MARINE BIODIVERSITY

CONSERVATION AND
MANAGEMENT

Edited by

N.G. Menon and C.S.G. Pillai

ICAR
CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES RESEARCH INSTITUTE
INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
T A T A P U R A M P.O, C O C H I N - 6 8 2 014

1996
 MARINE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT

III. CORAL REEFS OlI^DIA, THEIR

CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
C.S. GOPINADHA PILLAI
Central Marine Fisheries Researcli Institute, Coctiin - 682 014
Coral reefs are nntunil gift to mankind, and arc built in tluHimaiids
of years by millions of tiny coral polyps. Reefs give foodfor mankind,
material for scientific research, ample opportunities for req^ation
and past time. We need the reef, reefs need our attention; certainly
we should keep them for future generation.
INTRODUCTION
The coral reefs of the mainland coast of India are located chiefly
along the southeast coast in Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay (8° 49'-9° lO'N,
79" 9'-79" 14'E) stretching from Tuticorin to Rameswram Island, and in
the Gulf of Kutch in the Gujarat state (22" 15'-23«14'N, 68»20'-70° 40'E).
Some patchy growths also occur along the west coast of India between
Bombay and Malvan stretching to Enayam south of Trivandrum. The
coastal reefs of India along the mainland are mostly fringing or patch
reefs built on shallow waters around near shore islands. The Andaman
and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal form the major continental
island reefs of India. The Lakshadweep is the only atoll formation of
our waters. A recent estimate of the reef flat areas of India by Baldev
Shai, (1994, Report to Ministry of Environment and Forest, Govt, of
India, in press) by remote sensing technology shows the extent of reef
flat in Gujarat coast as 148.4 sq km, that of Tamil Nadu coast as 64.9
sq km, Lakshadweep 140.1 sq km and that of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands as 813.2 sq km. In addition to that coraj knolls and lagoon reefs
also form roughly 50 sq. km of reef formations.

PHYSIOGRAPHY AND ECOLOGY OF INDIAN REEFS

Gulf of Kutch
The beaches are sandy or muddy with occasional large sand-
stone formation. Tliere are about 40 islands with patchy coral forma-

16
tions of which the largest is Pirotan Island. The Gulf of Kutch is sub-
jected to very high rate of sedimentation with a visibility of more or
less 1 m. The climate is semi-arid. Because of high rate of sedimentation
the conditions for coral growth is sub optimal. Corals are found on
sandstones substrate in patches. Consolidated reefs existed once in
Pirotan Island. Most of the islets are submerged at high tide and approach
is rather difficult due to extensive mudflat that surrounds. In some
islands like Boria and Paga profuse growth of corals are found in the
central lagoon like areas which are surrovinded by sand bars.

The coral fauna of Gulf of Kutch is comparatively less diverse

compared to other parts of India. Ramose corals such as Acropora,
Pocillopora, Siylcrphora and Seriatopora are not found at present though
semi-fossilised specimens of Acropora are found on some beaches. Silt-
ation may be one of the reasons for the absence of sensitive genus like
Acropora.

West coast of India

The west coast of India between Bombay and Goa is reported

to have submerged banks with isolated coral formations (Nair and
Qasim, 1978). Porites, Coscinaraea, Turbinaria, some faviids and
Pseudosiderastrea are reported. All the genera recorded are massive or
encrusting without any representation of ramose forms as in the case
of Gulf of Kutch. Siltation is of high rate and salinity may drop to 20
ppt during monsoon in these habitats which might restrict the growth
of ecologically sensitive forms of ramose corals (Bakus et al, 1994).
Down south from Quilon along the Kerala coast to Enayam in Tamil
Nadu coast hermatypic corals are reported along the shore. At Enayam,
there was profuse growth of corals until recently around a rocky outcrop
which was almost totally exploited by local people. Pocillopora spp. is
the most common genus in this area. Acropora is found with represen-
tation of at least three species. Pseudosiderastrea and Porites spp., also
found. A recent investigation (Pillai and Jasmine, in press) has shown
that 29 species in 17 genera of scleractinians occur in this area. Of this
13 species belonging to 6 genera are hermatypes and the rest 16 species

17
of 11 genera are ahermatypes mostly deep water forms dredged by Shri
Sampson Manickam of CMFRI from the west of Quilon on board FORV
Sagar Sampada.

