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Geotechnical Aspects of Breakwater Design and Construction: A Review

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 International Journal of Advanced Academic Research (Sciences, Technology and Engineering) | ISSN: 2488-9849
Vol. 6, Issue 12 (December, 2020) | www.ijaar.org
Journal DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849
Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

GEOTECHNICAL ASPECTS OF BREAKWATER DESIGN AND

CONSTRUCTION: A REVIEW

Ogbuchukwu, P.O., Okeke, O.C, Urom, O.O., Usen, O. S. and Agoha, C.D.
Department of Geology,
Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria.
Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected].

ABSTRACT
Breakwaters are coastal structures constructed to provide shelter for ships, protect shipping
facilities (harbours and ports) from effects of wave action and contribute to reduction/prevention
of sedimentation in harbours. Other structures that contribute in mitigation of coastal
environmental problems include jetties, groins, seawalls bulkheads laws and revetments.
Dredging of harbours and navigational channels are also periodically undertaken to remove
sediments deposited in these facilities. The three common types of breakwaters are: rubble-
mound breakwater, vertical wall or caisson breakwater and floating breakwater. Geotechnical
aspects of breakwater design and construction refer to use of geotechnical principles (soil
mechanics and rock mechanics) in the design and use of geotechnical/geological materials in the
construction of breakwaters. Some of these geotechnical/geological materials that constitute the
construction materials include: crushed rocks, soils, concrete synthetic/filter/fibers (plastics)
blast furnace slag and coating systems (coaltar, epoxy resin and vinyls). Other engineering
principles that contribute to breakwater design and construction include: coastal engineering,
environmental engineering and construction engineering. Examples of coastal environmental
problems such as flooding in Lagos, Nigeria (Victoria Island) and beach/cliff erosion in
California, (USA) Cesot are highlighted. Examples of successfully completed breakwater
projects include Eko Atlantic Project/Breakwaters, Lagos (to protect Lagos Harbour and
settlements in Victoria Island) and Taconite Harbour Breakwater in Minnesota, USA (to protect
ore loading dock).
Keywords: Breakwaters, Coastal structures, ships, harbour, geotechnical, Lagos.

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 International Journal of Advanced Academic Research (Sciences, Technology and Engineering) | ISSN: 2488-9849
Vol. 6, Issue 12 (December, 2020) | www.ijaar.org
Journal DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849
Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Coastal environmental problems such as coastal/shoreline erosion (or beach erosion,
disappearance of beaches /cliffs and barrier islands, flooding of beaches/coastal settlement and
sedimentation in harbor and navigation channels lestuaries have led to recession of many
economies around the globe (Bird, 1985, Dolan and Goodell, 1986, Williams and Stewart, 1996,
Williams et al, 1997, Omar 2017, Carlson and Plummer, 2009, Montgomery, 2003). Figures 1
and 2 show coastal environmental problems of coastal erosion/flooding in California, USA and
North Caroline (USA), respectively while Figure 3 shows coastal flooding in Lagos, Nigeria.
Engineers have designed and constructed man-made structures including breakwaters, groins,
seawalls, jetties, bulkheads and revetments in order to tackle these problems. These man-made
engineering structures are collectively called Coastal structures (Minikin, 1952, Van Bendegen
1960; US Army Corps of Engineers, 1975, Whiteneck and Hockney, 1989). Dredging of harbor
and navigational channels are also frequently performed to reduce the amount of sediments
deposited in the coastal area (coastal sedimentations) as a result of coastal erosion/shore drift
(Shankland, 1949, Chandola 2001; Carlson and Plummer, 2009).

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 International Journal of Advanced Academic Research (Sciences, Technology and Engineering) | ISSN: 2488-9849
Vol. 6, Issue 12 (December, 2020) | www.ijaar.org
Journal DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849
Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

Figure 1: Building, threaded by Cliff Erosion in California, USA (Montgomary, 2003).

Figure 2: Consequences of storm surges at North Carolina, Outer Banks USA (Montgomary,
2003).

