SIAYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Business Studies

COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES

Henry Ligawa
SUBJECT COORDINATOR

2021

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 TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

MEANING AND ROLE OF COMMUNICATION

The word communication is used to mean speaking or writing or sending a message to
another person. Communication is really much more than that. It involves ensuring
that your message reaches the target audience and that the receiver understands and
responds to the message appropriately. Communication is an important aspect of
behaviour; human communication is affected by all factors that influence human
behaviour.

GENERAL DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION

Communication comes from the Latin word communicare, which means “to make
common” or “to share.” Communication is defined as the process of using messages to
generate meaning (Judy Pearson, 2008). Communication is considered a process
because it is an activity, an exchange, or a set of behaviours—not an unchanging
product. It is an activity in which you participate. David Berlo (1960), a pioneer in the
field of communication, probably provided the clearest statement about
communication as a process: “If we accept the concept of process, we view events and
relationships as dynamic, on-going, ever changing, continuous. When we label
something as a process, we also mean that it does not have a beginning, an end, a
fixed sequence of events. It is not static, at rest. It is moving. The ingredients within a
process interact; each affects all the others.

Working definition

Communication is the process of transmitting information and meaning from one

individual or organisation to another by means of mutually understandable symbols.
The crucial element is meaning. Communication has as its central objective the
transmission of meaning. The process of communication is successful only when the
receiver understands an idea as the sender intended it. Both parties must agree not
only on the information transmitted but also on the meaning of that information.

In order to transfer an idea, we must use symbols (words, signs, pictures, sounds)
which stand for the idea. The symbols must be understood by the person or persons
with whom we intend to communicate. Both must assign the same meaning to the
symbols used; otherwise, there is miscommunication.

ROLE/ PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION

1.Managing the human resource. Communication is the tool with which we

exercise influence on others, bring about changes in the attitudes and views of
our associates, motivate them and establish and maintain relations with them.
The primary element in the skills of management is competence in
communication.
2.Communication is central to the success of everything that we do in an
organisations (objectives); our family, school/college, office, hobby group,
community group, our city/town are the organisations in which we live and act.
Our activities succeed or fail, and our goals are achieved or not achieved,
according to our ability to communicate effectively with other members.
3.Building positive interpersonal relation. Communication plays a foundational
role in the development of any healthy interpersonal relationship. It can
 strengthen a mutual sense of commitment; it also helps to bridge the gap
between people who have misunderstandings.
Indeed, communication plays a critical role in all phases of interpersonal
relations, from creating a relationship to maintenance of relationships.
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 4.Communication is the glue that holds an organisation together, whatever its
business or its size (creates unity and harmony). Without communication an
organisation cannot function at all.
Without effective communication, information cannot be collected, processed, or
exchanged; words and data would remain isolated facts. With effective
communication, multinational organisations which are spread all over the world
can function like a single unit.
5.Communication enables an individual to express ideas thoughts and feelings
effectively in writing and in speech. The most important foundation skill for
anyone in the new world of work is the ability to communicate; being able to
express your ideas effectively.
6.Communication helps in team building and team-work. Owing to advances in
information technology, companies downsize and decentralize, and work is
increasingly carried out by teams. Team members must be able to work together
to identify problems, analyse alternatives, and recommend solutions. They must
be able to communicate their ideas persuasively to others. Ability to work well in
teams, to manage your subordinates and your relationships with seniors,
customers and colleagues, depends on your communication skill.
7.Marketing the products and services. Communication in the form of
advertisement and public relations is needed in order to inform the public and
to persuade potential customers to buy the products. Production of goods is of
no use if potential buyers have no
information about the product. Communicating to the public about the product
is the essence of business.
8.Delegation of work horizontally and vertically.
9.Transacting business: through internal and external communication.
10.Building positive public relations

ESSENTIALS/PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Communication is effective only when both the sender and the receiver are focussed
on the act of communication. While the sender must sharpen and improve skills of
speaking and writing, the receiver must improve skills of listening and reading. The
qualities of communication which the sender must achieve are called the C's of
Communication because most of them begin with the letter C.

Cs of Good Communication

1.Correctness
A letter must be correct in every respect:
(i) In spelling, grammar, pronunciation, and use of language. Incorrect language
spoils the message, distracts the receiver's attention, and creates a poor impression of
the sender; it may also convey a wrong meaning. All spellings must be checked;
spelling of names must be checked with extra care. Most people are offended if their
name is wrongly spelt or pronounced. There must be consistency in the use of
numbers, units of measure, technical terms, abbreviations, hyphens, grammar,
spelling, punctuation, and capitalisation. American and English spelling vary.
Hyphenation and punctuation and capitalisation do not have absolutely fixed rules.
Whatever you decide on, be consistent throughout the document.
(ii) In appearance and form of layout. Poor and untidy appearance, with typing
mistakes corrected in ink, uneven spacing or carelessness in the layout, creates a poor
impression of the company's efficiency in handling its work. Appearance depends on
placing the parts of layout correctly on the letterhead, even spacing between letters,
words, lines and parts of layout, and having proper margins on all sides. Similarly,
shabby appearance of the speaker and lack of attention to body language creates a
bad impression.
(iii) In the information conveyed correct and accurate. Communicating wrong or
incomplete information is the most harmful thing; it leads to waste of time in making
corrections and will lead to loss of goodwill and loss of business. All dates and days,
time, numbers and facts must be in agreement. Nothing is more confusing than
mismatched information.

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 (iv) In tone, formality and style must be appropriate to the occasion, the content
and the relationship between the sender and the receiver. An overdone apology
sounds childish or undignified; a grudging or patronising agreement to grant a request
sounds unpleasant.
2.Clarity
The message must be clear at the first reading so it that takes very little time to follow
and understand. Clearly written or spoken messages avoid misunderstanding and save
time. Write and speak to express, not to impress. Clarity depends upon five factors:
(i) Simple, common everyday words which everyone can understand. Never send
the reader to the dictionary. Technical terms should be avoided unless absolutely
needed and if you are communicating within the profession.
(ii) Short and simple sentences. Long sentences confuse the reader, and often
confuse the writer also. Phrases and clauses should not be added on to a sentence.
Each bit of important information should be given in a separate sentence.
(iii) Proper punctuation and pauses. It helps to provide pauses and stops and to
break up groups of words into sensible units. Besides the full stop, there are other,
shorter pauses like the semi-colon and the comma which help to break up a sentence
into readable units.
3.Consistency
Consistency should be in the use of numbers, units of measure, technical terms,
abbreviations, grammar, spelling, punctuation and capitalization and dates. British or
American spellings vary. Hyphenation, punctuation and capitalization do not have
absolutely fixed rules. Whatever you decide on, be consistent throughout the
document.
4.Coherence
Coherence is logical sequence of ideas. Making a clear plan for a presentation or a letter
ensures that the ideas are in logical order; coherence, that is, logical connection of
ideas makes any composition easy to understand. Consistency in numbering also helps
in achieving coherence
5.Concreteness
Giving definite and concrete details with figures and names. Vague phrases like "in due
course" or "at your earliest convenience" are not so useful as definite time phrases like
in two weeks or within three weeks, soon, good, any time. Use words and expressions
which communicate exact and definite information. It is better to use concrete words
with a definite meaning, or to give concrete examples and description. Words like good,
bad, far, near, make sense only when you indicate the level of efficiency or quality and
say at what speed.
6.Conciseness
Conciseness means expressing much in a few words; in business communication it
means keeping to the point, using as few words as possible without sacrificing clarity or
courtesy. It does not necessarily mean being brief; it means making every word count.
Conciseness can be achieved by:
(i) Leaving out unnecessary modifiers; for example, "new innovation;" (can there
be an old innovation?) or ''very unique" (unique means only "one of its kind"). Other
examples are: "advance plans", "actual experience", "cylindrical in shape", "three cubic
meters in volume."
(ii) Reducing unimportant ideas to phrases or single words like,
in the form of - as
in many cases - often
exhibits the ability to - can
in the event of - if
(iii) Making sure that only the necessary and relevant details are included. Using
more words than necessary confuses the idea.
Conciseness and clarity are closely related; giving clear and definite details often
reduces the length of a sentence. Readers are thankful for precise and clear messages.
Irrelevant ideas and going out of point confuses the listener.
7.Courtesy