Southeast coast of India

The reef formations of S.E. coast of India along the Tamil nadu
coast is scattered between 79" to 79"9' E and 8''45' to 9"11' N covering
nearly 21 islands from Tuticorin to Adams Bridge. Though, the reefs
are mostly of fringing type around the islands, Stoddart and Fosberg
(1972) called it a discontinuous Barrier and termed it Mannar Barrier.
Of recent, a series of taxonomic and ecological papers on these reef
environs have been published (Pillai, 1971,1971a, 1973,1977, Mergner
and Scheer, 1974) and a review of these results are provided by Bakus,
et al (1994). The fringing reefs around the islands normally has a lagoon
of 100 to 150 m wide and 1 to 2 m deep. In some islands, near Tuticorin
(eg. Carachalli Tive) there existed well formed flats up to 100 m wide
(subsequently quarried and mostly non existent). 'The coral fauna of
Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay is found to have a total of 96 species
divided among 26 genera (Pillai, 1986). The dominant genera include
Acropora, Montipora and Pocillopora among the ramose forms. Massive
forms are represented by Pontes, Favia, Favites, Goniastrea, Platygyra and
rarely Symphyllia. Cyphastrea and Leptastrea are very common on all reef
habitats of this area. The foliaceous forms are Echinopora lamellosa and
Montipora foliosa in Gulf of Mannar both being now scarce due to
quarrying and destruction. Fungiids are very poorly represented in this
area.

In Palk Bay the reef extends along the shore from Mandapam
eastward along the shores of Rameswaram Island, interrupted only at
Pampan pass. Corals are found on reef rocks and no consolidated reef
flat is seen. Zonation is indistinct. The siltation especially during
monsoon along the inshore region is reported to have marked impact
on the distribution of corals on this reef (Pillai, 1971). The present day
reef growth is very poor. It is not in pristine condition since it was
quarried in early sixties.

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Oceanic Island Reefs
Lakshadweep Islands are located between 8°-12''30°N and 71"-
74°E along the Laccadive -Chagos Ridge. The submarine ridge that
supports the islands rises from a depth ranging from 1500 to 4000 m.
The Lakshadweep Archipelago consists of 12 atolls and a few (five)
submerged reefs. A detailed report on the islands, their coral fauna,
reef associated resources and ecological conditions and suggestions of
conservation and management are set in a detailed report based on an
intensive survey by the scientists of CMFRI (Bull. Cent, marine Fish Res.
Inst. No.43 1989) The coral fauna of Lakshadweep is known to harbour
a total of 105 species divided among 37 genera as listed by Pillai and
Jasmine (1989). The lagoon and reef flat faunal elements are dominated
by Acroporn spp., Pocillopom spp., Porites spp. and massive and encrust-
ing faviids. Psaniniocora spp. is also very common especially in north-
ern islands. The lagoon reefs throughout Lakshadweep have a profu-
sion of blue coral Heliopra coerulea. Milleporn spp. forms dominant
element in the lagoon. A sort of latitudinal difference in the coral faunal
assemblage from south to north is reflected in the Lakshadweep. Minicoy
has some elements such as Lobophyllia and Diploastrea that are common
to adjacent Maldives but rarely found in Kiltan or Chetlat of the north-
ern Lakshadweep. Again the genera Montipora and Echinopora are
recorded from the northern atolls but hitherto not known from Minicoy
the southern most atoll in the chain.
The continental island reefs
The Andaman and Nicobar groups of islands in the Bay of Bengal,
perhaps form the largest reef formations of Indian continent. These
group of nearly 500 islands both large and small, is believed to be part
of an emergent mountain chain. Most of the islands are covered by
forests, and mangroves form extensive coverage along the shores.
Annual rainfall is about 3000 mm and the salinity of the waters is
around 33 ppt. The coral reefs are of fringing type and except for stray
investigation reports the reefs of this area still largely remain unknown.
A total of 135 species of Scleractinia is reported from this area by Pillai
(1983) but a few more species have been collected since. The biodiversity

