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Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine 2nd Edition J
Longe Digital Instant Download
Author(s): J Longe
ISBN(s): 9780787693961, 0787674265
Edition: 2
File Details: PDF, 84.83 MB
Year: 2005
Language: english
 The GALE
ENCYCLOPEDIA of
AlTERNATIVE
MEDICINE
SECOND EDITION
 The GALE
of
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Alternative
MEDICINE
SECOND EDITION

VOLUME

1
A-C

JACQUELINE L. LONGE, PROJECT EDITOR

 The Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine, Second Edition

Project Editor Rights Acquisition Management Composition and Electronic Prepress

Jacqueline L. Longe Margaret Abendroth, Ann Taylor Evi Seoud, Mary Beth Trimper

Editorial Imaging Manufacturing

Deirdre S. Blanchfield, Laurie Fundukian, Erin Randy Bassett, Lezlie Light, Dan W. Newell, Wendy Blurton, Dorothy Maki
Watts Robyn V. Young
Indexing
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Andrea Lopeman Michelle DiMercurio, Tracey Rowens

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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

The Gale encyclopedia of alternative medicine / Jacqueline L. Longe,

project editor.-- 2nd ed.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7876-7424-9 (set hardcover : alk. paper) -- ISBN 0-7876-7425-7 (v. 1 : alk.
paper) -- ISBN 0-7876-7426-5 (v. 2 : alk. paper) -- ISBN 0-7876-7427-3 (v. 3 : alk.
paper) -- ISBN 0-7876-7428-1 (v. 4 : alk. paper)
1. Alternative medicine--Encyclopedias.
[DNLM: 1. Complementary Therapies--Encyclopedias--English. 2. Internal
Medicine--
Encyclopedias--English. WB 13 G1507 2005] I. Title: Encyclopedia of
alternative medicine. II. Longe, Jacqueline L.
R733.G34 2005
615.5'03--dc22
2004022502

This title is also available as an e-book

ISBN 7876-9396-0 (set)
Contact your Gale sales representative for ordering information

ISBN 0-7876-7424-9(set)
0-7876-7425-7 (Vol. 1)
0-7876-7426-5 (Vol. 2)
0-7876-7427-3 (Vol. 3)
0-7876-7428-1 (Vol. 4)

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 CONTENTS

List of Entries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

About the Encyclopedia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Advisory Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
Entries
Volume 1: A-C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Volume 2: D-K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Volume 3: L-R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
Volume 4: S-Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1523
Organizations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2199
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2225
General Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2293

GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2 V

 LIST OF ENTRIES

Apis Bates method

A Apitherapy Bayberry
Abscess Appendicitis Bedsores
Acidophilus Applied kinesiology Bedwetting
Acne Apricot seed Bee pollen
Aconite Arginine Behavioral optometry
Acupressure Arnica Behavioral therapy
Acupuncture Aromatherapy Belladonna
Ademetionine Arrowroot Beta-hydroxy
Adie’s pupil Arsenicum album Beta-methylbutyric acid
African pygeum Art therapy Beta carotene
Agastache Ashwaganda Betaine hydrochloride
Aging Asthma Bhakti yoga
AIDS Astigmatism Bilberry
Alcoholism Aston-Patterning Binge eating disorder
Alexander technique Astragalus Biofeedback
Alfalfa Atherosclerosis Bioflavonoids
Alisma Athlete’s foot Biota
Allergies Atkins diet Biotin
Allium cepa Atractylodes (white) Bipolar disorder
Aloe Attention-deficit hyperactivity dis- Bird flu
order Bites and stings
Alpha-hydroxy
Aucklandia Bitter melon
Alzheimer’s disease
Auditory integration training Bitters
Amino acids
Aura therapy Black cohosh
Andrographis
Auriculotherapy Black currant seed oil
Androstenedione
Autism Black haw
Anemarrhena
Ayurvedic medicine Black walnut
Anemia
Angelica root Black cumin seed extract
Angina Bladder cancer
Anise Bladder infection
Ankylosing spondylitis B Blessed thistle
Anorexia nervosa Bad breath Blisters
Anthroposophical medicine Balm of Gilead Blood poisoning
Antioxidants Barberry Blood clots
Anxiety Barley grass Bloodroot

GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2 VII

List of Entries
Blue cohosh Cartilage supplements Coenzyme Q10
Body odor Castor oil Coix
Boils Cat’s claw Cold sores
Bone spurs Cataracts Coleus
Bonemeal Catnip Colic
Boneset Cayce systems Colloidal silver
Borage oil Cayenne Colonic irrigation
Boron Celiac disease Color therapy
Boswellia Cell therapy Colorectal cancer
Botanical medicine Cell salt therapy Colostrum
Breast cancer Cellulite Coltsfoot
Breastfeeding problems Cerebral vascular insufficiency Comfrey
Breath therapy Cerebral palsy Common cold
Breema Cervical dysplasia Conjunctivitis
Brewer’s yeast Chakra balancing Constipation
Bromelain Chamomile Contact dermatitis
Bronchitis Charcoal, activated Copper
Bruises Chasteberry tree Coptis
Bruxism Chelated minerals Cordyceps
Bryonia Chelation therapy Corns and calluses
Buchu Chemical poisoning Cornsilk
Buckthorn Cherry bark Cornus
Bugleweed Chickenpox Corydalis
Bulimia nervosa Chickweed Cotton root bark
Bunions Chicory Cough
Burdock root Childbirth Cradle cap
Burns Childhood nutrition Cramp bark
Bursitis Chills Cranberry
Butcher’s broom Chinese massage Craniosacral therapy
Buteyko Chinese system of food cures Creatine
Chinese thoroughwax Crohn’s disease
Chinese yam Croup
Chinese foxglove root
Crystal healing
Chiropractic
C Chlamydia
Cupping
Curanderismo
Cadmium poisoning Chlorella
Cuscuta
Caffeine Cholesterol
Cuts and scratches
Calcarea carbonica Chondroitin
Cymatic therapy
Calcium Christian Science healing
Cyperus
Calendula Chromium
Cancer Chronic fatigue syndrome
Cancer treatments, biological Chrysanthemum flower
Candidiasis Chymotrypsin
Canker sores Cicada D
Cantharis Cinnamon bark Damiana
Carnitine Cirrhosis Dance therapy
Carotenoids Cnidium seeds Dandelion
Carpal tunnel syndrome Codonopsis root Dandruff

VIII GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2

Deglycyrrhizanated licorice Evening primrose oil Gelsemium

List of Entries
Dementia Evodia fruit Genital herpes
Depression Exercise Genital warts
Dermatitis Eyebright Gentiana
Detoxification Geriatric massage
Devil’s claw Gerson therapy
DHEA Ginger
Diabetes mellitus F Ginkgo biloba
Diamond diet Facial massage Ginseng, American
Diaper rash Fasting Ginseng, Korean
Diarrhea Fatigue Ginseng, Siberian
Diathermy Feldenkrais Glaucoma
Diets Feng shui Glucosamine
Digestive enzymes Fennel Glutamine
Diverticulitis Fenugreek Glutathione
Dizziness Ferrum phosphoricum Goldenrod
Dolomite Fever Goldenseal
Dong quai Feverfew Gonorrhea
Dry mouth Fibrocystic breast disease Gotu kola
Dyslexia Fibromyalgia Gout
Dysmenorrhea Fish oil Grains-of-paradise fruit
5-HTP Grape skin
Flaxseed Grape seed extract
Flower remedies Grapefruit seed extract
E Fo ti Green tea
Folic acid Guggul
Ear infection
Food poisoning Guided imagery
Earache
Foxglove Gulf War syndrome
Echinacea
Fractures Gum disease
Eczema
French green clay Gymnema
Edema
Elder Fritillaria
Electroacupuncture Frostbite and frostnip
Elimination diet Fungal infections
Emphysema H
Endometriosis Hair loss
Energy medicine Hangover
Environmental therapy G Hatha yoga
Enzyme therapy Gallstones Hawthorn
Ephedra Gamma-linoleic acid Hay fever
Epididymitis Gangrene Headache
Epilepsy Ganoderma Hearing loss
Epimedium Gardenia Heart disease
Essential fatty acids Garlic Heart attack
Essential oils Gas Heartburn
Essiac tea Gastritis Heavy metal poisoning
Eucalyptus Gastrodia Heel spurs
Eucommia bark Gastroenteritis Hellerwork

GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2 IX

List of Entries
Hemorrhoids Infant massage
Hepar sulphuris Infections L
Hepatitis Infertility Labyrinth walking
Herbalism, Western Inflammatory bowel disease Lachesis
Herbalism, traditional Chinese Influenza Lacto-ovo vegetarianism
Herniated disk Ingrown nail Laryngitis
Hiatal hernia Insomnia
Hibiscus Lavender
Insulin resistance Lazy eye
Hiccups Iodine
High sensitivity C reactive protein Lead poisoning
Ipecac Learning disorders
test
Ipriflavone Lecithin
High-fiber diet
Hives Iridology Ledum
Hodgkin’s disease Iron Lemon balm
Holistic dentistry Irritable bowel syndrome Lemongrass
Holistic medicine Ischemia Leukemia
Homeopathy Itching Lice infestation
Homeopathy, acute prescribing Licorice
Homeopathy, constitutional pre- Light therapy
scribing
Linoleic acid
Honeysuckle J Livingston-Wheeler therapy
Hops
Jaundice Lobelia
Horehound
Jet lag Lomatium
Horse chestnut
Horsetail Jock itch Lomilomi
Hot flashes Jojoba oil Lou Gehrig’s disease
Humor therapy Journal therapy Low back pain
Huna Juice therapies Lung cancer
Hydrotherapy Juniper Lutein
Hypercortisolemia Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis Lycium fruit
Hyperopia Lycopene
Hyperparathyroidism Lycopodium
Hypertension Lyme disease
Hyperthermia K Lymphatic drainage
Hyperthyroidism Lysimachia
Kali bichromicum
Hypnotherapy Lysine
Kampo medicine
Hypoglycemia Kaposi’s sarcoma
Hypothyroidism Kava kava
Hyssop Kegel exercises
Kelley-Gonzalez diet M
Kelp Macrobiotic diet
Kidney stones Macular degeneration
I Kidney infections Magnesium
Iceland moss Kirlian photography Magnetic therapy
Ignatia Knee pain Magnolia
Immuno-augmentation therapy Kneipp wellness Maitake
Impetigo Kola nut Malaria
Impotence Kombucha Malignant lymphoma
Indigestion Kudzu Manganese

X GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2

Marijuana Natrum muriaticum Panchakarma

List of Entries
Marsh mallow Natural hygiene diet Pancreatitis
Martial arts Natural hormone replacement ther- Panic disorder
Massage therapy apy Pantothenic acid
McDougall diet Naturopathic medicine Parasitic infections
Measles Nausea Parkinson’s disease
Meditation Neck pain Parsley
Mediterranean diet Neem Passionflower
Medium-chain triglycerides Nettle Past-life therapy
Melatonin Neural therapy Pau d’arco
Memory loss Neuralgia Pelvic inflammatory disease
Meniere’s disease Neurolinguistic programming Pennyroyal
Meningitis Niacin Peppermint
Menopause Night blindness Peripheral neuropathy
Menstruation Noni Periwinkle
Mercurius vivus Nosebleeds Pet therapy
Mesoglycan Notoginseng root Phlebitis
Metabolic therapies Nutmeg Phobias
Methionine Nutrition Phosphorus
Mexican yam Nux vomica Pilates
Migraine headache Pinched nerve
Milk thistle Pine bark extract
Mind/Body medicine Pinellia
Mistletoe O Pityriasis rosea
Mononucleosis Placebo effect
Oak
Morning sickness Plantain
Obesity
Motherwort Pleurisy
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Motion sickness Pneumonia
Omega-3 fatty acids
Movement therapy Polarity therapy
Omega-6 fatty acids
Moxibustion Postpartum depression
Ophiopogon
MSM Post-traumatic stress disorder
Oregano essential oil
Mugwort leaf Potassium
Ornish diet
Pranic healing
Mullein Ortho-bionomy
Prayer and spirituality
Multiple chemical sensitivity Orthomolecular medicine
Pregnancy
Multiple sclerosis Osha
Pregnancy massage
Mumps Osteoarthritis
Premenstrual syndrome
Muscle spasms and cramps Osteopathy
Prickly heat
Music therapy Osteoporosis
Prickly pear cactus
Myopia Ovarian cancer
Pritikin diet
Myotherapy Ovarian cysts
Probiotics
Myrrh Oxygen/Ozone therapy
Prolotherapy
Prostate enlargement
Prostate cancer
Psoriasis
N P Psychoneuroimmunology
Narcolepsy Pain Psychophysiology
Native American medicine Paleolithic diet Psychosomatic medicine

GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2 XI

List of Entries
Psychotherapy Russian massage Sneezing
Psyllium Ruta Snoring
Pulsatilla Sodium
Pulse diagnosis Somatics
Pyridoxine Sore throat
S Sound therapy
South Beach diet
Safflower flower
Soy protein
Saffron
Q Sage
Spearmint
Spinal manipulative therapy
Qigong Saliva sample testing
Spirulina
Quan yin Sargassum seaweed
Sports massage
Sassafras Sprains and strains
Saw palmetto Squawvine
Scabies St. John’s wort
R Scallion Staphylococcal infections
Rabies Scarlet fever Sties
Radiation injuries Schisandra Stomachaches
Radiesthesia Schizophrenia Stone massage
Radionics Sciatica Strep throat
Rashes Scoliosis Stress
Raspberry Seasonal affective disorder Stroke
Raynaud’s syndrome Selenium Substance abuse and dependence
Red cedar Senior nutrition Sulfur
Red clover Senna Suma
Red yeast rice extract Sensory deprivation Sun’s soup
Reflexology Sensory integration disorder Sunburn
Reiki Sepia Swedish massage
Reishi mushroom Sesame oil Sweet clover
Relaxation Sexual dysfunction Swimmer’s ear
Rescue Remedy Shamanism Syntonic optometry
Restless leg syndrome Sheep sorrel Syphilis
Retinal detachment Shiatsu Systemic lupus erythematoses
Retinopathy Shiitake mushroom
Rheumatic fever Shin splints
Rheumatoid arthritis Shingles
Rhinitis Shintaido T
Rhubarb root Sick building syndrome T’ai chi
Rhus toxicodendron Sickle cell anemia Tangerine peel
Riboflavin Silica Tea tree oil
Rolfing Sinus infection Teenage nutrition
Rosacea Sjögren’s syndrome Teething problems
Rose hip Skin cancer Temporomandibular joint syn-
Rosemary Skullcap drome
Rosen method Sleep apnea Tendinitis
Royal jelly Sleep disorders Tennis elbow
Rubella Slippery elm Tetanus
Rubenfeld synergy Smoking Thai massage

XII GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2

Therapeutic touch Uterine cancer Wheezing

List of Entries
Thiamine Uterine fibroids White peony root
Thuja Uva ursi White willow
Thunder God vine Whooping cough
Thyme Wigmore diet
Tibetan medicine Wild cherry
Tinnitus V Wild oat
Tonsillitis Wild yam
Vaginitis
Toothache Wintergreen
Valerian
Tourette syndrome Witch hazel
Vanadium
Toxic shock syndrome Worms
Varicose veins
Traditional African medicine Wormwood
Veganism
Traditional Chinese medicine Wounds
Vegetarianism
Trager psychophysical integration Venom immunotherapy
Tremors Vitamin A
Trepanation Vitamin B complex
Trichomoniasis Vitamin B12 Y
Trigger point therapy Vitamin C Yarrow
Triphala Vitamin D Yeast infection
Tuberculosis Vitamin E Yellow dock
Turmeric Vitamin K Yerba santa
Vomiting Yoga
Yohimbe
Yucca
U
Ulcers, digestive W
Unani-tibbi Warts
Urinary incontinence Wasabi Z
Urine therapy Wheat grass therapy Zinc
Usnea Wheat germ Zone diet

GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2 XIII

PLEASE READ – IMPORTANT INFORMATION

The Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine is a warranties of any kind, including without limitation,
medical reference product designed to inform and edu- warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular
cate readers about a wide variety of complementary ther- purpose, nor does it guarantee the accuracy, comprehen-
apies and herbal remedies and treatments for prevalent siveness, or timeliness of the information contained in
conditions and diseases. Thomson Gale believes the this product. Readers should be aware that the universe
product to be comprehensive, but not necessarily defini- of complementary medical knowledge is constantly
tive. It is intended to supplement, not replace, consulta- growing and changing, and that differences of medical
tion with a physician or other healthcare practitioner. opinion exist among authorities. They are also advised to
While Thomson Gale has made substantial efforts to pro- seek professional diagnosis and treatment for any med-
vide information that is accurate, comprehensive, and ical condition, and to discuss information obtained from
up-to-date, Thomson Gale makes no representations or this book with their healthcare provider.

GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2 XV

 ABOUT THE ENCYCLOPEDIA

The Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine Diseases/conditions

(GEAM) is a one-stop source for alternative medical in-
formation that covers complementary therapies, herbs • Definition
and remedies, and common medical diseases and condi- • Description
tions. It avoids medical jargon, making it easier for the • Causes & symptoms
layperson to use. The Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative • Diagnosis
Medicine presents authoritative, balanced information • Treatment
and is more comprehensive than single-volume family • Allopathic treatment
medical guides. • Expected results
• Prevention
• Resources
Scope • Key terms
Over 800 full-length articles are included in The
Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine. Many Inclusion criteria
prominent figures are highlighted as sidebar biographies
that accompany the therapy entries. Articles follow a A preliminary list of therapies, herbs, remedies, dis-
standardized format that provides information at a eases, and conditions was compiled from a wide variety
glance. Rubrics include: of sources, including professional medical guides and
textbooks, as well as consumer guides and encyclope-
dias. The advisory board, made up of three medical and
Therapies alternative healthcare experts, evaluated the topics and
made suggestions for inclusion. Final selection of topics
• Origins to include was made by the medical advisors in conjunc-
• Benefits tion with Thomson Gale editors.
• Description
• Preparations
• Precautions About the Contributors
• Side effects
The essays were compiled by experienced medical
• Research & general acceptance writers, including alternative healthcare practitioners and
• Resources educators, pharmacists, nurses, and other complementary
• Key terms healthcare professionals. GEAM medical advisors re-
viewed over 95% of the completed essays to insure that
Herbs/remedies they are appropriate, up-to-date, and medically accurate.
• General use
• Preparations How to Use this Book
• Precautions
• Side effects The Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine has
been designed with ready reference in mind:
• Interactions
• Resources • Straight alphabetical arrangement allows users
• Key terms to locate information quickly.

GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2 XVII

About the Encyclopedia
• Bold faced terms function as print hyperlinks that • An appendix of alternative medical organizations
point the reader to related entries in the encyclo- is arranged by type of therapy and includes valu-
pedia. able contact information.
• A list of key terms is provided where appropriate • A comprehensive general index allows users to
to define unfamiliar words or concepts used with- easily target detailed aspects of any topic, includ-
in the context of the essay. Additional terms may ing Latin names.
be found in the glossary.
• Cross-references placed throughout the encyclo- Graphics
pedia direct readers to where information on sub-
The Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine is
jects without their own entries can be found. Syn-
enhanced with over 450 images, including photos, ta-
onyms are also cross-referenced.
bles, and customized line drawings. Each volume con-
• A Resources section directs users to sources of tains a color insert of 64 important herbs, remedies, and
further complementary medical information. supplements.

XVIII GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW ENGLAND

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 Transcriber‘s Notes

A small number of obvious typos have been corrected. Except for this, the
spelling and punctuation of the book have not been changed.
The footnotes have been renumbered from 1 to 988 and placed at the end
of the text.
 NEW ENGLAND AND THE
BAVARIAN ILLUMINATI

BY

VERNON STAUFFER, A. M.
Dean and Professor of New Testament and Church History
Hiram College

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN THE

FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

NEW YORK
1918

COPYRIGHT, 1918
BY
VERNON STAUFFER
 To
J. E., R. W., AND R. F.
 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 9

CHAPTER I
THE UNDERMINING OF PURITAN STANDARDS AND INSTITUTIONS
1. Rapid Disintegration of Puritanism after the 13
Revolution
2. Ominous Discontent with the Standing Order 33
3. Alarms due to the Spread of Religious 66
Radicalism and Scepticism

CHAPTER II
POLITICAL ENTANGLEMENTS AND HYSTERIA
1. The Situation prior to 1798 103
2. The Situation from 1798 to 1800 122

CHAPTER III
THE EUROPEAN ORDER OF THE ILLUMINATI
1. The Rise and the Disappearance of the Order 142
2. The Legend of the Order and its Literary 186
Communication to New England