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 International Journal of Advanced Academic Research (Sciences, Technology and Engineering) | ISSN: 2488-9849
Vol. 6, Issue 12 (December, 2020) | www.ijaar.org
Journal DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849
Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

Figure 3: Effects of storm surge in Kuramo and Victoria Island, Lagos, Nigeria (Omar, 2017).
Breakwaters are structures constructed to break up and disperse the waves of heavy seas or
oceans and provide shelter/protection for ships, harbours/ shipping facilities, shorelines and
generally contribute to increase in shipping activities (Krynine and Judd, 1957; Whiteneck and
Hochney, 1989; Moutgomery, 2003). Figures 4 and 5 are typical examples of breakwaters in
operation (Krynine and Judd, 1957). Breakwaters though primarily constructed to moderate
wave action may also cause sediment redistribution like groins (Montgomery, 2003). Table 1 is
definition of terms in relation to breakwater coastal structure and coastal/ocean environment.
Breakwater and grains also help to reduce the amount sediments and frequency of dredging in
habours. Breakwaters are earth structure, (or rock structures), that is, engineering structures
constructed with earthen materials (mostly crushed rock, soils, concrete, fly, ash and bituminous
materials) in coastal area. Their design and construction are therefore primarily within the
practices of geotechnics (geotechnology or geotechnical engineering).

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 International Journal of Advanced Academic Research (Sciences, Technology and Engineering) | ISSN: 2488-9849
Vol. 6, Issue 12 (December, 2020) | www.ijaar.org
Journal DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849
Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

Figure 4: Taconite Habour Breakwater, Minnesto, USA (Krynine and Judd, 1957)

Figure 5: East and West mole breakwaters, Lagos Nigeria (Omar, 2017).

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Vol. 6, Issue 12 (December, 2020) | www.ijaar.org
Journal DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849
Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

Figure 6: Cross section of typical breakwater (Krynine and Judd, 1957)

Roberts (1981) defined geotechnics as “applied geology in the context of engineering”. It deals
with engineering in earth materials and three allied fields of engineering geology, mining
engineering and aspects of civil engineering concerning earth works, foundations and tunneling
constitute the field of study and engineering science of geotechnics, (geotechnology or
geotechnical engineering) (Krumbein ,1950; Glossop, 1968; Pilkey, 1989; Coduto, 1999; Okeke
and Akaolisa, 2004).
Breakwaters are constructed in the coastal areas primarily to control/mitigate environmental
problems in the coastal area (beak erosion and sedimentations, flooding of beaches/coastal
settlements and impacts of sea waves on ships/shipping facilities). Other engineering disciplines
that influence design and construction of breakwaters include coastal engineering, environmental
engineering and construction engineering (US Army Corps of Engineers 1977 and 1978; Moffat
and Nichol Engineers, 1981, Mechemehl et al., 1975, Minikin, 1950). The four engineering
disciplines, namely; geotechnical engineering coastal engineering environmental engineering
(aspect of hydraulic engineering) and construction engineering are therefore interrelated when it
comes to design and construction of breakwater in coastal areas.
According to Nagi (2013) and Wiagal (1962), the purpose of construction of breakwaters in
coastal areas includes:
i) To shield the harbor from the effects of wave action;
ii) To provide a safe suitable accommodation for ship refuge, supplies and transfer of
cargo;
iii) To reduce the amount of dredging in front of an harbor entrance.
iv) To reduce sedimentation of silts and sands in harbor and navigation channels, and

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Vol. 6, Issue 12 (December, 2020) | www.ijaar.org
Journal DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849
Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

v) To reduce coastal erosion.