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Courtesy is consideration for other people's feelings. It is seen in an individual's
behaviour with others. A well-mannered and courteous person shows consideration and
thought for others. In a letter, the style, the manner and the choice of words reflect the
courtesy of the writer. Some simple rules for courtesy are:
(i) Use the courtesy words please, thank you, excuse me and sorry as the
situation requires.
(ii) Express appropriate feeling according to the situation. For example,
sympathy when someone suffers, good wishes when someone begins something new,
and congratulation when someone achieves something.
(iii) Make the other person feel comfortable. This is an important factor of
courtesy. Care and consideration for the reader is reflected in the letter. The opening
sentence itself shows the courtesy of the writer:
• We appreciate your promptness in sending the goods.
• Thank you for sending your quotation so promptly.
• We are sorry to learn that you were inconvenienced.
Requests must also be made courteously:
• We would appreciate it very much if you could send your cheque within three days of
receiving our bill.
• Will you please look into the matter at once?
(iv) Be attentive and prompt in responding. Every message, written or oral
should be answered within twenty-four hours. If it is a letter of complaint, the response
should be immediate; a courteous company makes a phone call or sends a fax
message immediately on receiving a complaint or hearing about a problem. Everyone
appreciates prompt attention.
(v) Let the tone, the choice of words and the style of the message reflect your
consideration for the feelings and needs of the receiver. This is particularly important if
the message to be 'conveyed is likely to be unpleasant for the reader. A courteous
letter has the best chance of getting a favourable response. Seeing the situation as the
reader sees it, and taking care of his/ her needs, is courtesy. You must have an
awareness of how the words sound to the receiver.
8.Completeness
The message communicated should be complete with all necessary details and
information given to enable proper understanding and response by the receiver.

ROLE OF ICT IN COMMUNICATION

As depicted here, ICT involves the use of computer and internet in communication,
including the internet enabled mobile phone.

Effects of Communication Technology on Business Productivity

1)Business productivity has increased dramatically with mobile communication tools.
The mobile telephone and the mobile PC have freed the business person from the desk
and made it possible to work from anywhere, anytime. With instant messaging, the
capabilities of communication have become even more powerful. Regular Instant
Messaging users have increased the number of people they contact and the
frequency of such contacts, while decreasing the number of e- mail and phone calls
they initiated.
2)It builds customer and partner relationships. Clients and business partners get
instant access to the company contacts they need, right when they need them.
They do not have to waste time waiting for the operator or the EPBX system to
put them through to the person they need to talk to.
3)It increases employee productivity since on-the-spot responses means that work
gets done faster and more efficiently, right from your desktop.
4)It increases flexibility and decreases downtime. There is no need to spend time
just waiting for information to be located and transmitted by some other person.
 Direct access to the needed information means ability to take decisions on the
spot. Within the organisation, rigid and time

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 consuming procedures of getting information through the organisational channels
can be avoided. Using wireless connectivity gives users more flexibility to work
from a variety of locations, resulting in productivity gains and efficiency savings.
With instant messaging it is possible to reply to urgent queries, eliminate the
need to make copies, eliminate travel in many cases. Productivity gains are
measured by the amount of additional time available that is used to perform
business tasks.
5)An important development is the portability of the cellular telephone and of the
laptop computer, so that an individual has the power to contact anyone at any
location from any location. The instrument is no longer tied to the transmitting
equipment because of developments in wireless technology combined with
telephone for the cellular (mobile) telephone.
6)The laptop and other portable computers and the mobile telephone have freed the
person from the office and the desk.
7)The mobile telephone has acquired a large number of capabilities besides
transmission of voice; it has become capable of storage.
8)Data which might be needed at important meetings at a faraway location can be
carried in compressed form in a mobile telephone, a laptop computer, palmtop
computer or pocket computer. This data can be in the form of text, graphics or
voice and sounds.
9)The instrument is also capable of taking instant pictures and storing or
transmitting them; these can then be transferred to other instruments like the
desktop computer.
10)It allows access to the internet, thus making information search possible from
any location. The instrument allows the user to carry out some editing of the stored
data.
11)Ability to hold one-on-one conferences online and hold "virtual meetings" where
others can join in.
12)Offers opportunity for online marketing and online business transactions.
Employees and customers can discuss sales deals on-the-spot.
13)Information communication is fast, enabling immediate answers to urgent
questions and staying in close touch with employees who are on the road. The
management can also send personal, timely congratulatory notes to boost staff
morale.
14)It has capacity for mass storage of information. All data about the organisation
can be located in one place.
15)It enables quick and ready access to information from many sources at any time.
16)Provides reprographic services in communication.
17)Enables social networking through the social media.

Challenges posed by the use of ICT in

communication 1.Increase in cyber-crime.
2.Internet fluctuations.
3.High cost of purchasing and installing communication gadgets.
4.Proper usage of ICT needs technical knowledge and skills.
5.Mobile phone and social media have led to spread of fake news, hatred and
defation.
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TOPIC 2. COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication as a process is moving, continually changing, with no beginning or

end. In our definition, communication is a process—something that is continually
changing. Individual words, sentences, and gestures have no meaning in isolation.
They make sense only when viewed as parts of an on-going, dynamic process. To fully
understand the process of communication, we must notice how what we say and do
influences and affects what the other person says and does. We must pay attention to
the changes we experience and how these changes influence and affect our
perception, interpretation, and interactions with others, from moment to moment, year
to year, and decade to decade. Similarly, we also need to be sensitive to the on-going
changes in those we communicate with because they are changing too.
Communication is alive, and to fully appreciate it requires that we view it as a
dynamic, fluid, and continually changing process.

COMPONENTS OF THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

There are seven elements or factors which make up the process of communication:
1. Source /Sender, is the one who initiates the action of communicating
2. Audience /Receiver is the person(s) for whom the communication is intended
3. Goal/Purpose is the sender's reason for communicating, the desired result of the
communication 4. Message/ Content is the information conveyed
5. Medium /Channel is the means or method used for conveying the message
6. Feedback is the receiver's response to the communication as observed by the
sender
7. Environment /Context is the background in which the communication takes place.

1.Source
The source is the originator of the message. It is the person or persons who want to
communicate a message to another person or a group of people. The source of a
message can be an individual speaker addressing a group, a child asking for candy, a
couple sending out invitations to a family reunion, or a person writing a letter.

Encoding
Once the source has decided on a message to communicate, he must encode or
convert that idea, thought, or feeling into verbal and nonverbal symbols that will be
most effectively understood by the receiver. This encoding process can be extremely
creative because there are unlimited ways for the source to convert the idea or feeling
into words and behaviours.
2.Message
The message is the idea, thought, or feeling that the source wants to communicate.
This message is encoded or converted into verbal and nonverbal symbols that will
most likely be understood by the receiver.
3.Receiver
The receiver is the recipient of the message. The receiver can be an individual or a
group of people. Once the receiver hears the words and receives the nonverbal cues
from the sender, she must interpret or decode them if communication is to occur.

Decoding
Decoding is the process of making sense out of the message received. The receiver
must decipher the language and behaviours sent by the source so they will have
meaning. After the receiver decodes the message, the receiver (now the source) can
encode a return message and send it back to the other person.
4.Channel
A channel is the medium by which the message is communicated. The source can
utilize the channels of sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste. For instance, if you want to
communicate affection for another person, you can utilize a variety of channels or
combination of channels. You can say, “I like you”

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(sound). You can give a hug (touch). You can wink an eye (sight). You can send cookies
that you baked (taste). Or you can deliver a dozen roses (smell). You can creatively
select the channels of communication to productively communicate your message.
5.Context/Environment
All communication occurs within a certain context. The context is made up of the
physical surroundings, the occasion in which the communication occurs, the time, the
number of people present, noise level, and many other variables that can influence
and affect the encoding and decoding of messages. The context plays an important
role in the communication process.
6.Feedback
The receiver also feels a reaction to the message; this reaction may be conscious or
unconscious; it may cause some change in the receiver's facial expression. It definitely
leads the receiver to think. The receiver may take some action, if required. He may
also reply to the message. The response and/or reply is feedback. Receiver's functions
complete one cycle of the process of communication.
7.Goal/Purpose is the sender's reason for communicating, the desired result of the
communication

STAGES OF COMMUNICATION
1.The sender conceptualises and encodes the
message.
2.The sender chooses the channel and sends the message to
the receiver 3.The receiver receives and decodes the message.
4.The receiver chooses the channel and sends the feedback.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATI0N