19
of fauna is still to be ascertained. Because of their location these areas
have biotic elements from Polynesian, Indo-Malayan as well as Bur-
mese provinces. The reef flats in general are dominated by massive
porites and faviids that form the chief reef frame builders. The shore-
ward side is generally with luxuriant growth of arborescent genera
alike Acropora, Pocillopora, Seriatopora, Stylophora etc. The reefs are rich
in soft corals. The two reef building genera Oulastrea and Coeloseris
are hitherto recorded form Andaman and Nicobar Islands only from
the Indian fauna. Of recent, a survey of the reefs of the Wandoor
Marine Park was carried out by the scientists of CMFRI (Gopakumar,
et al, 1990, James et al. 1991). Two ecologically distinct types of reefs
in south Andamans could be observed (a) Reefs along the coast of
Islands fringed by mangrove forests. The chief reef builders are massive
Porites and faviids. Alcyonarians form extensive patches. Ramose corals
are not conspicuous. The reefs are 50 to 100 m wide on the flat and
steeply descent. These fades is mostly seen on the eastern shores of
the variotis islands (b) in between the shores of islands with sandy bottom
profuse growth of corals of ramose genera with a percentage cover of
about 80% occurs. Acropora, Seriatopora and Pocillopora constitute the most
dominant elements. Fungiids are very common in this situation.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC VALUE OF CORAL REEFS
Coral reefs rank as the most biologically productive and diverse
of all natural ecosystems (Wells, 1988). Reefs are equivalent to tropical
rain forests for their rich biological diversity. A large number of reef
building and reef dwelling organisms live on reefs, that are objects of
beauty and utihty. The value of coral reefs to mankind are both
extractive and non-extractive. The non-extractive uses of the tropical
reefs centres around recreation, tourism, scientific research, shoreline
protection and SCUBA diving. The extractive uses are very many, only
if judiciously exploited. Coral reefs are huge mounts of Calcium car-
bonate which forms the raw material for many lime based industries,
such as lime, cement, calcium carbide. They are also used as building
blocks in many parts of the Indo-Pacific. The fin fish fauna of reefs
is extremely rich and varied. The estimated fish production from the

20
global reef environs varies from 6 to 9 million tonnes per year (Munro,
1985) equivalent to about 10% of the marine fish exploited annually.
The potential fish yield from the reefs of India is provisionally esti-
mated to the tune of 0.18-0.27 X 10* tonnes yr' (Wafer, 1986). The
diversity of fish fauna on the reefs varies in space and time. The total
number of species of fishes from Lakshadweep reefs and surroundings
is bout 600 (Jones and Kumaran, 1980). Approximately 600 species of
fishes are known from Andaman and Nicobar waters (After Bakus et
al, 1994). The shellfish resources of the reef is constituted by at-least
four species of lobsters and many species of crabs. The common species
of lobster on the reef flats of Lakshadweep is Pamilirus versicolar (Pillai
and Mohan, 1985). Among the crabs, Scylla serrata, Portuniis pelagicus,
P. sangtiinolentiis and Otarribdes spp. are commercially caught from reef
environs. The moUuscan resources of our reefs are rich and varied.
Trochus niloticus and Turbo mawtoratiis are costly gastropods of com-
mercial value from Andaman reefs. Many species of cowries are fished
from our reefs. The giant clam Tridacna is fairly common in Andaman
and Nicobar and Lakshadweep. There exists potential scope of this
mollusc in reef mariculture. Octopus and cuttle fishes are also fished
from the reefs.
There exists vast resources of reef fishes that are of ornamental
value on reefs. The surgeon fishes, parrot fishes, damsel fishes, the
soldier fishes and cardinal fishes are of great demand as aquarium
samples and there is vast scope of their live export. The reef associated
fishes of the group clupids and apogonids form the live-bait along with
pomacentrids both in Lakshadweep and Andaman Nicorbar Islands.
A large resource Spratelloides delicatiiliis was located by the scientist of
CMFRI in the marine park of Wandoor (Gopakumar et al 1990) espe-
cially along the near shore waters fringed by mangroves. The tradi-
tional pole and line fishery for tunas in Lakshadweep solely depends
on tlie availability of these fishes on the coral reefs on Lakshadweep.
The echinoderm resources of the reef environs is of significant
economic value. The holothurians that irxhabit the lagoon and reefs are
processed as beche-de-mer. Fishery for them exists in S.E. India and
Lakshadweep.

