with VOR frequency. Therefore, a VOR frequency must be
tuned to use the DME functions.

DME is also frequency paired with the ILS localiser frequencies and is obtained by selecting
the ILS frequency. The transponder is adjusted to indicate zero range at touchdown.

The signal structure consists of transmitting pair of pulses at random intervals specified by
the interrogator. The transponder replies the same signal, after a time delay of about
50 microseconds (for calibration purposes), but with a difference of +/- 63 MHz between the
interrogator and transponder transmission frequencies.

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Figure 2.4.4 DME frequencies

Figure 2.4.5 DME signal structure

The interrogator calculates the slant range from the DME station by defining the time difference
between the interrogator transmission and the received reply from the transponder, multiplied
by the speed of wave propagation.

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DME and TACAN

A channel number is selected by the pilot of a tactical air navigation (TACAN) equipped military
aircraft, and this equipment provides the pilot with range and bearing. Civil aircraft have the
VOR/DME equipment and select the appropriate paired VHF frequency to obtain range from
either a DME station or military TACAN distance measurement facility, which is compatible with
civil DME interrogators. A TACAN co-located with a VOR station is called VORTAC.

Figure 2.4.6 DME and ACAN

DME Fix

A pilot obtains accurate magnetic bearings from a VOR beacon and accurate slant ranges from
a DME. The two facilities are normally co-located to form the standard ICAO approved rho-theta
short range, line of sight navigation aid (rho = range, theta = bearing).

Figure 2.4.7 VOR/DME fix

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Accurate slant ranges from two DME can be used to obtain a fix at the crossing of two DME arcs.
This forms the standard ICAO approved rho-rho short range, line of sight navigation aid.

Figure 2.4.8 DME/DME fix

Uses of DME

• Provides very accurate slant range, a circular position line and, in conjunction with
another DME or a co-located VOR, two position line fixes.
• Integrates the change of slant range into ground speed and elapsed times when the
aircraft is fitted with an appropriate computer.
• Permits more accurate flying of holding patterns and DME arcs.
• Provides range and height checks when flying non-precision approach procedures,
e.g., locator only and VOR let-downs.
• Indicates accurate ranges to the runway threshold, and heights for range, when flying
an ILS/DME procedure.
• Facilitates radar identification when the pilot reports his VOR/DME position.
• Facilitates the separation and control of aircraft in non-radar airspace, based upon a
VOR/DME fix reported by individual aircraft.
• Is the basis for a simple area navigation (RNAV) system when the appropriate
computerisation is fitted.
• Provides accurate range inputs into the more complex and accurate RNAV systems,
and twin self-selecting DME/DME are used.

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04.02 Presentation and Interpretation

01 State that when identifying a DME station co-located with a VOR station, the identification
signal with the higher tone frequency is the DME which identifies itself approximately
every 40 seconds
02 Calculate ground distance from a given slant range and altitude.
03 Describe the use of DME to fly a DME arc in accordance with ICAO Doc 8168 Volume 1.
04 State that a DME system may have a ground speed (GS) and time to station read-out
combined with the DME read-out.

DME Identification

When the DME is independent, the identification is transmitted in the form of dots and dashes of
identity pulses at least once every 40 seconds, at a rate of at least six words per minute.

When the DME is associated with VHF navigation facility, the identification is transmitted in
the form of International Morse code and synchronised with the VOR or ILS Localiser facility
identification code. Each 40-second period is divided into four or more equal periods, with the
transponder identification transmitted during one period only. During the ident period, the
random pulses are replaced by regularly spaced pulses keyed with the station identification
letters. This means that range information is not available during the ident period. However,
the aircraft equipment has a 10 second DME memory circuit to continue displaying the range
obtained. The DME identification is distinguished from the VOR identification by having a different
tone: VOR at 1,020Hz and DME at 1,350Hz.

Figure 2.4.9 DME identification table

Ground Distance Calculation

The difference between computed slant range and actual ground distance, or plan range,
increases the higher and closer an aircraft gets in relation to the DME. As a general rule, the
difference becomes significant when the aircraft is at a range which is less than three times the
height. When the aircraft is directly over the DME, it indicates the aircraft’s height in nautical
miles, but the ground distance is zero. A small cone of confusion over a DME exists, but range
indications continue to be computed as the equipment has a 10 second memory circuit.

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Figure 2.4.10 Ground distance calculation

Given by Pythagoras’s right-angled triangle theorem, the relation between the height in NM (H)
the slant range (DME) and the ground distance (GD) is as follow:

GD = √(DME2 - H2)

Example
An aircraft cruises at flight level 370 with a DME read-out of 25 NM. What is the ground distance
to the station?
GD = √(DME2 – H2)
37,000 ft ≈ 7 NM (36,960 ft)
252 - 72 = 625 – 49 = 576
So, GD = √ 576 = 24 NM

04.03 Coverage and Range

01 Explain why a ground station can generally respond to a maximum of 100 aircrafts.
02 Explain which aircraft will be denied a DME range first when more than 100 interrogations
are being made.

DME Beacon Saturation

The reply capability of a DME transponder is a continuous operation at a transmission rate of

2,700 pulse pairs per second (ppps). When the transponder is receiving 2,700 ppps, it becomes
saturated, and it then reduces its receiver gain. The effect of this is to exclude the transmissions
from aircraft whose interrogation pulses are weaker.

This equates to about 100 aircraft using the DME at the same time.

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DME coverage and accuracy

At distances from zero to 200 NM from the transponder, the total system error should not be greater
than plus or minus 0.25 NM plus 1.25 percent of distance measured and shall not exceed plus or
minus 0.2 NM.
When associated with a VOR, DME coverage is at least that of the VOR coverage (i.e., VOR’s DOC).
When associated with an ILS, DME coverage is at least that of the ILS azimuth angle coverage sectors.

04.04 Intentionally Left Blank

04.05 Factors Affecting Range and Accuracy
01 Explain why the GS read-out from a DME can be less than the actual GS and is zero when
flying a DME arc.

Ground Speed Calculation

A navigation computer calculates the ground speed (GS) from the rate of change of slant range.
The GS is accurate when the aircraft is flying far away to or from the DME station. The accuracy
reduces as the aircraft approaches the DME due to the slant range error, with a GS almost zero
when passing over the station. A ground speed is only valid when an aircraft is homing to, or
flying directly away from, a VOR/ DME - TACAN.

Figure 2.4.11 Ground speed calculation

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Flying a DME Arc

The DME arc is generally used in conjunction with an ILS or a VOR/DME approach. It allows to
position the aircraft on final approach without procedure turn. Flying a DME arc consists of
circling the station at a constant range. The aircraft remains tangent with the arc with a radius
being the required DME distance. When based on a VOR/DME, using a RMI helps arc tracking by
maintaining a 90° or 270° relative bearing (wind corrections).

Note that, when ground speed is computed from DME range rate of change, GS is zero during
a DME arc tracking as the range remains constant.

Figure 2.4.12 Flying a DME arc

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Figure 2.4.13 Goose Bay ILS/DME RWY 08

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05.00 Instrument Landing System (ILS)

05.01 Principles
01 Name the three main components of an ILS: - the localiser (LOC) - the glide path (GP)
- range information (markers or DME).
02 State the site locations of the ILS components: - the LOC antenna should be located on the
extension of the runway centre line at the stop- end ;- the GP antenna should be located
beyond the runway threshold, laterally displaced to the side of the runway centre line.
03 Explain that marker beacons produce radiation patterns to indicate predetermined
distances from the threshold along the ILS GP.
04 State that marker beacons are sometimes replaced by a DME paired with the LOC frequency.
05 State that in the ILS LOC frequency assigned band 108.0–111.975 MHz, only frequencies
which have an odd number in the first decimal are ILS LOC frequencies.
06 State that the GP operates in the UHF band.
07 Describe the use of the 90-Hz and the 150-Hz signals in the LOC and GP transmitters/receivers,
stating how the signals at the receivers vary with angular deviation.
08 State that the UHF GP frequency is selected automatically by being paired with
the LOC frequency.
09 Explain that both the LOC and the GP antenna radiates side lobes (false beams) which can
give rise to false centre-line and false GP indication.
10 Explain that the back beam from the LOC antenna may be used as a published
‘non-precision approach’.
11 State that the recommended GP is 3°.
12 Name the frequency, modulation and identification assigned to all marker beacons.
All marker beacons operate on 75-MHz carrier frequency. The modulation frequencies of the
audio are: - outer marker: low ; - middle marker: medium; - inner marker: high. The audio
frequency modulation (for identification) is the continuous modulation of the audio frequency
and is keyed as follows: - outer marker: 2 dashes per second continuously; - middle marker:
a continuous series of alternate dots and dashes; - inner marker: 6 dots per second continuously.
The outer-marker cockpit indicator is coloured blue, the middle marker amber, and the inner
marker white.
13 State that the final-approach area contains a fix or facility that permits verification of
the ILS GP–altimeter relationship. The outer marker or DME is usually used for this purpose.

Introduction

The instrument landing system (ILS) has been in existence for over 40 years. The system
provides pilots with an accurate means of carrying out an instrument approach to a runway,
giving guidance both in the horizontal and the vertical planes. It even enables aircraft to carry
out automatic landings. ILS is a precision approach system because it gives guidance in both the
horizontal and the vertical plane.

ILS provides the pilot with visual instructions in the cockpit to enable him to fly the aircraft down
a predetermined glide path and extended runway centre line (localiser) to his decision height
(DH). At decision height the pilot decides to land (if he has the required visual references and
sufficient room to manoeuvre the aircraft for a safe touchdown) or he goes around and carries out
the published missed approach procedure.

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ILS Components

The system requires a suitable ground installation and airborne equipment. The ground
installation has three distinct components, namely localiser, glide path, and marker beacons.

• The localiser (LOC) transmits in the VHF band and is located about 300 m from the
up-wind end of the runway.
• The glide path (GP) transmitter operates in the UHF band and is frequency paired
with the localiser. It is located 300 m in from the threshold and about 200 m from the
runway edge abeam the touchdown point.
• Marker beacons transmit at 75 MHz in the VHF band. These include the outer marker
(OM), the middle marker (MM), and possibly an inner marker (IM). They are provided
to enable the pilot to crosscheck the aircraft’s height against ranges and timing to the
runway threshold.
• Distance measuring equipment (DME) that is frequency paired with the ILS
frequencies are now increasingly provided to supplement or replace the range
information provided by marker beacons.
Some ILS installations also have a co-located low powered NDB, called a locator (L), at the site of
the OM beacon.

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ILS Frequencies

The localiser operates in the

• VHF band between 108 and 111.975 MHz

This part of the frequency band is shared with VOR: the LOC frequencies are odd decimals
(e.g., 108.1 108.15; 108.3 108.35; 108.5 108.55 -111.95 MHz).

The glide path operates in the

• UHF band between 329.15 and 335 MHz

The glide path frequency is paired with the localiser and selection of the frequency is automatic.
The LOC and GP transmissions are frequency paired in accordance with the list published at ICAO.

108.1 MHz is paired with 334.7 MHz, and 111.95 MHz is paired with 330.95 MHz.
The localiser and glide path signals are horizontally polarised.

The advantages of this:

• One switch activates both receivers - this reduces the pilot’s workload.
• Frequency selection is made easier and quicker as there is only one to consider.
• The potential for a wrong frequency selection is reduced.
• Only one identifier is needed.

ILS Principle of Operation

The localiser antenna produces two overlapping lobes along the runway approach direction
(i.e., the magnetic bearing to the runway in use - QFU). Refer to figures 2.5.3 and 2.5.4 on the LOC
principle of operation. The lobes are transmitted on a single VHF ILS frequency. In order that an
aircraft’s ILS receiver can distinguish between the lobes:

• The right-hand lobe (the blue sector) has a 150 Hz modulation.

• The left-hand lobe (the yellow sector) has a 90 Hz modulation.
The depth of modulation increases away from the centre line, i.e., the amplitude of the modulating
signal increases away from the centre line. An aircraft approaching the runway centre line from
the right will receive more of the 150 Hz signal than the 90 Hz modulation. This difference in
depth of modulation (DDM) relates to the angular displacement of the aircraft from the centre
line, the receiver drives the vertical needle of the ILS indicator to the left, i.e. ,fly left.

Similarly, an aircraft approaching the runway centre line from the left will receive more of the 90 Hz
signal than the 150 Hz modulation; the receiver drives the vertical needle to the right, i.e., fly right.

A DDM of zero indicates a balance between modulations, a zero needle-deflection and hence
the runway centre line.

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Figure 2.5.2 LOC principle of operation

Figure 2.5.3 LOC principle of operation top view

The same principle is used for the glide path, but a UHF carrier wave is used, and the lobes
are in the vertical plane. The upper lobe has a 90 Hz modulation, and the bottom lobe has
a 150 Hz modulation. The glide path, usually 3° (ICAO require glide path angle between
2° and 4°), is defined where the DDM of the overlapping lobes is zero and the ILS indicator’s glide
path needle will indicate zero deviation.

Figure 2.5.4 GP principle of operation

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Back Beam ILS

There is a mirror image transmitted behind the localiser aerial, which is received by aircraft equipment.
Back course ILS may be used as a non-precision approach (NPA) procedure or a guidance on some
missed approach procedures. Refer to figure 2.5.6 on Goose Bay course RWY 26.

A marker may be used in conjunction with the back course of the localiser.

The back beam ILS has the following disadvantages:

• The glide path indications are incorrect (they would, if used, guide the aircraft to the
wrong end of the runway).
• The CDI localiser needle gives a reversed indication.

Figure 2.5.5 ILS back beam

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Figure 2.5.6 Goose Bay course RWY 26

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False Glide Path

These are defined as the paths of points, in the vertical plane, containing the runway centre line,
at which the DDM is zero, other than that path of points forming the ILS glide path. The twin
lobes are repeated due to:

• Metallic structures situated at the transmission point, and ground reflections

• The height and propagation characteristics of the aerial
The first false glide path occurs at approximately twice the glide path angle, 6° above ground for
a standard 3° glide path. False glide slopes always occur above the true glide slope and should
not constitute a danger, but pilots should be aware of their presence.

Normal flying practice is to establish on the localiser and intercept the glide path from below.
However, at airfields where required continuous descent approaches are used the aircraft are
positioned by ground radar to capture the glide slope from above. It is advisable to always confirm
the aircraft height in relation to distance to go by reference to DME, markers, locators, etc.

Figure 2.5.7 False glide path

Figure 2.5.8 Marker beacons

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Marker Beacons

Two markers are required for each installation and a third may be added if considered necessary
at a particular site (i.e., CAT II/III certified runways). All markers transmit at 75 MHz, but with
different AM modulations frequencies. There is no interference problem as the radiation pattern
is a narrow fan-shaped vertical beam.

Figure 2.5.9 ILS marker frequencies

When a marker is used in conjunction with the back course of a localiser, it normally indicates
the LOC back course final-approach fix where approach descent is commenced. It should have
an identification signal that is clearly distinguishable from the front course markers, i.e., it is
identified by pairs of Morse code “dots” at 3,000 Hz (95 pairs per minute), which will trigger the
white light on a marker beacon indicator.

The radiation patterns for ILS marker beacons are vertical and appear lens shaped, or bone
shaped in plan view. The signal is only received if the aircraft is flying within the fan, and it is not
a directional aid. Reception is indicated by synchronous aural identifiers and lights.

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Figure 2.5.10 Marker patterns

Marker Alternatives

For altitude verification of the glide path/altimeter relationship a DME distance from threshold
may replace the outer marker.

Markers may be supplemented with a locator, locator-outer-marker (LOM), and/or locator-

middle-marker (LMM). This provides a homing facility.

05.02 Presentation and Interpretation

01 Describe the ILS identification regarding frequency and Morse code or plain text.
02 State that an ILS installation has an automatic ground monitoring system.
03 State that the LOC and GP monitoring system monitors any shift in the LOC and GP mean
course line or reduction in signal strength.
04 State that warning flags will appear for both the LOC and the GP if the received signal
strength is below a threshold value.
05 Describe the circumstances in which warning flags will appear for both the LOC and
the GP: - absence of the carrier frequency - absence of the modulation simultaneously;
- the percentage modulation of the navigation signal reduced to 0.
06 Interpret the indications on a CDI and an HSI:- full-scale deflection of the CDI needle
corresponds to approximately 2.5° displacement from the ILS centre line ; - full-scale
deflection on the GP corresponds to approximately 0.7° from the ILS GP centre line.
07 Interpret the aircraft’s position in relation to the extended runway centre line on
a back-beam approach.
08 Explain the setting of the course pointer of an HSI and the course selector of an omnibearing
indicator (OBI) for front-beam and back-beam approaches.

ILS Identification

Separate identification is unnecessary for ILS localiser and glide path transmissions as the
localiser and glide path frequencies are paired. The selection of the localiser VHF frequency
automatically energises the glide path receiver circuits.

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The identification (ident), which modulates (AM) the VHF carrier of the localiser transmission, is a
two or three letter Morse signal at 7 words/min. The first letter is usually ‘I’ ( .. ).

ILS Ground Monitoring System

The localiser and the glide path are individually monitored by equipment located in an area
of guaranteed reception. This equipment will act when:

• The localiser at the reference datum shifts from the runway centre line
• The glide path angle deviates from the basic glide path angle
• There is a power reduction in output of more than 50% from any transmitter
The monitoring unit will provide warning to a control point and cause any of the following
to occur before a standby transmitter is activated:

• Cessation of all radiation

• Removal of identification and navigational components of the carrier
The identification is automatically suppressed if the ILS becomes unserviceable or is withdrawn.
When an ILS is undergoing maintenance, or is radiating for test purposes only, the identification
coding will either be removed completely or replaced by a continuous tone. Under these
conditions no attempt should be made to use the ILS as completely erroneous indications
may be received.

Additionally, in some instances, because of an unserviceable glide path, the ILS may be radiating
for localiser approaches only, in which case the identification coding will be radiating. In this
case, ATC will warn all users of this fact and no attempt should be made to use the glide path.

ILS Indicators

Localiser and glide path information can be displayed on:

• A course deviation indicator (CDI) or OBI

• The horizontal situation indicator (HSI)
• Navigation display (ND) or electronic HSI (EHSI)
Interpretation of a CDI display and an HSI display are shown in figures 2.5.11 and 2.5.12. The
main difference to note is that on the HSI there is a course selector which should be set on
runway QFU. The deviation indications then appear in the correct sense.

• Full scale deflection of the localiser needle indicates that the aircraft is 2.5° or more
left or right of the centreline. The sensitivity is 0.5° per dot (on a five dots display).
• Full scale deflection of the glide path needle indicates that the aircraft is 0.7° or more
above or below the glide path. The sensitivity is 0.14° per dot (on a five dots display).

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Figure 2.5.11 Course deviation indicator (CDI)

Figure 2.5.12 Horizontal situation indicator (HSI)

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The CDI and HSI have NAV warning flags, which alert the pilots of a navigation information source
failure, LOC, and glide slope (GS).

The flags appear in case of:

• Aircraft outside the radiation pattern

• Loss of the carrier frequency
• Loss of the modulation signal
• Ground equipment power failure
• Ground monitoring system failure
• LOC or GP receiver failure
The HSI has a heading flag (HDG), which alerts the pilots of a magnetic heading source failure.

ILS Indication Interpretation

When the localiser receiver senses equal difference in depth of modulation (DDM) of 90 and
150 Hz signals, it centralises the deviation needle to indicate that the aircraft is on the runway
extended centre line. When the receiver senses more 90 Hz, which means that the aircraft is left
of the runway centre line, it indicates a fly-right. When the receiver senses more 150 Hz, which
means that the aircraft is right of the runway centre line, it indicates a fly-left.

To summarise:

• 90 Hz = 150 Hz: aircraft on course

• 90 Hz > 150 Hz: aircraft left of LOC needle fly-right
• 150 Hz > 90 Hz: aircraft right of LOC needle fly-left

Figure 2.5.13 Localiser guidance

When the glide path receiver senses equal DDM of 90 and 150 Hz signals, it centralises the deviation
needle to indicate that the aircraft is on the glide path. When the receiver senses more 90 Hz, which
means that the aircraft is above the glide path, it indicates a fly-down. When the receiver senses
more 150 Hz, which means that the aircraft is below the glide path, it indicates a fly-up.