Commination is not always successful. Several things can prevent the message from
reaching ' the intended recipient or from "having the desired effect on the recipient.
1.Physical Barriers
Obstacles that prevent a message from reaching the intended recipient may be outside
and beyond the control of the persons concerned. Some can be controlled by the
management; some cannot be controlled because they are in the environment.
(a)Defects in the Medium
Defects in the devices used for transmitting messages are external, and usually not
within the control of the parties engaged in communication. The telephone, the postal
system, the courier service, or electronic media may fail. Messages can get delayed,
distorted and even lost while being transmitted. A partial failure of the mechanical
equipment is more harmful than a total failure because a partial failure may carry an
incomplete or distorted message. A fax message can be wrongly delivered as a wrong
number can get dialled on the telephone. The printout may not be clear at all. It is
advisable to call up and check that the fax has been received.
(b)Noise
Noise is any disturbance which occurs in the transmission process. In face-to face
communication which is carried by air vibration, the air may be disturbed by noise such
as traffic, factory work, or people talking. In a factory, oral communication is very
difficult because of the noise of the machines.
Organisations that can afford sound-proof rooms can overcome this barrier to some
extent.
(c)Information Overload
When there is too much information, some of it is blocked in transit and may not reach
the intended audience. Advertising and sales information is an example of overload; so
much communication about products floats through so many media that a good deal of
it-does not reach the potential buyer.
2.Semantic and Language Barriers
Semantic means pertaining to or arising from the different meanings of words or other
symbols. First of all, many words have multiple meanings. Just look into a good
dictionary and see how many meanings you can find for some commonly used words
like "charge", "spring", "check", "suit", "ring".

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The meaning that comes to your mind first depends on your occupation ("charge" may
mean electrical charge to a engineering student, but fee/rent to a commerce student).

Words like "minute" and "wind" are pronounced in two different ways to mean two
entirely different things. Some words like "present", "transfer", "record" are used as
verb and as noun with a difference in stress in speaking, but no difference in spelling.
A person may be present at a function and receive a present (stress on pre-), and
present (stress on -sent) some thoughts on the budget. Similar sounding words like
"access" and "excess", "flour" and "flower", "cite", "site" and "sight" can cause
misunderstanding in speech. Many people confuse "week" and "weak," "steal' and
"steel" in writing.

Emotional and cultural attitudes towards something can evoke different responses in
people; for example, "dog" will evoke responses according to a person's past
experience with the animal as well as cultural attitudes towards the animal.

Phrases can be tricky; 'a red and a blue carpet' signifies two carpets: one red and one
blue. 'A red and blue carpet' is one carpet in two colours. Sentences can convey
entirely different meanings depending on how they are spoken. Consider the sentence,
"What can I do for you?" It means something different with every shift of emphasis
from one word to another in oral communication.

Technical terms can also be a barrier to communication when used with an audience
who are not members of that profession. Often, these words have other meanings in
ordinary language, and are differently understood by people who do not belong to that
occupational group. Consider the new meanings given to ordinary words by computer
technology such as "mouse".

More importantly, semantic barriers arise because words mean different things to
different persons. It is' said, "meaning is in people, not in words." Age, profession,
education, cultural background and many other factors influence the meaning we give
to words.

A dialect for example would identify a person geographically and identically certain
slang would reveal the cultural or group orientation of the persons speaking it. The
same are then barriers, if spoken in situations and with people, who may not be able to
relate to them.
3.Organisational Barriers
Editing and filtering: A great deal of loss of information occurs as a message moves
from senior management to lower levels. Each person through whom it passes edits it,
filters it, and simplifies it for the understanding and needs of the next person who is to
receive it. Loss or distortion of information as it moves downward may be caused by
misinterpretation, lack of understanding, and neglect of messages by some of the
members of the organisation.

Loss of information also occurs as messages move from subordinates to higher levels
of authority. Messages are filtered at every level. There may be deliberate suppression
of information out of self-interest and jealousy; a supervisor may suppress or change a
good suggestion from a subordinate so as to take the credit personally; a senior officer
may prevent information about discontent in the department from reaching the
manager because it reflects on his/her human relations skills.

Deliberate withholding of information from peers who are perceived as rivals becomes
a barrier in horizontal communication. A common barrier to horizontal communication
is organisational politics; one manager may withhold information from another since
possession of information usually has benefits and advantages.

Over-dependence on written communication: Too much dependence on written

communication is one of the reasons for communication gaps. Circulars, bulletins,
notices and even letters are not always read carefully. Many employees are unable to
read and understand long messages. Even better

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educated persons at higher levels do not always give proper attention to all written
communication. Oral communication has to be used to supplement written
communication when the message is important.
4. Cultural Barriers
When we join a group and wish to remain in it, sooner or later we need to adopt the
behaviour patterns of the group. These are the behaviours that the group accepts as
signs of belonging. The group rewards such behaviour through acts of recognition,
approval, and inclusion. In groups which are happy to accept you and where you are
happy to conform, there is a mutuality of interests and a high level of win-win contact.
Where, however, there are barriers to your membership of a group, a high level of
game-playing replaces good communication.
5.Gender Barriers
There are distinct differences between the speech patterns in a man and those in a
woman which may create misunderstanding between genders. Global studies suggest
that a woman speaks between 22,000 and 25,000 words a day whereas a man speaks
between 7,000 and 10,000. In childhood, girls speak earlier than boys and at the age of
three, have a vocabulary twice that of boys. The reason for this lies in the wiring of a
man's and woman's brains. When a man talks, his speech is located in the left side of
the brain but in no specific area. When a woman talks, the speech is located in both
hemispheres and in two specific locations. Scientifically speaking, a man talks in a
linear, logical and compartmentalized way, which are the features of left-brain
thinking; whereas a woman talks more freely, mixing logic and emotion, features of
both sides of the brain. It also explains why women talk for much longer than men
each day.
6.Socio-Psychological Barriers
People have personal feelings, desires, fears and hopes, likes and dislikes, attitudes,
views and opinions. They form a sort of emotional filter around the mind, and influence
the way we respond to messages that we receive and to new experiences. Factors like
the time, the place and the circumstances of a particular communication also influence
our understanding and response. Problems of understanding, interpretation and
response to communication arise partly from our socially-learnt attributes and partly
from our personal attributes. These are called socio-psychological barriers.

(a)Self-centred Attitudes: We tend to see and hear everything in the light of our own
interests and needs and desires. We pay attention to messages which are useful
to us, and often do not pay enough attention to those messages which do not
interest us.
(b)Group Identification: Our values and opinions are influenced, in some matters, by
the group to which we belong, like family, the larger family of relatives, people of
our locality or city, our religion or language group, gender, age group,
nationality, economic group and so on. We tend to reject an idea which goes
against the interests of the group.
(c)Self-Image: our idea about what we are, what we look like and what impression
we make. It is quite difficult to accept any idea which goes against it.
(d)Selective Perception: we see, read or hear selectively according to our own needs,
interests and experience may not perceive some of the aspects and information
content of the message. (e)Filtering: Filtering is the process of reducing the details
or aspects of a message. Each person who passes on a message reduces or colours
a message according to his/her understanding of the situation.
(f)Status Block: A "boss" who is conscious of status finds it difficult to receive any
suggestions from subordinates as they feel that they know everything about how
to run the business. They do not agree that a junior may have some good ideas
and many good ideas are wasted only because they come· from junior
employees who are considered to be too young and inexperienced. Social
 distance sometimes makes workers too shy or frightened to speak to their senior
bosses.

