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Transactions on Computer Systems
and Networks

Series Editor
Amlan Chakrabarti, Director and Professor, A. K. Choudhury School of
Information Technology, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Editorial Board
Jürgen Becker, Institute for Information Processing–ITIV, Karlsruhe Institute of
Technology - KIT, Karlsruhe, Germany
Yu-Chen Hu, Professor, Department of Computer Science & Information
Management, Providence University, Taichung City, Taiwan
Anupam Chattopadhyay , School of Computer Science & Engineering,
N4-02C-105, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
Gaurav Tribedi, EEE Department, IIT Guwahati, Guwahati, India
Sriparna Saha, Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Patna, Patna, India
Saptarsi Goswami, A.K. Choudhury school of Information Technology, Kolkata,
India
Transactions on Computer Systems and Networks is a unique series that aims
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Tanvir Mustafy · Md. Tauhid Ur Rahman

Statistics and Data Analysis

for Engineers and Scientists
Tanvir Mustafy Md. Tauhid Ur Rahman
Dhaka, Bangladesh Dhaka, Bangladesh

ISSN 2730-7484 ISSN 2730-7492 (electronic)

Transactions on Computer Systems and Networks
ISBN 978-981-99-4660-0 ISBN 978-981-99-4661-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4661-7

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
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Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 General Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Use of Scientific Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Importance of Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Statistics and Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.4 Two Basic Concepts—Population and Sample . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.5 Variable of Interest, Statistical Population,
and Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.6 Variability in Scientific Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Collection of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Experimental Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Why Assign Experimental Units Randomly . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Measures of Location: The Sample Mean and Median . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Other Measures of Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Measures of Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.1 Sample Standard Deviation and Sample Range . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.2 Units of Standard Deviation and Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.8 Discrete and Continuous Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.9 Statistical Modeling, Scientific Inspection, and Graphical
Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.9.1 Scatter Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.9.2 Stem-and-Leaf Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.9.3 Histogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.9.4 Box-and-Whisker Plot or Box Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.9.5 Other Distinguishing Features of a Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

v
vi Contents

2 MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.1 MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.1.1 Introduction to MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.1.2 Some Basic Commands in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2 Script Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.3 Function Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.4 Arrays and Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.5 Homework Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.6 Mathematical Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.6.1 Relational Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.6.2 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.6.3 Other Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.7 Algebraic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.7.1 Solving a Linear Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.7.2 Polynomial Curve Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.8 Data Analysis and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.9 Two-Dimensional Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.9.1 Basic 2D Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.9.2 Modifying Plots with the Plot Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.9.3 Specialized 2D Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.10 Three-Dimensional Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.10.1 Mesh and Surface Plot Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.10.2 Modifying an Existing Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.10.3 Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.11 Numerical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.11.1 Roots of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3 Excel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.1 Introduction to Excel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2 The Fundamentals of Microsoft Excel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.2.1 Worksheets and Workbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.2.2 Rows, Columns, Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.2.3 Data Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3 Inputting Functions and Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3.1 Directly in the Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3.2 Using the Formula Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.4 Some Important Mathematical Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.4.1 SUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4.2 MIN and MAX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4.3 SUMPRODUCT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4.4 Homework Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.5 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.5.1 Units: Radians and Degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.5.2 SIN, COS, TAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Contents vii

3.6 Measures of Location and Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

3.6.1 Mean, Median, Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.6.2 Variance and Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.6.3 Quartiles and Percentiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.6.4 Box-and-Whisker Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.6.5 Homework Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.7 Correlation and Regression Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.7.1 Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.7.2 Scatter Diagrams and Trendlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.7.3 Linear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.7.4 Nonlinear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.7.5 Homework Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.8 Graphs and Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.8.1 Pie Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.8.2 Bar Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.8.3 Histograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.8.4 Homework Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.9 Financial Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.9.1 Currency Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.9.2 Simple and Compound Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.9.3 Number of Payments (NPER & PDURATION) . . . . . . . . 126
3.9.4 Depreciation Using the Straight-Line Method . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.9.5 Homework Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4 SPSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.1 Introduction to SPSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.1.1 Creating and Defining Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.1.2 Entering and Sorting Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.2 Measures of Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.2.1 Central Tendency and Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.2.2 Quartiles and Percentiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.2.3 Box-and-Whisker Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.2.4 Frequency Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.2.5 Homework Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.3 Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.3.1 Scatter Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.3.2 Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.3.3 Homework Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.4 Regression Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.4.1 Simple Linear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.4.2 Homework Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.5 Graphs and Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.5.1 Line Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.5.2 Coding the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
viii Contents

4.5.3 Bar Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

4.5.4 Pie Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.5.5 Histogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
4.5.6 Homework Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.6 Inferential Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.6.1 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.6.2 Homework Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
4.6.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
About the Authors

Dr. Tanvir Mustafy, SEng, EIT received his B.Sc. degree in Civil Engineering
from BUET, Bangladesh, in 2011, an M.Sc. degree in structural engineering from
the University of Alberta, Canada, in 2013, and a Ph.D. Degree in Computational
Mechanics from University of Montreal, Canada, in 2019. His research and teaching
interests include the theory and application of machine learning, structural engi-
neering, earthquake engineering, advanced finite element modeling, dynamics of
structures, data analysis, and injury biomechanics. Dr. Mustafy currently serves as an
Associate Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at the Military Institute
of Science and Technology (MIST), Bangladesh. Before joining MIST, Dr. Mustafy
worked as a member of a prestigious scientist group led by one of the most renowned
Research Chairs in Canada during his doctoral period. He traveled to France as a
visiting scholar and spent three months working at Aix-Marseille University. Dr.
Mustafy also received the prestigious Professional Structural Engineer (SEng.) by
BUET, ICC (USA), RAJUK, URP and IEB in 2023.