21
 The benthic algae of the reefs are rich and varied. Atleast 180
species divided among 99 genera of benthic algae are reported from the
southeast coast of India (Varma, 1961). Altogether, 62 genera and 114
species of seaweeds are recorded from the 12 islands from Lakshadweep,
of which 18 genera and 43 species belong to chlorophyceae, 14 species
divided among 11 genera belong to phaeopaycea and 54 species of 30
genera are of rhodophycea. The total number of sea grass species was
estimated to 6 (Kaliaperuii\al et al, 1989.)
In addition to these the reefs harbour a rich marine biological
diversity of sponges, coelenterates, worms, molluscs, echinoderms etc.
that are of great pharmacological value. The biodiversity of reefs
associated flora and fauna of Andaman and Nicobar Islands still re-
mains to be studied.
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF CORAL FAUNA OF INDIA
Recent studies on the taxonomy of scleractinian corals of our reefs
have provided some data on the structure and composition of our reef
building corals. Pillai (1993) reported on a total of 199 species of scleractinian
corals from the reefs of India that are divided among 37 genera. The list
is subject to revision due to taxonomic revision or additional information
of other species that may be gained. The coral fauna of Andaman &
Nicobar may harbour more species than what is hitherto reported. It is
likely that the total species number may be around 225 from the Indian
region. The break up list of species and genera is as follows.
Genera Species Sources
Lakshadweep 27 105 (Pillai and Jasmine, 1989)
Gulf of Kutch 24 37 (Pillai and Patel, 1988)
S.E. coast of India 37 94 (Pillai, 1986)
Andaman and Nicobar 59 135 (Pillai, 1983) 20 to 30 species
West coast of Kerala
and Tamil nadu 17 29 (Pillai and Jasmine - in press)
Total for India 37 199

22
 THREATS TO REEFS OF INDIA
There is a world wide regression of coral growth in the recent
past due to many natural and anthropogenic reasons. Indiscriminate
exploitation of the corals for various purposes, over exploitation of reef
associated living resources, dredging and reclamation are some of the
major anthropogenic factors for the destruction of reefs in India.
Pollution, sea erosion and consequent siltation, construction activities
in lagoons are also added to this man made cause for the deterioration
of reefs. Cyclones, pests like Acanthaster planci, White Band Disease
(WBD) are some of the natural factors that has recently affected mortal-
ity to corals in tlie India region. Wells (1988) has given an excellent review
of disturbances of reef environs of coastal and island reefs of India.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Today, among the Indian reefs, only some sites in Andamans and
Nicobar still remain in the pristine condition without human interfer-
ence.
Siltation: In a recent survey of the Wandoor Marine Park area in South
Andamans, it was observed that siltation has caused mass mortality to
ramose corals at Wandoor. Sea erosion was rampant and vast areas
in May 1989 was found covered by silt along the shore, killing mostly
ramose corals. Mass mortality to corals was also observed in and
around Port Blair and Labrynthene Islands; probably due to siltation.
Along the Wandoor coast the reef flat is basically composed of massive
species. Opposite to the Helipad, sea erosion was very rampant and
large scale death to ramose corals such as Acropora, Montipora, Pocillopora
and Seriatopora was observed. Similar mortality to Acropora thickets
were observed at the northern side of Chester Island. The reefs around
Malay Island, Tarmugil Island are found to be healthy mostly domi-
nated by massive Porites. At Jolly Buoy which is a tourist centre, the
outer reefs are found to be dead. The near shore shows patchy growth
of corals.
In Burmanella the exposed reef flat is found to harbour few live
coral colonies. The reef of Chideathope is also mostly dead. The reasons

23
are not ascertained. Quarrying of sand from the nearshore area was
reported to be the reason for sea erosion and subsequent siltation. Dorairaj
et al (1987) reported on an incidence of large scale mortality to corals due
to the construction of an approach road to Pongi Balu Jetty.
Coral mining: Dorairaj et al (1987) also cite instances of large scale
destruction of corals due to mining of the reefs and coastal sand for
construction work in the various parts of the island.
The effluents from timber factories aroimd Port Blair and in
middle Andamans is reported to have caused damages to coral growth
(Arif, et al, 1987)
Shell collection and dynamiting for fishing are also causing
damage. Invasion of Acathaster plana was studied by James, et al (1989)
from the Wandoor Marine Park. A.planci was recorded from Grub
Island, Alexandra Island, Red Skin Island and Twin Island. In several
places Acroporaspp. were found to be grazed by this star fish. Average
intensity of the starfish population in Grub Island at some sites was
to the tune of 124 individuals per 1000 sq.m. No follow up studies have
been made and the present situation is not known. Tourism is being
encouraged in the Labrynthine Islands enclosing the Marine Park.
Though collection of marine animals from the Park area is strictly
disallovt^d other implecations of the extended tourism needs assess-
ment.
A case of White Band Disease prevalence is also reported form
Andamans.
Gulf of Kutch
Siltation: The Gulf is heavily silted especially in the nearshore areas
as a result of great tidal fluctuation and wind driven terregenous material
that get deposited. The ecological condition for coral growth must be
subnormal. This heavy siltation has remarkable effect on the faunal
composition. Dredging of sand for cement industry in Salaya is re-
ported to have caused substantial damage to corals (Patel, 1985). In
Pirotan Island large quantities of massive corals have been mined from
the reef flat thus effecting damage to reefs (Pillai, personal observation).