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(g)Resistance to Change: Some people strongly resist new ideas which are against
their established opinions or traditions or social customs. They may avoid new
ideas because they feel insecure or afraid of changes in methods or situations.
(h)Closed Mind: Limited intellectual background, limited reading and narrow
interests can cause a person's mind to be narrow and limits the ability to take in
new ideas. Young employees with bright ideas and fresh approach feel frustrated
by the closed mind of the senior people in an organisation.
(i)Poor Communication Skills: Lack of skill in writing and in speaking prevents a
person from framing the message properly. Oral communication can be
handicapped by a number of problems; nervousness in facing an audience may
affect a person's clarity in speaking. Even excitement about an achievement or a
new idea may make a person's speech incoherent. Lack of skill in reading and in
listening is also common.
(j)State of Health: Pain or fever certainly makes a person disinclined to engage in
communication; but even if the general state of health is poor, communicating
ability is reduced. The mind is not sufficiently alert; there will be gaps in
attention while reading or listening; there is lack of energy to think clearly and to
find the right words. Perception is low when the state of health is poor. Emotions,
which play an important part in successful communication, are easily disturbed.
(k)Experiential barriers
The difficulty in understanding matters not personally experienced. Our past
experience may also negatively influence our perception and understanding
related to those experiences.
(l)Perceptual barriers
The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world
differently. The selectivity/exposure filters that are developed on the basis of
experience or lack of it play their part. A bad experience would perceptually
block out unpleasant things. This could be in the shape of avoiding it and if that
is not possible by altering the behaviours i.e., response types in different ways.
Similarly, retention filters out things that feel good, and gives the tendency to
forget those things that are painful.
(m) Emotional barriers
It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust, and suspicion. The roots of our emotional
mistrust of others lie in our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be
careful what we said to others. "Don't speak until you're spoken to"; "Children
should be seen and not heard". As a result, many people hold back from
communicating their thoughts and feelings to others because they feel vulnerable.
While some caution may be wise in certain relationships, excessive fear of what
others might think of us can stunt our development into effective communicators
and our ability to form meaningful relationships. Emotions influence both our
speech and our listening. In many cases emotions may stop us from saying many
things and in other instance may make us say things that we never wanted to say.
(n)Hidden agendas
Hidden Agendas serve two functions: (i) Individual’s strategy for poor self-
esteem. This is mostly in cases where the personality is a submissive one. In
such cases the communication can turn sly and manipulative as one does not
have the courage to communicate openly. This is particularly the case as one is
always apprehensive of others differing point of view and is fearful of annoying
the other person, not being confident of handling a communication situation if
there was one requiring assertive handling. (ii) Promote ulterior motives and
needs.
If a person is known to promote one’s ulterior motives and needs either by being
aggressive or by being covertly submissive; sooner or later it would become a
major communication barrier. It generally creates a win-lose situation and does
 not work in establishing trust, which is a basic premise for effective and
purposeful communication.
(o)Stereotypes
Stereotypes are mental images and expectations. Stereotypes provide a shortcut
to form an opinion of someone. We tend to get opinionated sooner or later and it
becomes difficult to

11 | P a g e
 change opinions. Opinions give us a base to relate to others. Humans are very
diverse by nature whereas stereotyping them in categories with specific
characteristics is very common and therefore it also becomes one of the most
common barriers to communication.
(p)Defensiveness:
If we feel threatened by a message, we become defensive and respond in such
ways that reduce understanding. This is a particularly harmful barrier in handling
complaints and grievances and in resolving conflicts.

OVERCOMING BARRIERS
(i)Persons in positions of authority, as well as subordinates, can be helped to
overcome these barriers by training in effective communication. Periodical review and
reorganisation of communication networks is also needed to ensure that information
reaches people in time. (ii)Health centres: Many organisations provide medical
aid, gymnasiums and recreation for the staff in an effort to keep down stress levels.
Regulations like compulsory vacation after a certain number of months/years are also
meant to ensure that employees avoid stress and fatigue.
You have to cultivate all the communication skills including getting feedback and
non-verbal (iii)
communication.
(iv)The Management should ensure the channels must be kept in good working
condition; the intercoms, notice-boards, information on meetings must be kept
up-to-date. Many companies which can afford it, maintain soundproof rooms for
meetings and take steps to reduce the noise level in the office.
(v)Semantic and language barriers can be overcome only by being careful with the
use of language, and by using words which have clear meaning, by using short
and simple sentences, and also by using visual aid whenever possible. Whenever
possible, feedback must be got and given to ensure that there is common
understanding of a message.
(vi)Personal barriers can be overcome only "by making a conscious effort, and by
training for better communication.
(vii) To reduce cultural barriers, it is better
not to assume similarity with those from
 cultures until you are sure. It is safer to assume difference till you are sure of
similarity. Depend on description rather than evaluation or interpretation;
persons from different cultures evaluate and interpret differently.

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 TOPIC 3: CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION

ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION
We define organizational communication as the ways in which groups of people both
maintain structure and order through their symbolic interactions and allow individual
actors the freedom to accomplish their goals. This definition recognizes that
communication is the primary tool to influence organizations and gain access to
organizational resources.

(a)Internal vs external communication

Internal communication occurs within the organisation while external communication is

between an organisation and other organisations, customers or individuals who are
external to the particular organisation. Internal communication networks are patterns
of relationships through which information flows in an organization. Stohl (1995)
describes communication networks as capturing “the tapestry of relationships—the
complex web of affiliations among individuals and organizations as they are woven
through the collaborative threads of communication” (p. 18). Communication networks
emerge in organizations based on formal and informal communication (Stohl & Stohl,
2005).

External communication must pass through the registry section which keeps record of
such communication. It involves communication with individuals and organisations
outside our organisation.

(b)Formal vs informal communication

Formal communication consists of messages that follow prescribed channels of

communication throughout the organization. The most common way of depicting
formal communication networks is with organizational charts Organizational charts
provide clear guidelines as to who is responsible for a given task and which employees
are responsible for others’ performance. Organizational charts demonstrate that
communication can flow in several directions: downward, upward, and horizontally.

1.Downward communication occurs whenever superiors initiate messages to

subordinates.
Ideally, downward communication should include such things as job instructions,
job rationale, policy and procedures, performance feedback, and motivational
appeals. When abused, it can lead to dictatorship.
2.Messages flowing from subordinates to superiors are labelled upward
communication.
Obviously, effective decision making depends on timely, accurate, and complete
information traveling upward from subordinates.
3.Messages between members of an organization with equal power are labelled
horizontal communication. Horizontal communication is important to
organizational success when used to coordinate tasks, solve problems, share
information, and resolve conflict. Horizontal communication receives much more
attention in participatory organizational structures in which employees have
more opportunity to formally participate in decision making (such as quality
circles or autonomous work teams).

Informal/grapevine communication has no definite route of communication for sharing

information. Information converges a long way by passing from one person to another
leaving no indication from which point it started. This is similar to the vines of grapes.
This kind of communication is in the form of (a) office gossip involving telling a number
of persons in one’s group, (b) single standard office stories to a trusted colleague who
in turn tells another trusted colleague, and so on. (c) Probability; an employee may
also become indifferent about whom he should pass the information to. He/she

13 | P a g e
may pass the information to anybody around him who may be interested to listen. (d)
Cluster: in this case the person who has the information passes it to selected
individuals who also pass it on to selected individuals. In every organisation, some
people have good liaison with other persons.

Informal communication is generally considered to be any interaction that does not

generally follow the formal structure of the organization but emerges out of natural
social interaction among organization members. Whereas formal communication
consists of messages the organization recognizes as official, informal messages do not
follow official lines. The concept of emergent organizational networks represents the
informal, naturally occurring patterns of communication relationships in organizations
(Susskind, Schwartz, Richards, & Johnson, 2005).

Moreover, effective workplace communicators understand the nature of both formal

and informal communication.
Managers who take time to develop and listen to sources of informal information are
better equipped to understand employees’ attitudes and concerns. When entering an
organization, such as when you start your first job, asking other employees about
communication practices is smart because you not only discover formal procedures
but also make contact for informal sources of information.

(c)Intrapersonal vs interpersonal communication

Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication is the communication that occurs within your own mind.
Intrapersonal communication occurs, when you evaluate or examine the interaction
that occurs between yourself and others, but it is not limited to such situations. This
form of communication occurs before and during other forms of communication as
well. For instance, you might argue with yourself during a conversation in which
someone asks you to do something you don’t really want to do: Before you accept or
decline, you mull over the alternatives in your mind. Intrapersonal communication also
includes such activities as solving problems internally, resolving internal conflict,
planning for the future, and evaluating yourself and your relationships with others.

Interpersonal Communications
Interpersonal communication is the process of using messages to generate meaning
between at least two people in a situation that allows mutual opportunities for both
speaking and listening. Like intrapersonal communication, interpersonal
communication occurs for a variety of reasons: to solve problems, to resolve conflicts,
to share information, to improve perceptions of oneself, or to fulfil social needs, such
as the need to belong or to be loved. Through our interpersonal communication, we are
able to establish relationships with others that include friendships and romantic
relationships. Dyadic and small-group communications are two subsets of interpersonal
communication. Dyadic communication is simply two-person communication, such as
interviews with an employer or a teacher; talks with a parent, spouse, or child; and
interactions among strangers, acquaintances, and friends. Small-group communication
is the process of using messages to generate meaning in a small group of people
(Brilhart & Galanes, 1998). Small-group communication occurs in families, work groups,
support groups, religious groups, and study groups.
14 | P a g e
 TOPIC 4: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION: VERBAL AND NONVERBAL
The communication process can take any of the four forms—verbal and nonverbal.
Both forms usually operate together in the majority of messages you send and receive.
Spoken or oral and written are both forms of verbal communication while nonverbal
consists of visual and audio-visual.