CHAPTER IV
THE ILLUMINATI AGITATION IN NEW ENGLAND
1. Morse Precipitates the Controversy 229
2. Inconclusive Developments of Morse’s Second 261
Formal Deliverance
3. Morse Submits his Inept Documentary 287
Evidence
4. Freemasonry’s Embarrassment and Protest 321
5. Attempts of Democrats to Fix the 345
Countercharge of Illuminism upon the
Federalists
BIBLIOGRAPHY 361
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The obligations incurred in the preparation of the following study
are much too numerous and varied to admit of adequate notice.
Special mention must, however, be made of my indebtedness to the
staffs of the following libraries: The Boston Athenaeum,
Congregational, Masonic (Boston), American Antiquarian Society,
Connecticut Historical Society, New York Historical Society, Library of
Congress, the public libraries of the cities of Boston and New York,
the library of Hiram College, and the university libraries of Harvard,
Yale, and Columbia. In addition to the many courtesies received
from these sources, I have had valuable assistance from the
following persons: Mr. Newton R. Parvin, grand secretary of the
Grand Lodge of Iowa, A. F. & A. M., Cedar Rapids, Iowa, whose
warm personal interest in my investigation has found expression in
the loan of many valuable volumes; Mr. Worthington C. Ford, of the
Massachusetts Historical Society, who besides opening freely to me
the unpublished treasures of the Society, has given me the benefit of
peculiarly stimulating suggestions; Mr. Walter C. Green, librarian of
Meadville Theological School, who has most generously met all my
drafts upon his patience and time; and Professor Guy Stanton Ford,
of the University of Minnesota, who has made it possible for me to
use his copy of Forestier’s Les Illuminés de Bavière et la Franc-
Maçonnerie allemande, without which in this war period, with its
partial stoppage of the inflow of European literature, my chapter on
“The European Order of the Illuminati” could scarcely have been
written.
 My greatest debt is to Professor William Walker Rockwell, of
Union Theological Seminary, who from the day that he suggested
the theme not only has followed the progress of the work with
unwearied interest, but at many points has guided my efforts and
helped me to avoid numerous pitfalls. Whatever excellencies the
study contains are due to Professor Rockwell’s stimulating criticism;
the faults are altogether chargeable to me.
There remains to acknowledge my obligation and express my best
thanks to my colleagues, Professors Ralph Hinsdale Goodale, Lee
Edwin Cannon, and John Samuel Kenyon, and to Miss Bertha
Peckham, Registrar of Hiram College, who have greatly assisted me
by correcting copy, reading proof, and otherwise helping to see the
work through the press. To my wife a special obligation is due
because of the benefits derived from her critical insight and
heartening sympathy throughout the performance of the task.
V. S
HIRAM, OHIO.
 INTRODUCTION
Few if any periods in our national history have been marked by a
greater variety of clashing interests than the closing decade of the
eighteenth century. Owing in part to inexperience in grappling with
the problems of government, in part to widely belligerent and
irreconcilable elements among the people, in part to grave
international complications and concerns, and in part, confessedly, to
rumors and excitements for which, as events proved, no adequate
grounds existed, the lives of the people of New England were tossed
rudely about on rough currents and counter-currents of mingled
hope and anguish. To a dispassionate observer (if anywhere on the
green earth at the close of the eighteenth century such an individual
might have been found) it must have seemed as though the citizens
of New England were as so many bits of wood, bobbing up and
down on waters excessively choppy but otherwise motionless. The
agitation, however, was not merely superficial; issues and
movements of the most profound significance were pouring their
impetuous torrents through channels freshly cut and steadily
deepened by new streams of human interest which the erection of
the national government, in particular, had started on their tortuous
ways.
The development of this thesis calls for an evaluation of the more
significant elements and forces which gave to the period the
characteristic temper of nervous excitability by which it was
stamped. The profound spirit of apprehension, amounting to positive
distress, with which for many a thoughtful religious patriot of New
England the eighteenth century closed, constitutes a phenomenon
as impressive as it is curious. To isolate that spirit, to analyze it, to
explain its genesis and its development, to take account of its
attachments and antipathies with respect to the special interest
under consideration,—this must be regarded as no inconsiderable
portion of the general task.
On the morning of May 9, 1798, in the pulpit of the New North
Church in Boston, and on the afternoon of the same day in his own
pulpit at Charlestown, the occasion being that of the national fast,
the Reverend Jedediah Morse[1] made a sensational pronouncement.
He first discussed with his hearers “the awful events” which the
European Illuminati had precipitated upon an already distracted
world, and then proceeded solemnly to affirm that the secret
European association had extended its operations to this side of the
Atlantic and was now actively engaged among the people of the
United States, with a view to the overthrow of their civil and
religious institutions. In the eyes of the distinguished clergyman, the
matter was of such serious moment that he felt moved to remark:

I hold it a duty, my brethren, which I owe to God, to the

cause of religion, to my country and to you, at this time,
to declare to you, thus honestly and faithfully, these
truths. My only aim is to awaken in you and myself a due
attention, at this alarming period, to our dearest
interests. As a faithful watchman I would give you
warning of your present danger.[2]