Dr. Md. Tauhid Ur Rahman finished his Ph.D. in Environmental Engineering from
Tohoku University, Japan, in 2009. He did his M.Sc. in Environmental Engineering,
Land, and Water Engineering from KTH, Sweden, and his B.Sc. in Civil Engi-
neering from Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Bangladesh.
He is currently working as a professor in the CE Department of MIST. His research
interests are water quality modeling, land use change detection, climate change,
water insecurity, micro-climate effect, etc.

ix
Chapter 1
Introduction

Abstract The inaugural chapter of “Statistics and Data Analysis for Engineers and
Scientists” serves as the cornerstone for a comprehensive journey into the world of
statistics, offering a solid introduction to fundamental concepts and their practical
applications in the realms of engineering and science. Starting with a broad overview,
the chapter underscores the pivotal role that statistics plays in deciphering data and
guiding informed decision-making. It emphasizes the intrinsic importance of scien-
tific data within engineering domains, highlighting how statistics acts as a potent
tool for extracting valuable insights. This chapter introduces two bedrock concepts:
population and sample, essential for understanding statistical principles. It delineates
variables of interest, statistical populations, and samples, laying the groundwork for
discussions on data collection and analysis. Addressing the inherent variability in
scientific data, the chapter underscores the need for robust statistical methodologies
to navigate this variability effectively. The chapter then delves into data collection,
with an emphasis on experimental design and the rationale behind random assignment
of experimental units. It instills in readers the importance of sound data collection
practices. Measures of location, including the sample mean and median, are intro-
duced to facilitate comprehension of central tendencies within data. The chapter
also covers additional measures of location, providing a comprehensive perspec-
tive on data summarization. Further exploration unfolds in measures of variability,
encompassing the sample standard deviation and sample range. Clarification on units
of standard deviation and variance aids in grasping nuances related to data disper-
sion. In preparation for subsequent chapters, the chapter draws a distinction between
discrete and continuous data. The chapter culminates with an introduction to statis-
tical modeling, scientific inspection, and graphical diagnostics through visual tools
like scatter plots, stem-and-leaf plots, histograms, box-and-whisker plots, and other
distinguishing features of a sample. To solidify comprehension, the chapter offers a
range of exercises aimed at reinforcing key concepts, fostering active learning, and
equipping readers with essential skills for their continued exploration of statistical
methodologies throughout the book. In essence, this first chapter provides a founda-
tional framework for readers, arming them with the requisite knowledge to embark
on a comprehensive exploration of statistics and data analysis within the context of
engineering and science.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 1
T. Mustafy and Md. T. U. Rahman, Statistics and Data Analysis for Engineers
and Scientists, Transactions on Computer Systems and Networks,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4661-7_1
2 1 Introduction

Keywords General overview · Use of scientific data · Importance of statistics ·

Statistics and engineering · Population and sample · Measures of location ·
Measures of variability · Experimental design · Random assignment · Graphical
diagnostics · Variable of interest · Variability in scientific data · Discrete and
continuous data · Statistical modeling · Box-and-whisker plot

1.1 General Overview

Fundamentally, statistics are used to know occurrences or non-occurrences of certain

events and draw valid inferences or conclusions. A successful business can make
decisions quickly and accurately. It understands what the consumers want. Thus, it
should be able to determine what to manufacture and sell and what amounts. Since
the 1980s, much effort has been placed into improving business functioning. This is
where knowledge of applied statistics comes in handy. The application of statistical
tools and statistical thinking among management employees has been credited with
economic success in many countries.

1.1.1 Use of Scientific Data

Statistics may be pretty helpful when a considerable amount of data is not organized.
When a corporation employs statistics to obtain insights, it makes a complex process
appear simple.
Scientific data is required to apply statistical methods in industrial production,
engineering, food technology, computer software, power sources, medicines, and
other fields. Data is gathered, summarized, reported, and archived for future refer-
ence. However, there is a significant difference between scientific data collection
and inferential statistics. In recent decades, the latter has received broad attention
(Fig. 1.1).
Statistical techniques are used to analyze data from a process to determine where
improvements to process quality may be made. During the decision-making process,
the inherent variability in research must be considered. For example, in medical
statistics, variation among patients is commonly seen even for the same illness.
In a biological trial of a new medicine that lowers blood pressure, 87% of patients
reported relief. However, it is widely accepted that the present treatment, or “old”
drug, relieves 80% of chronic patients with hypertension. However, the new medicine
is more expensive to produce and may have unwanted side effects. Should the new
medication be used? This is a dilemma that pharmaceutical companies routinely face
in collaboration with the Federal Drug Administration (FDA). Variability must be
taken into account once again. The “87%” figure is based on a certain number of
patients chosen for the research. Perhaps, the observed number of “successes” would
be 70% if the research were redone with additional patients.
1.1 General Overview 3

Fig. 1.1 Role of applied statistics in data science

1.1.2 Importance of Statistics

When analysts appropriately use statistical processes, they provide more reliable
findings. Statistical analyses account for the results’ uncertainty and mistake. These
are some of the steps used in statistical research:
• Collecting data that can be trusted.
• Analyzing the data in the right way.
• Drawing reasonable conclusions.
The answers produced by statistical analysis can be used to make better judgments
and choices. For example, local officials would want to know if iron levels in the
residential water supply are within acceptable limits. Because not all water can be
tested, the survey must be based on only a portion of the data obtained from water
samples gathered. A mechanical engineer, for example, may need to determine the
strength of generator supports in a power plant. He gains the strengths of a few
supports by loading them to failure. These values serve as a benchmark for evaluating
the strength of any other untested supports.
When data is needed, statistical theories recommend a four-step gathering
approach.
i. Clearly state the investigation’s objectives.
4 1 Introduction

ii. Make a list of what data is needed and how to obtain it.
iii. Use appropriate statistical methods to extract information from the data
efficiently.
iv. Analyze the data and draw appropriate conclusions.
These procedures will serve as a frame of reference as we build the funda-
mental concepts of statistics. Statistical approaches and reasoning can help us more
efficiently gather data and draw valuable conclusions.
When drawing a statistical inference or a conclusion that goes beyond the infor-
mation contained in a dataset, always proceed with caution. Thinking about how
far we can extrapolate from an information set is essential. It is crucial to consider
if such broad generalizations are suitable or warranted and whether further data is
needed. We treat statistics as a science wherever possible, building each statistical
theory from its probabilistic foundation and applying each notion to physical or engi-
neering scientific problems as soon as it is developed. The method in which statistical
inferences are drawn about known but fixed variables will be the basis for the ways
we address these challenges.