VERBAL COMMUNICATION
1.Oral
2.Written
3.Visual
4.Audio visual

Types of verbal communication

1.Face to face communication: involves the speaker and the listener interacting
face to face such as in dyadic, small group or public speaking.
2.Telephone conversation: involve two people interacting by use of telephone
though it is possible for a small group by means of teleconferencing.
3.The radio: makes it possible to speak to a large number of people at the same
time.
4.Written communication: involves use of written forms of communication such as
letters, memos, reports, circulars, etc.

Spoken and Written Communication

Oral communication is more natural and immediate; we speak to communicate in
natural and informal situations. We also speak in formal and official situations such as
making a presentation or taking an interview when the target audience is present.
Written communication has to be used when the other person is not present and is not
available on the telephone. Long and complex messages are best conveyed in writing.
Attributes/Features of Spoken and Written Communication
Oral and written communications have different attributes which have to be taken into
account in choosing which one to use in a particular situation.
(i) Speed: Written communication is slower in preparation, in conveyance and in
reception; it takes more time to draft, type, dispatch, and to receive and read a letter
than it takes to speak, and to hear, listen to, and understand an oral message.
Feedback is also slower in written communication.
(ii) Record: Written communication serves as a record and can be used for future
reference. It is a documentary proof, and can be used as legal evidence. Oral
communication may be taped for later ' reference, but the
Authenticity of the voice can be questioned; moreover, tapes can be edited and the
message distorted. Written records and documents are more reliable and acceptable.
(iii) Precision and accuracy: Written communication is more precise and accurate
than oral. Choice of precise words is possible in written communication because the
writer has the time to look for suitable words and phrases, and to revise the draft, if
necessary. Accuracy is necessary in written communication because the receiver is not
present to ask for clarification. In oral communication, it is not always possible to be so
precise in the choice of words. There is also no time to seek and consider words while
speaking; however, the receiver can seek clarification on the spot. Besides, oral
communication has the support of vocal ' tone and gestures and expressions which
enrich the meaning of the words.
(iv) Length: A written message is usually shorter than an oral communication.
The situation of oral communication requires some preliminary and closing remarks,
while for written messages there are standard formats for opening and closing which
can keep the message short.
(v) Expense: Written communication requires stationery, preparation, and
transmission, all of which cost money. Oral communication can also cost a great deal
since it requires simultaneous presence and attention of the two parties, and getting
together costs money. Costs will depend on the availability of the required person(s) at
the particular place.

15 | P a g e
 (vi) Body Language: Oral communication is supported by the speaker's body
language and paralanguage. The speaker can control the style of delivery, giving
meaning to words and sentences by voice inflexion and facial expressions and
gestures. Written communication is separated from the writer's bodily presence and is
more in the control of the reader. The reader can give to the words the sound, inflexion
and stress as he chooses; and this may be affected by the reader's mood and state of
mind at the time of reading.
(vii) Feedback: Oral communication allows immediate feedback; the listener's
face gives some feedback and the speaker can modify the message on the spot.
Clarifications can be sought and given at once. A conversation can be brought to a
satisfactory conclusion by continuous exchange of ideas and views. In written
communication the feedback is delayed; the reader's facial expressions cannot be seen
by the writer; the reader's response is known to the writer only when the reader
replies. The reader may give a cautious and guarded reply without letting the other see
the really felt reaction.
(viii) Formality: Spoken language tends to be less formal than written language.
When a language is spoken, there are abbreviations and dropping of some sounds, as
in can't, won't, don't, I'll, we'll. The vocabulary used in written
English is also more formal than in spoken English. Spoken English requires learning
correct pronunciation English spelling does not always indicate how the word is
pronounced. We have to learn correct pronunciation so that we can communicate with
people in other parts of the world.

Importance of verbal communication

(i)Speed: Oral communication is fast with immediate
feedback.
(ii)Record: Written communication serves as a record and can be used for future
reference. It is a documentary proof, and can be used as legal evidence. Written
records and documents are more reliable and acceptable.
(iii) Precision and accuracy: Written communication is precise and accurate. Choice
of precise words is possible in written communication because the writer has the
time to look for suitable words and phrases, and to revise the draft, if necessary.
Accuracy is necessary in written communication because the receiver is not
present to ask for clarification.
(iv)Length: A written message is usually shorter than an oral communication. There
are standard formats for opening and closing which can keep the message short
(v)Body Language: Oral communication is supported by the speaker's body
language and paralanguage which enrich meaning.
(vi)Feedback: Oral communication allows immediate feedback; the listener's face
gives some feedback and the speaker can modify the message on the spot.
Clarifications can be sought and given at once. A conversation can be brought to
a satisfactory conclusion by continuous exchange of ideas and views.
(vii) Formality: verbal communication allow for choice between being formal or
informal.
Spoken language tends to be less formal than written language. The vocabulary
used in written English is also more formal than in spoken English.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Nonverbal communication is all communication that is not spoken or written.
Nonverbal communication has a great impact and influence on the receiver’s decoding
or interpretation of any message.

Types of nonverbal communication

1.Body Movement (body language)
The study of body movement is known as kinesics and it deals with all the ways people
use their bodies to communicate or enhance their verbal communication. Body
movement includes posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact.

16 | P a g e
Posture—the way you position and move your body—can communicate a great deal
about you. For example, leaning toward or leaning away from someone in conversation
can convey your degree of interest, attentiveness, or involvement. Turning your back
or standing to leave can convey a lack of interest or signal the end to the conversation.
Gestures are any movement of the hands, fingers, or arms. Open arms can signify
honesty and openness.
Facial expressions are the arrangement of facial muscles to communicate messages.
They include the mouth, cheeks, eyes, eyelids, eyebrows, forehead, nose, and chin.
The face is probably the most observed part of the body when we communicate with
others, and this is not without reason. Our face usually communicates our internal,
emotional experience.
Eye contact can also communicate several different types of messages. Direct eye
contact in our culture can communicate involvement, intimidation, and intimacy. A
diverted or downcast gaze communicates a different message. Our eyes can also
communicate dominance and submission. We can “stare someone down” with a
prolonged gaze that is not returned by the other person, or we can avoid or break eye
contact when talking with a superior, such as a boss or supervisor.
2.Paralanguage
Paralanguage is how we speak. Paralanguage includes pitch, volume, rate, and quality.
Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of our voice. The pitch of our voice is primarily
determined by the physical length and thickness of our vocal chords, but it can rise if
we are frightened, anxious, or excited, and it can lower if we are attempting to sound
more powerful or authoritative.
Volume refers to the relative softness or loudness of our voice. We often speak in a
characteristic volume; some individuals talk loudly, whereas others talk in almost a
whisper. We can also adjust our volume to meet the requirements of the
communication setting we are in. In a noisy, crowded room we raise our volume and
speak above the other voices, whereas during a movie or quiet dinner we lower our
voice.
Rate is how fast or slow we speak. People tend to have their own personal rate of
speech. Some speak fast, others slow. We tend to increase our rate of speech when
we’re excited, frightened, or nervous, and we tend to decrease our rate of speech
when we’re uncertain, thoughtful, and sad. Quality refers to the overall sound of our
voice. Each human voice has a distinctive tone. The quality of one’s voice may be
characterized as soothing, harsh, strident, or calm. We each have a distinctive quality
to the way we sound. Can you recall your mother’s voice? Your father’s voice? Your
best friend’s voice? Often, when answering the telephone, we immediately recognize
the caller by his or her voice quality.
3.Personal Presentation
Our clothing is one of the most obvious and public displays of who we are and what we
want to communicate to others. The primary consideration is popularity,
attractiveness, and status. We can create a variety of public images simply by the
clothing we wear.
Our grooming can also reflect and communicate messages to the world. The length
and style of our hair, bathing routines, makeup, cologne and perfume, finger and
toenail painting (even for men these days), and many other grooming habits
communicate a great deal about who we are and how we want to be perceived.
Touching is the most intimate form of nonverbal communication behaviour. Touching
behaviour, or haptics, as it is called by social scientists, includes all behaviour that
involves the skin. Primarily, touching behaviour deals with our hands and how we use
them to communicate.
4.Proxemics
Proxemics, the study of our use of space, and was first introduced by anthropologist
Edward Hall in his book The Hidden Dimension. By observing conversations between
people, Hall discovered that our personal space could be broken down into four zones
or distances:
✦ Intimate distance (0 to 18 inches) is reserved for intimate activities include making
love, holding intimate or confidential conversations, hugging, kissing, and snuggling.
This is often referred to as our “personal bubble.” Only our most intimate relationships
are permitted into this area. If an uninvited person invades our personal bubble,
whether it’s a stranger sitting next to us on an empty bench or