Depending on purpose and type of breakwater, the major materials used in the construction are:
(i) Crushed rock;
(ii) Concrete;
(iii) Soils (clays and sands);
(iv) Industrial wastes (blast furnace slog and fly ash);
(v) Steel sheet piles; and
(vi) Synthetic files (geotechnical, plastic, filter in cloth)
These materials are usually coated with coal, epoxy or vinyls.
Fig. 6 shows cross section of a typical breakwater (Krynine and Judd, 1957).
In this paper, the types of breakwater, and geotechnical aspects of their design and construction
are reviewed. Case history of breakwater construction in Lagos Nigeria to protect ships, harbor,
beaches and human settlements is also highlighted. The protected beaches have contributed to
enhancement of human activities of shipping, fishing, filling and recreation.
Table 1: Definition of terms in relation to breakwaters coastal structures and coastal
environment.
1. Breakwater: Structure constructed to protect shore area including beaches ships and
harbours from effects of sea/ ocean waves.
2. Jetty: In open seacoast jetty is a structure extending into the body of the water and
designed to protect entrances to rivers, bays and harbours from sediments of littoral drift.
3. Seawall and bulkhead: They are protective water-front structures often built to separate
land and water areas. They are designed to prevent erosion and other damage due to wave
actions. They may also serve for docking of vessels. Seawall may range from a single
riprap deposit along the stretch of a shore to a regular masonry retaining wall. Bulkheads
are vertical walls either of timber boards or steel-sheet piling driven into the ground
vertically and anchored to the natural ground behind the wall.
4. Revetment: a facing of stone or concrete built to protect impoundment or stone structure
against erosion by wave action or current.
5. Groin: A shore protection structure built usually perpendicular to the shore line to trap
littoral drift or retard erosion of the shore.

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Journal DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849
Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

6. Coast: A strip of land of indefinite width (may extend several kilometers) that extends
from the shoreline inland to the first major change in terrain features.
7. Shore: The narrow strip of land in immediate contact with the sea/ocean including the
zone between the high and low water lines. A shore of unconsolidated materials is
usually called a beach.
8. Beach: The zone of unconsolidated material that extends land ward from low water line
to a pleasure where there is marked change in material or line of permanent vegetation.
9. Shoreline/benchline/coastline: An interaction of specified plane of water with the shore,
beach or coast. There was the low water of shoreline high war structure or mean-water
shoreline (or mean seas level (in nautical ocean survey charts).
10. Cliff: A high stiff face rock coastal areas that consist of rocky terrain (instead of
unconsolidated terrain of beach in other words).
11. Coastal Area: The land and sea area bordering the shoreline, in other words coastal areas
consists of beaches and cliffs.
12. Beach/Costal Erosion: The carrying away of beach materials by wave action, tidal
currents, littoral currents or wind.
13. Wharf/Quay: A structure built on the shore of a habour, river or canal so that vessel can
lie along to receive and discharge cargo and passengers.
14. Harbour and Port: Any potential water area affording place of safety for vessels. Port is a
place where vessels (ships) can transfer cargo and people. It may be the entire harbor
including its approach and anchorages or it may be the commercial part of a harbour
where quays/wharfs docks, and repair shops are situated.
15. Dock: Dock is a maritime structure in the shore where vessels (ships) may be berthed
(anchored) for repairs (dry dock or to facilitate loading and unloading of passengers and
cargo (net dock).
16. Barrier Island: Long, low, narrow, Islands parallel to coastal line that protects the
coastline from wave action.
17. Basin: A naturally or artificially enclosed or nearly enclosed harbor area for small craft.
18. Littoral Drift/ Longshore drift: The sedimentary material moved in the literal zone under
the influence of waves and currents.
19. Geotextile/Geotextile Filter: Geotextile is any permeable materials used with foundation
soils, rock or any other geotechnical material as an integral part of man-made project or
structure. geotextile filter is any permeable fabric of synthetic fibers whose function is to
retain soil and be permeable to water.

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Journal DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849
Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

20. Pier: A structure usually of open construction extending out into the water from the shore
to serve as a landing place, a recreational facility etc rather than to afford coastal
protection
21. Lagoon: A semi enclosed quiet body of water between a barrier island and the mainland
Example, Lagos Lagoon.
22. Tides: Tides are the periodic regional rise and fall of water levels as a consequences of
the effects of the gravitational and pull of the sun and moon, on the watery envelope of
ocean surrounding the earth. Thus we have low tide (low sea level) and high tide (high
sea level) and therefore mean or average sea level in the shoreline or coastline.