24
 Over collection of many marine arumals is effecting depletion of
fauna. Extensive destruction to mangrove along the coast has already
been done. Threat from oil pollution in the Gulf is also suggested
(Rashid, 1985).
Lakshadweep
The envirorunental damages and its consequences on the terres-
trial and aquatic habitats of the Lakshadweep have been elucidated
recently in a series of papers by the scientists of CMFRI (James et al,
1989, Pillai, 1985, Pillai, 1990, Pillai and Madan Mohan, 1986, Pillai,
1986). The available data on the ecological stress and deficiencies as
well as importance for research in this Archpelago is summarised by
Wells (1988). The land and the shores of the habitated islands have
been subjected to intensive construction activities as well as semi-
intensive agricultural operations in the post Independent period. Tlie
natural vegetation in almost all islands are cleared for settlement. The
introduction of cattle and goats have added grazing pressure on the
land vegetation. The introduction of large mechanised fishing vessels
and added demand for cargo transport has resulted in the dredging
of lagoons in Minicoy, Kavaratti, Amini and Kiltan islands. The lagoon
corals in these islands are almost dead. The extensive growth of corals
in Minicoy and Kiltan found in seventies are no more there. Introduc-
tion of mechanised boats in tuna fishery has also effected increased
fishing pressure on resident live-bait fishes. Breaking of corals to
capture small food fishes has also caused damage to coral fauna and
associated organisms in northern Lakshadweep. The shell collection,
especially from the northern islands is of high magnitude. On the
whole, the human interference and exploitation of the resources have
created significant loss to the reef building and reef associated organ-
ism of Lakshadweep. Perhaps no island in the Archipelago remains
in the pristine condition. Sea erosion is rampant at sites mainly because
of cutting of reef flats to widen and deepen the channel and dredging
of the lagoon. Tourism is being encouraged. The siltation rate has gone
up thus killing corals. W.B. Disease in Acropora is reported from Kavaratti
atoll. (Annual Report CMFRI, 1992-93).

25
Southeast coast of India
The destruction to the reefs and reef associated organisms in the
Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay is perhaps unparalleled in the history of
envirorunental damage to nature and natural resources in the recent
past. Pillai (1975) in a detailed report has drawn attention to this. The
coral reefs on Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar was quarried for industrial
purpose from early sixties form Mandapam to Tuticorin. The estimate
of corals quarried varies. At Tuticorin the estimation was 80,0000 t
per year. Pillai (1973) estimated the exploitation to corals from
Mandapam area during sixties and early seventies to the tune of 250m^
per day. The massive genera like Poriles, Favia, Favites, Platygym and
Goniastrea are all destroyed. A fringing reef that existed in Manauli
(Nair and Pillai, 1972) is no more there. It is reported that some of
the islands near Tuticorin is almost vanished as a result of quarrying.
A recent survey in Palk Bay and Krusadi Island has revealed that
damage to reef due to human interferences is still rampant. Over
exploitation of algae, and shells by fisherman (clandestine) from krusadi
is of extensive scale. Corals are broken for collection of fishes and algae.
Several boats were found collecting in the lagoon of the "Paradise of
Marine Biologist" during September 1994. The huge colonies oiMontipom
foliosa and Echinopora lamellosa that occupied large areas in the lagoon
is no more there. They were mostly broken by fishermen during
collection of algae to negotiate their boat. The live export of crabs from
this area in the recent years is also causing damage to live corals.
Fishermen set crab nets and traps among the what ever available corals
of Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar Islands to catch Scylla serrata. The
setting and retrieving of cages is observed to cause breakage to live
corals. The corals that grow in Enayam was also extracted and virtually
few colonies are found there at present.
Recent investigations from the Manauli Island (Chandrika and
Pillai, 1992) has revealed the presence of Escherichia coli Type 1 from
Acropora formosa and also from reef sediments collected from a depth
of nearly 0.5 m at low tide indicating faecal contamination. Presence
of £. coli in all reef organisms in reef flats of Lakshadweep islands, is