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To summarise:

• 90 Hz = 150 Hz: aircraft on glide

• 90 Hz > 150 Hz: aircraft above glide, GS needle fly-down
• 150 Hz > 90 Hz: aircraft below glide, GS needle fly-up

Figure 2.5.14 Glide path guidance

Back Beam Approach

Where a localiser is designed to radiate back course information, it can:

• Give azimuth guidance on overshoot from main precision approach runway, when
the CDI or HSI needle should be obeyed, or
• Give back course approach to the reciprocal of the main precision approach runway.
Using a CDI, the localiser needle gives a reversed indication.

Figure 2.5.15 ILS back beam using a CDI

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Some airplanes may have a back beam button (B/B), or a back course (B/C) button, which when
selected, reverses the commands of the localiser receiver.

Using an HSI, the localiser needle gives correct indications provided that the front course QFU
has been selected.

Figure 2.5.16 ILS back beam using an HSI

05.03 Coverage and Range

01 Sketch the standard coverage area of the LOC and GP with angular sector limits in degrees
and distance limits from the transmitter: - LOC coverage area is 10° on either side of the
centre line to a distance of 25 NM from the runway, and 35° on either side of the centre
line to a distance of 17 NM from the runway; - GP coverage area is 8° on either side of the
centre line to a distance of minimum 10 NM from the runway.

Localiser Service Area

Figure 2.5.17 ILS localiser service area

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Glide Path Service Area

Figure 2.5.18 ILS glide service area

Figure 2.5.19 shows the glide path service area in elevation.

Figure 2.5.19 ILS glide path service area in elevation

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05.04 Errors and Accuracy

01 Explain that ILS approaches are divided into facility performance categories defined in
ICAO Annex 10.
02 Define the following ILS operation categories: - Category I; - Category II; - Category IIIA ;
- Category IIIB; - Category IIIC
03 Explain that all Category III ILS operations guidance information is provided from
the coverage limits of the facility to, and along, the surface of the runway.
04 Explain why the accuracy requirements are progressively higher for CAT I, CAT II and CAT III ILS.
05 Explain the following in accordance with ICAO Doc 8168: - the accuracy the pilot has to
fly the ILS LOC to be considered established on an ILS track is within the half-full scale
deflection of the required track. - the aircraft has to be established within the half- scale
deflection of the LOC before starting descent on the GP.- the pilot has to fly the ILS GP
to a maximum of half-scale fly-up deflection of the GP in order to stay in protected airspace.
06 State that if a pilot deviates by more than half-course deflection on the LOC or by more
than half-dot deflection on the GP, an immediate go-around should be executed because
obstacle clearance may no longer be guaranteed.
07 Describe ILS beam bends as deviations from the nominal LOC and GP respectively which
can be assessed by flight test.
08 Explain that multipath interference is caused by reflections from objects within
the ILS coverage area.

ILS Facility Performance Categories (Ground Installations)

Category I (Cat I)

A category I ILS is one which provides guidance information from the coverage limit of the ILS to
the point at which the localiser course line intersects the ILS glide path at a height of 200 ft or less
above the horizontal plane containing the threshold.

Category II (Cat II)

An ILS which provides guidance information from the coverage limit of the ILS to the point
at which the localiser course line intersects the ILS glide path at a height of 50 ft or less above
the horizontal plane containing the threshold.

Category III (Cat III)

An ILS, which provides guidance information from coverage limit of the facility to, and along,
the runway surface.

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Operational Performance ILS Categories

The improvement in the ground installations allows guidance down to the surface of a runway
and requires a corresponding improvement in the airborne equipment.

An aircraft may be certified to operate to one of the following classifications:

Category I, a precision instrument approach and landing with

• a decision height (DH) not lower than 200 ft pressure altimeter, and
• a runway visual range (RVR) not less than 550 m.
Category II, a precision instrument approach and landing with:

• a DH lower than 200 ft but not lower than 100 ft radio altimeter, and
• a RVR not less than 300 m.
Category IIIA, a precision instrument approach and landing with:

• a DH lower than 100 ft radio altimeter, or no DH, and

• a RVR not less than 200 m.
Category IIIB, a precision instrument approach and landing with:

• a DH lower than 50 ft radio altimeter, or no DH, and

• a RVR less than 200 m but not less than 75 m.
Category IIIC, a precision instrument approach and landing with:

• no DH and no RVR limitations.

The acceptance of category II or III operations will depend on whether the following criteria are met:

• The aeroplane has suitable flight characteristics.

• The aeroplane will be operated by a qualified crew in conformity with
laid down procedures.
• The aerodrome is suitably equipped and maintained.
• It can be shown that the required safety level can be maintained.
• Ground low visibility procedures (LVP) and protected areas are active.
To minimise interference to the ILS transmissions, the rate of landings has to be kept relatively low,
and also vehicle and aircraft movement must be restricted on the ground, especially during LVP.

Errors and Warnings

The ILS has several limitations in that indications can be affected by.

• Beam bends caused by atmospheric conditions.

• Scalloping caused by reflections which results in rapid fluctuations of the needles on
the CDI/HSI which are impossible to follow.
• Beam noise generated by the transmitter or due to interference.
The pilot must be alert to the existence of potential problems and during the approach constantly
crosscheck the information which is being received.

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The ground monitoring system monitors the localiser and the glide path individually and acts when:

• The localiser at the reference datum shifts from the runway centre line by more than:
• 35 ft for Cat I
• 25 ft for Cat II
• 20 ft for Cat III
• The glide path angle changes more than:
• 0.075 × reference glide path angle for Cat I and II
• 0.04 × reference glide path angle for Cat III
The ground monitoring system must trigger an alert at the appropriate time:

For the localiser:

• 10 seconds for Cat I

• 5 seconds for Cat II
• 2 seconds for Cat III
For the glide path:

• 6 seconds for Cat I

• 2 seconds for Cat II and III

Protection of the Final Segment

The final approach segment starts at the final approach fix (FAF), with is the transition point between
the initial segment and the point where the glide path is intercepted (see the figure 2.5.20).

Figure 2.5.20 Standard ILS final approach

The width of the ILS final approach protection area is much narrower than those of non-precision
approaches. Descent on the glide path must never be initiated until the aircraft is within the
tracking tolerance of the localiser/azimuth.

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The protection area assumes that the pilot does not normally deviate from the centre line more
than half-scale deflection after being established on course. Thereafter, the aircraft should
adhere to the on-course, on-glide path since a more than half course sector deflection or a more
than half scale fly-up deflection (i.e., aircraft below the glide path) combined with other allowable
system tolerances could place the aircraft in the vicinity of the edge or bottom of the protected
airspace where loss of protection from obstacles can occur.

• The accuracy the pilot has to fly the ILS LOC to be considered established on an ILS
track is within the half-full scale deflection of the LOC before starting descent on
the GS
• The aircraft has to be established within the half scale deflection of the LOC before
starting descent on the GS
• The pilot has to fly the ILS GP to a maximum of half-scale fly-up deflection on the GP
in order to stay in protected airspace
• If a pilot deviates by more than half-course deflection on the LOC or by more than
half-dot deflection on the GP, an immediate go-around should be executed because
obstacle clearance may no longer be guaranteed,

Figure 2.5.21 LOC and GP protection areas

ILS Limitations

The ILS has several limitations, which may affect the indications:

• Scalloping caused by reflections which results in rapid fluctuations of the needles on

the CDI/HSI which are impossible to follow, and
• Beam noise generated by the transmitter or due to interference
• Multipath interference to ILS signals, which is dependent upon the transmitter
antenna characteristics plus any large reflecting objects, vehicles in movement and
fixed structures within the radiated signal coverage.
• Moving objects can degrade or bend the directional signals to an unacceptable extent.

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05.05 Factors Affecting Range and Accuracy

01 Define the ‘ILS-critical area’: an area of defined dimensions around the LOC and GP
antennas where vehicles, including aircraft, are excluded during all ILS operations.
02 Define the ‘ILS-sensitive area’: an area extending beyond the ILS-critical area where the
parking or movement of vehicles, including aircraft, is controlled to prevent the possibility
of unacceptable interference to the ILS signal during ILS operations.

In order to protect the ILS signals from interference, protected areas are defined.

ILS Critical Area

The critical area is an area of defined dimensions about the localiser and glide path antennas
where vehicles and aircraft are excluded during all ILS operations. It is protected because the
presence of vehicles and/or aircraft inside its boundaries will cause unacceptable disturbance to
the ILS signal-in-space.

ILS Sensitive Area

The sensitive area is an area extending beyond the critical area where the parking and/or
movement of vehicles, including aircraft, is controlled to prevent the possibility of unacceptable
interference to the ILS signal during ILS operations. The sensitive area is protected against
interference caused by large moving objects outside the critical area but still normally within the
airfield boundary.

The objective of defining critical and sensitive areas is to afford adequate protection to the ILS.
The manner in which the terminology is applied may vary between States. In some States,
the term “critical area” is also used to describe the area that is referred to herein as the sensitive
area. The size of the sensitive area depends on a number of factors including the type of
ILS antenna, the topography, and the size and orientation of man-made objects, including large
aircraft and vehicles. Modern designs of localiser and glide path antennas can be very effective
in reducing the disturbance possibilities and hence the extent of the sensitive areas. Because of
the greater potential of the larger types of aircraft for disturbing ILS signals, the sensitive areas
for these aircraft extend a considerable distance beyond the critical areas. The problem
is aggravated by increased traffic density on the ground.

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Figure 2.5.22 Critical and sensitive area: localiser

Figure 2.5.23 Critical and sensitive area: glide path

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06.00 Microwave Landing System (MLS)

06.01 Principles
01 Explain the principle of operation: - horizontal course guidance during the approach.
- vertical guidance during the approach.- horizontal guidance for departure and missed
approach. DME (DME/P) distance; - transmission of special information regarding the
system and the approach conditions.
02 State that MLS operates in the SHF band on any one of 200 channels, on assigned frequencies.
03 Explain the reason why MLS can be installed at aerodromes where, as
a result of the effects of surrounding buildings or terrain, ILS siting is difficult.

Introduction

The microwave landing system (MLS) was designed to replace ILS with an advanced precision
approach system that would overcome the disadvantages of ILS and also provide greater
flexibility to its users. However, there are few MLS installations in use at present, and they are
likely to co-exist with ILS for a long time.

MLS is a precision approach and landing system that provides position information and various
ground-to-air data. The position information is provided in a wide coverage sector and is determined
by an azimuth angle measurement, an elevation measurement, and a range measurement.

The MLS Advantages Over ILS

The MLS has the following features:

• It operates in the SHF band 5,031 – 5,090.7 MHz, vertically polarised. This enables
it to be sited in hilly areas without having to level the site. Course deviation errors
(bending) of the localiser and glide path caused by aircraft, vehicles, and buildings
are no longer a problem because the MLS scanning beam can be interrupted and,
therefore, avoids the reflections.
• There are 200 channels available worldwide.
• The azimuth coverage is at least ± 40° of the runway on-course line (QDM) and, glide
slopes from 0.9° to 20° can be selected. The usable range is 20 NM from the MLS site.
• It allows to propose curved and angular approaches together with the standard
straight-in approach.
• There is no problem with back course transmissions. A secondary system is provided
to give overshoot and departure guidance ±20° of runway direction up to 15° in
elevation to a range of 10 NM and a height of 10,000 ft.
• Because of its increased azimuth and elevation coverage, aircraft can choose their
own approaches. This will increase runway utilisation and be beneficial to helicopters
and STOL aircraft.
• The MLS has a built-in DME/P.
• MLS is compatible with conventional localiser and glide path instruments, EFIS, auto-pilot
systems, and area navigation equipment.
• MLS gives positive automatic landing indications plus definite and continuous on/off
flag indications for the localiser and glide slope needles.

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• The identification prefix for the MLS is an ‘M’ followed by two letters.
• The aim is for all MLS equipped aircraft to operate to CAT III criteria.
MLS employs the principle of time division multiplexing (TDM) whereby only one frequency is
used on a channel, but the transmissions from the various angle and data ground equipment are
synchronised to assure interference free operations on the common radio frequency.

Approach Azimuth Guidance

Time referenced scanning beam (TRSB) is utilised in azimuth and elevation as follows: the aircraft
computes its azimuth position in relation to the runway centre line by measuring the time interval
in microseconds between the reception of the TO and FRO scanning beams.

The beam starts the TO sweep at one extremity of its total scan and travels at a uniform speed to
the other extremity. It then starts FRO scan back to its start position. The time interval between
the reception of the TO and FRO pulses is proportional to the angular position (θ) of the aircraft
in relation to the runway on-course line.

Pilots can choose to fly the runway on-course line (QDM) or an approach path which they select
as a pre-determined number of degrees ± the runway direction.

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Figure 2.6.2 Microwave landing system

Approach Elevation Guidance

Another beam scans up and down at a uniform speed within its elevation limits. The aircraft’s
position in relation to its selected glide slope angle is thus calculated in the same manner by
measuring the time difference between the reception of the pulses from the up and down sweep.
The transmissions from the two beams and the transmissions from the other components of the
MLS system are transmitted at different intervals, i.e., it uses time multiplexing.

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Figure 2.6.3 Microwave landing system 2

Other components of the system listed here.

Back Azimuth Guidance

The MLS gives go-around and departure guidance, which covers a range of 10 NM and ± 20°
of runway direction up to 15° in elevation.

DME/P

Range along the MLS course is provided not by markers but by a DME. For non-straight-
in, Cat II and III approaches, a precision DME (DME/P) that is accurate to +/- 0.1 NM must
be available.

Transmission of Auxiliary Data

The following is a non-exhaustive list of auxiliary data that is transmitted by the MLS:

• Station identification
• Approach, elevation, and back antennas status
• DME/P status
• Runway visual range (RVR) touchdown, mid-point, and stop end zones
• Surface wind speed and magnetic direction

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06.02 Presentation and Interpretation

01 Interpret the display of airborne equipment designed to continuously show the position of
the aircraft in relation to a preselected course and glide path, along with distance
information, during approach and departure.
02 Explain that segmented approaches can be carried out with a presentation with two cross
bars directed by a computer which has been programmed with the approach to be flown.
03 Illustrate that segmented and curved approaches can only be executed with DME/P installed.
04 Explain why aircraft are equipped with a multimode receiver (MMR) in order to be able to
receive ILS, MLS and GPS.
05 Explain why MLS without DME/P gives an ILS lookalike straight-line approach.

Definition of the Aircraft Position

The aircraft MLS system calculates the angular directions in azimuth and in elevation out of the
time differences of the time reference scanning beam. It combines the angular calculation results
with the DME/P to define a three-position fix continuously.

MLS Guidance

The local aviation authorities can design and publish approaches, straight-in or curved, within the
MLS service area. The published approaches are stored in a navigation database (NDB) of an area
navigation computer (i.e., FMS/FMGS) and the aircrew can activate the required approach track
and descent profile. The MLS system is designed to continuously track the position of the aircraft,
which is used by the FMGS to display the aircraft position in relation to the preselected course
and glide path along with distance information during approach as well as during departure.

To fly the MLS approach, pilots apply the same flight technique used to fly an ILS approach
Cat I/II/III, manually or automatically with autopilots engaged.

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A Typical MLS Approach

Figure 2.6.5 Typical MLS approach

MLS Indications

The display consists of two cross bars (LOC and GP) similar to an ILS display, except that the
indications are given relative to the selected track. It is possible to program the navigation computer
to give segmented approaches and curved approaches for which a DME-P must be available.

Note that if a DME/P is not available, only ILS like straight-in approaches can be made using
a classic DME.

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Figure 2.6.6 ILS/MLS PFD indications

The Multi-Mode Receiver (MMR)

There are a number of precision-landing possibilities at airports around the world, depending on
whether these airports are equipped with ILS, MLS, or GNSS landing system (GLS).

The multi-mode receiver (MMR) is a digital system that integrates all onboard reception
functions needed for precision navigation and landing. It is a modular avionics unit that allows to
receive ILS, MLS, VOR, and GLS, including the satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS) and
062.06.01.00 the ground-based augmentation system (GBAS).

The main function of the MMR is to compute lateral and vertical deviations of the aircraft to the
approach and landing trajectory. Usually the system consists of:

• Two MMR receivers

• Two GNSS antennas
• One LOC/differential GPS (DGPS) antenna
• One glide path capture antenna

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Figure 2.6.7 MMR antennas

06.03 Coverage and Range

01 Describe the coverage area for the approach direction as being within a sector of ± 40° of
the centre line out to a range of 20 NM from the threshold (according to ICAO Annex 10).

MLS Service Area

Figure 2.6.8 shows the MLS azimuth guidance area.

Figure 2.6.8 MLS azimuth guidance area

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Figure 2.6.8 MLS azimuth guidance area

Figure 2.6.9 shows the MLS elevation guidance area.

Figure 2.6.9 MLS elevation guidance area

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0 Section 3 Table of Contents

3
RADAR

01.00 Pulse Techniques.................................................... 151

01.01 Pulse Technique and Associated Terms................................... 151

02.00 Ground Radar......................................................... 157

02.01 Principles...................................................................................... 157
02.02 Presentation and Interpretation............................................... 162

03.00 Airborne Weather Radar....................................... 164

03.01 Principles...................................................................................... 164
03.02 Presentation and Interpretation............................................... 168
03.03 Coverage and Range................................................................... 168
03.04 Errors, Accuracy, Limitations..................................................... 174
03.05 Factors Affecting Range and Accuracy..................................... 174
03.06 Application for Navigation......................................................... 179

04.00 Secondary Surveillance Radar

and Transponder.................................................... 185
04.01 Principles...................................................................................... 185
04.02 Modes and Codes........................................................................ 187
04.03 Presentation and Interpretation............................................... 193

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01.00 Pulse Techniques

01.01 Pulse Technique and Associated Terms
01 Name the different applications of radar with respect to air traffic control (ATC), weather
observations, and airborne weather radar (AWR).
02 Describe the pulse technique and echo principle on which primary radar systems are based
03 State that the range of a radar depends on pulse repetition frequency (PRF), pulse length,
pulse power, height of aircraft, height of antenna and frequency used.

Introduction

RADAR stands for RAdio Detection and Ranging and was developed prior to World War II.
It was used both on the ground as well as in the air by the military. Originally it used pulses for
its operation, but subsequently continuous wave (CW) techniques were also developed for other
functions such as the radio altimeter, because CW radars have no minimum range limitation.
Today radar is also extremely important in civil aviation. It is used by ground-based radars in the
control, separation, and navigation of aircraft and weather surveillance, as well as in airborne
systems for weather warning and navigation.

Types of Pulsed Radars

A primary radar uses pulses of radio energy reflected from a target, i.e., it uses one
frequency throughout.

A secondary radar transmits pulses on one frequency, but receives on a different frequency,
i.e., the object transmits its own energy. It is a system utilising an interrogator and transponder.
The transponder can be located in the aircraft (secondary surveillance radar) or on the ground (DME)
062.03.04.00

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Figure 3.1.1 The primary radar antenna

Radar Applications

Air traffic control uses radar to:

• Monitor aircraft in relation to each other whilst they are flying on airways, in control
zones or in the airfield vicinity, and to vector the aircraft if necessary.
• Provide radar talk-down to a given runway (surveillance radar approach (SRA) or
a military precision approach radar (PAR)).
• Control and monitor aircraft on ILS let-downs, or during airfield instrument approaches.
• Provide information regarding weather, e.g., storm clouds.
Air/Ground navigational systems use:

• Secondary surveillance radar provides ATC with information regarding an aircraft’s call
sign, altitude, speed, track history, destination, and type of emergency when appropriate.
• Distance measuring equipment (DME) provides a pilot with very accurate slant
ranges from a ground-based receiver/transmitter known as a transponder.

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Airborne weather radar (AWR) is used to:

• Depict the range and bearing of clouds

• Indicate areas of the heaviest precipitation and associated turbulence
• Ground mapping

The Pulse Technique

Primary and secondary radar systems use the pulse technique which is the transmission of radio
energy in very short bursts. Each burst of energy is in a pulse form of a predetermined shape.
The duration of the pulse is equal to the pulse length or pulse width.