Table 2: Some performing breakwaters and their locations

S/N Name of Breakwater Location Reference

1 Lagos Harbour Breakwater (East and West Lagos Nigeria Omar, 2017
Moles)
2 Eko Atlantic Dream City Project/Breakwater Lagos Nigeria Omar, 2017
(Victory Island)
3 Zeebruggen Harbour Breakwater Belgium Krynine and Judd, 1957
4 Taconite Harbour Breakwater Minnesote, USA Krynine and Judd, 1957
5 Oregon Shore Breakwater Oregon, USA Mongomery, 2003
6 Cleve land Harbour Breakwater Cleveland Ohio, USA U.S Army Corps of
Engineers 1977
7 Crescent City Breakwater California, USA US Army Coprs of
Engineers, 1977
8 Santa Cruz Breakwater California, USA US Army Corps of
Engineers 1977
9 Rincon Island Breakwater California US Army Corps of
Engineer 1977
10 Kaluhui Breakwater Hawaii US Army Corps of
Engineers 1977
11 Baie_Comeau Breakwater Quebec, Canada Jarlan, 1961
12 Diablo Canyon Breakwater California, USA US Army Corps of
Engineer, 1977

2.0 TYPES OF BREAKWATERS

The three common types of breakwaters are Rubble-mound breakwaters, vertical wall or caisson
breakwater and floating breakwater (Krynine and Judd, 1957; Jarlan, 1961; US Army Corps of
Engineers; 1977; Moffat and Nickal Engineers, 1981). These are discussed below;

2.1 Rubble-Mound Breakwater.

This type of breakwater is the most common breakwater used to protect shoreline and harbours
and navigation channels against wave action and sediment transportation. It consists of several

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Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

armor layers with different densities. A mound is an artificial embankment or ridge composed of
heavy units of assigned size which may be built by dumping material from the sea bottom or
bringing material from other location while rubble is irregularly shaped, rough units, ranging in
sized up to 30m3 each and up to nearly 90 tons each in weight. This type of breakwater simply
consists of large heaps of loose elements, such as gravel and quarry stone or concrete blocks and
the small size rock is covered with heavy rock or concrete elements. The outer layer is called the
armour layer (Nagi, 2013). Rubble mound breakwaters use structural voids to dissipate the wave
energy. Rock or concrete armour units on the outside of the structure absorb most of the energy,
while gravels or sands prevent the wave energy's continuing through the breakwater core. Rubble
mound breakwaters are also used for protection of harbor and beaches against wave action and
protection of navigation channels and beach against sediment transportation. Hard rock, which is
more desirable, usually consists of either granite or traprock (fine-grained igneous rock).
Limestone, dolomite, and sandstone are undesirable because of their lesser hardness, toughness,
and durability. The diagram below shows the component of a typical Rubble mound breakwater
(Figure 9, 10 and 11).

Figure 7: Component of rubble mound breakwater (US Army Corps of Engineers, 1977)

Core -The purpose of the core is to prevent wave transmission into harbour; hence the core
material is not too coarse. It is normally clay or clays and mixture.

Toe -The Toe functions as the foundation for the armour layer. It also may catch armour units
displaced from armour layer; The Toe is normally constructed of large stones of quarry run or
the most coarse filter layer.

Filter layer -The objective of the filter layer (under layer) is to prevent the core material from
being washed out through armour layer. It is built of quarry run or synthetic materials.

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Armour layer -The purpose of armour layer is to protect the core from direct wave attacks by
the dissipation of wave energy. Armour layers are built of large rocks or larger concrete armour
units.

Superstructure -The superstructure is used either in order to reduce the crest elevation or to
reduce wave overtopping, or as a roadway for traffic or pipelines. The superstructure is usually
constructed of concrete.