26
bound to occur due to open defecation on reef flats, by the residents.
CONSERVATION OF REEFS AND REEF RESOURCES
As already stated the coral reefs and their resources are fast dwin-
dling in our waters. Except for, perhaps, some islands in the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, no pristine reefs exist today in our country. Over
exploitation, and unwanted interference and lack of effective management
in the past may be the major reasons for this sad state of affairs. The value
of coral reefs is all the more important to the island territories of our
country. In Lakshadweep the reefs form a major life supporting resource
to the locals as important as the coconuts.
Existing legislation to conserve reefs and reef resources
The Wild Life (Protection) Act of India (1972) provides legal
protection to many marine animals including reef associated organ-
isms. Chapter IV of this act dealing with Sanctuaries, National Park
Game reserves and closed areas is equally applicable to marine reserves
and marine parks and biospheres. Some of the reef area inhabiting
mammals, such as Dugong diigon and turtles like Chelonia mydas,
Eretmochelys imbricata are included in Schedule I as fully protected
species. The chank and pearl fishing from the Tamil Nadu coast is
regulated by the respective regulations made by the Tamil Nadu Govt.
As early as 1985 a National Committee on coral reefs was set up
by the Govt, of India, Department of Science and Technology with a
mandate to suggest means for conserving coral reefs of India. However
nothing much seems to have emerged by this well thought out action.
Proposals were made from various scientific institutes such as
National Institute of Oceanography and CM.F.R.I to have national
Parks and biosphere reserves in various coral growing areas of our
country (See Silas, et al 1985 for a detailed report and constructive
suggestions). Dugong reserves. Turtle reserves and echinoderm re-
serves etc are also proposed. James et al, (1989) examined the creden-
tials of various islands in the Lakshadweep to establish a Marine Park
with suggestions for management. Qasim (1980) suggested Malvan
and adjacent areas along the west coast of India as Marine park. All

27
these proposals pleaded for judicious exploitation of the resources as
well as halting unnecessary human interference on the ecosystem.
The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt, of India has
constituted a National Committee on mangroves, wetlands and coral
reefs with representation of scientific experts and forest officials of all
states. The committee examines action plans prepared by various state
Governments for conservation of the above ecosystems and provide
financial support. A special committee assesses the research needs and
recommends proposals for research funding. The committee has iden-
tified, Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep and Andaman and
Nicobar Islands for conservation and management of coral reefs and
the respective state governments or Union Territories are requested to
prepare action plan in this regard. The Andaman and Nicobar admin-
istration has drawn up an action plan for the conservation of the reefs
of this area.
Actions already implemented
Establishment of marine parks: National Marine Parks were estab-
lished in three areas already.
1. The Gulf of Kutch Marine Park:
A detailed report on the Gulf of Kutch National Marine Park is
found in Rashid (1988) The area from Okha to Jodia along the Gujarat
coast was notified as Marine Park in 1980 under the provisions of the
Wild Life Protection Act 1972. An original area of 270 sq.km. was
brought under this which was subsequently enlarged to 400 sq. km.
The Park is administered by the Forest Department of the state.
2. The Wandoor National Marine Park in South Andamans
The Wandoor National Marine Park covers an area of 281.5
sq.km. within tlie Labrythine Islands of S. Andamans. It covers the
coast of Wandoor, the Chester Island, Grub Island, Snob Island, Red
Skin Island, Alexandra Island, Jolly Bouy, Malaya Island, Tarmugili
Island and the Twin Islands. The high islands are all covered with rich
forests, the shores fringed by extensive mangroves. Human interfer-

28
ences on the reef ecosystem is minimum. Tourism, is permitted to Jolly
Bouy and Twin Islands. The Park is managed by the wild life wing
of the Andaman forest department. Collection of all organisms includ-
ing turtle fishing is effectively checked. Proposals for scientific research
is on the way.