Figure 3.1.2 Pulse technique

Pulse recurrence interval (PRI) is the time interval between two pulses in µs. Pulse recurrence
period (PRP) may also be used.

Pulse recurrence frequency (PRF) is the number of pulses transmitted in one second (pps).

As a period of a function is the inverse of its frequency (and vice versa). The relation between PRI
and PRF is equal to:

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Example:
If the PRF is 200 pps, what is the PRI of the transmission?
PRI = 1/200 s = 106 / 200 = 5,000 µs
Pay attention to the correct use of units.

The Echo Principle

The pulses are concentrated into a beam, which uses the echo principle to determine the range
and the relative bearing displayed on a plan position indicator (PPI).

The transmitter, or magnetron, and receiver share the same antenna. The receiver is energised
to accept echoes from objects (or targets) in the pulses path as soon as the transmitter pulse
exits the antenna, i.e., the transmitter is deactivated when the receiver is ‘listening’ to incoming
pulses, and the receiver is deactivated when the transmitter is creating a pulse. The reflected
pulses are very weak due to the double journey affected by atmospheric absorption.

Figure 3.1.3 Primary radar system

Factors Affecting the Ranges

The maximum range of a primary radar depends upon the strength of the returning pulses that
determines the quality of the target depiction on the PPI. The range is affected by several factors:

Transmission power: A radar signal attenuates with increasing distance from the transmitter.
As the signal has to travel out and back the power/range relationship includes twice the inverse
062.01.03.06 square law:

Power available is proportional to the fourth power of range, which means that the power has
increased by a factor of 16 to double the range.

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Characteristics of reflecting objects: Metals are more efficient than wood at reflecting the
transmitted signal and the size and shape of the detected object make a considerable difference
to the effective range. The aspect of the object also affects the range, for instance, a manoeuvring
aircraft presents various aspects which can affect the polarisation of reflected waves. The side
of the fuselage has a better aspect than the nose of the aircraft. The nature of the object surface
or skin absorbs some energy of the incoming pulse. If the material has a high absorption of
electromagnetic energy, there is no sufficient energy for a reflecting pulse to reach the search
radar. These target characteristics are used in stealth aircrafts or ships.

Aircraft height and the height of the radar head: Radar transmissions, because of their
frequency bands, travel in straight lines and give line of sight ranges, plus a little extra due to
atmospheric refraction. Thus, the curvature of Earth causes much of the surface to be in shadow.
Therefore, higher flying aircraft are more likely to be detected because they are above that
shadow. Intervening high ground also will screen low flying aircraft from detection. The higher
the radar head can be positioned, the greater that radar’s range and the less effect intervening
high ground will have on stopping signals and reducing its range.

Knowing the heights of the radar station (HR) and a target (HT), the range is calculated with the
line-of-sight formula:

R = 1.23 × (√(HR )+√(HT ))

Maximum theoretical range is determined by the PRF. Each pulse must be allowed to travel to
the most distant object planned before the next pulse is transmitted. To do otherwise makes
it impossible to relate a particular echo to a particular pulse. The maximum range is therefore
related to the PRF such that the greater the range required, the lower the PRF used. As the
distance is equal to the speed times the time, the theoretical range (R) is function of the PRF, or
the PRI/PRP:

or

Example
A weather radar has a 500 pps PRF. What is the maximum range in nautical miles?
R = c / 2xPRF,
c, in NM, is 162,000 NM/s
R = 162,000/2x500 = 162 NM
A radar with a PRP of 500 µs has a theoretical range of:
R = 3x108 x 5x10-4/2 = 15x104/2 = 7.5x104 m or 75 km
Pay attention to the correct use of units.

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The minimum range is determined by half the pulse width. A one μs wide pulse extends 300 metres.
Thus, an object at 150 metres reflecting this pulse would cause it to arrive back at the receiver as its
tail was leaving the transmitter.

Any object closer than 150 metres would reflect a pulse that could not be received as the
transmitter would still be transmitting. As a result, if short range operation is required for target
detection, short pulses are used, e.g. 0.1 μs.

Figure 3.1.4 Atmospheric conditions

The energy is absorbed and scattered by raindrops. The total effect depends upon the size of
the water droplets and the transmitted wavelengths. At wavelengths longer than 10 cm, the
attenuation is negligible. If the wavelength is between 10 cm and 4 cm, the attenuation is
significant only in tropical rain. However, with wavelengths less than 4 cm, attenuation is
significant in rain in the temperate latitudes. One conclusion is that wavelengths less than 3 cm
should not be used for long range systems. Airfield surface movement indicator (ASMI) radars
operate at 1.75 to 2 cm wavelengths. Airborne weather radars (AWR) and precision approach
radars (PAR) use 3 cm wavelengths. Surveillance radars (ground) use 10, 23, or 50 cm wavelengths.
Atmospheric conditions: Certain atmospheric conditions can actually increase the range of
radar pulses by refracting the waves which would normally travel in straight lines. This is called
super-refraction, and it gives radar ranges beyond normal line of sight, i.e., it gives over the
horizon radar capability by causing the radio waves to refract downwards towards the earth’s
surface. Such conditions occur when there is a temperature inversion and a decrease in humidity
with height. On the other hand, atmospheric conditions can also cause sub-refraction in which
the theoretical range of the radar is reduced by causing the waves to refract upwards away from
the surface.

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02.00 Ground Radar

02.01 Principles
01 Explain that primary radar provides bearing and distance of targets.
02 Explain that primary ground radar is used to detect aircraft that are not equipped with
a secondary radar transponder.

Introduction

Air traffic control (ATC) services use ground radars extensively to serve a large number of
requirements and users. They employ both primary radar and secondary radar techniques.
Primary radar is used to detect aircraft not equipped with a secondary radar transponder. The
services that can be offered by ATC are information, surveillance, or guidance.

Figure 3.2.1 ATC radar

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Target Distance and Bearing

The distance of a target is calculated by multiplying the propagation speed c (300 m/µs) by the
interval between the instant of the pulse’s transmission and its return as an echo.

Figure 3.2.2 Target range

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The bearing to the target is defined by the angle between the rotating antenna and a reference,
e.g., magnetic north.

Figure 3.2.3 Target bearing

Primary radar systems used by ATC include:

• Area surveillance radar (ASR)

• Terminal area surveillance radar (TAR)
• Aerodrome surveillance radar
• Precision approach radar (PAR)
• Airport surface movement radar (ASMR)

Area Surveillance Radars (ASR)

These are long range radars (200 to 300 NM) used for airway surveillance to provide range and
bearing of aircraft.

Additional information is provided by secondary surveillance radar - SSR.

For the long-range radars, the wavelengths and pulse lengths are relatively long (10 to 50 cm
and 2 to 4 μs, respectively). The longer pulse length ensures that the target is illuminated for
sufficient time to give a good return. The PRF and antenna rotation rate (scan rate) are low, e.g.
300 to 400 pps and 5 to 6 rpm, respectively. This ensures that the next pulse is not transmitted
until the first one has had sufficient time to return from the long-range target.

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Figure 3.2.4 ATC control room

Terminal Surveillance Area Radars

These are medium range radars, up to 75 NM, used for controlling traffic in TMAs. (additional
information is provided by secondary surveillance radar - SSR).

Typical wavelengths are 10 cm, 23 cm, and 50 cm with pulse widths 1 to 3 μs.

Aerodrome Surveillance Approach Radars

These are short range radars providing positional information up to 25 NM.

They provide:

• Positional information and control of aircraft in the aerodrome vicinity

• Radar vectoring to the ILS final approach
• Surveillance radar approach (SRA): the controller provides a talk-down azimuth
guidance to aircrafts in final approach

Their wavelengths are 3 cm or 10 cm with pulse widths of 0.5 to 1 μs.

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Figure 3.2.5 Surveillance radar approach

Precision Approach Radar (PAR)

Similar to the SRA, the PAR provides a talk-down azimuth and glide path guidance to aircrafts in
final approach down to 200 ft above runway’s threshold. The system needs a set of two azimuth
and elevation antennas.

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Figure 3.2.6 PAR antennas

Airport Surface Movement Radar (ASMR)

This radar is installed at major airfields to provide a very accurate radar display (in all weathers
and conditions of visibility) of the aerodrome infrastructure, (taxiways, runways, aprons, etc.),
vehicular traffic and aircraft that are stationary, taxiing, landing or taking off.

02.02 Presentation and Interpretation

01 State that modern ATC systems use inputs from various sensors to generate the display.

Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) Networks

Air traffic service (ATS) surveillance systems have a very high level of reliability, integrity,
and availability. The possibility of system failures or significant system degradations which may
cause complete or partial interruptions of service shall be very remote. Backup facilities shall be
provided. An ATS surveillance system will consist of a number of integrated elements, including
sensor(s), data transmission links, data-processing systems, and situation displays.

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Figure 3.2.7 Primary surveillance radar network

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03.00 Airborne Weather Radar

03.01 Principles
01 List the two main tasks of the weather radar in respect of weather and navigation.
02 State that modern weather radars employ frequencies that give wavelengths of about 3 cm
that reflect best on wet hailstones.
03 State that the antenna is stabilised in the horizontal plane with signals from the aircraft’s
attitude reference system.
04 Describe the cone-shaped pencil beam of about 3 to 5° beam width used for weather detection.

Figure 3.3.1 Weather avoidance

Introduction

Airborne weather radar (AWR) is used to provide pilots with information regarding weather
ahead, as well as navigation. Unlike most other systems, it requires interpretation by the pilot,
and its use is enhanced by the skill of the user.

A weather radar is only helpful, if the flight crew is able to interpret the screen display. The image
of radar returns on the weather radar display, or on the navigation display (ND), is a representation
of what is detected by the radar. Decisions that are taken to avoid critical weather, which are based
on this information, will vary depending on the flight crew’s interpretation of the radar image and
on the experience of the flight crew.

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AWR Functions

The main functions of an AWR are:

• Detect the size of water droplets and hence deduce where the areas of turbulence
are within the cloud.
• Determine the height of cloud tops by tilting the radar beam up or down.
• Map the terrain below the aircraft to provide navigational information and high
ground avoidance.
• Provide a position fix (range and bearing) from a prominent feature.
The AWR is able to detect:

• Rainfall
• Wet hail and wet turbulence
• Ice crystals, dry snow, and dry hail
Because there is no precipitation, or the particles are too small, the AWR is unable to detect:

• Clear air turbulence (CAT)

• Clouds or fog
• Sandstorms
• Volcanic cloud
• Lightning

AWR Frequency

The optimum radar frequency is one that has a wavelength comparable to the size of the
objects which we wish to detect, namely the large water droplets and wet hail, which in turn are
associated with severe turbulence. These droplets are about 3 cm across.

The typical frequency adopted by most commercial systems is 9,375 MHz.

It produces the best returns from the large water droplets and wet hail found in convective clouds.

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AWR Antenna and Beam

The radar beam is produced by a suitable antenna at the nose of the aircraft inside
the fiberglass radome.

Figure 3.3.2 AWR antenna

The antenna shape can be parabolic or a flat plate which produce both a conical or pencil-shaped
beam as well as a fan-shaped or cosecant squared beam. The type of radiation pattern will
depend upon the use. The pencil beam is used for weather and longer range (> 60 NM) mapping,
while the fan-shaped beam is used for short range mapping.

The pencil beam used for weather depiction has a width of between 3° and 5°. The beamwidth
must be as narrow as possible for efficient target resolution.

For example, two clouds at say 100 NM might appear as one large return until, at a closer range,
they appear as separate entities.

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Figure 3.3.3 AWR azimuth resolution

Antenna Stabilisation

The radar antenna is attitude-stabilised in relation to Earth’s horizontal plane using the aircraft’s
attitude reference from the inertial reference system (IRS). The stabilisation system maintains
the horizontality with variable roll and pitch attitudes, within the limits established by the radar’s
manufacturer. Some systems have a stabilisation ON/OFF control switch, which is normally ON.

When the stabilisation is deselected, the scanner (i.e., the antenna) is locked to the aircraft’s pitch
and roll axes.

Figure 3.3.4 AWR antenna stabilisation

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03.02 Presentation and Interpretation

01 Explain the functions of the following different controls on the radar control panel:
- off/on switch;- function switch with WX, WX+T and MAP modes; gain-control setting
(auto/manual); - tilt/auto-tilt switch.
02 Name, for areas of differing reflection intensity, the colour gradations (green, yellow, red
and magenta) indicating the increasing intensity of precipitation.
03 State the use of azimuth-marker lines and range lines in respect of the relative bearing and
the distance to a thunderstorm on the screen.

062.03.03.03
062.03.03.02 062.03.03.03 discusses the learning objects of 062.03.03.02 in the context of Coverage and Range.

03.03 Coverage and Range

01 Explain how the radar is used for weather detection and for mapping (range, tilt and
gain, if available).

AWR System

The AWR system consists of

• A transmitter/receiver, also called a transceiver

• An antenna, or scanner, which is stabilised in pitch and roll
• A control unit
• A plan position indicator (PPI), or
• Indication on the navigation display (ND)

Figure 3.3.5 AWR system

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A usual AWR system used on CS-25 aircrafts includes one scanner and two radar transceivers.
One is selected active and the other is available as a backup. The selected system drives
the antenna and activates the stabilisation, which receives the aircraft’s attitude inputs from
the on-side IRS. The transmitter sends the outgoing pulses via the wave guide to the antenna.
Any received reflected pulses are directed to the PPI, or to both NDs.

AWR Control Panel

Figure 3.3.6 AWR control panel

After the system is powered-up and Radar 1 or 2 is selected, a mode can be selected. The modes are:

• WX, for weather detection

• WX/TURB, for weather plus turbulence detection
• MAP, for ground mapping
• TEST, for testing the selected radar system
The weather mode and weather plus turbulence modes select the conical pencil beam and are
the usual positions for observing cloud formations and displaying turbulence zones.

In the map mode, the radar produces a mapping beam to identify terrain features.

With older types of weather radar using parabolic antenna, in order to obtain an even
presentation of surface features, the transmitted power is progressively reduced as distance
decreases, so that the power directed to the closest object is minimum. This reduction in power
with decreasing range is a function of the cosecant of the depression angle - hence the name
cosecant-square beam (or fan-shaped beam). The mapping range covered with a fan-shape
beam is from 15 NM to a maximum of 60 to 70 NM depending upon the aircraft’s height and
type of terrain.

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Signal amplification is adjustable via the adjacent manual gain knob.

To map beyond 70 NM, the conical pencil beam should be used by selecting the WX mode with
manual gain control and tilt down. This enables the gain to be adjusted for ground mapping.

Figure 3.3.7 AWR map mode

The AWR test function provides a comprehensive check of system performance and should be
executed prior to taxi the aircraft. Note that during this ground test, the radar is not transmitting
any signal. The test displays a required colour pattern and generates the radar orals warnings.

Figure 3.3.8 AWR test

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Colour pattern and oral warnings may vary in function of the radar type as seen in figure 3.3.8.

AWR Tilt Control

This control enables the radar beam to be tilted from the horizontal within 15° UP (+) and
15° DOWN (-). In the horizontal plane, the antenna sweeps up to 90° from either side of the
nose, though a sector of 60° on each side and is generally sufficient for the role of weather
depiction and navigation.

Some systems include an automatic tilt function. When available, it should be used as the
default mode, for detection and initial evaluation of displayed weather. Then, manual control
should be used periodically to analyse the weather cell. This automatic tilt function uses the
enhanced ground proximity warning system (EGPWS) terrain altitude information. Based on the
aircraft altitude above terrain and terrain conditions in the area (terrain database), the EGPWS
determines the optimum tilt value of the radar.

Figure 3.3.9 AWR tilt function

For ground mapping, the beam has to be tilted down. In order to observe cloud formations, it is
raised to reduce ground returns. It should be noted that due to the curvature of the earth, the
tilt should be higher when the selected range increases or when the aircraft descends to a lower
altitude. Equally, the tilt setting should be lower when the selected range decreases or when the
aircraft climbs to a higher altitude.

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Weather Depiction

The equipment is designed to detect those clouds which are likely to produce turbulence, to
highlight the areas where the turbulence is most severe, and to indicate safe routes to avoid
them, where possible.

The size and concentration of water droplets, i.e., the precipitation intensity, in clouds is an
indication of the presence of turbulence. The shorter the distance, in continuous rainfall,
between light and strong returns, the steeper the rainfall gradient and the greater likelihood of
turbulence. Figure 3.3.10 depicts the reflective levels of different precipitation types.

Figure 3.3.10 Reflectivity levels

In colour weather radar systems, the weather targets are colour-coded according to the intensity
of the rainfall as follows:

MAGENTA Turbulence Due to rainfall intensity

RED Strong returns Greater than 12 mm/h
YELLOW Medium returns 4 – 12 mm/h
GREEN Light returns 0.7 – 4 mm/h
BLACK Very light or on returns Less than 0.7 mm/h

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Range and Bearing on Display

Figure 3.3.11 AWR range and bearing on ND

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03.04 Errors, Accuracy, Limitations

01 Explain why AWR should be used with extreme caution when on the ground.

AWR Use on the Ground

Electromagnetic radiation presents a serious hazard to personnel and electronic equipment.

Therefore, great care must be taken before using the radar on the ground.

The following precautions should be taken:

• Ensure the aircraft is clear of personnel, other aircraft, vehicles, and buildings.
• When weather conditions expect active cells with precipitations along the planned
takeoff and climb paths, while aligned on the active runway, select radar ON, mode WX
or WX/TURB, a short range, and control the tilt to carefully analyse the actual condition
before initiating the takeoff.

Figure 3.3.12 AWR do not use on ground

03.05 Factors Affecting Range and Accuracy

01 Explain the danger of the area behind heavy rain (shadow area) where no radar waves
will penetrate.
02 Describe appropriate tilt settings in relation to altitude and thunderstorms.
03 Explain why a thunderstorm may not be detected when the tilt is set too high.

Interpret Potential Turbulence

The areas of greatest potential turbulence occur where the colour zones are closest together,
i.e., the steepest rainfall gradient.

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Figure 3.3.13 Displayed rainfall gradient

Careful Display Range Selection

To avoid a large storm, the flight crew must make decisions while still 40 NM away from it.
Therefore, the flight crew should select adequate ranges on the NDs.

• The pilot-monitoring (PM) selects adequate ranges to plan long-term weather

avoidance course changes (typically 160 NM and below)
• The pilot-flying selects adequate ranges to tactically avoid adverse weather and
monitors its severity (typically 80 NM and below).
Course changes to avoid adverse weather, should be determined using both higher and lower
ranges. This technique prevents the blind alley effect; a course change that may seem safe when
using a low range ND display may reveal a blocked passage when observed at a higher range.

Figure 3.3.14 The blind alley Figure 3.3.15 Displayed rainfall gradient

Weather Shadowing
Because the weather radar display depends on signal returns, heavy precipitation may hide even
stronger weather. A major part of the signal is reflected by the frontal part of the precipitation.
The aft part returns weak signals that are displayed as green or black areas. The flight crew may
interpret these as a no/small threat area.

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Figure 3.3.16 Shadowed area

Figure 3.3.17 Shadowed area on ND

Typical Shapes

Heavy hail activity is associated with the following shapes on the display: U-shapes, fingers,
scalloped edges, and hooks. These areas are to be avoided.

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Figure 3.3.18 Display shapes

Tilt Setting vs. Altitude

Information and recommendations on the use of radar should be provided to flight crews for
each flight phase. A typical example of recommendations that could be provided is as follows:

• Takeoff: select tilt to 4° UP.