Figure 8: Layout of rubble mound breakwater (Wikipedia/Google Images)

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Figure 9: Field view of rubble mound breakwater (Wikipedia/Google Images)

2.2 Vertical wall or caisson Breakwaters

A typically caisson breakwater have vertical sides and are usually erected where it is desirable to
berth one or more vessels on the inner face of the breakwater. They use the mass of the caisson
and the fill within it to resist the overturning forces applied by waves hitting them.

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Figure 10: Cross Section of Perforated Wall Breakwater (Wikipedia/Google Images).

Figure 11: Perforated Caisson Breakwater, Quebec, Canada (Whiteneck and Hockney, 1989).

2.3 Floating Breakwaters

To be effective as a breakwater, the motions of a floating structure must be of small amplitude so
that the structure does not generate waves into the protected harbor side. This type of breakwater
is applied for boat basin protection, boat ramp protection and shoreline erosion control.

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Figure 12: Floating breakwater (Moffat and Nichol Engineers 1981)

3.0 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF BREAKWATER DESIGN AND

CONSTRUCTION

3.1 Design stages

During the design and construction practices of breakwater, certain design stages are recognized
in some countries which are related to the general conditions of contract between employer and
consultant. The design stages include project definition stage, feasibility design stage,
preliminary design stage and detailed engineering stage.

i. Project definition stage

Every projects most start with need, requirements or lacks (project definition stage). This project
definition stage defines this requirement or need by setting project objectives which will present
requirements and restrictions. The project objectives stated will help in establishing the
appropriate engineering solution to meet the identified need or lack.

ii. Feasibility design stage

The feasibility stage means the review of the system with respect to technical, economic, social
and environmental consequences and feasibility. The main activities at this stage are the
identification of the functions, constraints and information requirements that will enable the
design to go forward. Geotechnics investigation for the project is also performed at this stage.

iii. Preliminary design stage

Preliminary design means giving shape to the system, that is when many of the investigations
and study activities must be carried out and the investigations include; determination of wave
climate or current regime, environmental assessments and economical analysis. This has to be an
interactive process, involving many parties, to gain agreement and select a preferred solution.

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iv. Detailed design stage

Once the various criteria have been satisfied, detailed design must involve the development of all
structural elements, using further in situ investigation and physical and technical data, to produce
drawings, specifications and bill of quantities.

During the working design phase further design modification may be necessary as a result of on-
site difficulties such as unforeseen ground conditions or changes in working approaches. When
this is encounter, the designer should ensure that the original design concepts are fully
understood and the design changes do not compromise any other aspect of structure
performance.

In the operational period the continued performance of the structure is ensured by setting a
monitoring and maintenance programme.

3.2 Applicable Engineering Principles and Practices

3.2.1 Geotechnical Engineering Principles and practices

i. Physical condition aspects which should include; Ground conditions

(geotechnical),Topographic and bathymetric conditions, Hydraulic forces - waves,
currents, water levels, Morphological changes, Sediment load and movement,
Uncertainties of physical conditions (confidence limits).

ii. Technical data aspect which should include; Material properties (e.g. rock density,
quality, durability and availability), Accuracy of design information, including analytical
methods used, Structure-specific design methods and Nature of failure (progressive or
instantaneous, complete or partial).

iii. Construction aspect which should include; Ability to build the structure, Contractor
experience and resources, Health and safety issues, Conditions during construction (e.g.
storm or flood frequency and magnitude), Access of construction plant, Material quality,
Alternative material availability (sources) and Site area for storage of materials and
operations.

iv. Maintenance aspects which include; Characteristics of structure response, Frequency and
type of intervention, Availability of suitable resources for repair (materials, plant,
expertise), Funding and Accessibility for construction plant.