17 | P a g e
a person getting too close for comfort during a conversation, we usually move away
slightly to maintain our intimate distance.
✦ Personal distance (18 inches to 4 feet) is used for most conversations with family,
friends, and most acquaintances.
✦ Social distance (4 to 12 feet) is the distance we feel most comfortable with
transacting business, sitting during committee meetings, and interacting with the hotel
clerk, the supermarket cashier, or the police officer giving us a ticket.
✦ Public distance (12 to 25 feet) is used for public ceremonies, speeches, large group
meetings, and class lectures. If the distance between people is greater than 25 feet,
communication is often limited to shouting and exaggerated nonverbal gestures.
The distance of your personal space changes depending on the setting, the
people involved, and how you are feeling at the moment. Cultural factors also play an
important role in determining proxemic distancing and personal comfort.
5.Sign language
Sign language is a form of non-verbal communication commonly used for the hearing
impaired. It involves the use of hands to make symbolic gestures which have specific
meanings. Sign language is taught in formal learning institutions for communication
with the hearing impaired such as the use of braille. Communicating using sign
language for the visually impaired may take the form of: Finger spelling
Signing Exact English (SEE)
Kenya Sign Language (KSL)
NB: find out what the three concepts entail.

Importance of nonverbal communication

(a) Non-verbal methods have almost instant effect because of quicker grasp by the
receiver. Speed in conveyance and response makes non-verbal methods extremely
useful in critical situations like traffic signs and signals.
(b) Visual non-verbal methods aid verbal communication; maps, charts and graphs are
necessary for conveying information or plans related to geography, locations, data,
and most of the sciences. A large amount of complex data can be presented in a
compact form; one page can convey information that would need several pages of
words. It makes information available conveniently, at a glance for comparisons.
(c) Response to visuals and plain sounds is more powerful than to language. A cry of
agony arouses stronger response than a sad story; a film is more effective than a
written story. TV news is more interesting than on radio.
(d) It is the best method to convey information to illiterate people. Containers of
poisons are marked with a skull and cross-bones as a warning; illiterate drivers
manage with the non-verbal traffic signals. Films are used to explain processes to
people who may not follow oral explanations easily. Non-verbal communication can
overcome the barrier of language.
(e) Sign language helps the hearing impaired to communicate, learn and be able to
work like any other physically normal persons.

Functions of non-verbal communication

a)Message reinforcement or complementation of verbal messages, for example, a
warm welcome and a firm handshake.
b)Negation of the verbal message.
c)Message substitution, i.e. using nonverbal without verbal communication such as
pointing.
d)Message accentuation/intensification i.e. smiling as you say, “It is nice to
meet you.” e)Message regulation, i.e. lowering the voice to mark the end of a
turn or eye contact to nominate the next speaker.

18 | P a g e
 VISUAL, AND AUDIO-VISUALCOMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION

Visual communication aids

It includes pictures, posters, graphs, diagrams, charts and billboards etc. Organization
make extensive use of pictures such a blue prints progress charts, maps, visual aids in
training programmes, scale models of products and similar devices. The use of such
means of communication is increasing in training and education as well as in
organisational communication. Pictures can provide powerful visual images as
suggested by the proverb "A picture is worth a thousand words". In fact, many
companies have designed their advertisement copies in which only pictures are used;
however pictures should be combined with well-chosen words and action to tell the
complete message.
Audio-visual communication aids
Audio-visual communication involves use of telecast films on the cinema, slides on a
projector screen, computer, television and video. It is the latest medium of
communication. It is a combination of sight and sound. Audio-visual communication
is suitable for publicity, mass propaganda and mass education. Large business firms
frequently make use of this technique to educate their workers and to popularise
their products. The working of a new product can be effectively demonstrated
through audio visuals. Audio communication is suitable mostly tor mass publicity and
mass educations.

Importance of audio, visual and audio visual communication aids

(i) Ability to record information for future reference
(ii) The computer and internet has enhanced search, processing and storage of
information and generally enhanced speed and efficiency in communication.
(iii) Audio visual communication tends to have longer memorability due to use of
multiple channels which makes it suitable for teaching, learning and
advertisement.
(iv) The internet services through
(v) mobile phone and computer has
improved social networking
(vi) through Facebook, What’s up,
and Twitter.
Faster feedback due to speed in
Weaknesses of visual and audio visual
(i) The mobile phone has enhanced coordination of crime while IT has
enhanced cyber- crime such as money laundering.
(ii) The initial cost of buying and installing such communication devices and the
operating cost is generally high for most people.
(iii) Communication process may be hindered
internet, radio and television. due to failure in network reception such as
(iv) Illiteracy may hinder the use of
knowledge such the use of computer. communication gadgets since it need a
(v) The use of audio visual communication has
People now prefer to use the social media reduced the need
and calling forhinder
which face to face
close social interaction.
(vi) There is a possibility of information leak
common in mobile telephony. Youngwhen peoplesomeone
may alsotaps
getyour communication.
content meant for
adults. (vii) Graphs, charts and posters take time to
(viii)Lack of feedback in the use of mass mediaconstruct.
such as radio and
television. Barriers to audio, visual, and audio visual communication
(i) The recipient must have communication
be able to receive the message. gadget with compatible features as the
(ii) The initial cost of buying and installing
such communication devices and the
 cost is generally high for most people.

19 | P a g e
 (iii) Network and airwave failure may hinder communication process over
telephone, internet, radio and television.
(iv) Illiteracy may hinder the use of communication gadgets since it need a good
operating knowledge such the use of computer.
(v) Breakdown of communication gadgets; computers, cameras, slide projectors,
video and radio gadget may break down when they are needed for use.
(vi) Lack of electric power may hinder use of electronic communication
gadgets such as computers, projectors, slide projectors and television.
(vii) Language barrier: most mass media broadcast in official languages which
many people may not understand.

Ways of overcoming the barriers to visual and audio visual communication

(i) In a business organisation, the management should always ensure the audio,
visual and audio visual channels are always working properly.
(ii) The management should always ensure that networks and airwave
receptions are adequate for proper communication.
Always ensure that there is electricity or battery power and a proper back-up
before (iii)
beginning to use audio, visual and audio visual communication gadgets.
(iv) Your choice of medium should be dictated by the literacy level, physical
location and technological capacity of the receiver.
(v) The choice of language should always depend on the linguistic
knowledge and competence of your receiver.
(vi) Mass media should broadcast in a variety of languages; the availability of
channels broadcasting in local languages ensures this.

20 | P a g e
 TOPIC 5: CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
Channel is the medium that carries the message from the source to the target
audience. All channels can be classified as written, face to face to face,
electronic and non-verbal.

Choice of Communication Medium

You need to consider several aspects in choosing a medium for a particular
message. The main aspects are:

a)The type of audience you want to reach.

b)The speed with which the message should be conveyed: The pressure of
time and the distance between the sender and the receiver influence the
choice of the medium. Some media are faster and can travel distances
rapidly, like the telephone, the fax and the e-mail; these media also have
the advantage of being person to person.
c)Need for confidentiality of the message is an important consideration. The
choice will certainly be influenced by requirement of secrecy; all media do
not ensure the same secrecy of the message. Messages like warning
memo, report on a customer's credit standing, demand for overdue
payment, and so on, are confidential. They cannot be sent by media like
telegram or telex or fax even if they are urgent.
d)Need for accuracy in transmission is not the same for all messages. If the
content to be transmitted is mainly data, you make the choice for accuracy
and speed in transmitting. e)Need for reliability of the medium is an important
factor. Sending a message by hand delivery is more reliable than ordinary
mail; registered post is more reliable than ordinary mail.
f)Cost of the medium and its relative importance and urgency.
g)Availability of a particular medium to the sender and to the receiver is
obviously an affecting factor. You can use only those media which both you
and the intended receiver can access. You may have a fax machine but if
the receiver does not have one and has no arrangements for receiving a fax
message, you cannot use that medium. h)Feedback capacity of the medium:
For some messages, you need immediate feedback; you have to use a
medium which will enable you to get it at once, like the telephone.
i)Availability of hard copy for record.
j)Formality of the medium must be suitable to content of the message. A
letter of congratulation is more formal and has a different effect from
conveying the same message orally.
k)Intensity and complexity of the message is a major factor. Many messages
in an organisation have an emotional content, which influences the choice
considerably; the emotional content is not carried equally by all media.
21 | P a g e
 TOPIC 6: OFFICIAL ETIQUETTE, PROTOCOL AND DIPLOMACY

Etiquette means conventionally accepted rules for formal relations and personal
behaviour in a polite society. It includes the code of ethical behaviour in relation
to professional practice or action among members of a profession in dealing with
each other.) Other words associated with etiquette are decorum, which suggests
dignity and a sense of what is appropriate for a person of good breeding, and
propriety, which implies established conventions of morals and good taste. Since
communication is, essentially, relationship, and includes the activity of
establishing and maintaining contact with others, knowledge and practice of
rules of etiquette add to a person's effectiveness. Basic etiquette is an important
part of presenting a positive image to one's boss, colleagues, clients, customers
and acquaintances. A cultivated person is marked by behaviour that shows
respect and courtesy to everyone, regardless of position.