• Climb: select negative tilt to maintain ground returns on top of ND.
• Cruise: select negative tilt to maintain ground returns on top of ND. Typical values:
o Range 320 NM: tilt 1° DN
o Range 160 NM: tilt 1.5° DN
o Range 80 NM: tilt 3.5° DN
o Range 40 NM: tilt 6° DN
• Descent:
o Above 15,000 ft: adjust tilt upwards to maintain ground returns on top of ND
(about +1°/10,000 ft)
o Below 15,000 ft: adjust tilt upwards to maintain ground returns on top of ND
(about +1°/5,000 ft)
• Approach: select tilt 4° UP

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Tilt Setting Approaching Thunderstorm

Effective management of the antenna tilt, along with appropriate selection of the navigation
display range, will avoid over/under scanning, thus ensuring best detection and visualisation
of weather on the ND. Indeed, the returns displayed on the ND are cells that are sliced by
the radar beam. The ND does not represent the cells at aircraft level. Antenna tilt should be
taken into account in order to clearly understand the weather radar display.

Figure 3.3.19 Use of tilt approaching thunderstorm

Tilt Set Too High

If the tilt is selected too high when the aircraft approaches a cloud, no return will be displayed
on the ND or PPI, which may lead to a flight safety hazard, especially at night where visual
contact is not assured.

Figure 03.20 Tilt set too high

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If a cloud is displayed on the ND at a range of 40 NM, with the tilt set at 2° DN, increasing the tilt
until the return disappears, e.g. 2° UP. The cloud top height (H) above/below the aircraft altitude
can be calculated:
H (feet) Range (NM) x Tilt x 100
H (feet) 40 (NM) x (+)2 x 100
H (feet) 8,000 ft above aircraft altitude.

03.06 Application for Navigation

01 Describe the navigation function of the radar in the mapping mode.
02 Describe the use of the weather radar to avoid a thunderstorm (Cb).
03 Explain how turbulence (not CAT) can be detected by a modern weather radar.
04 Explain how wind shear can be detected by a modern weather radar.

Mapping Mode

Since short range mapping has become a secondary requirement for today’s transport aircraft,
the AWR flat-plate array antenna has been optimised for maximum performance when used for
long range terrain mapping using only the pencil beam (for example, a 3° beamwidth). The tilt is
set down and manual gain control is used to optimise contrast and resolution of ground returns.

Figure 3.3.21 MAP mode

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In figure 3.3.21, island contours are accurately displayed on the ND, and this may be used
to fix aircraft’s position. Ground returns have well-defined features, which are smaller and more
angular than weather returns. Cities, industrial areas, mountains, and other terrain features
often return echoes strong enough to appear red on the display.

There may be a broken appearance in the pattern caused by high grounds like mountain
peaks. A blank area may be present behind ground echoes, which may be considered as
a water surface or a lake.

Figure 3.3.22 Mapping shadow

Weather Avoidance

Select maximum range to detect weather formations in good time and adjust the tilt to remove
ground returns. If the storm system is extensive make an early track adjustment, in consultation
with ATC, to avoid it. If this is not possible, as the clouds get nearer, select the lower ranges
and determine the best track to avoid potential turbulence. Ensure that short term alterations
of heading steer the aircraft away from the worst areas and not deeper into them and, when
possible, avoid upwind instead of downwind. To achieve this, constant switching between
short, medium, and longer ranges is necessary in order to maintain a complete picture of the
storm system. Initiate the avoidance maneuver as early as possible. As the aircraft gets nearer
to the convective weather zone, the information from the weather radar often becomes
partial. Consider a minimum distance of 40 NM from the convective cloud to make the decision
for avoidance maneuver.

The usual minimum safe distance to consider when avoiding weather should be 20 NM,
and a 5,000 ft clearance should be taken, if the decision is to overfly the cell and when aircraft
performance allows it. (i.e., not recommended at high cruising altitudes where buffet margins
are reduced).

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Figure 3.3.23 Weather avoidance

Turbulence Depiction

AWR may be fitted with a turbulence display mode. This function is based on the Doppler effect
and is sensitive to precipitation rate. Like the weather radar, the turbulence function needs
a minimum amount of precipitation to be effective. To help make safe flight path decisions,
and especially when the weather ahead is represented as dense, the turbulence display mode
(WX/TURB) should be used.

An area of light rainfall, depicted in green in normal mode, is shown in magenta when there is
moderate or severe turbulence activity, i.e., high precipitation rates.

The TURB function is only active within a range of 40 NM (Doppler measurement capability) and
can only be used in wet turbulence.

Figure 3.3.24 Turbulence zones

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Predictive Wind Shear System (PWS)

Modern radar has a wind shear detection function, which alerts the flight crew of an impending
wind shear within 10 to 90 seconds. The predictive wind shear system (PWS) operates
continuously below 2,300 ft even when the AWR is OFF. The PWS detects the presence of wind
shear only if there is a minimum of reflective particles in movement.

When an airshaft of a microburst encounters the ground, it spreads around outwards carrying
with it a large number of raindrops. The PWS measures the horizontal velocity of these raindrops
by measuring the Doppler frequency shift onto reflected pulses by the microburst. As the radar
scans across the wind shear, it detects the raindrops moving towards it at one range and away
from it at a slightly greater range. During the wind shear scan the antenna tilt setting is automatic.

Note:

• The predictive wind shear system is not a reactive wind shear system (RWS), which is
part of the GPWS/EGPWS.
• The PWS warns the crew that they will have a problem.
• The RWS warns the crew that they are in the problem.

Figure 3.3.25 Predictive wind shear system (PMS)

Wind Shear Alerts

After the radar detects a wind shear condition, it can assess the severity of the wind shear, and
if it exceeds a predetermined threshold value, a wind shear alert is issued on the radar display
and through the flight deck speakers. Alerts triggered by the PWS are visual and oral caution and
warning alerts.

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Figure 3.3.26 Wind shear alert range

Figure 3.3.27 Wind shear visual alert

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Figure 3.3.28 Wind shear oral alert

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04.00 Secondary Surveillance Radar and Transponder

04.01 Principles
01 State that the ATC system is based on the replies provided by the airborne transponders
in response to interrogations from the ATC secondary radar.
02 State that the ground ATC secondary radar uses techniques which provide the ATC with
information that cannot be acquired by the primary radar.
03 State that an airborne transponder provides coded-reply signals in response to interrogation
signals from the ground secondary radar and from aircraft equipped with traffic alert and
collision avoidance system (TCAS).
04 State the advantages of secondary surveillance radar (SSR) over a primary radar regarding
range and collected information due to transponder principal information and active
participation of the aircraft.

Figure 3.4.1 SSR antenna

Introduction

Primary radar relies on the reception of a reflected pulse, i.e., the echo of the transmitted pulse.
Secondary radar, on the other hand, receives pulses transmitted by the target in response
to interrogation pulses. Secondary surveillance radar (SSR) is one type of secondary radar
system, and DME is another.

Both primary and secondary surveillance radars are used to track the progress of an aircraft.
Primary radar provides better bearing and range information of an aircraft than SSR, but its
biggest disadvantage is the lack of positive, individual aircraft identification. This is required
for adequate safe control by ATC, particularly in crowded airspace. Primary radars also require
higher transmitter power outputs for the two-way journey of the single pulses.

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SSR Principle

SSR requires an aircraft to be fitted with a transmitter/receiver, called a transponder.

The pilot will set a four-figure code allocated by ATC and the transponder will transmit information
automatically, in pulse coded form, when it is interrogated by the ground station called
the interrogator. The transmissions are therefore only one way from transmitter to receiver.

Figure 3.4.2 SSR interrogator and transponder

SSR Advantages

SSR has the following advantages over primary radar:

• It requires much less transmitting power to provide coverage up to 200 to 250 NM.
• It is not dependent on an aircraft’s echoing area or aspect.
• It gives clutter free responses as it does not rely on returning reflected pulses.
• It positively identifies an aircraft’s primary response by displaying its code and call
sign alongside.
• It indicates an aircraft’s track history, speed, altitude, and destination.
• It can indicate on a controller’s screen that an aircraft has an emergency, has lost
radio communications, or is being hi-jacked.
• It is a required component for ACAS/TCAS.

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SSR and ACAS/TCAS

The airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS) commonly named traffic alert and collision
avoidance system (TCAS) is designed to provide an additional margin of safety and keep
commercial aircraft clear of conflict, independently of ATC. The aircraft must carry a transponder
and have the facility to interrogate other aircraft transponders.

For aircraft to be visible to a TCAS equipped aircraft they must both have a mode A/C or mode S
022.12.10.00 transponder to trigger traffic alerts (TA) and/or resolution advisory (RA).

04.02 Modes and Codes

01 State that the interrogator transmits its interrogations in the form of a series of pulse pairs.
02 Name the interrogation modes: - Mode A and C, and successor Mode S; - Mode S.
03 State that the interrogation frequency and the reply frequency are different.
04 Explain that the decoding of the time interval between the pulse pairs determines the
operating mode of the transponder: Mode A: transmission of aircraft transponder code ;
Mode C: transmission of aircraft pressure altitude; Mode S: selection of aircraft address
and transmission of flight data for the ground surveillance.
05 State that Mode A designation is a sequence of four digits which can be manually selected
from 4,096 available codes.
06 State that in Mode C reply, the pressure altitude is reported in 100-ft increments.
07 State that in addition to the information provided, on request from ATC, a special position
identification (SPI) pulse can be transmitted but only as a result of a manual selection by
the pilot (IDENT button).
08 State the need for compatibility of Mode S with Mode A and C.
09 Explain that Mode S transponders receive interrogations from TCAS and SSR ground stations.
10 State that Mode S interrogation contains either the aircraft address, selective call or
all-call address.
11 State that every aircraft is allocated an ICAO aircraft address, which is hard-coded into the
Mode S transponder (Mode S address).
12 Explain that a 24-bit address is used in all Mode S transmissions, so that every interrogation
can be directed to a specific aircraft.
13 State that Mode S can provide enhanced vertical tracking, using a 25-ft altitude increment.
14 State that SSR can be used for automatic dependent surveillance broadcast (ADS-B).

SSR Modes

The aircraft transponder is interrogated from the ground station by a predetermined series of
pulses on the carrier frequency of 1,030 MHz. The transponder then transmits a coded reply on
a carrier frequency of 1,090 MHz. The two main modes of operation are:

• Mode A: An interrogation to identify an aircraft

• Mode C: An interrogation to obtain an automatic pressure altitude read-out of an aircraft.

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Figure 3.4.3 SSR frequencies

To differentiate between the interrogations, two pulses (P1and P3) are always transmitted.

• The spacing between P1 and P3 is 8 μs for a Mode A interrogation

• The spacing between P1 and P3 is 21 μs for a Mode C interrogation

Figure 3.4.4 SSR pair of pulses

A third pulse (P2) is introduced after P1 with a spacing of 2 μs, which prevents the transponder
to reply on interrogator side lobes.

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SSR Transponder Mode A

The aircraft transponder will reply correctly to a Mode A or C interrogation provided the pilot has
correctly selected the mode and code allocated by ATC (for example, 1305). Refer figure 3.4.5 on
SSR mode A coding. On receiving a valid interrogation, the aircraft transponder transmits two
framing pulses, F1 and F2. Between the framing pulses there are 12 usable information pulses.
A pulse can be transmitted or not (e.g., A1, B1, B2, and D4 are transmitted). There are 212 = 4,096
possible combinations of pulses or codes which are numbered 0000 to 7777 (the numbers
‘8’ and ‘9’ are not available).

Figure 3.4.5 SSR Mode A coding

A further pulse called the special position identification (SPI) pulse may be transmitted together
with the information pulses when the Ident button on the pilot’s transponder is pressed,
which should be used only at ATC’s request. This pulse is after the last framing pulse and will
be automatically and continuously transmitted for about 20 seconds. It produces a distinctive
display so that a controller can pick out a particular aircraft by asking the pilot to squawk ident.

SSR Transponder Mode C

When the aircraft receives a mode C interrogation, the transponder will produce an ICAO
determined code, using the same protocol as for mode A, that corresponds to its pressure
altitude (referenced to 1,013.25 hPa) rounded to the nearest 100 ft. The mode C code is
determined by an encoder within the air data computer (ADC) or a servo-altimeter and is totally
independent of the altimeter’s pressure setting.

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SSR Mode S

ATS have increased their reliance on SSR (which provides data on an aircraft’s position,
identification, altitude, speed, and track) but the existing mode A (identification) and mode C
(altitude reporting) system is reaching the limits of its operational capability.

Mode S is being introduced in order to overcome these limitations. S stands for selective
addressing. The mode S transponder must be compatible with SSR mode A/C interrogators and
thus, only one type of transponder needs to be carried by an aircraft, which still needs to operate
in non-mode S airspace.

Whilst mode A/C secondary surveillance radar stations interrogate all aircraft within their range,
mode S stations establish selective and addressed interrogations with aircraft within their
range. Such selective interrogation improves the accuracy and integrity of the identification and
altitude reporting. These improvements translate into benefits in terms of safety, which are key
to supporting the global high-traffic density airspace.

Mode S Address

Mode S relies on a unique ICAO 24-bit aircraft address for selective interrogation of an individual
aircraft. 16,777,216 aircraft addresses are allocated by ICAO to the State of Registration.

Mode S Datalink

The system will be supported by a ground data network and will have the ability to handle
uplink/downlink data messages over the horizon. Mode S can provide ground-to-air,
air-to- ground, and air-to-air data exchange using communications protocols.

Mode S and ACAS/TCAS

Mode S transponders are interrogated by aircraft’s TCAS II system. The datalink capability of
mode S makes it possible to generate RA alerts with coordinated evasive manoeuvres.

Mode-S transponders automatically send periodic burst transmissions called squitters. These
transmissions are self-generated and are not in response to interrogations from an SSR station.
The information sent serves several purposes including TCAS - squitter information includes
aircraft location and vertical speed. This information is used by TCAS systems on other aircraft to
identify potential conflicts.

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Figure 3.4.6 SSR and TCAS

Mode S Altitude Read-Out

This pressure altitude information is reported in 25 ft increments (subject to aircraft capability).

Mode S Interrogation Modes

Mode S operates in the following modes:

• All call: To elicit replies for acquisition of mode S transponders entering a controlled
airspace and perform surveillance of mode A/C transponders.
• Selective call: For surveillance of, and communication with, individual mode S
transponders interrogated with their ICAO address.

Figure 3.4.7 Mode S ICAO address

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Automated Dependent Surveillance - Broadcast (ADS-B)

The automated dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B) allows the transmission of aircraft

position, identification, and other information to the ATC network and other, compatible aircrafts.

ADS-B OUT

The onboard ADS-B system broadcasts its position and aircraft information to an ADS-B
ground receiver, which is connected to the ATC network. The available information includes:

• Aircraft position determined by using the augmented global navigation satellite

system (GNSS)
• Aircraft ICAO address given by the enhanced mode S transponder
• The flight plan aircraft identification (item 7) inserted in the FMS
• The downloaded aircraft parameters (DAP) included in the enhanced mode S
o Selected altitude
o Roll angle
o True track
o Magnetic heading
o Ground speed
o IAS/Mach number
o True airspeed
o Vertical speed (barometric or baro-inertial)
Expension of Mode S Surveillance Services

• Selected altitude / flight level

• Selected magnetic heading
• Selected course
• Selected IAS/Mach no.
ADS-B IN

For aircraft compatible with ADS-B IN, the same parameters are received from other ADS-B
equipped aircrafts. This allows pilots to have a traffic information displayed on the navigation
display (ND) in a similar way as the ATC controller’s display, which provides an optimum traffic
situation awareness.

ADS-B Stand-Alone Surveillance System

When all aircrafts operating in an ATC airspace are required to use ADS-B for surveillance purpose,
SSR ground interrogators and the primary ground radars are no longer necessary. This has
the advantage of reducing the operating cost of a surveillance system, while offering a surveillance
method with more accuracy and integrity than before.

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Figure 3.4.8 ADS-B system

04.03 Presentation and Interpretation

01 State that an aircraft can be identified by a unique code.
02 State which information can be presented on the ATC display system: pressure altitude;
- flight level; - flight number or aircraft registration number; - GS
03 Explain the use and function of the selector modes: OFF, Standby, ON (Mode A),
ALT (Mode A, C and S), TEST, and of the reply lamp.

Importance of Surveillance in Air Traffic Control

Surveillance systems are at the beginning of the air traffic management process. Air traffic
control is not possible without surveillance systems, mainly in dense air traffic areas. Surveillance
systems detect aircraft and send information to the air traffic control system, which allows air
traffic controllers to safely guide the aircraft.

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Figure 3.4.9 ADS-B on ATC display

The information sent to the ATC and displayed on the controller’s screen includes the aircraft
identification (Call sign) or aircraft registration, pressure altitude or flight level, ground speed,
and aircraft track and destination. The aircraft identification is the entry specified in item 7 of the
ICAO flight plan.

Surveillance is most widely provided by primary and secondary radars. However, new surveillance
technologies such as GNSS-based ADS-B system is progressively being installed.

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Basic SSR Control Panel

Figure 3.4.10 Basic SSR control panel

The function selector has three positions:

• OFF: The system is deactivated.

• STBY: The system is powered in standby with no transmission, which is the normal
ground mode. Start transmission once the aircraft is moving.
• ON: The transponder is activated. It is the normal mode in flight.
The mode selector has two positions:

• A/C: The transponder replies on mode A interrogation with the assigned code and on
mode C interrogation with the aircraft’s pressure altitude.
• A: The transponder replies only on mode A interrogation with the assigned code.
There is no pressure altitude information transmitted altitude. Is selected when ATC
requires to switch altitude transponder off.
The IDENT button is pushed momentarily when requested by ATC.

The reply lamp flashes to indicate transmission of reply pulses, and it glows steadily to indicate
transmission of IDENT pulse or satisfactory self-test operation. (Reply lamp will also glow steadily
during initial warm-up period.)

The red fail lamp indicates a failure of the transponder.

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SSR mode S and TCAS Control Panel

Figure 3.4.11 SSR mode S and TCAS control panel

The function selector has five positions:

• STBY: The system is powered in standby with no transmission, which is selected

when the aircraft is at the gate.
• ALT OFF: The transponder replies only on mode A interrogation with the assigned
code. There is no pressure altitude information transmitted altitude. It is selected
when ATC requires to switch altitude transponder off.
• XPDNR: The transponder replies on mode S interrogation with the aircraft identification,
aircraft’s pressure altitude and DAP if an enhanced mode S transponder is installed.
• TCAS modes
o TA ONLY: Only traffic alerts can be displayed. It is used in case of aircraft
performance degradation (for example, after an engine shutdown).
o TA/RA: TCAS system fully operational with traffic alerts and resolution advisory.
The XPDNR selector has two positions, which select the active transponder, as two transponder
systems are installed onboard the aircraft for redundancy requirements.

The IDENT button is pushed momentarily when requested by ATC.

The numeric keypad is used to insert the assigned mode A given by ATC.

The red fail lamp indicates a failure of the selected transponder.

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ADS-B Control Panel

Figure 3.4.12 ADS-B and TCAS control panel

The controls are almost the same as for the mode S control panel. The keypad is of the
alphanumeric type, which is used to enter the aircraft identification (the same as mentioned in
the flight plan) or the mode A code when requested.

More information on ADS-B can be found in the subject 022 AGK Instrumentation in the chapter
022.10.02.00 on Future Air Navigation Systems (FANSs).

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Systems (GNSSs)
0 Section 6 Table of Contents

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs)

6
01.00 Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs)..... 203
01.01 General......................................................................................... 203
01.02 Operation..................................................................................... 205
01.03 Errors and Factors Affecting Accuracy..................................... 216

02.00 Ground-, Satellite-, and Airborne-Based

Augmentation Systems ........................................ 220
02.01 Ground-Based Augmentation Systems (GBASs)...................... 220
02.02 Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems (SBASs)...................... 225
02.03 Intentionally Left Blank ............................................................. 231
02.04 Airborne-Based Augmentation Systems (ABASs).................... 231

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01.00 Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs)

01.01 General
01 State that there are four main GNSSs. These are: USA NAVigation System with Timing
and Ranging Global Positioning System (NAVSTAR GPS); Russian GLObal NAvigation
Satellite System (GLONASS) ; European Galileo (under construction); Chinese BeiDou
(under construction).
02 State that all four systems (will) consist of a constellation of satellites which can be used by
a suitably equipped receiver to determine position.