3.2.2 Coastal Engineering Principles and Practices

Coastal engineering involves developing and protecting existing coastal protection work with the
view to predict future natural coastal processes. French (1997) postulate that the major civil
aspects of coastal engineering is coastal protection and management which can be achieved
through the formation of framework for projects to be planned, investigated and implemented to
meet the needs of the environment and its people. The Coastal engineering processes such as

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modeling is used to estimate the changes on environment and angle of repose of shorelines, site
investigation to study the cycles of hydrographic and marine life status, as well as processing
these to build a profile for the shorelines on which breakwaters are constructed. For example,
Iskander (2007) studied and developed a monitoring model for studying coastal structure along
the El Agami area of Egypt. They noted that where breakwaters exist, shoreline fluctuates,
marine life is impacted and also wave hydraulics. Coastal engineers need to record and study the
gradual change that takes place due to the presence of breakwaters. Issues concerning wave
distribution, shoreline sand composition, coastal calibration, marine survey and effect on the
hardours’ population are taken into account. Apart from these, breakwaters also affect the coastal
structure such as villages, ports and other human activities (Iskander, 2007).

Furthermore, coastal engineers also need to ensure that the construction of breakwaters and
estuaries does not adversely affect human activities as a result of design fault of these structures.
Donnel, (2006) attributed that the breakwaters on Tedious Creek estuary on the shoreline of
Chesapeake Bay in Dorchester County, MD caused substantial damage to local vessels than the
benefits it provided for its shelters. Similarly, breakwaters can also result in beach morphology
that effectively negates the protection objective when breakwaters are constructed with limited
knowledge applied relating to practical engineering. Therefore, coastal engineers are responsible
for studying the wave conditions, down drift side, expected erosion and current patterns behind
submerged breakwater, to gauge incident waves. These mechanisms, according to Ranasinghe &
Sato (2007), can relatively influence the function and utility of breakwaters' function. Thus,
coastal engineering is greatly influenced by the type and design of breakwaters structures. In
general, knowledge of the coastal condition helps professionals in the field to construct, facilitate
and execute better breakwater construction. Breakwater construction is a field that is directly
related with coastal engineering.

3.2.3 Construction Engineering Principles and Practices

Breakwaters and such coastal structure construction combine design and functionality with the
view to protect the coastal area. The design process is similar to structural design of buildings as
it entails paying attention to functional requirements, limitations of the state of the structure,
exposure, construction phases and occurrence of natural conditions. Breakwaters also require
considerations for knowledge of construction materials including quarry stone. Based on Moffett
and Nichol Engineers (1981), coastal structures like breakwaters and jetties are influenced by
long periods of water level changes. They need to be built parallel to the entrances, in an attempt
to stabilise entrances and safe navigation. Knowledge of construction material is very important
for choosing and designing breakwaters to complement the need of the local landscape and
environment. Arena &Filianati (2007) attributes that breakwaters are made up of rubble mounds
or caissons or are concrete filled, knowledge of construction material adds to the skills required
for developing structures for dispersing wave currents to minimise impact and conserve energy
from wave hydraulics where possible. Also, new construction material knowledge provides an
edge over the design and planning of the breakwater armour unit.

Furthermore, coastal protection design and construction require development and use of
probabilistic design tools to gauge uncertainties, prediction of wave impact, as well as structure

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stability. The main concerns for construction engineers are that the structures can sustain its
functionality for coastal protection, regardless of the wave conditions and transformations of
water bodies. It requires construction engineers to have knowledge of coastal shores by using
prediction models for wave transformation to study the effect of wave height, setup and
distribution before designing the breakwater and jetty structures.

3.2.4. Environment Engineering Principles and Practices

Breakwaters structures are one of the engineering solutions to resolve the problem of erosion and
sedimentation of shorelines. These are constructed with the view to sustain the shoreline and
benefit the local human communities. These engineering structures affect the hydraulic system of
the areas and also produce long and short term impacts on marine life. Hydrodynamic conditions,
sedimentation patterns, wave motion, physical and chemical factors tend to alter the composition
and nature of the habitat. The habitat also tends to change in its characteristics and life cycle due
to the change induced by the presence of breakwaters. The construction of breakwaters for
creating inlets often results in floral and faunal morphology of marine life due to the quality of
sand, water chemical properties and the wave action. For this purpose, marine engineering
knowledge, combined with the breakwater development know how, can help local engineers to
establish dynamic coastal structures to fit within the parameters of the natural environment.