Morse’s warning by no means fell upon deaf ears. The “due

attention” he claimed for the alarm which he that day sounded was
promptly and generally accorded. Soon ministers were preaching,
newspaper editors and contributors writing and clearheaded
statesmen like Oliver Wolcott, Timothy Pickering, John Adams, and
even the great Washington, inquiring, and voicing their serious
concern over the secret presence in America of those conspirators
whose greatest single achievement, a multitude had come to
believe, was the enormities of the French Revolution.
It is true that before two years had passed men generally began
to admit the baseless nature of the alarm that Morse had sounded.
None the less one may not dismiss the incident with the light and
easy judgment that it signified nothing more than the absurd fears
of a New England clergyman who, under the strain of deep political
and religious concern, and after a hasty reading of the latest volume
of religious and political horrors that had just arrived from Europe,[3]
rushed into his pulpit and gave utterance to preposterous
statements which his imagination for the moment led him to believe
were justified. The episode has considerably larger and more
important bearings. No man could possibly have awakened such
wide-spread concern as the minister of Charlestown succeeded in
awakening if it had not been true that significant concurrent and
related circumstances gave both setting and force to the alarm
which with such stout conviction he sounded.
What previous influences and events had tended to predispose
the public mind favorably to Morse’s alarm? What was the peculiar
combination and cast of events which gave the notion of a
conspiracy against religion and government in Europe and in
America a clear semblance of truth? In what ways, and to what
extent, did the alarm affect the lives and the institutions of the
people of New England? Finally, what were the grounds, real or
imaginary, upon which the charge of an Illuminati conspiracy rested?
To answering these questions the following pages are devoted.
 CHAPTER I
THE UNDERMINING OF PURITAN STANDARDS AND INSTITUTIONS
1. RAPID DISINTEGRATION OF PURITANISM AFTER THE REVOLUTION

Back of the War of Independence was the less absorbing but

scarcely less harrowing contest of the French and Indian War. Thus
for a period of fully thirty years the people of New England had been
subjected to the rough and unsettling experiences of military life.
This consideration, taken in connection with the fact that a growing
declension from the standards of the Puritan fathers had been the
occasion of increasing comment and concern from the middle of the
seventeenth century on,[4] will make explicable the fact that the
average citizen of New England emerged from the Revolutionary
struggle with the edge of his conscience dulled. The secularizing
spirit of the post-Revolutionary period, when questions of national
organization and unity, of the rehabilitation of commerce and
industry, and of international relations and policies were foremost in
the thought of the day, left marks upon the human spirit over which
stern and rigorous adherents to the old order wept copiously and
long. For one thing, the lives of the men and women of New England
were never again to be as barren of diversified interests as they had
been in the past. The successful issue of the struggle for political
independence had so enlarged the mind of the common man that he
of necessity entertained considerations of private desire and of
public policy which he formerly would have rejected entirely. The
avenue of retreat to the ancient simplicity and seclusion was forever
closed.
 The soundness of this estimate of the rapid disintegration of
Puritanism will be apparent if the changing attitude of the people on
the subject of theatrical entertainments is considered.[5] As early as
the year 1750 the General Court of Massachusetts had found it
necessary to enact legislation to prevent stage-plays and other
theatrical entertainments.[6] That Puritan standards dominated the
situation at the time is evidenced both by the reasons advanced by
the framers of the law for its enactment and by the stringent
penalties attached to it. The justification of the measure was found
in the economic waste, the discouraging effect upon industry and
frugality, and the deleterious effect upon morality and religion which
stage-plays were believed to exercise. The penalties imposed called
for a fine of twenty pounds upon any owner of property who
permitted his property to be used for such purposes, while a fine of
five pounds was to be assessed upon any actor or spectator found in
attendance upon or participating in any such exercises where more
than twenty persons were assembled together.[7] How meekly the
craving for pleasurable excitement bowed its head in submission,
there is no evidence to show; but it is very clear that as the century
drew toward its close the people of Massachusetts began to manifest
a decidedly intractable spirit with respect to legislative control of
their amusements and pleasures.
The days of the Revolution supplied thrills of their own, and the
colonists gave themselves in devotion to their great task-at-arms,
with little desire for the amenities of life. Accordingly, when the
Continental Congress, on October 16, 1778, passed a resolution
deprecating every species of public entertainment which would be
likely to divert the minds of the people from the considerations of
public defence and the safeguarding of their liberties,[8] there was
nothing singular about the episode, and we may believe readily that
the people of New England, fortified by their grim spirit of
determination and their long tradition of self-denial, in no sense fell
short of the general standard. But by the year 1790 the people living
in and about Boston had come to a very different state of mind. In
that year by petition to the General Court they sought to have the
prohibitory act of 1750 revoked.[9] The incident has importance
because it registers a determined effort to feed desires whose
hunger-pains had grown insistent.
The history of this particular effort to remove legislative
restrictions in the way of harmless amusements is illuminating. The
petition referred to received scant consideration at the hands of the
legislators of Massachusetts. The following year certain gentlemen of
Boston, to the number of thirty-nine, presented a memorial to the
selectmen of that city, requesting that a vote of the citizens be taken
on the questions of permitting the erection and use of a building for
theatrical entertainments, and the issuing of instructions to Boston’s
representatives in the legislature calling for the repeal of the
obnoxious law. Apparently the plebiscite was not taken; but the
general question was debated in town meeting. A committee was
appointed to prepare instructions. The committee reported favorably
concerning the proposed instructions to Boston’s representatives in
the legislature, and these representatives later undertook the task of
bringing a majority of the members of the General Court to the more
liberal point of view; not, however, with immediate success.
Meanwhile, to the scandal of Governor John Hancock, and doubtless
many another advocate of decency and order, theatrical
entertainments, “under the Stile & Appellation of Moral Lectures,”[10]
flourished openly in Boston.[11]
 It was during the progress of the debate in the legislature over
the proposed repeal of the law against theatrical entertainments that
John Gardiner, one of Boston’s representatives in that body,
delivered himself of sentiments touching what he styled “the illiberal,
unmanly, and despotic act” of 1750. His speech gave evidence of
how fresh and independent the judgments of some minds had come
to be. Addressing the presiding officer, Gardiner said:

Sir! I really and truly venerate; I would rather say, I

sincerely and almost enthusiastically admire the many
great and splendid virtues of our renowned puritan
ancestors … ; but still, Sir, they were only men; and, like
all other men, were fallible; liable to frailties, to
prejudices, and to error. Some errors, and some unjust
prejudices, they undoubtedly had. Would to God a veil
was drawn over all their absurd prejudices which, like
spots in the sun, tend in some small degree to bedarken
and obscure the otherwise truly-resplendent glories of
their character. One of these prejudices, in my opinion,
was their inveterate opposition and abhorrent aversion to
the theatre.[12]

That Gardiner was the spokesman of a very considerable number

of citizens is demonstrated by the fact that on March 28, 1793, a bill
drawn to take the place of the older legislation against theatrical
amusements and granting specifically to the people of Boston the
right to erect a theatre and to have “stage plays performed under
certain regulations and restrictions,” was enacted by the legislature
of Massachusetts.[13] It is very evident that public sentiment had
veered round to a radically new and different view respecting the
place and function of the theatre. So much so, indeed, that some
who sought to shape the thought and determination of the times
recommended the establishment of the theatre as the only possible
way of drawing the desires and interests of the people away from
grosser and more injurious excitements toward which, it was
believed, an alarming growth of frivolity and lack of moral concern
was rapidly sweeping the people of New England.[14]
This alleged declension of morals may be more vitally viewed
from the standpoint of the subject of intemperance. Convivial habits
were a fixed part of the New England character, and the sin of
drunkenness was as old as the settlement of the country. The
practice of brewing was numbered among the employments of the
first settlers.[15] Rum was generally used by the people, and the
commercial life of the colonies was inextricably woven with its
importation and exportation.[16] Cider was the native New England
beverage.[17] The importation of wine was large from the first.[18] A
general tendency in the direction of increased habits of drinking was
to be expected.[19]
The period of the Revolution made its own special contribution to
the gravity of the case. The soldiers of the Continental armies
received regular rations of liquor,[20] and at the expiration of the war
carried back to their respective communities the habits of
intemperance which in many cases their army life had strengthened.
Rum was more and more coming to be regarded as one of the
necessities of life;[21] and with the revival of industry and commerce
after the war the business of distilling mounted rapidly to amazing
proportions.[22]
 A growing uneasiness over the social and economic consequences
involved in the spread of alcoholism is apparent. Under the date of
July 29, 1789, the Reverend Jeremy Belknap, minister of the church
in Long Lane, Boston, is found writing thus to Dr. Benjamin Rush,
Philadelphia’s celebrated physician and early apostle of temperance
reform:

With respect to spirituous liquors I believe some good

has been done, but much more remains to be done. The
distilleries here are so ready a source of gain, that, till
the auri sacra fames shall cease to be a ruling passion, I
fear there will no end be put to them. The demand from
abroad I am told increases, particularly from the north of
Europe, & while the stills are kept going there will be a
large home consumption. In an excursion of about 80
miles into the country a few weeks since, I met many
loads of pot & pearl ashes coming down, & on my return
the teams which I met were loaded with dry fish,
hogsheads of salt, & barrels of rum. The thirst for spirits
in the back country is so ardent, that in the fall & winter
they will sell their wheat for this sort of pay, & then in the
spring and summer following go 40 or 50 miles after
bread. However, we do what we can by way of precept &
example, & we do not intend to be discouraged.[23]

The correspondence which the Reverend Bulkley Olcott, minister

of the church in Charlestown, New Hampshire, had with Belknap is
of like import.[24] He had tried to obtain accurate statistical
information from the Excise Master as to the quantity of spirituous
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