1.1.3 Statistics and Engineering

Statistical approaches may be helpful in engineering to create new products and

systems, refine current designs, and invent and improve manufacturing processes.
In engineering and industrial management, the recent expansion of statistics has
had a significant influence. Indeed, it is impossible to exaggerate the importance of
statistics in addressing industrial issues, maximizing the efficient use of resources
and labor, conducting fundamental research, and developing new goods.
It plays a function in a variety of engineering domains:
• Statistics are used to design experiments to test and create models of engineering
components and systems.
• Statistics aid in quality control in the manufacturing sector.
• Reliability engineering uses statistics to assess a system’s capacity to serve its
intended purpose and methods for enhancing its performance.
• Probability and statistics are applied in product and system design.
Engineers working on designing and manufacturing new goods must adhere to
a statistical strategy for anticipating and resolving quality issues before production.
Statistics, like other disciplines, has become an indispensable tool for engineers.
It helps people comprehend events prone to change and forecast or govern them
successfully. Our focus will be on engineering applications, but we will not hesitate
to refer to other domains to demonstrate to the reader the broad applicability of most
statistical approaches.
1.1 General Overview 5

1.1.4 Two Basic Concepts—Population and Sample

Developing a clear, well-defined statement of purpose is the first stage in any study.
Data that is relevant must be gathered. However, from a practical standpoint, it
is sometimes difficult or impractical to gather whole datasets. No matter how much
experimentation is done using data collected from laboratory research, there is always
more that might be done.
Understanding statistics requires distinguishing between the collected data and the
vast amount of data that is not considered. A unit is the basis of each measurement.
A single object or a person whose features are of interest is referred to as a unit.
The total number of units for which information is requested is referred to as the
population of units.
When the population is large, geographically dispersed, or difficult to contact,
it is necessary to use a sample. With statistical analysis, sample data may be used
to estimate or test population data hypotheses. A statistical population collects all
measurements of each unit in the entire population of units for whom data is available.
A subset of observations obtained in a study is referred to as a sample from a statistical
population. Selecting a sample is the first step in any statistical approach to learning
about the population. The sample must be representative of the general population
and large enough to include enough information to answer the critical questions
about the demographic (Fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.2 Population versus sample

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 āvehō, -ere, -vexī, -vectum; auferō.

āvellō, -ere, -vulsī (-vellī), -vulsum; abripiō; vī abstrahō.

avidē; adverbium ab adiectīvō avidus ductum.

aviditās, -ātis (f.); nōmen est, adiectīvum est avidus.

avidus, -a, -um; is est avidus quī nimis edit.

āvius, -a, -um; locus āvius est locus ubi nōn est via.

avunculus, -ī (m.); frāter mātris.

bāca, -ae (f.); aliquid parvum āc rotundum quod in arbore crēscit.

Bacchus, -ī (m.); deus vīnī.

baculum, -ī (n.); senex īnfīrmus dum ambulat baculum sēcum

portat quō facilius prōgrediātur.

balneum, -ī (n.); stāgnum in quō natāre licet.

balteus, -ī (m.); vidē pāginam centēsimam trigēsimam secundam.

barba, -ae (f.); crīnis quī in mentō crēscit.

beātus, -a, -um; contrārium quam miser.

bellua, -ae (f.); bēstia.

beneficium, -ī (n.); id quod homō benīgnus nōbīs praebet.

benīgnitās, -ātis (f.); nōmen est, adiectīvum est benīgnus.

 benīgnus, -a, -um; contrārium quam crūdēlis.

bēstia, -ae (f.); animal ferōx.

blandior, -īrī; molliter rem ergā aliquem agō cuī placēre studeō;
molliter tractō.

bracchium, -ī (n.). [Image: a forearm]

brevis, -e; nōn longus.

būbō, -ōnis (m.); avis quae noctū volat.

bucca, -ae (f.); gena īnflāta.

būcinātor, -ōris (m.); tubicen.

cachinnus, -ī (m.); rīsus māgnus.

cadāver, -eris (n.); corpus mortuum.

caedēs, -is (f.); nōmen est; verbum est caedō.

caedō, -ere, cecīdī, caesum; interficiō; secō; percutiō.

caelebs, -ibis; cuī nōn est cōniūnx.

calamitās, -ātis (f.); aliquid malī.

calamus, -ī (m.). [Image: a reed]

calceus, -ī (m.); id quod pedibus induimus vel indūcimus.

calcō, -āre; calce feriō.

 calculus, -ī (m.); lapillus quō sententiam iūdex ferre solet.

calīgō, -inis (f.); tenebrae.

calix, -icis (m.); pōculum.

callidus, -a, -um; sagāx.

calor, -ōris (m.); nōmen est; adiectīvum est calidus.

calx, calcis (f.); posterior pars pedis.

candidus, -a, -um; albus.

candor, -ōris (m.); lūx candida.

canō, -ere, cecinī, cantum; carmina vōce canimus; sonō.

cantō, -āre; canō.

cantus, -ūs (m.); nōmen ā verbō canō ductum.

cānus, -a, -um; albus; cānī sunt capillī senis.

caper, -rī (m.); animal quod cornua et barbam habet; lac nōbīs
praestat. Nōnnumquam hominēs cornibus petit.

capillus, -ī (m.); crīnēs.

capitālis, -e; ad caput attinēns. Rēs capitālis est crīmen cūius

poena est mors.

captīvus, -ī (m.); is quī in bellō captus est.

capulus, -ī (m.); pars gladiī quam manū tenēmus.

 carbō, -ōnis (m.); nigra quaedam māteria quam ē terrā effodimus
ut īgnī factō combūrāmus.

carcer, -eris (m.); locus ubi malōs hominēs cūstōdīmus.

cardō, -inis (m.); cardinēs sunt parvae rēs ex quibus iānua pendet.

careō, -ēre (abl.); nōn habeō.

carnifex, -icis (m.); is quī hominēs damnātōs occīdit, vel interficit.

carō, carnis (f.); pars corporis mollior quae ossa quasi amicit.
Carnem, pānem, piscēs edimus.

cārus, -a, -um; is mihi est cārus quem amō.

casa, -ae (f.); domus parva.

cāseus, -ī (m.); genus cibī quod ex lacte facimus. Mūrēs cāseum

amant.

castē; adverbium ab adiectīvō castus ductum.

castra, -ōrum (n.); locus ubi mīlitum tabernācula sunt posita.

castus, -a, -um; pūrus, integer, pius.

cāsus, -ūs (m.); verbum est cadō, nōmen cāsus.

catēna, -ae (f.); vinculum.

cauda, -ae (f.); membrum corporis quod hominēs nōn habent.