Introduction

The development of satellite-based navigation systems commenced in the 1950s with

the establishment of the transit system in the USA. The current generation began development
in the 1970s for military use and is totally operational for civil use since 1995. It is intended that
GNSS will replace all terrestrial radio navigation facilities in the near future. The current systems
have brought a new dimension of accuracy to navigation systems with precision measured
in metres, and where special differential techniques are used, the potential is for accuracies
substantially less than one metre.

At present, there are four operational global navigation satellite systems (GNSS):

• The NAVSTAR global positioning system (GPS) operated by the USA

• The global orbiting navigation satellite system (GLONASS) operated by Russia
• The European Galileo navigation satellite system
• The Beidou navigation satellite system (BDS), also named Compass, is
operated by China

GNSS Constellations

The GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and BDS satellite navigation systems have similar structures, that
include an allocated number of space vehicles (SV) orbiting in a nearly circular orbit around Earth
at given altitudes. The orbiting SVs used by a navigation satellite system is called a constellation.
Each constellation transmits data signals to compatible receivers, which use the available data
to determine their position in an Earth reference system and record an accurate time reference.

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Figure 6.1.1 GNSS constellation

Figure 6.1.2 GNSS constellation specifications table

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01.02 Operation
01 State that there are currently two modes of operation: standard positioning service (SPS)
for civilian users, and precise positioning service (PPS) for authorised users.
02 SPS was originally designed to provide civilian users with a less accurate positioning
capability than PPS.
03 Name the three GNSS segments as follows: space segment; control segment; user segment.

Modes of Operation

Two services are provided to the military and civil users:

• The precise positioning service (PPS) is provided for military and authorised users.
• The standard positioning service (SPS) is the specified level of positioning, velocity,
and timing accuracy that is available to any GPS user on a continuous, worldwide basis.
Selective availability (SA) was a set of techniques for denying the full accuracy of GPS available
to users of SPS signal. But the GPS SA was discontinued on 1 May 2000 by the US government in
order to provide the higher level of positioning, velocity, and time accuracy to civil and commercial
users worldwide.

GNSS Segments

A GNSS constellation consist of three main segments:

• The space segment, which includes the space vehicles.

• The control segment, which groups the ground monitoring and control stations.
• The user segment, which is made up of all the GNSS receivers.

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Space Segment (Example: NAVSTAR GPS)

04 State that each satellite broadcasts ranging signals on two UHF frequencies: L1 and L2.
05 State that SPS is a positioning and timing service provided on frequency L1.
06 State that PPS uses both frequencies L1 and L2.
07 State that the satellites transmit a coded signal used for ranging, identification (satellite
individual PRN code), timing and navigation.
08 State that the navigation message contains: satellite clock correction parameters;
Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) parameters ; an ionospheric model; satellite health data.
09 State that an ionospheric model is used to calculate the time delay of the signal travelling
through the ionosphere.
10 State that two codes are transmitted on the L1 frequency, namely a coarse acquisition (C/A)
code and a precision (P) code. The P code is not used for standard positioning service (SPS).
11 State that satellites are equipped with atomic clocks which allow the system to keep very
accurate time reference.

GPS Signal Coverage

GPS space vehicles, orbiting at an altitude of 20,200 km, send their SPS and PPS services and
navigation and system messages towards Earth. The spacing between the SVs in their orbit is such
that an observer on the surface of Earth will have between five and eight satellites in view, at least
5° above the horizon. The GPS SPS covers the surface of Earth up to an altitude of 3,000 km.

Figure 6.1.3 GPS signal coverage

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Space Vehicle Broadcast Frequencies

The SVs broadcast pseudo-random noise (PRN) codes of one millisecond duration on two
frequencies in the UHF L1 and L2 bands, together with a navigation and system data message.
Each SV has its own unique PRN code (i.e., PRN 01, PRN 02, …, PRN 24).

Figure 6.1.4 GPS signal frequencies

L1 frequency:1,575.42 MHz, which includes the SPS and the PPS services, transmits the coarse
acquisition (C/A) code repeated every millisecond, the precision (P) code, repeated every seven
days, the navigation data, and the system data. The navigation and system data messages are
used by both the P and C/A codes.

L2 frequency: 1,227.6 MHz transmits the P code only available to PPS users.

Only the C/A code is available to civilian users. The P code is provided for the US military and
approved civilian users and foreign military users at the discretion of the US Department of
Defence. The P code implements anti-spoofing and encrypted data and is therefore only
available to users with the necessary decryption algorithms.

GPS Time and Coordinate References

GPS satellites carry two Caesium atomic clocks and two Rubidium atomic clocks, which deliver
a continuous time scale accurate to about 14 ns and is used to define the time reference called
the GPS time (GPST), which is used by the receivers to calculate their range from that satellite.
The GPS time tallies the weeks and seconds from 00:00:00 on 06 January 1980 UTC. The SV clock
are synchronised within the constellation and are compensated for relativistic effects. The GPST
is related to but differs from the universal time coordinated (UTC) (maintained by the US Naval
Observatory). The time difference (in ns) between GPST and UTC is part of the nav and system
message and is used by receivers to calculate the UTC and time zone values.

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GNSS use an Earth referenced three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system with its origin at
the centre of the Earth. Because the systems are global, a common model of the Earth is required.
The world geodetic survey of 1984 (WGS84) is the ICAO required reference for GPS, and all
GPS terrestrial positions are defined on this model and referenced to the Cartesian coordinate
system. Where other reference models are required, a mathematical transformation is available
between the models (incorporated as a feature of GPS receivers).

Galileo uses the European terrestrial reference system 1989 (ETRS89) and the Russian model for
GLONASS is known as Parameters of the Earth 1990 (PZ90) (Parametry Zemli, PZ90). WGS84 is
the ICAO standard for aeronautical positions. However, since all these systems are mathematical
models, transposition from PZ90 to WGS84, for example, is a relatively simple mathematical
process. Mathematically all these models are regular shapes, known as ellipsoids.

Nav and System Messages

Johannes Kepler’s (1571-1630) laws quantified the mathematics of planetary orbits, which apply
equally to the orbits of artificial satellites.

Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion can be stated as follows:

• All planets move about the Sun in elliptical orbits, having the Sun as one of the foci.
• A radius vector joining any planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal lengths
of time.
• The squares of the sidereal periods (of revolution) of the planets are directly
proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the Sun.

Using these laws, space vehicles calculate their positions at all points in their orbits within
an Earth reference system. The SVs’ orbital position is known as ephemeris.

The navigation data and system status sent by SVs includes the necessary information to determine:

• Satellite position
• Satellite orbital parameters (i.e., satellite’s ephemeris)
• Satellite time
• GPST difference to UTC
• Constellation status
• Satellite health
• Satellite clock correction
• Propagation delay effects due to the ionosphere and troposphere.

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Ionospheric Delay

The interaction of the radio energy with the ionised particles in the ionosphere causes the radio
energy to be slowed down as it travels across the ionosphere. This is known as the ionospheric
delay. The delay is dependent on both the level of ionisation and the frequency of the radio
waves. The higher the frequency, the smaller the delay, and the higher the levels of ionisation,
the greater the delay. The receiver contains an average model of the ionosphere which is used to
make time corrections to the measured time interval. The state of the ionosphere is continuously
checked at monitoring stations and the required modifications to the model are regularly
updated to the SVs and then to the receivers.

Control Segment
12 State that the control segment comprises: - a master control station- a ground
antenna - monitoring stations.
13 State that the control segment provides: monitoring of the constellation status - correction
of orbital parameters- navigation data uploading.

The GPS control segment consists of a global network of ground tracking stations that track
the GPS space vehicles, monitor their signal transmission, and perform analysis. It is made of:

• One master control station located at Schriever Air Force Base (AFB), Colorado
• One backup master control station located at Vandenberg AFB, California
• Eleven command and control antennas
• Sixteen monitor stations

Figure 6.1.5 GPS control segment

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The Master Control Station

The GPS master control station provides the following commands and controls:

• Command and control of the GPS constellation

• Uses global monitor station data to compute the precise locations of the satellites
• Generates navigation messages for upload to the space vehicles
• Monitors satellite transmissions and system integrity to ensure constellation health
and accuracy
• Performs satellite maintenance and anomaly resolution, including repositioning
satellites to maintain optimal constellation
• Uses separate systems to control operational and non-operational satellites
The master station is backed up by a fully operational alternate master control station.

The Ground Tracking Stations

The ground tracking stations send commands, navigation data uploads, and processor program
loads to the satellites.

Ground tracking stations also:

• Communicate with SV via S-band (2.0 to 2.1 GHz) to uplink commands, data, and
ephemeris and to provide anomaly resolution and early orbit support, and via S-band
(2.2 to 2.4 GHz) downlink for telemetry measurements.
• Consist of four dedicated GPS ground antennas plus 7 Air Force Satellite Control
Network (AFSCN) remote tracking stations.

Monitor Stations

Monitoring stations track GPS satellites as they pass overhead, and collect navigation signals,
range/carrier measurements, and atmospheric data. They relay the observations to the master
control station. They make use of sophisticated GPS receivers.

Monitoring stations also provide global coverage via 16 sites:

• Originally six sites operated by the US Air Force.

• Augmented in 2008 with ten owned and operated sites by the National
Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA).

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User Segment
14 State that GNSS supplies three-dimensional position fixes and speed data, plus a precise
time reference.
15 State that a GNSS receiver is able to determine the distance to a satellite by determining
the difference between the time of transmission by the satellite and the time of reception.
16 State that the initial distance calculated to the satellites is called pseudo-range because the
difference between the GNSS receiver and the satellite time references initially creates an
erroneous range.
17 State that each range defines a sphere with its centre at the satellite.
18 State that there are four unknown parameters (x, y, z and Δt) (receiver clock error) which
require the measurement of ranges to four different satellites in order to get the position.
19 State that the GNSS receiver is able to synchronise to the correct time reference when
receiving four satellites.
20 State that the receiver is able to calculate aircraft ground speed using the space vehicle
(SV) Doppler frequency shift or the change in receiver position over time.

The user segment includes all the GNSS receivers using the space segment to determine their
position on Earth related to the geodetic reference system or use the GNSS accurate time for
timing functions. These receivers may be stand-alone or be part of integrated systems.

GPS Receiver - Principle of Operation

To determine its position, the receiver calculates the distance, or range (R), from a GPS space
vehicle by multiplying the speed of propagation with the time difference between the time of
signal transmission (T0) and the time of signal received (TR).

R = c x (T0 – TR)

Figure 6.1.6 Principle of operation

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The range which is calculated is a pseudo-range due to the difference between GPS receiver
and satellite time reference. The atomic clock accuracy is much higher than the receiver clock
accuracy, which leads to a receiver time error.

Calculating the range with only one SV results in the aircraft’s GPS receiver being anywhere on
the surface of a sphere with the SV at its centre.

GPS Receiver - Calculated Position

To define a 2D position, the receiver needs to calculate the range from three satellites. For an aircraft
that requires a 3D position, the GPS receiver needs to calculate the range from:

• At least four satellites

• Include in the equation the receiver clock error to synchronise to the accurate GPS time.

Figure 6.1.7 - 3D positioning and timing

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Barometric Aiding

In the event that only three SVs are in line of sight, the receiver can use the barometric altimeter.
Centre of Earth is then considered as the fourth satellite. The volumetric mean radius of Earth
(6,371 km) is added with the actual pressure altitude and provides the range of the fourth
element in the receiver’s equation.

Figure 6.1.8 Barometric aiding

GPS Receiver - Ground Speed Calculation

Two methods to determine the aircraft’s ground speed are available:

• By measuring the aircraft’s position displacement, along the great circle track, over time.
• By measuring the Doppler frequency shift generated from the transmitted
SV signal frequency.

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NAVigation System with Timing and Ranging Global Positioning System

(NAVSTAR GPS) Integrity
21 Define ‘receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM)’ as a technique that ensures
the integrity of the provided data by redundant measurements.
22 State that RAIM is achieved by consistency checks among range measurements.
23 State that basic RAIM requires five satellites. A sixth one is for isolating a faulty satellite
from the navigation solution.
24 State that agreements have been concluded between the appropriate agencies for the
compatibility and interoperability by any approved user of NAVSTAR and GLONASS systems.
25 State that the different GNSSs use different data with respect to reference systems, orbital
data, and navigation services.

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)

GPS receivers have an autonomous way of assuring the integrity of GPS pseudo-ranges:
the receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) algorithm.

GPS receivers require a minimum set of 4 satellites to compute a 3D position. With additional
satellites, the RAIM algorithm comes into play.

• A 5th satellite provides fault detection (FD) capability.

• The receiver recognises a faulty satellite but is not able to identify which one in particular.
• 6 or more satellites provide fault detection and exclusion (FDE) capability.
• The receiver is able to isolate the faulty satellite.
• 6 SVs is the minimum acceptable RAIM status for area navigation (RNAV) routes
and approaches.
RAIM prediction is required before conducting a flight which will use a GPS approach. This prediction
can be used using the GPS information available on the FMS/MCDU (refer to figure 6.1.9) or with an
internet-based RAIM prediction tool: service autonomous prediction tool (SAPT) (refer to figure
6.1.10). During flight, the receiver’s RAIM (FD or FDE) algorithm monitors the position. Approach
will be discontinued if fault monitoring detects a position failure when integrity is provided by FDE.

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Figure 6.1.9 GPS prediction page on MCDU

Figure 6.1.10 RAIM prediction tool table

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NAVSTAR and GLONASS Interoperability

Receiver systems combining GPS SPS and GLONASS provide the ability to combine positional
information from the two systems, which improves accuracy and enhances integrity monitoring.
However, since the SV systems use different reference models of the Earth, orbital parameters,
frequencies, identifications, and time reference, the GLONASS PZ90 and time (UTC Russia) generated
information needs to be converted to the ICAO WGS84 model to provide the final position.

01.03 Errors and Factors Affecting Accuracy

01 List the most significant factors that affect accuracy: ionospheric propagation delay;
dilution of position; satellite clock error; satellite orbital variations; multipath.
02 State that a user equivalent range error (UERE) can be computed from all these factors.
03 State that the error from the ionospheric propagation delay (IPD) can be reduced by modelling,
using a model of the ionosphere, or can almost be eliminated by using two frequencies.
04 State that ionospheric delay is the most significant error.
05 State that dilution of position arises from the geometry and number of satellites in view.
It is called geometric dilution of precision (GDOP).
06 State that the UERE in combination with the geometric dilution of precision (GDOP) allows
for an estimation of position accuracy.
07 State that errors in the satellite orbits are due to: solar winds; gravitation of the Sun
and the Moon.

GNSS Errors

Ephemeris errors: These are errors in the SVs calculation of position caused by the gravitational
effects of the Sun, Moon, planets and solar radiation. The SV position is checked every 12 hours
(i.e., GPS orbit time) and, where necessary, updated by the control segment. The maximum
error will be 2.5 m.

SV clock errors: As with SV ephemeris, the SV clock is checked at least every 12 hours and any
error is passed to the SV to be included in the navigation message broadcast. The maximum
error is 1.5 m.

Ionospheric propagation errors: The interaction of the radio energy with the ionised particles
in the ionosphere causes the radio energy to be slowed down as it traverses the ionosphere.
This is known as the ionospheric delay. The delay is dependent on both the level of ionization
and the frequency of the radio waves. The higher the frequency, the smaller the delay, and the
higher the levels of ionisation, the greater the delay. The error also depends on the SV position in
the sky and is minimised when an SV is located just overhead. The receiver contains an average
model of the ionosphere which is used to make time corrections to the measured time interval.
The state of the ionosphere is continuously checked at the monitoring stations and the required
modifications to the model are regularly updated to the SVs and then to the receivers. However,
the propagation path from the SV to the monitoring station will be very different to that to
the receiver, so this is only a partial solution.

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Figure 6.1.11 Ionospheric error

When two different frequencies, L1 and L2, are used (PPS), they experience different delays.
By measuring the difference in arrival time of the two signals, the total delay experienced can be
deduced, hence minimising the error and increasing the accuracy of the calculated range.

This is the most significant of the errors in SV navigation systems. Maximum error for single
frequency operation is 5 m.

Tropospheric propagation errors: Because of the inherent accuracy of SV navigation systems,

the effect of variations in tropospheric conditions on the passage of radio waves has become
significant. Variations in pressure, temperature, density, and humidity affect the speed
of propagation. Increased density and increased absolute humidity reduce the speed
of propagation. For example, a change in transit time of one nanosecond would give an error
of 0.3 m. As with ionospheric propagation error, this is minimised with the use of two frequencies.

Multipath reception: Reflections from the ground and parts of the aircraft result in multipath
reception. This can be minimised by careful siting of the aerial and by internal processing
techniques. This error can be reduced by avoiding receiver to use signal coming from below
the horizon. Typically, receivers disregard signal issued from below a mask angle of 5° above
the horizon. The maximum error is 0.6 m.

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Figure 6.1.12 Mask angle above horizon

Dilution of precision (DOP): The satellite geometry (cutting angle between position lines) and any
error in the pseudo-ranges (time synchronisation) will degrade the accuracy of the calculated position.

Figure 6.1.13 Dilution of precision

Geometric dilution of precision (GDOP): This is a combination of position DOP (PDOP)

and time DOP.

Errors caused by PDOP are minimised by the geometry of the positioning of the SVs in their
orbits and by the receiver selecting the four best SVs to determine position. The SV geometry
that will provide the most accurate fixing information is one SV directly overhead the receiver
and the other three SVs close to the horizon and spaced 120° apart. It is the receiver’s task to
select the best geometry amongst the available satellites in view over a mask angle of 5° above
the local horizon.

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Figure 6.1.14 Best GDOP

User equivalent range error (UERE): The errors issued from the satellites and the receiver
selection of satellite geometry are cumulative. The receiver computes the total error to estimate
the equivalent range error, i.e., the UERE.

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02.00 Ground-, Satellite-, and Airborne-Based

Augmentation Systems
02.01 Ground-Based Augmentation Systems (GBASs)
01 Explain the principle of a GBAS: to measure on the ground the errors in the signals
transmitted by GNSS satellites and relay the measured errors to the user for correction.
02 State that the ICAO GBAS standard is based on this technique through the use of a data
link in the VHF band of ILS–VOR systems (108–118 MHz).
03 State that for a GBAS station the coverage is about 20 NM.
04 State that GBAS provides information for guidance in the terminal area, and for
three-dimensional guidance in the final approach segment (FAS) by transmitting
the FAS data block.
05 State that one ground station can support all the aircraft subsystems within its coverage
providing the aircraft with approach data, corrections and integrity information for GNSS
satellites in view via a VHF data broadcast (VDB).
06 State that the minimum software designed coverage area is 10° on either side of the final
approach path to a distance between 15 and 20 NM, and 35° on either side of the final
approach path up to a distance of 15 NM.
07 State that outside this area the FAS data of GBAS is not used.
08 State that GBAS based on GPS is sometimes called local area augmentation system (LAAS).
09 State that a GBAS-based approach is called GLS approach (GLS-GNSS landing system).

Introduction

The ICAO specification for radio navigation systems requires a two-second warning of failure for
precision approach systems (e.g., ILS) and an eight-second warning for non-precision approach
systems (e.g., RNAV, VOR). With four SVs being used to provide a 3D position, there is no means
of detecting the degradation of information in any of the SV data, and an operator could
potentially experience errors of hundreds of miles unless they was able to cross-check the GNSS
position with another system. Therefore, differential GPS (DGPS) systems are used which can
determine any degradation in accuracy and allow a timely warning of the failure or degradation
of the information provided.

If the SV information degrades, the GPS receiver has no means of determining the degradation.
Consequentially, the safety of flight may be seriously endangered. DGPS is a means of improving
the accuracy of GPS by monitoring the integrity of the SV data and warning the user of any errors
which occur. DGPS systems will provide warning of failure in the SV data and prevent or minimise the
effect of such errors or provide failure warning and improve the accuracy of the deduced position.