3. The Gulf of Mannar Marine Park.

This is the Third National Marine Park of this country. It embraces
22 islands in the Gulf of Marmer from Rameswaram to Tuticorin. The
area was subjected to marine biological studies for a long time by the
C.M.F.R.I. and have fairly good knowledge of the fauna and flora.
Perhaps this area was also subjected to severe exploitation of its re-
sources in the last few years. The coral reefs are mostly destroyed.
Pearl and chanks as well as crustaceans are intensively fished. The
exploitation of marine algae is on large scale. Tine Park is administered
by the park authority of the wild life wing of the forest department of
Tamil Nadu. However, till Sept. 1994 the Krusadai Island which should
form the heart and sole of the park is not yet brought under the preview
of the park. It is said, after the declaration of the marine park, the
paradise of Marine Biologists- Krusadai is almost depleted of its corals
and other organisms by intensive collection. The implementation of
regulation is still in a poor state. Clandestine exploitation of the re-
sources is still in vogue. Large quantities of economically important
seaweeds are collected daily by fishermen. Infrastructure for effective
management as well as identification of personnel for running of the
park is yet to be realised. Various research programmes funded by
national agencies and central ministries are in operation. Fishing of
turtle, though prohibited by law is going on. Corals collection and
mining is still taking place in Tuticorin area.

A NATIONAL POLICY FOR REEF CONSERVATION

The coral reefs of India are under the jurisdiction of the respec-
tive state or Union administration. A national policy to bring all coral
reefs under one central authority is the need of the hour. The man-
agement of marine parks needs trained marine biologists. Manage-
ment of terrestrial forest ecosystem may be technically different from

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L'oTixl reei flat at Kadarnal, Lakshadvveep

TamiJ Nadu
Dred gi n g t h «:• 1 a goi »i i, La kfsha d w eep
fun;iin HLiitna • A solitary coral
DIIWCI, l''ri>dah:»r coral reefs fri)ni Waiidoor
marine habitat management. Silas et al (1988) have given some guide-
lines for the effective management of Marine Parks. Exploitation of
corals should be effectively halted except for scientific research. Fur-
ther interference on reef ecosystems should be avoided. Dredging and
blasting of reefs resulting in sedimentation of reefs and lagoons may
be restricted. Many of the reef organisms of our coimtry could be
brought under CITES regulations. This will control the exploitation of
pharmacologically valuable gorgonids, sponges and alcyonarians from
our reefs. Live export of marine organisms such as lobsters and crabs
from S.E. India needs careful watching and their fishing needs to be
regulated.
The administration of the U.T. of Lakshadweep has already
banned the collection of corals for any construction work. However,
there is an imperative urgency for the establishment of a National
Marine Park in some parts of the Archipelago to protect the biodiversity
of our only atoll environment. Already, the pristine nature of the atolls
is lost. As an initial step, zones should be marked on every atoll where
no interference, whatever so is allowed. This is best done with the co-
operation of the local people without much affecting their traditional
rights of using the living resources. Tourism now allowed in
Lakshadweep in a significant scale must be strictly made as ecotourism.
Though legal protection to coral reefs of Lakshadweep, S.E. India, Gulf
of Kutch and some parts of South Andamans are provided, effective
implementation of the law with the participation of the beneficiaries
is still awaited. The reefs of our waters are a very valuable marine,
benthic ecosystem of high biological diversity and at any cost they need
to be preserved and protected.
Establishment of a Marine Park Authority in a national level,
with sufficient expertise and infrastructure is advisable. All the coral
growing areas of this country may be brought under the Authority
which should effectively implement conservation measures. Research
and monitoring aspects also may be entrusted with it. In all the work
the participation of the beneficiaries of our reef resources has to be
enlisted. Coral reefs are natural gift to mankind and are built in

30
thousands of years by millions of tiny coral polyps. Destruction of a
reef can be done in a short while. We have done it and we have lost
this heritage and valuable resources in many parts of our waters. Reefs
give food for mankind, material for scientific research, ample oppor-
tunities for recreation and past time. We need the reef, reefs need our
attention, certainly we should keep them for future generation. Our
approach towards the exploitation of reefs, should be based on a "sus-
tainable" development.
Foot Note : This article is dedicated to the fond memory of Dr. Reymond F. Fosberg
U.S. National Museum, Washington; demised on 25th September, 1993. As a great atol
scientist and champion of nature conservation, he will be remembered by both botanisti
and reef scientists all over the world.

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