Canis cum gaudet caudam quatit.

caupōna, -ae (f.); dēversōriī domina.

 causa, -ae (f.); ōrātiō apud iūdicium quā reum dēfendimus.

cavea, -ae (f.); pars theātrī ubi spectātōrēs sedēre solent; sellae
spectātōrum.

caveō, -ēre, cāvī, cautum; cūram adhibeō nē quid accidat. Dum

magister appropinquat discipulī Cavē exclāmant. Cavē canem.

cavillōr, -ārī; increpō; irrīdeō.

cedo; dā.

celeber, -bris, -bre; nōtus, clārus, nōbilis.

celer, -eris, -e; is est celer quī aliquid celeriter agit.

cella, -ae (f.); pars domūs inter quattuor mūrōs.

cēlō, -āre; tegō; aliquid in locō pōnō ubi nēmō possit invenīre.

cēnāculum, -ī (n.); cella ubi cēnāmus.

cēnō, -āre; cēnam edō.

cēnseō, -ēre, -uī, cēnsum; putō; sentiō.

cēra, -ae (f.); id quō apēs favōs faciunt.

Cerberus, -ī (m.); canis trīceps quī portam mundī īnferiōris

cūstōdiēbat.

Cerēs, -eris (f.); dea frūmentī.

certāmen, -inis (n.); contentiō.

 certior fīō, factus sum; audiō.

certō, -āre; certāmen ineō; contendō.

cerva, -ae (f.); cervus fēminīnus.

cervus, -ī (m.); animal quoddam timidum quod cornua habet.

Celerrimē currere potest.

cēterī, -ae, -a; omnēs aliī.

cētus, -ī (m.); bellua marīna.

cibus, -ī (m.); quicquid edimus.

cinis, -eris (m.); id quod in focō manet postquam carbō est

cōnsumptus.

circumeō, -īre, -īvī (-iī), -itum; eō circum.

circumdō, -āre, -dedī, -datum; cingō.

circumstō, -āre, -stetī; stō circum.

circumveniō, -īre, -vēnī, -ventum; dēcipiō.

circus, -ī (m.); locus ubi spectācula adhibērī solent.

cista, -ae (f.); rēs quaedam quadrāta in quā aliās rēs cūstōdīmus.

cithara, -ae (f.). [Image: a cithara]

citharoedus, -ī (m.); is quī ad citharae sonum canit.

cīvis, -is (m.); is quī urbem habitat cīvis est ēius urbis.
 cīvitās, -ātis (f.); regiō quam cīvēs habitant.

clam; sēcrētō, nūllō vidente.

clāmō, -āre; māgnā vōce loquor.

clāmor, -ōris (m.); nōmen est; verbum est clāmō.

classis, -is (f.); multae sub ūnō duce nāvēs.

claustrum, -ī (n.); pessulus.

clāva, -ae (f.); fūstis.

clāvus, -ī (m.); parvum quoddam īnstrūmentum ferreum quō

aliquid alicuī reī affīgere possumus.

clipeus, -ī (m.); scūtum rotundum.

coepī, -isse; incipiō.

cōgitō, -āre; putō; recordor.

cōgnātiō, -ōnis (f.); id quod inter cōgnātōs est.

cōgnātus, -n, -um; cōnsanguineus.

cōgnōscō, -ere, -nōvī, -nitum; inveniō, reperiō.

cōgō, -ere, coēgī, coāctum; pangō; compellō.

colligō, -ere, -lēgī, -lēctum; ē multīs locīs capiō atque in ūnum

pōnō.

collis, -is (m.); locus cēterīs altior; quasi mōns parvus.

 collocō, -āre; locō; puellam nūptiīs collocāre = eam spondēre.

colō, -ere, coluī, cultum; deōs colimus; veneror; agrōs fodiō.

coluber, -brī (m.); serpēns, angius.

combūrō, -ere, -ussī, -ūstum; omnīnō ūrō.

comitor, -ārī; comes sum alicuī.

commendō, -āre; aliquid alicuī servandum dō.

comminor, -ārī; minor.

commīttō, -ere, -mīsī, -mīssum; scelus commīttō = scelus faciō.

commoveō, -ēre, -mōvī, -mōtum; afficiō.

commūnis, -e; id commūne est quō ūtī omnibus licet.

commūtō, -āre; mūtō, convertō.

compellō, -ere, -pulī, -pulsum; cōgō.

compleō, -ēre, -plēvī, -plētum; plēnum faciō.

complūrēs; nōnnūllī, multī.

compos, -potis; is compos est alicūius reī quī eam habet.

comprehendō, -ere, -prehendī, -prehēnsum; intellegō; capiō; capiō

aliquem ut in vincula eum iaciam.

comprobō, -āre; omnīnō probō.

 computō, -āre; numerō.

cōnātus, -ūs (m.); est nōmen, verbum est cōnor.

concēdō, -ere, -cēssī, -cēssum; sinō, permittō, dō.

concha, -ae (f.). [Image: a conch]

concidō, -ere, -cidī; ad terram cadō.

conciliō, -āre; mihi parō.

concilium, -ī (n.); conventus.

conclāmō, -āre; eōdem tempore clāmō.

concrēdō, -ere, -didī, -ditum; trādō, commendō.

concrepō, -āre, -puī, -pitum; crepitum vel strepitum faciō.

conditiō, -ōnis (f.); ratiō, modus.

condō, -ere, -didī, -ditum; aliquid in aliquā rē pōnō ut servētur.

Urbem condō = urbem aedificō, vel exstruō.

condūcō, -ere, -dūxī, ductum; dūcō ad; contrārium quam locō;

pecūniam alicuī solvō ut aliquā rē mihi ūtī liceat.

cōnferō, -ferre, -tulī, -lātum; sē conferre est īre.

cōnfestim; statim.

cōnficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectum; perficiō; afficiō.

cōnfringō, -ere, -frēgī, -frāctum; omnīnō frangō.

 cōnfundō, -ere, -fūdī, -fūsum; perturbō.

congregō, -āre; convocō; colligō.

coniector, -ōris (m.); is quī quid somnium sīgnificet expōnit.

cōniugium, -ī (n.); mātriōnium.

cōniūnx, -ugis (m. f.); aut uxor aut marītus.

coniūro, -āre; inter aliōs iūrō; cum aliīs aliquid suscipiō.

cōnsanguineus, -a, -um; eādem mātre nātus.

cōnscendō, -ere, -dī, -sum; ascendō.

cōnscīscō, -ere, -scīvī (-iī), -scītum; mortem mihi cōnscīscō = mē

ipse interficiō.

cōnscius, -a, -um; cōnscius mihi sum = sciō mē aliquid fēcisse.

cōnscrībō, -ere, scrīpsī, -scrīptum; scrībō.

cōnsequor, -ī, -secūtus sum; sequor; adipīscor.

cōnsīdō, -ere, -sēdī, -sessum; cum aliō sedeō.

cōnsilium, -ī (n.); modus vel ratiō aliquid agendī. Id quod facere

cōnstituō. Quō cōnsiliō = cūr.