4.0 GEOTECHNICAL ASPECTS OF BREAKWATER DESIGN AND

CONSTRUCTION

4.1 Geotechnical Investigation of the Soil/Sea bed

4.1.1 General Introduction

The geotechnical investigation of the sea bed/soil is used to determine the type of founding
material and its extent. The construction of breakwaters takes place along shores and river
mouths with a great variety of subsoil conditions. Bedrock underlies these layers at various
depths. The results of this investigation will have a direct bearing on the type of cross-section of
the breakwater. It is essential to determine what the coastline consists of, whether is a soft or
hard rock (like coral reefs or granite), sand (as found on beaches), clay (as in some mangrove
areas); and soft to very soft clay, silt or mud (as found along some river banks, mangroves and
other tidal areas) so as to know what may be encountered during the construction. In several
deltaic regions, layers of peat may also be present. These soil layers form the foundation bed for
the structure and need to withstand groundwater flow, wave loads and differential water
pressures. During the construction of breakwaters, they are the sub-base for vehicles and
equipment driving across the site. When submerged, they will be exposed to eroding currents and
waves.

Therefore, a thorough knowledge of the soil types present, including their characteristics and the
stratification is a prerequisite for the design and execution of breakwater construction and
closure operation.

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Geotechnical data can be obtained from sample-borings analyzed in laboratories and

penetrometer-tests executed in the field. The number of borings is usually limited in relation to
the area considered and to obtain a reasonable picture of the sub-bottom, an overall examination,
together with historical and geological information, is required. Particularly in deltaic areas and
tidal inlets, former gullies filled up with different types of soil may give sudden changes in the
sub-bottom profiles of soil layers.

The most important parameters of the sub-bottom are stratification, soil type and phreatic levels.
Laboratory tests on samples of every layer of clayey soil will give the values for cohesion, angle
of internal friction, Atterberg limits and water content. Granular soil types are characterized by
the grading of the grain sizes, the sharpness (roundness) of the grains and the pore volume
(relative density).

Cohesion and friction-angle are the most important parameters for soft soils. The field tests are
done by using Standard Penetration Tests (SPT), giving the number of blows needed to hammer
a pin down into the ground a predetermined depth or by using the Dutch Cone, which gives the
force required to push a cone down into the soil. These values are sometimes translated via
relation-tables into values for cohesion and friction-angle. Triaxial testing of soil samples is far
more accurate. Triaxial tests can be drained or undrained and consolidated or unconsolidated,
which leads to different values for the same soil.

For granular material (sand), the relative density and the permeability are the most important
parameters. The grain structure itself is strong enough to withstand considerable surcharges.
Problems may arise if some grains want to rearrange to form slightly more dense packing and the
pore water cannot escape. The latter is the case if the permeability is low. This applies to sand
with a high content of fines. Generally, the 10% finest part of the sieve curve determines the
permeability.

4.1.2 Basic Geotechnical Investigations

Basic geotechnical investigations normally suffice for small or artisanal projects, especially
when the project site is remote and access poor. A basic geotechnical investigation should be
carried out or supervised by an experienced engineer or geologist familiar with the local soil
conditions. The following activities may be carried out in a basic investigation using only
portable equipment:

i. Retrieval of bottom sediments for laboratory analysis;

ii. Measurement of bottom layer (loose sediment) thickness; and

iii. Approximate estimation of bearing capacity of the sea bed.

The equipment required to carry out the above-mentioned activities consists of a stable floating
platform (a single canoe is not stable enough, but two canoes tied together to form a catamaran
are excellent), diving equipment, a Van Veen bottom sampler (may be rented from a national or

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 International Journal of Advanced Academic Research (Sciences, Technology and Engineering) | ISSN: 2488-9849
Vol. 6, Issue 12 (December, 2020) | www.ijaar.org
Journal DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849
Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

university laboratory), a 20mm diameter steel pricking rod and a water lance (20mm diameter
steel pipe connected to a gasoline-powered water pump).