Importance of office etiquette

1. Good interpersonal relations with
fellow staff 2. Good image of the
company
3. Good image of individual employee
4. Customer satisfaction

Areas of official etiquette

1.Personal Behaviour
It is generally felt that if you cannot be trusted not to embarrass yourself in
business and social situations, you may lack the self-control that is necessary to
be good at what you do.
Greeting: It is customary to greet others on entering, and acknowledge
others' greetings either with a smile and a nod or with formal greeting like "good
morning" according to the occasion.
Good posture is pleasant, and can be developed by keeping both feet
firmly on the floor, holding the back straight without slouching, and not crossing
the arms either while standing or sitting. Self-composure and a dignified posture
make a good impression and project an image of competence. Not being
overweight or being in good shape contributes to a presentable appearance.
Sneezing or coughing: may be unavoidable, but can be dealt with
discreetly. If you sense a sneeze or cough or yawn coming on, cover your nose
and mouth with a handkerchief in your left hand, so as to leave your right hand
clean for shaking hands, opening doors, etc. Burping must be firmly controlled;
hiccups can be avoided by being in good health and taking care of what one
eats.
Grooming such as combing the hair or applying lipstick, should always be
done in the privacy of rest-rooms.
Fragrances or perfumes of any kind should be applied sparingly, evoking a
subtle scent. Strong and/or cheap fragrance is often offensive and not
appropriate in a professional setting.
2.Greetings
The style of greeting varies from country to country. If in mixed religious
company, it may be useful to keep to Western style greetings. When receiving
visitors from another country or visiting another country, it is better to find out
their style of greeting, both the verbal and the non-verbal gesture that
accompanies it.
Between persons who know each other very well, it is customary to greet with
"Hello! How are you?" The response is "Hello! Quite well, thanks. And you?"
3.Making an Apology
A simple apology is to say, "Sorry" or "I'm sorry." A somewhat more formal style
is to say, "Pardon me" or "I beg your pardon." This formal apology is also used if
you do not catch or understand what someone says to you, and you wish them
to repeat what they said. A formal written apology uses the words "I/We regret ...
" Requirements and styles of apology vary
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between cultures. In India, a gestural apology is required if your foot accidentally
touches another person. In most Western cultures, an apology is definitely
required if you are late and keep someone waiting. Tone of voice and facial
expression are important while expressing an apology.
4.Expressing Thanks and Appreciation
A simple "Thanks" is quite informal; "thank you" is slightly more formal. "Thank
you, James" sounds very sincere; "thank you, Mr. Murthy" or "thank you, sir" is
formal. In the USA many people say, "Thanks. I appreciate your help," Or "Thank
you. I appreciate it." The tone of voice and facial expression should be
appropriate. A written expression is formal; for example, “I/ We appreciate your
cooperation in ...” Or, "I/We thank you for your interest in our project." It is
important not to sound patronising while expressing appreciation.
5.Conversation
In conversation, speak in a low voice, with controlled gestures. Make eye
contact with the speaker. Show him you understand his talk by nodding your
head, maintaining an upright posture, and, if appropriate, putting in an
occasional comment such as "I see" or "that's interesting" or "really?" The
speaker will appreciate your interest and feel that you are really listening. It is
not polite to interrupt others; wait and listen politely till they complete what they
are saying and speak only when they stop; if by mistake you interrupt, stop at
once and apologise.
Remember that you represent the company and not just yourself.
Divulging company secrets or speaking off the record is not acceptable.
The purpose of small talk is to find something in common and create a
bond. A good way to do this is to ask people about their interests.
Politics is a delicate topic but is of common interest to most people; it need
not be avoided so long as no arguments are raised. Business environment,
cultural events, sports, are good conversation topics on which one should be
well-informed.
Using slang terms or swearing is not polite even in an informal social
situation. People who have to swear to make a point are often perceived as less
intelligent.
6.Introducing
Introductions may appear simple but these are the few moments in which critical
first impressions are made on all sides. And you never get a second chance to
make a first impression. Generally, personal impressions are made within 20 - 30
seconds upon meeting someone.
The person making the introduction, and the two persons being introduced must
all be able to do their parts well. Create a warm, happy and cordial atmosphere
while introducing.
Business introductions: Business introductions are based on hierarchy; a
person of lesser authority is introduced to a person of greater authority. When
introducing people, help the newly acquainted persons to start and carry on a
smooth, friendly flow of conversation. Comment briefly on the background of
each. A remark on a hobby or interest common to both helps to get a
conversation started.
Introducing yourself: If no one introduces you, or if the host or hostess of
the function is too busy, just introduce yourself to the other guests. Extend your
hand, smile and say, "I'm Hilla Vakil, David's partner." Avoid saying things like
"Mr. Mehta works for me;" it sounds arrogant. Instead, say, "Mr Mehta and I work
in the same office."
Always use both, your name and surname when introducing yourself. Be
clear and concise in your introduction; it is poor manners to narrate your life
history (or, worse, your problems or illnesses).
 At a business function, it is appropriate to say where you work. Take care
not to focus too much attention on yourself with grand sounding statements. At
functions that are not strictly business, it is not necessary to give much job
information, since many people feel that they are not defined by employment.