cōnsistō, -ere, -stitī, -stitum; stō.

cōnspectus, -ūs (m.); nōmen est; verbum est cōnspiciō. Omnia

quae vidēre possum in cōnspectū meō sunt.
 cōnspiciō, -ere, -spexī, -spectum; videō.

cōnstituō, -ere, -uī, -ūtum; pōnō; in animō habeō; ēdīcō; in locō

aliquō pōnō.

cōnstringō, -ere, -strīnxī, strīctum; alligō, vinciō; contrahō.

cōnstruō, -ere, -struxī, -structum; exstruō.

cōnsulō, -ere, -uluī, -ultum; aliquem cōnsulō sī eum rogō quid sit
faciendum.

cōnsultō, -āre; cōnsulō.

cōnsūmō, -ere, -sūmpsī, -sūmptum; combūrō; ita ūtor aliquā rē ut

nihil restet; edō.

contāgiō, -ōnis (f.); nōmen est, verbum est contingō. Sī aegrōtās,

nōlī mihi appropinquāre, nē ego quoque contāgiōne affectus in
morbum incidam.

contāminō, -āre; sī rēs sacrās tangō eās contāminō, nam nēminī

nisi sacerdōtī licet rēs sacrās tangere.

contegō, -ere, -tēxī, -tēctum; omnīnō tegō.

contemnō, -ere, -tempsī, -temptum; nihil cūrō, nihilī aestimō.

contemplor, -ārī; īnspiciō.

contemptus, -ūs (m.); nōmen ā verbō contemnō ductum.

Contemptuī aliquid habeō = contemnō.
 contendō, -ere, -dī, -tum; fēstīnō ad; resistō, contrā aliquem
pūgnō.

contentiō, -ōnis (f.); nōmen est; verbum est contendō.

conterō, -ere, -trīvī, -trītum; in fragmenta tundō.

contubernālis, -is (m. f.); comes quī in eōdem tēcum tabernāculō

dormit.

contumēlia, -ae (f.); iniūria quae verbīs fit.

contineō, -ēre, -tinuī, -tentum; quasi intrā mē habeō; liber lītterās

continet.

contingō, -ere, -tigī, -tāctum; tangō; contingit = accidit.

cōntiō, -ōnis (f.); conventus ubi ōrātiōnēs habēmus.

contrahō, -ere, -trāxī, -tractum; aliquid angustius faciō. Lītem

contrahō = lītem agere incipiō.

contrōversia, -ae (f.); contentiō verbōrum.

conveniō, -īre, -vēnī, -ventum; eī conveniunt quī ūnum in locum

veniunt.

conventus, -ūs (m.); nōmen est; verbum est conveniō.

convertō, -ere, -tī, -sum; in aliam fōrmam vertō.

convīva, -ae (m. f.); quī apud eandem mēnsam cēnant convīvae
sunt.
 convīvium, -ī (n.); conventus cēnandī causā.

convocō, -āre; in ūnum locum vocō.

coöperiō, -īre, -peruī, -pertum; contegō.

cōpia, -ae (f.); multum alicūius reī.

coquō, -ere, coxī, coctum; cibum ad cēnam parō.

coquus, -ī (m.); is quī coquit.

cor, cordis (n.); pars corporis ad sinistrum latus sita sine quā
vīvere nōn possumus.

corium, -ī (n.); pellis dūra quālem habet bōs. Māteria ex quā

calceōs facimus.

cornū, -ūs (n.); aliquid dūrum quod ē capite bovis aliōrumque

animālium crēscit.

corōna, -ae (f.); rēs quaedam ē flōribus textam quam capitī

impōnimus.

corrigia, -ae (f.); lōrum soleae.

corrumpō, -ere, -rūpī, -ruptum; aliquem pecūniā corrumpō quam

eō cōnsiliō eī dō, ut eī persuādeam ut aliquid faciat.

cottīdiē; diem ex diē, per omnēs diēs.

crāpula, -ae (f.); is quī nimis vīnī bibit crāpulā affectus est.

crās; diē post hunc diem.

 crassus, -a, -um; dēnsus.

creō, -āre; faciō.

crepida, -ae (f.); solea.

crepitus, -ūs (m.); strepitus, sonitus.

crepundia, -ōrum (n.); rē quae sī quatitur sonum facit. Īnfantēs

crepundiīs māximē gaudent; itaque cum vāgiunt crepundia
quatimus.

crepusculum, -ī (n.); neque diēs neque nox.

crēta, -ae (f.); rēs quaedam alba quā in tabula nigrā scrībimus.

crētōsus, -a, -um; crētae similis.

crībrum, -ī (n.). [Image: a sieve]

crīmen, -inis (n.); id dē quō accūsor.

crīnis, -is (m.); id quod in summō capite crēscit.

cruciātus, -ūs (m.); nōmen ā verbō cruciō ductum.

cruciō, -āre; vexō, ita perturbō ut paene interficiam aliquem;

dolōre māgnō aliquem afficiō.

crūdēlitās, -ātis (f.); nōmen est, adiectīvum est crūdēlis.

cruentus, -a, -um; sanguine vel cruōre perfūsus.

cruor, -ōris (m.); sanguis solidior.

 crūs, crūris (n.). [Image: a leg]

crūstulum, -ī (n.); dulce cibī genus; puerī crūstula edere amant.

crux, crucis (f.); rēs hūiusmodī [Image: a cross]. Rōmānī cruce ut

īnstrūmentō pūniendī ūtēbantur.

cubiculāris, -e; ad cubiculum attinēns.

cubiculum, -ī (n.); cella ubi dormīmus.

cubitum, -ī (n.); quasi angulus bracchiī.

cubō, -āre, cubuī, cubitum; in lectō iaceō ut dormiam.

culīna, -ae (f.); locus ubi coquus cibum coquit.

culter, -trī (m.); id quō aliquid secāmus.

cumulō, -āre; compleō.

cūnābula, -ōrum (n.); cūnae.

cūnae, -ārum (f.); lectus īnfantis.

cūnctor, -ārī; moror.

cupiditās, -ātis (f.); nōmen est, adiectīvum est cupidus.

cupidus, -a, -um; adiectīvum ā verbō cupiō ductum. Is cupidus

alicūius reī est quī eam habēre volt.

cupiō, -ere, -īvī (-iī), -ītum; volō.