There are three kinds of DGPS currently in use:

• Ground-based augmentation systems (GBAS)

• Satellite-based augmentation systems (SBAS)
• Airborne-based augmentation systems (ABAS)

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Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS)

The ground-based augmentation system (GBAS) consists of ground and aircraft elements. A GBAS
ground subsystem typically includes a single active VHF data broadcast (VDB) transmitter and
broadcast antenna and multiple reference receivers. GBAS can support all types of approach, landing,
surface operations, departure, guided takeoff in lower visibility conditions, and may support terminal
and en-route operations. Standard and recommended practices (SARPs) are developed to support
all categories of precision approach (e.g., CAT I, II, and III), approach with vertical guidance (APV), and
a positioning service. SARPs are published in ICAO Annex 10 - Volume 1 - Radio Navigation Aids.

GBAS Operation

The implementation of a GBAS, sometimes called local area augmentation system (LAAS)
requires a precisely surveyed site on the aerodrome and a means of transmitting the corrections
to aircraft operating close to the aerodrome. On the site, one or more GPS receivers determine
the GPS calculated position and compare it with their precise known position. The error in the
X, Y, and Z coordinates is determined and specially formatted to be transmitted to approaching
aircraft. The system will detect any errors in the SV data and either correct the error or give
a failure warning indication within two seconds.

The data is transmitted to aircraft via a dedicated VDB on frequencies between 108.025
and 117.975 MHz. Unlike ILS and the MLS, antenna location is independent of runways
configuration but requires careful evaluation of local sources of interference, airport
protection area, and multipath signals. A single GBAS ground installation may provide
guidance for up to 48 approaches within its VDB coverage.

A GBAS position service supports 2D operations in terminal and can provide ranging corrections
from a SBAS geostationary satellite.

Figure 6.2.1 GBAS operation

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GBAS Functions

GBAS provides the following functions:

• Locally relevant pseudo-range corrections, reference time and integrity data

• GBAS-related data
• Final approach segment (FAS) data when supporting precision approach
• Predicted ranging source availability data
The broadcast FAS data block defines the final approach path. The FAS data block enables
the computation of ILS lookalike deviation guidance. The FAS data block is associated with a GBAS
channel number in the range of 20,001 to 39,999 referenced to the associated VDB frequency.

When GBAS positioning service is available, it will provide position, velocity, and time data that
can be used as input to an on-board navigation computer or as a source of position information
for ADS-B. If this service is not supported by a particular ground station or by the avionics, the
on-board receiver will provide position, velocity, and time information in accordance with ABAS
062.07.00.00 requirements to support performance-based navigation (PBN).

GBAS allows the use of curved approach with both lateral and vertical guidance.

GBAS Coverage

The GBAS coverage to support precision approaches or APV with the use of FAS is as shown in
figure 6.2.2, except where topographical features dictate, and operational requirements permit.
Note that outside the coverage boundaries the FAS data is not used.

Figure 6.2.2 GBAS coverage

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GBAS Benefits

The GBAS benefits compared to other precision approach systems are:

• Guided missed approach

• Curved approach
• Position service
• Provision of several approach glide angles and displaced threshold
• Reduction of critical and sensitive areas
• Adjacent airports use

GBAS Accuracy, Integrity, Continuity, and Availability

Figure 6.2.3 GBAS accuracy, integrity, continuity and availability table

The GBAS performance requirements are expressed in terms of four quantitative concepts, many
062.06.02.02 of them to be interpreted as probabilistic figures. More details are given later in this chapter.

GBAS Landing System – GLS

GBAS onboard equipment have been developed to mimic ILS indications to simplify the
integration of GBAS. Display scaling and deviation outputs are equivalent to ILS to reduce aircrew
training requirements. All avionics will provide lateral and vertical guidance for final approach
course and glide path. GBAS based approach and landing is called a GBAS landing system (GLS)
and is used in the charting for the chart title (GLS RWY NN) and the GLS minima line.

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Figure 6.2.4 Bremen GLS approach

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Figure 6.2.5 GLS on PFD

02.02 Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems (SBASs)

01 Explain the principle of an SBAS: to measure on the ground the errors in the signals
received from the satellites and transmit differential corrections and integrity messages
for navigation satellites.
02 State that the frequency band of the data link is identical to that of the GPS signals.
03 Explain that the use of geostationary satellites enables messages to be broadcast over
very wide areas.
04 State that pseudo-range measurements to these geostationary satellites can also be made,
as if they were GPS satellites.
05 State that SBAS consists of two elements: ground infrastructure (monitoring and processing
stations); communication satellites.
06 State that SBAS allows the implementation of three- dimensional Type A and Type B approaches.
07 State the following examples of SBAS: European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service
(EGNOS) in western Europe and the Mediterranean; wide area augmentation system (WAAS)
in the USA ; multi-functional transport satellite (MTSAT)-based augmentation system (MSAS)
in Japan ; GPS and geostationary earth orbit augmented navigation (GAGAN) in India.
08 State that SBAS is designed to significantly improve accuracy and integrity.
09 Explain that integrity and safety are improved by alerting SBAS users within 6 seconds
if a GPS malfunction occurs.

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SBAS Providers

SBAS utilise a wide area differential GPS (DGPS) implemented through a wide area augmentation
system (WAAS). There are four systems currently operating:

• The European geostationary navigation overlay system (EGNOS)

• The US WAAS
• The Japanese multifunctional transport satellite augmentation system (MSAS)
• The Indian geo and GPS augmented navigation (GAGAN).
The objectives and principle of operation of these systems are more or less identical, to provide
an integrity monitoring and position enhancement to aircraft operating over a large area.
The methods of implementation differ slightly between systems, but the end result to the user
will be the same.

SBAS Principle of Operation

There are 3 segments making up SBAS:

• The space segment comprised of the GPS and/or GLONASS constellations and
geostationary SVs (geo SV)
• The ground segment comprising reference stations (RS) and a master control
station (MCS)
• The user segment comprised of all who use the service
RS are established within a region to measure the accuracy of the SV data and the ionospheric
and tropospheric effects on the SV transmissions. As with GBAS, the RS are precisely surveyed
sites containing a GPS receiver and an accurate atomic clock. Each RS is linked to the MCS.

The RS determine their GPS position from the SV data. The RS, since it knows its own position
and receives the SV ephemeris, clock time, and any clock error corrections, back calculates the
true position and time at the SV and determines the range error for each SV. It also determines if
there are significant errors which render any of the SVs’ information unusable, hence providing
an integrity check on the system. This range error will not deviate significantly over a considerable
range (200+ NM), neither will the relative effects of the ionospheric and tropospheric propagation.

The reference station’s data (SV errors and integrity assessment) is sent to the MCS where it is
formatted for use by suitable equipped GPS receivers (i.e., compatible GPS/SBAS receivers). The
data is then uplink for relay on the East Atlantic and Indian Ocean INMARSAT geostationary
satellites. The GPS receivers incorporate the data into the calculations and achieve both
enhancement of position and failure warning within six seconds.

The geostationary SVs have an orbital period of 24 hours and are in equatorial orbits at
an altitude of 35,800 km. They relay the information received from the MCS on the L1 frequency
1,575.42 MHz and provide an additional pseudo-range signal with an accuracy identifier PRN
code, which can be used by aircraft GPS receivers for ranging calculation as if it was a GPS SV.
The coverage area where the SBAS broadcast can be received is the geostationary footprint.

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Figure 6.2.6 SBAS principle of operation

SBAS Navigation Information

The navigation data transmitted by a geo SV includes the necessary information to determine:

• SBAS satellite position

• SBAS satellite time of transmission
• Corrected satellite position for all the satellites within the GPS constellation
• Corrected satellite time for all the satellites within the GPS constellation
• Ionospheric propagation delay effects
• Time transfer to UTC
• User position integrity

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SBAS Accuracy, Integrity, Continuity, and Availability

Figure 6.2.7 SBAS accuracy, integrity, continuity and availability table

The SBAS performance requirements are expressed in terms of four quantitative concepts, many
of them to be interpreted as probabilistic figures:

• Accuracy: Is expressed in terms of navigation system error (NSE) as the

difference between the real position of the aircraft and the position provided by
the airborne equipment.
• Integrity: Is defined by ICAO as a measure of the trust that can be placed in
the correctness of the information supplied by the system. This general statement
is expressed at the SBAS system level as the maximum allowable probability that
the navigation position error exceeds alert limit (AL), and the navigation system does
not alert the pilot in a time less than the time to alert.

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Figure 6.2.8 SBAS integrity alert limits (AL) table

• Continuity: Is the probability that the specified system performance will be maintained
for the duration of a phase of operation, presuming that the system was available
at the beginning of that phase of operation and was predicted to operate throughout
the operation. Lack of continuity means that the operation must be aborted (with
the associated risk).
• Availability: Is the probability that the navigation service is available at the beginning
of the planned operation. A SBAS is considered available when the accuracy, integrity,
and continuity requirements are met, and it is measured in terms of probability
of the system being available for any given user at any given time.

SBAS Use in Approach Procedures

Procedure and operation definitions:

• Procedure: Is the instrument flight procedure allowing an aircraft to navigate

on the final approach down to a given obstacle clearance height (OCH), relying
on a given type of navigation infrastructure.
• Operation: Is the manner in which an aircraft is managed to operate on a procedure.
Approach operations are classified according to the designated lowest minima of
an approach procedure:

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• Type A: Instrument approach operation minima 250 ft or above. It only requires the
non-precision runway infrastructure and related visual aids.
• Type B: Instrument approach operation minima below 250 ft. It requires a precision
runway infrastructure and related visual aids.
SBAS can be used to perform an approach operation with:

• 2D lateral guidance only

• 3D lateral and vertical guidance

Figure 6.2.9 ICAO approach classification table

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02.03 Intentionally Left Blank

02.04 Airborne-Based Augmentation Systems (ABASs)
01 Explain the principle of ABAS: to use redundant elements within the GPS constellation
(e.g. multiplicity of distance measurements to various satellites) or the combination
of GNSS measurements with those of other navigation sensors (such as inertial systems)
in order to develop integrity control.
02 State that the type of ABAS using only GNSS information is named receiver autonomous
integrity monitoring (RAIM).
03 State that a system using information from additional onboard sensors is named aircraft
autonomous integrity monitoring (AAIM).
04 Explain that the typical sensors used are barometric altimeter and inertial reference
system (IRS).
05 Define ‘receiver autonomous integrity monitoring’ (RAIM) as a technique that ensures
the integrity of the provided data by redundant measurements.
06 State that RAIM is achieved by consistency checks among range measurements.
07 State that basic RAIM requires five satellites. A sixth one is for isolating a faulty satellite
from the navigation solution.

Airborne-Based Augmentation System (ABAS)

GPS alone performance does not meet the ICAO requirements for navigation. The GPS system
needs to be augmented by using ground-based and space-based augmentation systems, which
improve the accuracy and provide the necessary integrity and timely alerts, as covered above.

A third augmentation system, the airborne-based augmentation system (ABAS) is used at the
level of the aircraft and comes in two types, which are used together.

• The receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM), which is a stand-alone

integrity control by the receiver and is based on the redundancy and geometry of the
GPS satellite vehicles. Note that RAIM provides the integrity but does not improve the
062.06.01.01 stand-alone GPS accuracy.
• The aircraft autonomous integrity monitoring (AAIM), which is a stand-alone
integrity control by the aircraft, based on the combination of GPS signal with other
sensors: radio navigation (Rad Nav) facilities and/or inertial navigation systems (IRS)
o GPS/IRS
♦ GPS corrects long-term inaccuracy of IRS
♦ IRS detects GPS inaccuracies
o GPS/Rad Nav
♦ GPS increases accuracy of radio navigation sensors
♦ Rad Nav detects GPS inaccuracies
• Barometric altimeter information is used for approach procedure with vertical
guidance (APV I)

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Figure 6.2.10 Aircraft autonomous integrity monitoring (AAIM)

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0 Section 7 Table of Contents

Performance-Based Navigation (PBN)

7
01.00 Performance-Based Navigation
(PBN) Concept ........................................................ 235
01.01 PBN Principles............................................................................. 235
01.02 PBN Components........................................................................ 240
01.03 PBN Scope.................................................................................... 241

02.00 Navigation Specifications .................................... 243

02.01 Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required
Navigation Performance (RNP)................................................. 243
02.02 Navigation Functional Requirements....................................... 243
02.03 Designation of RNP and RNAV Specifications.......................... 244

03.00 Use of Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) .... 247

03.01 Intentionally Left Blank.............................................................. 247
03.02 Intentionally Left Blank.............................................................. 247
03.03 Specific RNAV and RNP System Functions............................... 247

04.00 Performance-Based Navigation

(PBN) Operations................................................... 251
04.01 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) Principles.................... 251
04.02 On-Board Performance Monitoring and Alerting................... 252
04.03 Abnormal Situations................................................................... 254
04.04 Database Management.............................................................. 255

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05.00 Requirements of Specific RNAV and

7
RNP Specifications................................................. 256
05.01 RNAV 10........................................................................................ 256
05.02 RNAV 5.......................................................................................... 256
05.03 RNAV 1/RNAV 2/RNP 1/RNP 2.................................................... 257
05.04 Intentionally Left Blank.............................................................. 259
05.05 Required Navigation Performance
Approach (RNP APCH)................................................................. 259
05.06 Required Navigation Performance
Authorisation Required Approach (RNP AR APCH)................. 264
05.07 Advanced Required Navigation Performance (A-RNP)........... 266

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01.00 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) Concept

(as described in ICAO Doc 9613)
01.01 PBN Principles
01 List the factors used to define area navigation (RNAV) or required navigation performance
(RNP) system performance requirements (accuracy, integrity and continuity).
02 State that these RNAV and RNP systems are necessary to optimise the utilisation
of available airspace.
03 State that it is necessary for flight crew and air traffic controllers to be aware of the on-board
RNAV or RNP system capabilities in order to determine whether the performance of the
RNAV or RNP system is appropriate for the specific airspace requirements.
04 Define accuracy as the conformance of the true position and the required position.
05 Define continuity as the capability of the system to perform its function without unscheduled
interruptions during the intended operation.
06 Define integrity as a measure of the trust that can be placed in the correctness
of the information supplied by the total system. Integrity includes the ability of a system
to provide timely and valid alerts to the user.
07 State that, unlike conventional navigation, PBN is not sensor-specific.
08 Explain the difference between raw data and computed data.
09 Define availability as the percentage of time (annually) during which the system
is available for use.

Definitions

Area navigation: A method of navigation which permits aircraft operation on any desired
flight path within the coverage of ground or space-based navigation aids or within the limits
of the capability of self-contained aids, or a combination of these.

RNAV system: A navigation system which permits aircraft operation on any desired flight
path within the coverage of station-referenced navigation aids (VOR/DME) or within the limits
of the capability of self-contained aids (IRS), or a combination of these. An RNAV system may be
included as part of a flight management system (FMS).

RNP system: An area navigation system which supports on-board performance monitoring
and alerting functions.

Introduction to Area Navigation

The continuing growth of aviation increases demands on airspace capacity, therefore emphasising
the need for optimum utilisation of available airspace. Improved operational efficiency derived
from the application of area navigation techniques has resulted in the development of navigation
applications in various regions worldwide and for all phases of flight. These applications could
potentially be expanded to provide guidance for ground movement operations.

Requirements for navigation applications on specific routes or within a specific airspace must
be defined in a clear and concise manner. This is to ensure that the flight crew and the air traffic
controllers are aware of the on-board RNAV system capabilities in order to determine whether
the performance of the RNAV is appropriate for the specific airspace requirements.

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RNAV and RNP systems evolved in a manner similar to conventional ground-based routes and
procedures. A specific RNAV or RNP system was identified and its performance was evaluated
through a combination of analysis and flight testing. For domestic operations, the initial systems
used VOR and DME for estimating their position. For oceanic operations, INS were employed.
These “new” systems were developed, evaluated, and certified. Airspace and obstacle clearance
criteria were developed based on the performance of available equipment, and specifications
for requirements were based on available capabilities.

In some cases, it was necessary to identify the individual models of equipment that could
be operated within the airspace concerned. Such prescriptive requirements resulted in delays
to the introduction of new RNAV and RNP system capabilities and higher costs for maintaining
appropriate certification. To avoid such prescriptive specifications of requirements, the ICAO
Doc 9613 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) manual introduces an alternative method
for defining aircrew requirements by specifying the performance requirements. This is termed
performance-based navigation (PBN).

PBN Concept

The PBN concept specifies that aircraft RNAV and RNP system performance requirements
be defined in terms of the accuracy, integrity, continuity, and functionality, which are needed
for the proposed operations in the context of a particular airspace concept.

Performance requirements are identified in navigation specifications, which also identify

the choice of navigation sensors and equipment that may be used to meet the performance
requirements. These navigation specifications are defined at a sufficient level of detail to facilitate
global harmonisation by providing specific implementation guidance for States and operators.

Under PBN, generic navigation requirements are defined based on operational requirements.
Operators then evaluate options in respect of available technology and navigation services,
which could allow the requirements to be met. An operator thereby has the opportunity
to select a more cost-effective option, rather than a solution being imposed as part
of the operational requirements.

Technology can evolve over time without requiring the operation itself to be reviewed, as long
as the expected performance is provided by the RNAV or RNP system. As part of the future
work of ICAO, it is anticipated that other means for meeting the requirements of the navigation
specifications will be evaluated and may be included in the applicable navigation specifications,
as appropriate.

Evolution of Navigation

From the beginning of instrument navigation up to the ‘90s, aircraft navigated based on direct
signals from ground-based radio navigation aids (NAVAID), for example NDBs and VORs.
Navigation relied on aircraft crossing radio beacons and tracking to and from them directly.
Routes where dependent on the location of the navigation beacons, resulting in longer routes
and lack of flexibility due to few available tracks.

In the last decade of the 20th century, area navigation was introduced in Europe with B-RNAV
and P-RNAV concept, which allowed aircraft to fly tracks between waypoints, which are defined
by a radial and a distance from a VOR/DME.

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PBN concept which shifted from sensor-based (RNAV and RNP concept) to performance-based
navigation was introduced through the publication of the ICAO PBN Manual Doc 9613 in 2008.

PBN is an area navigation based on performance requirements for aircraft operating along an air
traffic service (ATS) route, on an instrument approach procedure or in a designated airspace.

Figure 7.1.1 The gradual development of airspace navigation

PBN Principles

The PBN concept specifies that aircraft RNAV and RNP system performance requirements be
defined in terms of:

• Accuracy
• Integrity
• Availability
• Continuity
Performance requirements are identified in navigation specifications, which also identify the choice
of navigation sensors and equipment that may be used to meet the performance requirements.

Accuracy

The measure of the precision of the navigation solution. ICAO Standards and Recommended
Practices (SARPs) specify the accuracy requirements for various phases of flight. Current
technology can use the GNSS constellations to meet IFR accuracy requirements for oceanic
and domestic en-route use as well as terminal area and non-precision approaches. Precision
approaches will require some form of GNSS augmentation (ABAS, SBAS, GBAS) to overcome the
known limitations of the constellation systems.

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Integrity

A measure of the trust that can be placed in the correctness of the information supplied.
The parameters defining the integrity are specific to navigation specifications:

• Alert limit (AL): The error tolerance not to be exceeded without issuing an alert.
o Means the region (horizontal and vertical) which is required to contain the
indicated position with the required probability for a particular navigation mode.
o Required ALs depend on the type of operation.
• Time to alert: The maximum allowable time elapsed from the onset of the
navigation system being out of tolerance until the equipment enunciates the alert
(e.g., LNAV = 10 seconds, LPV APP down to 200 ft = 6 seconds).
• Integrity risk: Probability that, at any moment, the position error exceeds the alert limit.
• Protection level (PL): statistical bound error computed so as to guarantee that
the probability of the absolute position error exceeding said number is smaller than
or equal to the target integrity risk.
o Means the region (horizontal and vertical) is assured to contain the indicated
position. It defines the region where the missed alert requirement can be met.
o PLs are computed by the on-board receiver.
If, during an operation the PLs exceed the required ALs, the operation cannot continue.

Integrity of the system (or service) establishes to which degree the navigation source can be
trusted during the flight.

VPL only used for operations with vertical guidance (e.g., LPV)
xAL: fixed value during operation
xPL: value calculated by on-board receiver (varies depending on aircraft and satellite geometry
and SBAS corrections)

Availability

Percentage of time that the services of the system are usable by the navigator. (Alternatively, the
proportion of time during which reliable navigation information is presented to the crew, autopilot,
or other system managing the flight of the aircraft).