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 At a special interest event like environmental protection work, you can
mention your connection to the organisation that has organised the event. At
any business meal, always introduce yourself to the people sitting next to you to
open the way for conversation. Not introducing yourself can cost you a valuable
business lead because few people want to deal with someone who appears to be
aloof or not able to follow the etiquette.
7.Shaking Hands
Shaking hands is a formal greeting gesture. Shake hands only when introduced
to someone, or on meeting an acquaintance. Hands are not shaken at parting;
you do not shake hands with someone you know very well.
The physical connection you make when shaking hands with someone can
leave a powerful impression. When someone's handshake is unpleasant in any
way, we often associate negative character traits with that person. A firm
handshake made with direct eye contact sets the stage for a positive encounter.
Offer your hand turned (at a 90 degree angle) towards the floor; don't hold
just the fingers or try to crush the other person's hand with an iron grip. To
shake hands properly, keep your thumb up and touch webs (the space between
your thumb and first finger) before wrapping the fingers around the other
person's hand. Ensure your grip is medium to firm, neither limp and weak nor
bone-crushing.
Men and women are equals in the workplace. Do not wait for a woman to
offer her hand to be shaken, rather than automatically extending their hand to
her.
During cocktails, hold your drink in the left hand so that your right hand is
free, and it is not wet and cold from holding a glass.
At a conference or other function where participants use name-tags, wear
the name-tag high on the right shoulder so that it is easy to read when shaking
hands.
8.Paying Compliments
A compliment is an expression of appreciation. If you can, make a
complimentary remark on an attractive neck-tie/ scarf, or brief-casel handbag, a
well-argued case, competent collection of data, a well-planned meal, a well
conducted meeting, a neatly turned out phrase. It goes a long way in creating
goodwill. A compliment should be given at the right time and place, for example,
soon after meeting, or before the business begins. It should be given
immediately on noticing something or immediately after a praiseworthy
accomplishment. Compliments may also be paid during a meeting of after it if
someone made a very good point or spoke very well or performed anything very
well. NB:
• A compliment should be moderate, not exaggerated as that is flattery which is
in-genuine. • Compliments should have no other motive than to recognise
someone for something special. If compliments are given in order to get a
compliment or a favour in return, people soon find out the ulterior motive.
• A compliment should never be sarcastic. Tone of voice and body language
must express the appreciation as much as the words. Sarcasm hurts the
receiver, and it is not polite.
• Remarks that could be construed as sexually provocative, racist or sexist
should not be made even if the atmosphere is relaxed.
• It is not polite to ask where they bought it (whatever you appreciate) or how
much they paid for it.
9.Responding to Compliments
When someone pays you a compliment, acknowledge it and thank the person
graciously. A simple 'thank you' with an expression reflecting pleasure on the
face is sufficient. Don't feel embarrassed or rebuff the compliment saying "Oh!
It's nothing" or "Sorry, I could not do much." 10.Agreeing and Disagreeing
 Agreeing with someone is easier to express than disagreement. But
overdoing it to win goodwill is not sincere. It is sufficient to say cheerfully, "I
agree" or ''Yes, that seems OK to me," or ''Yes, OK" when it is informal. In a
formal situation or when speaking to seniors, formal style is better; a remark
such as, ''Yes, I accept that," or
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''Yes, I think that is all right," would be sufficient. Agreement must be graceful
and cheerful, even if the agreement is conditional. State the condition clearly and
say, "I'll agree to that on one condition ... ," or "I'll accept that on the condition
that .... "
If you disagree with someone's statement, in a discussion, you may feel
tempted to express yourself aggressively. An aggressive response such as, "I
don't agree with you," can hurt or irritate those who hear it. Also, an artificially
polite statement like, "I beg to differ," is not friendly (it is a put-down). If you are
assertive, you can express disagreement without being offensive. When you
disagree, instead of not keeping silent or responding aggressively, try positive
assertiveness. Listen carefully and summarise what the other person has said
then state your own position, and do it without attacking. It is useful to say
something like, "I would like to state another point of view."
11.Telephone Etiquette
Your voice is all you have got to make the telephone conversation lively and
effective. Clear articulation and correct pronunciation are necessary. But it is not
advisable to try to put on an artificial or borrowed accent.
Speed of speaking can affect clarity to some extent. Average speaking speed is
about 150 words a minute; talking very fast not only affects clarity, but may also
give the impression of being in a hurry; very slow talkers give the impression of
being dull. A high-pitched voice is un-pleasant and may appear uncultured; an
extremely low pitch can sound mechanical. People who have a loud voice appear
to be brash and overbearing; very soft speakers cannot be heard clearly, and
may seem shy. You need to find the right speed, pitch and volume that makes
you sound clear and easy to follow. Tone is the expressiveness of the voice. It
carries 38% of the load of communication; you have to make it count. A great
deal of tone depends on the speaker's attitude and state of mind.
Making a call: Prepare in advance before making a call, and plan all
questions and comments. Collect all required information, files, papers that may
be needed. Have paper and pen at hand. Greet; as soon as the call is answered,
return the greeting and identify yourself, and ask for the person to whom you
want to speak.
Concentrate; eliminate all distractions and pay attention only to the person you
have called. Use simple language. Never use slang. Say "yes" not "yah". Take
notes; jot down names, addresses, telephone numbers and other important
points which need to be remembered and/or passed on to others and may be
needed later.
Ask questions; if something is not clear, ask for clarification or explanation and
listen carefully. Use conversation cues; saying "I see" or ''Yes'' at the proper time
shows the speaker that you are listening, and encourages him/her to continue
speaking. Listen between the lines; tone of voice conveys a good deal.
Summarise; the main points should be repeated at the end to check the
understanding of both parties. End the call politely; say "thank you" for giving
you time (or information or help), indicate the next step, if required. Wish the
time of the day pleasantly and replace the receiver gently. The person who
made the call should put down the receiver first; within the organisation, the
senior should end the call; in case of a call to or from a customer, the customer
should end the call.
Taking a call
Answer the call promptly, on the first or second ring; not more than three in
any case.
Identify yourself by a phrase like, "Suresh Nair here" or "Suresh speaking" or
National Bank, Kisumu branch, Suresh Nair speaking" or "Mrs Philo-pose, Training
Officer" and greet good morning or good evening as suitable. This usually
prompts the speaker to identity him-self/herself; if it does not, ask, "May I know
who's calling?" (not "who is this?" or "who is speaking?") Smile when you speak, it
helps to make a positive welcoming impression with the tone of the voice. Listen
carefully; it is bad manners to interrupt. Get any clarifications after the person
has paused for a response. Take responsibility to help; connect to the right
person (after saying so) or offer to get the required information. Take down a
message if necessary; get all points correct (and check by reading out if it is long
or complicated). Check all dates,
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addresses, figures and spellings of names. (Writing down the phonetic spelling
for correct pronunciation saves much embarrassment later). Use the caller's
name (correctly); it shows you are tuned in and attentive. If you have to leave
the telephone to get some information ask if the caller would like to hold on or
would like you to call back. And be sure to call back with the information. Keep
your cool and be patient with a difficult caller.
Cellular Phone Etiquette
Cell phone should be used only in an emergency. If it is necessary to make or
take a call, keep it short and discreet.
If other people are present, excuse yourself. Attention to present company
is always important; never give the impression that speaking to someone else is
more important than those present. Move to a quiet corner so as not to bother
others.
Switch off the cell phone when entering a meeting or a lecture hall; also in
a theatre, or any other public performance. Use a quiet method of call
notification like vibrator or flashing light in a hospital or in any place where the
ring is likely to cause severe discomfort.
Placing Someone on Hold
There should be a very good reason for placing someone on hold; like pulling out
the person's file or answering another line. Ask permission before placing the
person on hold and do so only after getting the response; taking permission for
granted is very impolite. Never keep a person on hold for more than 60 seconds.
If you find it will take longer, return and explain, and ask "May I call you back?"
And, of course, call back as soon as the other work is done. When you return,
thank the person for holding.
Leaving a Voice Mail
While leaving a voice mail (message on the answering machine) it is important
to include your name, telephone number, and company's name if you are calling
on your company's behalf. Spell any unusual name. Repeat your name and
telephone number at the end of the message.
Specify the purpose of the call instead of just saying "please give me a call."
Indicate what would be the best time to return your call. If you are likely to
be away, say when you will be back or whom to contact in your absence.
Anticipate that you may have to leave a message, and prepare what you
have to say. This will prevent rambling.
NB: the four pillars of politeness in conversation are: Thank you, excuse
me, sorry and please.
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 TOPIC 7: WRITING SKILLS

COURTESY IN WRITING
Courtesy in writing is achieved by the
following.
(a)Appropriateness of format for that kind of writing.
(b)Appropriateness of content information
(c)Appropriateness of tone: This is created by the word choice and choice of
content information, i.e. what information is communicated versus what is
left out. It also involves use the courtesy words please, thank you,
excuse me and sorry as the situation requires.
(d)Appropriateness of language use, ie. Word choice and expression that show
respect and recognition of the audience. It also involves formality or
informality of language used. (e)Expression of appropriate feeling according to
the situation. For example, sympathy when someone suffers, good wishes
when someone begins something new, and congratulation when someone
achieves something.

PUNCTUATION MARKS
(a)Comma
(b)Colon and
semicolon
(c)Exclamation mark
(d)Full stop
(e)Hyphen
(f)Question mark
(g)Ellipsis
(h)Brackets
(i)Quotation

PARAGRAPHING
A paragraph is a set of related sentences dealing with a single topic. There is no
rule about the length of a paragraph. It varies according to the need. In a story
or a novel, there are some long paragraphs and some short ones. In a book that
discussed concepts such as Economics, there may be long paragraphs. In
business letters, the paragraphs are short; in a report the paragraphs may be
long.

A good paragraph has the following characteristics:

1. Topic sentence:
A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea the
paragraph is going to deal with. It includes the topic and a controlling idea. It
may be in the form of a question.
Look at these sentences:
• Personal relationships such as parent-child, husband-wife, brothers and sisters
suffer because most people in cities have busy schedules.
• Talking to a sympathetic listener can have a great therapeutic effect.
• Skill in Public Speaking is not necessary for everyone.
• Shouldn't smoking in public places be made illegal?
2. Adequate development
Add supporting ideas to the topic sentence, to develop it fully and adequately.
There should be 3 to 6 ideas to support the topic sentence. Of course, this varies
from paragraph to paragraph, depending on your purpose. Add RENNS (reasons,
examples, names, numbers, senses), which give details and further explain the
supporting ideas. Some methods to add supporting details are:
• Use examples and illustrations
• Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details)
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