 Cūrētēs, -um (m.); vātēs quīdum quī tympana dum saliunt quatere
solent.

cūriōsē; māgnā cūrā.

cūrō, -āre; cūram alicūius reī adhibeō.

currō, -ere, cucurrī, cursum; celeriter eō.

currus, -ūs (m.); curribus vehimur.

cursus, -ūs (m.); nōmen est, verbum est currō.

cuspis, -idis (f.); pīlum.

cūstōdia, -ae (f.); nōmen est; verbum est cūstōdiō; vigilia.

cūstōdiō, -īre, -īvī, -ītum; cūstōs cūstōdit.

cutis, -is (f.); pellis hūmāna.

Cyclōps, -ōpis (m.); gigās quī ūnum modo habet oculum.

damnō, -āre; condemnō; iūdicēs scelerātōs damnant; poenās ab

eīs sūmunt.

damnum, -ī (n.); sī quid perdō damnum patior; sī quid laeditur

damnum accipit.

Danaī, -ōrum (m.); Graecī.

dea, -ae (f.); deus fēminīnus.

dēbeō, -ēre; oportet mē.

 dēcantō, -āre; cantō.

dēcernō, -ere, -crēvī, -crētum; iūdicō; ēdīcō; dēstinō.

dēcidō, -ere, -cidī; dē aliquā rē cadō.

dēcipiō, -ere, -cēpī, -ceptum; sī efficiō ut id quod falsum est vērum

esse crēdās, tē dēcipiō.

dēclīnō, -āre; ē rēctā viā dēvertor.

dēcurrō, -ere, -cucurrī (-currī), -cursum; currēns dēveniō.

dēdecus, -oris (n.); id quod nōn decet; foeda speciēs.

dēdūcō, -ere, -dūxī, ductum; ex aliquō locō in alium dūcō.

dēfatīgō, -āre; fessum aliquem reddō.

dēferō, -ferre, -tulī, -lātum; auferō; nūntiō.

dēfessus, -a, -um; omnīnō fessus. Fessus sum cum plūs ambulāre
nōn possum.

dēficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectum; nōn satis valeō.

dēfleō, -ēre, -flēvī, -flētum; suprā aliquem fleō.

dēfluō, -ere, -fluxī, -fluxum; dēlābor.

dēfodiō, -ere, -fōdī, -fossum; fodiō; in terrā fossā cēlō.

dēfōrmis, -e; foedus; nōn pulcher.

 dēfōrmitās, -ātis (f.); mala fōrma; nōmen est dēfōrmitās,
adiectīvum est dēfōrmis.

dēhinc; posteā, deinde.

dehīscō, -ere, -hīvī; ōs dehīscit cum hiāmus.

dēiciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectum; ad terram iaciō.

dēinceps; posteā.

dēlābor, -ī, -lāpsus sum; dēcidō.

dēlectō, -āre; gaudium alicuī praebeō; dēlector = gaudeō.

dēlīberō, -āre; quid faciendum sit quaerō.

dēlicātus, -a, -um; dulcis; id est dēlicātum quod nōs dēlectat.

dēligō, -āre; alligō.

dēligō, -ere, -lēgī, -lēctum; ēligō; creō.

dēlitēscō, -ere, -lituī; lateō.

delphīnus, -ī (m.). [Image: a dolphin]

dēmergō, -ere, -mersī, -mersum; immergō, immīttō.

dēmōnstrō, -āre; mōnstrō.

dēmum; post longum tempus.

dēnārius, -ī (m.); nummus quīdam.

 dēnegō, -āre; negō; recūsō.

dēnique ūnum ex adverbiīs est, quōrum est seriēs prīmō, deinde,

dēnique, postrēmō.

dēnsus, -a, -um; sī multae rēs in parvum spatium collēctae sunt

dēnsae sunt. Contrārium est rārus.

dēpellō, -ere, -pulī, -pulsum; efficiō ut aliquis abeat; abigō.

dēplōrō, -āre; lāmentor, dēfleō.

dēpōnō, -ere, -posuī, -positum; pōnō, omīttō, abiciō.

dēprāvō, -āre; dēfōrmem aliquem reddō.

dēprecor, -ārī; nē quid accidat precor.

dēprehendō, -ere, -dī, -sum; rapiō; capiō; comprehendō.

dēprōmō, -ere, -prompsī, -promptum; extrahō.

dēpūgnō, -āre; vehementer pūgnō.

dērīdeō, -ēre, -sī, -sum; irrīdeō.

dēscrībō, -ere, -scrīpsī, -scrīptum; aut verbīs aut scrīptūrā expōnō.

dēserō, -ere, -seruī, -sertum; relinquō.

dēsīderium, -iī (n.); nōmen ā verbō dēsīderō ductum.

dēsīderō, -āre; cupiō.

dēsinō, -ere, dēsiī; dēsistō.

 dēspondeō, -ēre, -spondī, -spōnsum; spondeō.

dēstinō, -āre; cōnstituō; dēcernō.

dēstituō, -ere, -uī, -ūtum; dēserō.

dēsum, -esse, -fuī; nōn adsum.

deus, -ī (m.); Iūppiter, Apollō, et cēterī sunt deī.

dēveniō, -īre, -vēnī, -ventum; dē marī ad terram veniō; adveniō.

dēversōrium, -ī (n.); quō ē viā dēvertimus ut noctem agāmus cum

domum pervenīre nōn possumus. Nōnnūllī ē viā dēvertunt ut bibant.

dēvertō, -ere, -tī, -sum; in aliam partem vertō; mē ē rēctā viā in

aliam partem vertō.

dēvocō, -āre; vocō ad mē; arcessō.

dēvolvō, -ere, -volvī, -volūtum; volvō dē.

dēvorō, -āre; celeriter edō.

dexter, -tra, -trum; duās habeō manūs quārum altera est dextra,
altera sinistra. Plērīque dextrā saepius ūtuntur. Ut beātī sunt illī quī
utraque manū aequē possint ūtī!