The availability of a system (or service) establishes the percentage of time during when
the operation (for example, a final approach) can be started.

Continuity

The capability of the system to perform its function without unscheduled interruptions during
the intended operation. It relates to the capability of the navigation system to provide
a navigation output with the specified accuracy and integrity during the approach, assuming that
it was available at the start of the operation.

The continuity of the system guarantees that once an operation (e.g., a final approach) is initiated,
it will not be interrupted.

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Figure 7.1.2 Accuracy, integrity, continuity and availability table

Computed and Raw Data

In conventional navigation, the navigation performance data used to determine the separation
minima or route spacing depend on the accuracy of the raw data, which is a non-interpreted
data retrieved from specific navigation aids such as VOR, DME, or NDB.

Performance based navigation requires an RNAV or RNP system (i.e., an FMS) that integrates
raw navigation data to provide a positioning and navigation solution. In determining separation
minima and route spacing in a PBN context, this integrated navigation performance output
(computed data) is used.

Flight navigation computer (FMC) systems will confirm the validity of the individual sensor data
and, in most systems, will also confirm the consistency of the computed data before they are used.

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Benefits of PBN

Advantages of PBN over sensor-specific methods of developing airspace.

• It reduces the need to maintain sensor-specific routes and procedures, and their
associated costs.
• It avoids the need for developing sensor-specific operations with each new evolution
of navigation systems, which would be cost-prohibitive.
• It allows for more efficient use of airspace (route placement, fuel efficiency,
and noise abatement).
• It clarifies how RNAV and RNP systems are used.
• It facilitates the operational approval process for operators by providing a limited set
of navigation specifications intended for global use.
01.02 PBN Components
01 List the components of PBN as navigational aid (NAVAID) infrastructure, navigation
specification and navigation application.

Airspace Concept

The following is an extract from the ICAO PBN Manual Doc 9613 Volume I Third Edition, 2008.

Strategic objectives drive the general vision of the airspace concept. These objectives are usually
identified by airspace users, air traffic management (ATM), airports as well as environmental
and government policy. It is the function of the airspace concept and the concept of operations
to respond to these requirements. The strategic objectives which most commonly drive airspace
concepts are safety, capacity, efficiency, access, and the environment.

• Safety: The design of RNP instrument approach procedures could be a way

of increasing safety by reducing controlled flights into terrain (CFIT).
• Capacity: Planning the addition of an extra runway at an airport to increase capacity will
trigger a change to the airspace concept (new approaches to SIDs and STAR required).
• Efficiency: A user requirement to optimize flight profiles on departure and arrival
could make flights more efficient in terms of fuel burn.
• Environment: Requirements for reduced emissions, noise preferential routes
or continuous descent/arrivals/approaches (CDA), are environmental motivators
for change.
• Access: A requirement to provide an approach with lower minima than supported
by conventional procedures, to ensure continued access to the airport during bad
weather, may result in providing an RNP approach to that runway.
The cascade effect from strategic objectives to the airspace concept places requirements
on the various “enablers”, such as communication, navigation, ATS surveillance, air traffic
management (ATM) and flight operations. Navigation functional requirements, now within
a performance-based navigation context, need to be identified. These navigation functionalities
are formalised in a navigation specification which, together with a navaid infrastructure, supports
a particular navigation application. As part of an airspace concept, navigation applications also
have a relationship to communication, ATS surveillance, ATM, ATC tools, and flight operations.

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Figure 7.1.3 Airspace concept

PBN Constituents
Navigation specification: Set of aircraft and aircrew requirements needed to support
a navigation application within a defined airspace concept. There are RNAV and RNP specifications
with different required navigation performances, which are covered later in this chapter.

Navigation infrastructure: Ground-based NAVAIDS (VOR and DME) and/or space-based

NAVAIDS (GNSS).

Navigation application: Application of a navigation specification and the supporting NAVAID

infrastructure, to routes, procedures, and/or defined airspace volume, in accordance with
the intended airspace concept.

01.03 PBN Scope

01 State that in oceanic/remote, en-route and terminal phases of flight, PBN is limited
to operations with linear lateral performance requirements and time constraints.
02 State that in the approach phases of flight, PBN accommodates both linear and angular
laterally guided operations, and explain the difference between the two.

Lateral and Angular Performances

For oceanic/remote, en-route, and terminal operations, PBN is limited to operations with linear
lateral performance requirements and time constraints (e.g., estimated time overhead ETO).

For legacy reasons associated with the previous RNP concept, PBN is currently limited to operations
with linear lateral performance requirements and time constraints. For this reason, operations with
angular lateral performance requirements (i.e., approach and landing operations with vertical
guidance for APV-I and APV-II GNSS performance levels, as well as ILS/MLS/GLS precision approach
and landing operations) are not considered in PBN concept.

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Figure 7.1.4 PBN Scope

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02.00 Navigation Specifications

02.01 Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required
Navigation Performance (RNP)
01 State the difference between RNAV and RNP in terms of the requirement for on-board
performance monitoring and alerting.

On-board Performance Monitoring and Alerting (OBPMA)

The difference between RNAV and RNP specifications is that for RNP specifications an on-board
performance monitoring and alerting (OBPMA) function is mandatory, which is not required for
062.07.04.02 RNAV specifications, although it may be used, if available.

02.02 Navigation Functional Requirements

01 List the basic functional requirements of the RNAV and RNP specifications (continuous
indication of lateral deviation, distance/bearing to active waypoint, GS or time to active
waypoint, navigation data storage and failure indication).

RNAV and RNP specifications include requirements for certain navigation functionalities. At the basic
level, these functional requirements may include:

• Continuous indication of aircraft position relative to track to be displayed to the pilot

flying on a navigation display (ND) situated in his primary field of view
• Display of distance and bearing to the active (To) waypoint
• Display of ground speed or time to the active (To) waypoint
• Navigation data storage function
• Appropriate failure indication of the RNAV or RNP system, including the sensors

Figure 7.2.1 Navigation display route information

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02.03 Designation of RNP and RNAV Specifications

01 Interpret X in RNAV X or RNP X as the lateral navigation (LNAV) accuracy (total system error)
in nautical miles, which is expected to be achieved at least 95 % of the flight time by
the population of aircraft operating within the given airspace, route or procedure.
02 State that aircraft approved to the more stringent accuracy requirements may not
necessarily meet some of the functional requirements of the navigation specification that
has a less stringent accuracy requirement.
03 State that RNAV 10 and RNP 4 are used in the oceanic/remote phase of flight.
04 State that RNAV 5 is used in the en-route and arrival phases of flight.
05 State that RNAV 2 and RNP 2 are also used as navigation specifications.
06 State that RNP2 is used in the en-route and oceanic/remote phases of flight.
07 State that RNAV2 might be used in the en-route continental, arrival and departure
phases of flight.
08 State that RNAV 1 and RNP 1 are used in the arrival and departure phases of flight.
09 State that required navigation performance approach (RNP APCH) is used in the approach
phase of flight.
10 State that required navigation performance authorisation required approach
(RNP AR APCH) is used in the approach phase of flight.
11 State that RNP 0.3 navigation specification is used in all phases of flight except
for oceanic/remote and final approach, primarily for helicopters.
12 State that RNAV 1, RNP 1 and RNP 0.3 may also be used in en-route phases of low-level
instrument flight rule (IFR) helicopter flights.

RNP X and RNAV X

The expression X means the aircraft can follow a pre-defined track (lateral navigation) with X nautical
miles (NM) accuracy during 95% of the flight time by the population of aircraft operating within
the airspace, routes, or procedures.

Figure 7.2.2 RNP X and RNAV X specifications

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Navigation Specification Aircraft Approval

Because specific performance requirements are defined for each navigation specification, an
aircraft approved for a particular navigation specification is not automatically approved for any
other navigation specification. Similarly, an aircraft approved for an RNP or RNAV specification
having stringent accuracy requirements (e.g., RNP 1 specification) is not automatically approved
for a navigation specification having a less stringent accuracy requirement (e.g., RNP 2).

Navigation RNP and RNAV Specifications

Figure 7.2.3 Navigation RNP and RNAV specifications

RNAV/RNP and Flight Phases

The PBN manual defines navigation specifications, which can be used in association with different
phases of flight, as shown in the following table on navigation specifications related to flight phases.

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Figure 7.2.4 Navigation specifications related to flight phases table

Note:

RNP 0.3 is primarily used by helicopters, and RNAV 1, RNP 1, and RNP 0.3 may be used in en-route
phases of low-level instrument flight rule (IFR) helicopter flights.

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03.00 Use of Performance-Based Navigation (PBN)

03.01 Intentionally Left Blank
03.02 Intentionally Left Blank
03.03 Specific RNAV and RNP System Functions
01 Recognise the definition of radius to fix (RF) leg.
02 Recognise the definition of a fixed radius transition (FRT).
03 State the importance of respecting the flight director guidance and the speed constraints
associated with an RF procedure.
04 Explain the difference between a fly-by-turn and a fly- over.
05 State that the Aeronautical Radio, Incorporated (ARINC) 424 path terminators set the standards
for coding the SIDs, STARs and instrument approach procedures (IAPs) from the official
published government source documentation into the ARINC navigation database format.
06 State that the path terminators define a specific type of termination of the previous flight path.
07 Define the term ‘offset flight path’.

Fixed Radius Tracks

The fixed radius path (FRPs), which provide repeatable and predictable turn performance take
two forms: the radius to fix (RF) and the fixed radius turn (FRT).

The RF leg is used when there is a requirement for a specific curved track radius in a terminal or
approach procedure. The RF leg is defined by radius, arc length, and fix. RNP systems (i.e., the
FMS) supporting this leg type provide the same ability to conform to the track-keeping and speed
accuracy during the turn as in the straight-line segments. Bank angle limits for different aircraft
types and winds aloft are taken into account in procedure design.

Figure 7.3.1 RF leg

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The FRT leg is intended to be used with en-route procedures. RNP systems supporting this leg
type create the fixed radius turn (also called a fixed radius transition or FRT) between two route
segments. These turns have two possible radii, 22.5 NM for high altitude routes (above FL 195)
and 15 NM for low altitude routes. Using FRT in an area navigation ATS route enables maintaining
same spacing between routes on straight and turning segments without a need to increase route
spacing on the turn.

Figure 7.3.2 Fixed radius turn

Fly-By and Fly-Over Turns

Fly-by waypoint turns are a key characteristic of an RNAV flight path. The flight management
guidance system (FMGS) uses information on aircraft speed, bank angle, wind, and track angle
change, to calculate a flight path turn that smoothly transitions from one path segment to the
next. However, because the parameters affecting the turn radius can vary from one plane to
another, as well as due to changing conditions in speed and wind, the turn initiation point and
turn area can vary. Compared with fixed radius path performance, the fly-by turn does not
provide a repeatable and predicted path.

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Fly-over waypoint turns overflies the waypoint before starting the interception, calculated
by the FMGS onto the next leg. Note the waypoint symbol which is circled in figure 7.3.3.

Figure 7.3.3 Fly-by and fly-over turns

Offset Flight Path

RNAV systems may provide the capability for the flight crew to specify a lateral offset from a defined
route. Generally, lateral offsets can be specified in increments of 1 NM up to 20 NM. When a lateral
offset is activated in the FMS, the aircraft will depart the defined route and typically intercept the
offset at a 45 degree or less angle. When the offset is cancelled, the aircraft returns to the defined
route in a similar manner. Such offsets can be used both strategically, i.e., fixed offset for the length
of the route, or tactically, i.e., temporarily, for example, to replace radar vectoring.

Figure 7.3.4 Offset flight path

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Path Terminators

The aeronautical radio incorporated (ARINC) 424 defines the path terminator, which describes
a specific type of path termination of the previous flight path. A path terminator code:

• Permits defining how to navigate to, from, and between waypoints.

• Is a two-letter code, which defines a specific type of flight path along a segment of
a procedure and a specific type of termination of that flight path.
• Is assigned to all RNAV SID, STAR, and approach procedure segments in an aera
navigation system database.
Charted procedures are translated into a sequence of ARINC 424 legs in the database.

There are 23 different path terminators, which can be depicted in RNAV or RNP charts.

Figure 7.3.5 Example of path terminators

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04.00 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) Operations

04.01 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) Principles
01 Define ‘path definition error’ (PDE).
02 Define ‘flight technical error’ (FTE) and state that the FTE is the error in following
the prescribed path, either by the auto-flight system or by the pilot.
03 Define ‘navigation system error’ (NSE) and state that the accuracy of a navigation system
may be referred to as NSE.
04 Define ‘total system error’ (TSE) and state that the geometric sum of the PDE,
FTE and NSE equals the TSE.
05 State that navigation accuracy depends on the TSE.

Total System Error (TSE)

There are three main independent lateral errors in the context of on-board performance
monitoring and alerting. Together they account for the total system error (TSE).

• Path definition error (PDE) occurs when the path defined in the RNAV system’s
navigation database does not correspond to the desired path, i.e., the path expected
to be flown over the ground.
• Flight technical error (FTE) relates to the air crew or autopilot’s ability to follow the
defined path or track, including any display error (for example, course deviation
indicator (CDI) centring error). It is sometimes referred to as path steering error (PSE).
• Navigation system error (NSE) refers to the difference between the aircraft’s
estimated position and actual position. It is sometimes referred to as positioning
estimation error (PEE).
The total system error, in nautical mile (NM), is equal to the geometric sum of the independent errors.

TSE=√PDE 2 + FTE 2 + NSE 2

Figure 7.4.1 Total system error

The lateral TSE must be within the RNAV X or RNP X specification for at least 95% of the total
flying time.

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The probability that the TSE of each aircraft exceeds the specified TSE limit (equal to two times
the RNP X) without annunciation is less than 10–5.

04.02 On-Board Performance Monitoring and Alerting

01 State that on-board performance monitoring and alerting of flight technical errors
is managed by on-board systems or flight crew procedures.
02 State that on-board performance monitoring and alerting of navigation system errors is
a requirement of on-board equipment for RNP.
03 State that, dependent on the navigation sensor, the estimated position error (EPE)
is compared with the required navigation specification.
04 Explain how a navigation system assesses the EPE.
05 Give an example of how the loss of the ability to operate in RNP airspace may be indicated
by the navigation system.
06 State that on-board performance monitoring and alerting of path definition error
is managed by gross reasonableness checks of navigation data.

On-Board Performance Monitoring and Alerting (OBPMA)

On-board performance monitoring and alerting capabilities fulfil two needs: one on board
the aircraft and one within the airspace design. The assurance of airborne navigation system
performance is implicit for area navigation RNAV operations.

This function allows the air crew to detect whether the RNP system satisfies the navigation
performance required in the navigation specification. It relates to both lateral and longitudinal
navigation performance.

• On-board means that the performance monitoring and alerting is done on-board
the aircraft and not elsewhere, for example using ATC surveillance. The monitoring
element of on-board performance monitoring and alerting relates to FTE and NSE.
Path definition error (PDE) is constrained through navigation database integrity and
functional requirements on the defined path and is considered negligible.
• Monitoring refers to the monitoring of the aircraft’s performance regarding its ability
to determine positioning error and/or to follow the desired path.
• Alerting relates to monitoring: if the aircraft’s navigation system does not perform
as required by the RNP specification, this will be alerted to the aircrew.
OBPMA is usually performed by a GPS augmentation system, mainly the ABAS RAIM function
and/or SBAS, when available, and lateral navigation display indicator (CDI), enabling the aircrew
to monitor the FTE.

• On-board performance monitoring shall not be regarded as error monitoring.

Alerts are issued when the system cannot guarantee with sufficient integrity that
the position meets the accuracy requirement.
• When an alert is issued, the probable reason is the loss of capability to validate the
position data (insufficient satellites being a potential reason).

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Figure 7.4.2 Effect on OBPMA on TSE table

NSE Dependence on Navigation Sensors

The NSE distribution varies over time due to a number of changing characteristics, most notably:

• Selected navigation sensors: the navigation sensors which are being used to estimate
position, such as GNSS, DME/DME or VOR/DME.
• The relative geometry of the aircraft position to the supporting navigation aids: DME and
VOR radio navaids have this basic variability, although the specific characteristics change.
• GNSS performance is affected by the relative geometry of the satellites as compared
to the aircraft (lines of position should be well distributed in space to support good
GDOP and time DOP).
• DME/DME navigation solutions are affected by the inclusion angle between the two
DMEs at the aircraft (90 degrees being optimal) and the distance to the DMEs, since the
aircraft DME transponder can have increasing range errors with increasing distance.
• Inertial reference units: error characteristics: errors increase over time since last
being updated.

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04.03 Abnormal Situations

01 State that abnormal and contingency procedures are to be used in case of loss
of the PBN capability.

Abnormal and contingency procedures are to be used in case of the loss of PBN capability.

Abnormal procedures should be available to address cautions and warnings resulting from the
following conditions:

• Failure of the navigation system components including those affecting flight technical
error (e.g., failures of the flight director or auto pilot)
• RAIM alert or loss of integrity function
• Warning flag or equivalent indicator on the lateral and/or vertical navigation display
• Degradation of the GNSS approach mode during a LPV approach procedure
(e.g., downgrade from LPV to LNAV)
• Low altitude alert (if applicable)
062.07.05.05 Definitions of LNAV, LNAV/VNAV, LP, and LPV approaches are covered in 062.07.05.05.

Approach capability reversion:

For LPV approaches, some systems allow LPV to LNAV reversion if the vertical signal is lost
or degraded.
If LPV to LNAV reversion takes place before the final approach fix (FAF), the crew can envisage
continuing with the approach to the LNAV minima.
If reversion occurs after the FAF, a go-around is required, unless the pilot has in sight the visual
references required to continue the approach.
In case of a complete RNAV guidance loss during the approach, the crew must follow
the operator defined contingency procedures, which mainly will result in aborting the approach
and go-around.
The flight crew should react to Stall, GPWS/TAWS and wind shear warnings in accordance
with approved procedures.
The flight crew should notify ATC of any problems with the navigation system resulting in
the loss of enroute and/or approach capability.

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04.04 Database Management

01 State that, unless otherwise specified in the operations documentation or acceptable
means of compliance (AMCs), the navigational database must be valid for the current
aeronautical information regulation and control (AIRAC) cycle.

Navigation Database Management

The navigation database must contain all the necessary data/information to fly the published
approach procedure. Therefore, the on-board navigation data must be valid for the current
aeronautical information regulation and control (AIRAC) cycle and must include the appropriate
flight procedures. The AIRAC cycle has a validity for the navigation database of 28 days.
The operator should implement procedures that ensure timely distribution and insertion of
current and unaltered electronic navigation data to all aircraft that require it. This quality process
renders the path definition error (PDE) negligible.

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05.00 Requirements of Specific RNAV and

RNP Specifications
05.01 RNAV 10
01 State that RNAV 10 requires that aircraft operating in oceanic and remote areas
be equipped with at least two independent and serviceable long-range navigation systems
(LRNSs) comprising an INS, an inertial reference system (IRS)/flight management system
(FMS) or a GNSS.
02 State that operators may extend their RNAV10 navigation capability time by updating

RNAV 10 Specifications

Oceanic/Remote Phases of Flight

• Without on-board performance monitoring and alerting function, even when

operationally approved as “RNP 10”.
• Lateral TSE must be within ±10 NM for at least 95 percent of the total flight time.
• 50 NM lateral and 50 NM longitudinal separation.
• Based on at least two independent LRNS comprising an INS, IRS FMS, or a GNSS.
• Dual INS/IRS are time limited which may be extended by updating.

05.02 RNAV 5
01 State that manual data entry is acceptable for RNAV 5.

RNAV 5 Specifications

En-route and Arrival Phases of Flight

• Without on-board performance monitoring and alerting function.

• Lateral TSE must be within ±5 NM for at least 95 percent of the total flight time.
Route spacing may vary among regional implementations.
• Based on VOR/DME, DME/DME, INR, IRS, or GNSS.
• The only navigation specification which allows manual data entry.
• Equivalent to Basic RNAV (B-RNAV) within ECAC (European Civil Aviation Conference).