Diāna, -ae (f.); dea vēnātiōnis.

dīctitō, -āre; saepenumerō dīcō.

dictō audiēns sum = pāreō.

 differō, -ferre, distulī, dīlātum; aliquid in tempus futūrum dēpōnō;
efficiō ut aliquis diūtius exspectet.

difficilis, -e; contrārium quam facilis.

difficultās, -ātis; nōmen est, adiectīvum est difficilis.

diffugiō, -ere, -fūgī; hūc illūc fugiō.

diffūsus, -a, -um; ōrātiō diffūsa est ōrātiō longa multa quidem
verba, sēnsūs tamen parum continēns.

digitus, -ī (m.); pars manūs vel pedis; vīgintī igitur digitōs habeō,
decem in manibus, in pedibus decem.

dīgnitās, -ātis(f.); nōmen est, adiectīvum est dīgnus.

dīgredior, -ī, -grēssus sum; discēdō, abeō.

dīligēns, -entis; adiectīvum est, adverbium est dīligenter.

dīligentia, -ae (f.); nōmen est, adiectīvum est dīligēns.

dīligō, -ere, -lēxī, -lēctum; amō.

dīlūcēscō, -ere, -lūxī; lūx fierī incipit.

dīlūculum, -ī (n.); prīma lūx diēī.

dīluvium, -ī (n.); māgna aquārum cōpia quae in omnēs partes sē

extendit.

dīmicō, -āre; pūgnō.

dīmidius, -a, -um; per medium dīvīsus.

 dīmīttō, -ere, -mīsī, -mīssum; aliquem abīre sinō vel iubeō.

dīmoveō, -ēre, -mōvī, -mōtum; aut ad dextram aut ad sinistram

moveō.

dīrigō, -ēre, -rēxī, -rēctum; currum dīrigimus ut rēctā viā prōcēdat.

dīrumpō, -ere, -rūpī, -ruptum; in duās partēs frangō.

dīrus, -a, -um; horribilis; saevus.

discēdō, -ere, -cēssī, -cēssum; abeō.

disceptō, -āre; verbīs contendō.

discēssus, -ūs (m.); nōmen ā verbō discēdō ductum.

discipulus, -ī (m.); is quī discit.

discordia, -ae (f.); contentiō.

dispergō, -ere, -sī, -sum; hūc illūc spargō.

dissuādeō, -ēre, -sī, -sum; alicuī suādeō nē quid agat.

distendō, -ere, -dī, -tum; ita aliquid compleō ut tumeat.

distrahō, -ere, -trāxī, -tractum; in contrāriās partēs trahō.

distribuō, -ere, -uī, -ūtum; contrārium quam colligō.

dīvidō, -ere, visī, -vīsum; in partēs secō.

dīvīnus, -a, -um; ad deōs attinēns.

dīvitiae, -ārum (f.); nōmen est, adiectīvum est dīves.

documentum, -ī (n.); id quod aliquid vērum esse dēmōnstrat.

dōlium, -iī (n.); māgnum vās.

dolor, -ōris (m.); contrārium quam gaudium.

dolus, -ī (m.); id quō aliquem dēcipimus.

domina, -ae (f.); uxor dominī.

dōnō, -āre; dō.

dormiō, -īre; somnum capiō.

dracō, -ōnis (m.); serpēns ingēns.

dubitō, -āre; nōn prō certō habeō.

dubium, -ī (n.); nōmen est; adiectīvum est dubius.

dubius, -a, -um; contrārium quam certus.

dumtaxat; sōlum; modo.

dūrēscō, -ere, -ruī; dūrus fīō.

dūritia, -ae (f.); nōmen est, adiectīvum est dūrus.

dūrus, -a, -um; contrārium quam mollis.

ēbrius, -a, -um; is quī nimis vīnī bibit ēbrius fit.

 ebur, -oris (n.); māteria quam dentēs elephantōrum nōbīs
praebent.

ecce; vidē; spectā. Exclāmātiō est.

ēdīcō, -ere, -dīxī, -dictum; pūblicē affīrmō.

ēdictum, -ī (n.); nōmen ā verbō ēdīcō ductum.

ēdō, -ere, -didī, -ditum; quasi dō ex.

ēdūcō, -ere, -dūxī, ductum; contrārium quam indūcō.

efferō, -ferre, extulī, ēlātum; ex aliquō locō portō; excipiō. Ēlātus

= laetus.

effigiēs, -ēī (f.); imāgō, figūra, fōrma.

effluō, -ere, -fluxī; fluō ex.

effodiō, -ere, -fōdī, -fossum; ex aliquō locō fodiō.

effringō, -ere, -frēgī, -frāctum; aliquid frangendō aperiō.

effugiō, -ere, -fūgī; fugiō ex aliquō locō.

effundō, -ere, -fūdī, -fūsum; fundō ex.

egēns, -entis; pauper, sine pecūniā.

ēgredior, -ī, -grēssus sum; exeō.

ēgregius, -a, -um; optimus.

ēiciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectum; ex aliquā rē iaciō.

 elephantus, -ī (m.); animal māgnum quod dentēs ut cornua habet.

ēlīdō, -ere, -sī, -sum; aliquid contrā aliam rem frangō.

ēligō, -ere, -lēgī, -lēctum; ē multīs id quod mihi placet capiō.

ēloquor, -ī, ēlocūtus sum; profor.

ēlūdō, -ere, -lūsī, -lūsum; effugiō, vītō.

ēmendō, -āre; aliquid male factum melius reddō.

ēmentior, -īrī; simulō; mentior.

ēmergō, -ere, -sī, -sum; orior.

ēmineō, -ēre, -uī; id ēminet quod extrā reliquam partem sē

extendit; illūstris sum.

emptor, -ōris (m.); is quī emit.

Ēn. Exclāmātiō est.

ēnormis, -e; māior quam solet.

ēnsis, -is (m.); gladius.

epistula, -ae (f.); aliquid scrīptī quod aliī mīttimus.

epula, -ae (f.); cēna splendida.

ērigō, -ere, -rēxī, -rēctum; tollō.

errō, -āre; vagor; nōn rēctē putō vel faciō.

 error, -ōris (m.); nōmen ā verbō errō ductum.

ēruō, -ere, -ruī, -rutum; ēiciō; effodiō.

ēvādō, -ere, -vāsī, -vāsum; abeō; effugiō.

ēvānēscō, -ere, -vānuī; contrārium quam appāreō.

ēveniō, -īre, -vēnī, -ventum; veniō ex; accidō.

ēvertō, -ere, -tī, -sum; aliquid ita prōsternō ut quasi in caput

cadat.

ēvocō, -āre; aliquem ex aliquō locō vocō.

ēvolō, -āre; ex aliquō locō volō.