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05.03 RNAV 1/RNAV 2/RNP 1/RNP 2

01 State that pilots must not fly an RNAV 1, RNAV 2, RNP 1 or RNP 2 standard instrument
departure (SID) or standard instrument arrival (STAR) unless it is retrievable by route name
from the on-board navigation database and conforms to the charted route.
02 State that the route may subsequently be modified through the insertion (from the database)
or deletion of specific waypoints in response to ATC clearances.
03 State that the manual entry, or creation of new waypoints by manual entry, of either
latitude and longitude or place/bearing/distance values is not permitted.

RNAV 1 Specifications

Arrival and Departure Phases of Flight

• Without on-board performance monitoring and alerting function.

• Lateral TSE must be within ±1 NM for at least 95 per cent of the total flight time.
• Based on DME/DME, DME/DME/IRU and GNSS.
• Almost equivalent to Precision RNAV (P-RNAV) within ECAC.
• Pilots must not fly a RNAV 1, SID or STAR unless it is retrievable by route name from
the on- board navigation database and conforms to the charted route.
• Route may be modified through the insertion (from database) or deletion of way- points.
• Manual entry of either latitude and longitude or place/bearing/distance values
is not permitted.

RNAV 2 Specifications

En-Route Continental, Arrival, and Departure Phases of Flight

• Without on-board performance monitoring and alerting function.

• Lateral TSE must be within ±2 NM for at least 95 percent of the total flight time.
• Based on DME/DME, DME/DME/IRU, and GNSS.
• Pilots must not fly a RNAV 2, SID, or STAR unless it is retrievable by route name from
the on- board navigation database and conforms to the charted route.
• Route may be modified through the insertion (from the AIRAC navigation database)
or deletion of waypoints.
• Manual entry of either latitude and longitude or place/bearing/distance values
is not permitted.

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5 062.07 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN)

RNP 1 Specifications

Arrival and Departure Phases of Flight

• With on-board performance monitoring and alerting function (usually RAIM).

• Lateral TSE must be within ±1 NM for at least 95 percent of the total flight time.
• For terminal airspace with no or limited ATS surveillance, with low to medium
density traffic.
• Based on GNSS.
• Pilots must not fly a RNP 1, SID, or STAR unless it is retrievable by route name from
the on-board navigation database and conforms to the charted route.
• Route may be modified through the insertion (from database) or deletion of waypoints.
• Manual entry of either latitude and longitude or place/bearing/distance values
is not permitted.

RNP 2 Specifications

Oceanic, Continental, En-Route, and Airspaces Considered to be Remote

• With on-board performance monitoring and alerting function (usually RAIM).

• Lateral TSE must be within ±2 NM for at least 95 percent of the total flight time.
• Based on GNSS.
• Pilots must not fly a RNP 2, SID, or STAR unless it is retrievable by route name from
the on-board navigation database and conforms to the charted route.
• Route may be modified through the insertion (from database) or deletion of waypoints.
• Manual entry of either latitude and longitude or place/bearing/distance values
is not permitted.

RNP 4 Specifications
Oceanic, En-Route and Airspaces Considered to be Remote
Lateral TSE must be within ±4 NM for at least 95 percent of the total flight time.
30 NM lateral and 30 NM longitudinal separation.
Based on at least two independent LRNS comprising an FMS and GNSS/ABAS.
Pilots must not fly a SID or STAR unless it is retrievable by route name from the on- board
navigation database and conforms to the charted route.
Route may be modified through the insertion (from database) or deletion of way-points.
Manual entry of either latitude and longitude or place/bearing/distance values is not permitted.

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5 062.07 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN)

05.04 Intentionally Left Blank

05.05 Required Navigation Performance Approach (RNP APCH)
01 State that pilots must not fly an RNP APCH unless it is retrievable by procedure name from
the on-board navigation database and conforms to the charted procedure.
02 State that an RNP APCH to LNAV minima is a non- precision IAP designed for two-dimensional
approach operations.
03 State that an RNP APCH to lateral navigation (LNAV)/vertical navigation (VNAV) minima has
lateral guidance based on GNSS and vertical guidance based on either SBAS or barometric
vertical navigation (Baro- VNAV).
04 State that an RNP APCH to LNAV/VNAV minima may only be conducted with vertical
guidance certified for the purpose.
05 Explain why an RNP APCH to LNAV/VNAV minima based on Baro-VNAV may only be conducted
when the aerodrome temperature is within a promulgated range if the barometric input is
not automatically temperature- compensated.
06 State that the correct altimeter setting is critical for the safe conduct of an RNP APCH using
Baro-VNAV.
07 State that an RNP APCH to LNAV/VNAV minima is a three-dimensional operation.
08 State that an RNP APCH to localiser performance with vertical guidance (LPV) minima is
a three-dimensional operation.
09 State that RNP APCH to LPV minima requires a final approach segment (FAS) data block.
10 State that RNP approaches to LPV minima require SBAS.
11 State that the FAS data block is a standard data format to describe the final approach path.

RNP APCH Specifications

Procedure vs Operation

Procedure is the instrument flight procedure allowing to navigate on the final approach down
to a given obstacle clearance height (OCH), relying on a given type of navigation infrastructure.

Operation is the manner in which an aircraft is conducted to operate on a procedure.

Approach Phase of Flight

• With on-board performance monitoring and alerting function (RAIM or SBAS).

• Lateral TSE varies with minima and approach segment (i.e., initial, intermediate, final,
and missed approaches).
• RNP navigation specification dealing with approach procedure using GNSS.
• Approaches are normally charted under the name (RNAV/GPS) or RNAV/(GNSS).

259
5 062.07 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN)

Type of Approaches

RNP APCH covers three type of approaches, identified on instrument approach charts (IAC)
by the minima line.

• Non-precision approach (NPA): LNAV and localiser performance (LP) – MDA/MDH

• APV BaroVNAV approach: LNAV/VNAV – DA/DH
• APV SBAS approach: LPV – DA/DH

Figure 7.5.1 RNP APCH Types

Lateral navigation (LNAV) is an NPA with lateral navigation guidance provided by GPS and
ABAS, which combines RAIM and aircraft autonomous integrity monitoring (AAIM).

Localiser performance (LP) is an NPA with lateral navigation guidance provided by GPS and SBAS.

All NPA should be flown using the continuous descent final approach (CDFA) technique.

LNAV/VNAV is an approach procedure with vertical guidance (APV). The lateral navigation guidance
is provided by GPS and ABAS in the same way as for LNAV. The vertical guidance is provided by
a barometric altimeter. This type of approach is commonly known as APV/Baro VNAV.

Localiser performance with vertical guidance (LPV) is an APV approach. The lateral and
vertical guidance is provided by GPS and SBAS.

260
5 062.07 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN)

RNP APCH Lateral Accuracy

The required accuracy varies approach segments.

• Initial, intermediate, and missed approach segments: 1 NM

• Final segment: 0.3 NM

Figure 7.5.2 RNP APCH required accuracy

RNP APCH Minima

Figure 7.5.3 RNP APCH minima

LNAV/VNAV Local Temperature Variation

LNAV/VNAV based on BaroVNAV can only be flown when the aerodrome temperature is higher
or equal to the minimum promulgated temperature given on the approach IAC chart, unless the
aircraft has an approved temperature compensation system, which may be an FMS functionality.

Altimeter setting is critical to safely conduct an LNAV/BaroVNAV. The correct QNH setting must
be checked before passing the final approach fix on all altimeters. The maximum difference
between altimeters should not exceed 100 ft.

261
5 062.07 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN)

Local QNH is needed before starting an LNAV/VNAV approach. Remote altimeter setting is prohibited.

Figure 7.5.4 BaroVNAV minimum temperature

Figure 7.5.5 BaroVNAV map

LPV Final Approach Segment (FAS)

The final approach segment (FAS) is a set of parameters to identify a precision approach or APV
and define its associated approach path and is part of the data package of an APV SBAS procedure.

The FAS database contains the parameters that define the final approach segment geometry. The
integrity of the data in ensured by the generation of a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) algorithm.

The LPV minima requires a FAS DB to ensure the integrity of the database rests on the data
describing the approach path, hence the importance of having a CRC wrapping the FAS DB.

262
5 062.07 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN)

Figure 7.5.6 BaroVNAV charted minimum temperature table

263
5 062.07 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN)

05.06 Required Navigation Performance Authorisation

Required Approach (RNP AR APCH)
01 State that RNP AR APCH requires authorisation.

RNP authorisation required approach (RNP AR APCH) capabilities are available in a limited number
of current aircraft and for which operators have limited experience. Specific authorisation ensures
adequate local authorities’ oversight of aircraft and operator to safely conduct these procedures.

RNP AR APCH provides:

• Reduced lateral and vertical obstacle clearance

• Use of RF legs where and when appropriate
• Curved path
• Missed approach guidance
RNP AR APCH takes advantage of improved aircraft performance and enables lower minima.

RNP AR APCH improves safety and access where conventional approach cannot be aligned to
runway and access in mountainous terrain.

264
5 062.07 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN)

Figure 7.5.7 Palm Springs airport RNP AR APCH

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5 062.07 Performance-Based Navigation (PBN)

05.07 Advanced Required Navigation Performance (A-RNP)

01 State that A-RNP incorporates the navigation specifications RNAV 5, RNAV 2, RNAV 1, RNP 2,
RNP 1 and RNP APCH.

Advanced RNP holds within the navigation specification addressing all phases of flight maximise
benefits and minimise costs to operators in gaining operational approval. Advanced RNP meets
the operational requirements for all phases of flight, including final approach. The specifications
included are:

• RNAV 5, 2, and 1
• RNP 2, 1, and APCH.
Furthermore, one of the main requirements of advanced RNP proved to be the need for track
repeatability and predictability in the turn. For this reason, the radius to fix (RF) functionality
is required in advanced RNP.

Optionally, other functionalities may be available, e.g., FTR and time to arrival control (TOAC).

266
 Glossary Index
X Glossary Index

A B
Absorption.......................................... 49 Back course approach.....................130
Adcock aerial...................................... 53 Barometric altimeter.......................231
ADS-B ground receiver.....................192 Beam..................................................166
Advanced RNP..................................266 Beamwidth........................................166
Aeronautical information Beat frequency oscillator (BFO)........ 63
regulation and control (AIRAC).......255 Beidou navigation satellite
Aeronautical radio incorporated system (BDS).....................................203
(ARINC)...............................................250 Blind alley effect...............................175
Airborne-based augmentation
system (ABAS)....................................231
Airborne weather radar
,
(AWR)........................................ 153 164
C
Caesium atomic clocks....................207
Aircraft autonomous integrity
Carrier waves (CW)............................. 10
monitoring (AAIM)............................231
Carrier Waves (CW)............................ 16
Air/Ground navigational systems...152
Clear air turbulence (CAT)...............165
Air traffic control..............................152
Coarse acquisition (C/A) code.........207
Air traffic management (ATM)........240

,
Communication................................240
Air traffic service (ATS).....................237
Cone of confusion....................... 61 91
Alert limit (AL)...................................238
Constellation.....................................203
All call................................................191
Continuous descent approaches....124
Angular lateral performance..........241
Continuous descent
Area navigation............................... 235
final approach (CDFA)......................260
Area navigation (RNAV)....................214
Control segment...............................205
ATC network......................................192
Conventional VOR (CVOR)................. 83
At least four satellites......................212
Cosecant squared............................166
ATS surveillance................................240
Critical area......................................137
Attenuation......................................... 49
Cycle....................................................... 3
Attitude-stabilised............................167
Automated dependent
surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B)......192
Automatic tilt....................................171
AWR test function.............................170

267
X Glossary Index

D F
Decision height (DH).........................118 False glide path................................124
Designated operational Fan-shaped.......................................166
coverage (DOC)................................... 78 Fault detection and exclusion
Differential GPS (DGPS)...................220 (FDE)...................................................214
Diffraction........................................... 48 Fault detection (FD)..........................214
Diffraction........................................... 35 Final approach segment (FAS)........262
Dilution of precision (DOP)..............218 Final approach segment (FAS)........222
DME memory circuit........................113 Fixed radius turn (FRT).....................247
Doppler effect..................................... 37 Flight management guidance
Doppler frequency............................. 38 system (FMGS)..................................248
Doppler shift....................................... 38 Flight management
system (FMS).....................................235
Doppler VDF antenna........................ 53
Flight technical error (FTE)..............251
Doppler VOR (DVOR).......................... 83
Fly-down............................................130
Downloaded aircraft
parameters (DAP).............................192 Fly-left................................................129
Fly-right.............................................129
Fly-up.................................................130
E Frequency.............................................. 6
Earth’s horizontal plane..................167 Front course......................................131
Echo principle...................................154
Electromagnetic spectrum................. 9
Electromagnetic wave (EMW).............. 6
Enhanced mode S transponder......192
En-route NDBs................................... 60
Ephemeris.........................................208
Ephemeris errors............................. 216
European geostationary navigation
overlay system (EGNOS)..................226
European terrestrial reference
system 1989 (ETRS89)......................208

268
X Glossary Index

G J
Galileo...............................................203 Japanese multifunctional
Geo and GPS augmented transport satellite
navigation (GAGAN).........................226 augmentation system (MSAS).........226
Geometric dilution of precision
(GDOP)...............................................218
Geostationary SVs............................226 L
Glide path (GP).................................119 L1 frequency.................................... 207
Global harmonisation.....................236 L2 frequency.....................................207
Global navigation Linear lateral performance.............241
satellite systems (GNSS)...................203 Line of sight ranges..........................155
Global orbiting navigation LM or LMM.......................................... 60
satellite system (GLONASS)..............203 Local area augmentation
GPS master control station.............210 system (LAAS)....................................221
GPS time (GPST)................................207 Localiser (LOC)..................................119
Greatest potential turbulence.........174 Localiser performance (LP).............260
Ground-based augmentation Locator (L or Lctr).............................. 60
system (GBAS)...................................221 Locator middle marker...................... 60
Ground segment...............................226 Locator outer marker
Ground tracking stations................210 (LO or LOM)......................................... 60
Ground wave...................................... 35

M
H Manual gain......................................170
Heterodyne.......................................... 63 Map mode.........................................169
Mapping beam.................................169
Marconi aerial.................................... 21
I Mask angle........................................217
INMARSAT geostationary Master control station (MCS)..........226
satellites............................................226
Maximum theoretical range...........155
Instrument approach
Missed approach procedure...........118
charts (IAC)........................................260
Mixing.................................................. 63
Instrument flight rule (IFR)..............246
Mode A.............................................. 187
Integrity risk......................................238

,
Mode C............................................. 187

,
Interception procedure...................... 73
Modulation.................................. 10 16
Interrogator............................. 108 186
Monitoring stations..........................210
Ionosphere.......................................... 31
Multi-mode receiver (MMR).............145
Ionospheric delay.............................209
Multipath reception.........................217
Ionospheric propagation errors.....216
Ions...................................................... 31

269
X Glossary Index

Predictive wind shear system

N (PWS)..................................................182
N0N A1A.............................................. 62 Pressure altitude..............................189
N0N A2A.............................................. 62 Primary radar...................................151
Navaid infrastructure......................240 Procedure turn................................... 74
Nav and system message................207 Propagation........................................ 31
Navigation aids (NAVAID)................236 Protection area.................................136
Navigation application....................240 Protection level (PL)..........................238
Navigation data................................207 Pseudo-random noise (PRN)...........207

,
Navigation display (ND)...................243 Pseudo-range....................................212
Navigation specifications................236 Pulse length................................ 14 153
Navigation system error (NSE)........251 Pulse recurrence frequency (PRF)...153
NAVSTAR global positioning Pulse recurrence interval (PRI)........153
system (GPS).....................................203 Pulse recurrence period.................... 14
Nearly circular orbit.........................203 Pulse repetition frequency................ 14
Pulse width........................................153

O
Obstacle clearance height (OCH)....229 Q
Omnidirectional................................. 59 ,
,
QDM.............................................. 55 68
On-board performance QDR............................................... 55 68
monitoring and alerting
QTE....................................................... 55
(OBPMA)............................................243
QUJ....................................................... 55

P R
Parameters of the Earth 1990
(PZ90).................................................208 Racetrack procedure.......................... 76
Path definition error (PDE)..............251 Radar vectoring................................160
Path terminator................................250 Radial.................................................. 92
PBN concept......................................236 Radio magnetic indicator (RMI)........ 68

,
Pencil-shaped beam........................166 Radius to fix (RF)...............................247
Performance-based navigation Radome...................................... 28 166

,
(PBN)..................................................236 RAIM prediction................................214
Period.................................................... 3 Rate one turns........................... 74 101
Plan position indicator (PPI)...........154 Raw data...........................................239
Precise positioning service (PPS).....205
Precision approach radar (PAR).....152
Receiver autonomous integrity
monitoring (RAIM)................... 214 231 ,
Precision DME (DME/P)....................142 Receiver clock error..........................212
Precision (P) code.............................207 Reference signal................................. 84

270
X Glossary Index

Reference stations (RS)....................226 Sky wave.............................................. 34

Reflection............................................. 45 Slant ranges......................................107

, ,
Reflective levels.................................172 Soundwave............................................ 4
Refraction..................................... 34 45 Space segment......................... 205 226
Relative bearing indicator (RBI)........ 66 Space vehicles (SV)...........................203
Relative bearing (RB).......................... 67 Space waves........................................ 36
Resolution.........................................166 Special position identification
Rho-rho.............................................112 (SPI)....................................................189
Rho-theta..........................................111 Speed of light....................................... 6
RNAV/(GNSS).....................................259 Squawk ident....................................189
RNAV/GPS..........................................259 Squitters............................................190
RNAV system.................................... 235 Standard positioning service
(SPS)...................................................205
RNP authorisation
required approach Standards and Recommended
(RNP AR APCH)..................................264 Practices (SARPs)..............................237
RNP system...................................... 235 Surveillance radar approach
(SRA)...................................................152
Rubidium atomic clocks..................207
SV clock errors................................. 216
System data......................................207
S
Scanner.............................................168
Secondary radar..............................151
T
TACAN................................................111
Secondary radar system..................107

,
Tactical air navigation.....................111
Secondary surveillance
radar (SSR)........................................185 The minimum range............... 155 156
Selective addressing.........................190 Time referenced scanning
beam (TRSB)......................................140
Selective availability (SA).................205
Time to alert......................................238
Selective call......................................191
Total system error (TSE)...................251
Sensitive area....................................137
To the accurate GPS time................212
Service autonomous
prediction tool (SAPT)......................214 Traffic alert and collision
avoidance system (TCAS).................187
Shadowing.......................................... 27
Transceiver........................................168
Sideband............................................. 11
Transponder.................................... 108
Skip distance....................................... 41
Transponder.....................................186
Skip zone/dead space........................ 41
Transverse wave................................... 3
Tropospheric propagation

271
X Glossary Index

errors.................................................217

U
UHF L1 and L2 bands......................207
Unit-vector............................................ 3
Universal time coordinated
(UTC)..................................................207
User equivalent range error

, ,
(UERE)................................................219
User segment.................. 205 211 226

V
Variable phase signal........................ 84
VDF....................................................... 53
VHF ground direction finding............ 53

W
Wave...................................................... 3
Wavelength........................................... 7
Waypoints........................................ 236
Weather mode..................................169
Weather plus turbulence.................169
Wide area augmentation
system (WAAS)...................................226
Wind shear alert...............................182
World geodetic survey of
1984 (WGS84)...................................208

272
062 Radio Navigation
CAE ATPL Ground Training Series

Radio Navigation, book 12 in the series of 16, comprehensively covers

the EASA ATPL syllabus and learning objectives for this subject. The text
is easy to read, and the numerous illustrations help cadets better
understand the more difficult aspects of the subject.

CAE Oxford Aviation Academy

Oxford Airport, Kidlington
Oxford, OX5 1QX, England
Tel: +44 (0) 1865 844290
Email: [email protected]
Complies with
EASA ATPL www.caeoxfordinteractive.com
 Revision Record

Revision no. Effective date

Original January 2021

Rev 1.0 July 2021

Rev. 2.0 September 2021

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