ēvolvō, -ere, -volvī, -volūtum; ex aliquā rē volvō.

exagitō, -āre; vehementer perturbō.

exanimātus, -a, -um; mortuus; inanimus.

exārēscō, -ere, -ruī; omnīnō āridus vel siccus fīō; valdē ārdeō.

exaudiō, -īre; audiō; ē longinquō audiō.

excelsus, -a, -um; altus.

excipiō, -ere, -cēpī, -ceptum; ex aliquā rē capiō; alicuī reī obstō

quōminus cadat; hospitiō aliquem excipere est ut hospitem eum
accipere.

excitō, -āre; efficiō ut aliquis expergīscātur.

 exclāmō, -āre; subitō clāmō, loquor māgnā vōce.

exclūdō, -ere, -clūsī, -clūsum; contrārium quam admīttō.

excōgitō, -āre; cōgitandō aliquid reperiō.

excruciō, -āre; cruciō; māgnō dolōre afficiō.

excutiō, -ere, -cussī, -cussum; quatiō ex aliquā rē.

exeō, -īre, -īvī (-iī), -itum; eō ex.

exerceō, -ēre; faciō, agō; corpus exercēmus bracchia aliaque

membra movendō quō meliōrēs fīāmus valētūdine.

exercitātiō, -ōnis (f.); nōmen est; verbum est exerceō.

exercitus, -ūs (m.); multī sub ūnō duce mīlitēs.

exhauriō, -īre, -hausī, -haustum; exhauriō aquam cum omnem

bibō.

exigō, -ere, -ēgī, -āctum; agō ex; aliquid ab aliquō exigō= cōgō
eum aliquid mihi dare. Vītam exigō = vīvō.

exiguus, -a, -um; parvus.

exīlis, -e; tenuis, macer.

exitium, -ī (n.); mors; caedēs.

expediō, -īre; solvō.

expellō, -ere, -pulī, -pulsum; depellō.

 expergīscor, -ī, experrēctus sum; ex somnō excitor; ē lectulō
surgō.

experīmentum, -ī (n.); nōmen ā verbō experior ductum.

experior, -īrī, expertus sum; quid vel quāle aliquid sit invenīre
cōnor.

expiō, -āre; mē expiō sīgnificat ā scelere quasi mē purgō. Rōmānī

putābant scelera sacrificiō factō posse expiārī.

expleō, -ēre, -plēvī, -plētum; omnīnō compleō.

explicō, -āre, -āvī (-uī), -ātum (-itum); expediō, expōnō, perficiō.

explōrātor, -ōris (m.); mīles quī ante aliōs proficīscitur ut aliquid

inveniat.

expōnō, -ere, -posuī, -positum; ita aliquid pōnō ut aliī facile

possint vidēre; clārum faciō; nārrō.

expūgnō, -āre; pūgnandō, vel urbem obsidendō, capiō.

exquīsītus, -a, -um; optimus, eximius. Supplicium exquīsītum est

extrēmum supplicium.

exsistō, -ere, -stitī, -stitum; appāreō; sum.

exspectō, -āre; exspectō dōnec aliquis redeat; maneō.

exspuō, -ere, -uī, -ūtum; ex ōre aliquid spuō.

exstinguō, -ere, -stīnxī, -stīnctum; exstinguimus īgnem aquā.

 exstō, -āre; ēmineō; quasi extrā aliquam rem stō.

exstruō, -ere, -struxī, -structum; aedificō.

exsul, -ulis (m.); is quī ē patriā suā eiēctus est.

exsurgō, -ere, -surrēxī; surgō ex.

extendō, -ere, -tendī, -tentum; aliquid ad aliam rem tendō; longius

aliquid reddō.

externus, -a, -um; id est externum quod extrā aliquid est.

extimēscō, -ere, -timuī; valdē timeō.

extollō, -ere; in altum tollō.

extrahō, -ere, -trāxī, -tractum; ex aliquā rē trahō.

extrēmus, -a, -um; summus, ultimus.

exuō, -ere, -uī, -ūtum; contrārium quam induō.

exūrō, -ere, -ussī, -ūstum; omnīnō combūrō. Aliquid ūrendō quasi

effodiō.

fabricor, -ārī; fingō.

faciēs, -ēī (f.); ōs; fōrma.

facinus, -inoris (n.); scelus.

faenum, -ī (n.); cibus equī.

fallō, -ere, fefellī, falsum; dēcipiō.

 falsus, -a, -um; contrārium quam vērus.

fāma, -ae (f.); id quod dē aliquō dīcitur; quod dē mē ipsō audiō.

famēs, -is (f.); famēs est mihi sī edere volō.

famulus, -ī (m.); servus.

fānum, -ī (n.); templum.

far, farris (n.); genus frūmentī.

fascis, -is (m.); multa līgna restī inter sē vīncta quae līctōrēs ante
summum magistrātum portābant.

fatīgō, -āre; fessum aliquem reddō. Precibus fatīgō = flāgitō.

fātum, -ī (n.); nūmen quod omnia nōbīs dēstinat.

faveō, -ēre, fāvī, fautum; eī faveō cuī plūs quam aequum est dō.

favor, -ōris (m.); nōmen est; verbum est faveō.

favus, -ī (m.); rēs in quā apēs mel cūstōdiunt.

fax, facis (f.); quasi baculum quod ūrimus et nōbīscum portāmus

quō noctem illūminēmus.

fēlēs, -is (f.); animal domesticum quod canis ōdit.

fēlīcitās, -ātis (f.); nōmen est, adiectīvum est fēlīx.

fēlīciter; adverbium ab adiectīvō fēlīx ductum.

fēlīx, -īcis; nōn miser.

 fēmina, -ae (f.); pater est vir, māter fēmina.

fēmineus, -a, -um; ad fēminam attinēns.

femur, -oris (n.); pars crūris superior.

fenestra, -ae (f.); in mūrīs sunt fenestrae per quās lūx intrat.

fera, -ae (f.); bēstia.

fēriae, -ārum (f.); diēs quibus nūllum negōtium agimus.

ferīnus, -a, -um; ad ferās attinēns.

feriō, -īre; pulsō, percutiō.

ferō, ferre, tulī, latum; portō; nārrō.

ferōx, -ōcis; saevus.

ferreus, -a, -um; adiectīvum ā nōmine ferrum ductum.

ferrum, -ī (n.); metallum quoddam dūrum ē quō arma facimus;

gladius.

ferula, -ae (f.); calamus; id quō magister lūdī puerōs pūnītur.

ferus, -a, -um; contrārium quam mānsuētus.

ferveō, -ēre, ferbuī; aqua calidissima fervet.

fēstīnātiō, -ōnis (f.); nōmen est, verbum est fēstīnō.

fēstīnō, -āre; celeriter rem agō.