Before the start of any work, the area to be investigated should be marked via a set of marker
buoys or a scaffold pipe frame placed on the sea bed and the exact coordinates noted for future
reference. To retrieve samples from the sea bed, a Van Veen hand operated bottom sampler is
required. Simply picking up samples from the sea bed with a scoop or bucket disturbs the
sediment layers with the eventual loss of the finer material and is not a recommended method.
The sediments thus collected should then be carefully placed in wide-necked glass jars and taken
to a national or university laboratory for analysis. At least 10kg of sediment are normally
required by the laboratory for a proper analysis.

Figure 13: Bottom sampling during soil investigation (Coduto, 1999)

In most cases this layer has to be removed by dredging to expose the harder material underneath.
To determine the thickness of this harder layer, a water lance is required. This consists of a
length of steel tubing (the poker), sealed at the bottom end with a conical fitting and connected to
a length of water hose at the top end. The water hose is connected to a small gasoline-powered
water pump drawing seawater from over the side of the platform. The conical end has four 3mm
diameter holes drilled into it. The diver simply pokes the steel tube into the sediment while water
is pumped into it from above until the poker stops penetrating. The diver then measures the
penetration. This method is known as pricking which works very well in silty and muddy
deposits up to 2 to 3m thick but not very effective in very coarse sand with large pebbles.

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 International Journal of Advanced Academic Research (Sciences, Technology and Engineering) | ISSN: 2488-9849
Vol. 6, Issue 12 (December, 2020) | www.ijaar.org
Journal DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849
Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

Figure 14: Bottom sampling during soil investigation (Coduto, 1999)

Once the layer of soft sediment has been identified (sampled) and measured (pricked), it is then
necessary to determine the hardness of the underlying layer. The underlying layer may be rock,
clay or compacted sand. If the layer is rocky, the diver should collect a piece of the material for
laboratory analysis using a hammer and chisel. For softer types of material, the diver (with a
submerged weight of around 10 kilograms) should use a steel probe (1m long, 12mm in
diameter) or pocket penetrometer. An area of around 300mm square should be cleaned of loose
sediment and the probe or penetrometer placed vertically over it. The 10kg exertion on the probe
will cause the probe to penetrate into the material. The diver then notes the penetration for the
engineer to estimate the bearing capacity. If a pocket penetrometer is used, the bearing capacity
may be read off the penetrometer scale directly.

Figure 15: Estimating the bearing capacity of the foundation (Coduto, 1999)

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 International Journal of Advanced Academic Research (Sciences, Technology and Engineering) | ISSN: 2488-9849
Vol. 6, Issue 12 (December, 2020) | www.ijaar.org
Journal DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849
Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

4.1.3 Advanced Geotechnical Investigations

An advanced geotechnical investigation normally requires the retrieval of undisturbed core
samples, taken from the level of the sea bed down to a depth ranging from 10 to 30m depending
on the type of structure envisaged and the ground conditions obtaining at the site.
Advanced geotechnical investigations are normally carried out by specialist contractors or soil
laboratories and require a mobile drilling rig. The drilling rig can travel to most destinations but
must be installed on a stable platform before it can be used to drill for cores over water.

Figure 16: Core samples of hard clay retrieved from 15 metres below sea bed (Coduto, 1999)

4.2.2 Construction Methods of Breakwater

There are several types of equipment available for marine construction, both land-based and
floating. The high cost of purchase, however, puts most of this equipment beyond the reach of
village cooperatives, artisanal contractors and small general-building contractors. Due to this,
most of the heavy plant will be made available through the government or public works
department or local contractors.
Large specialist marine contractors often use floating equipment (all cranes mounted on barges
for example and material like the core is often dumped using barges). When planning the
construction of a marine-related project, it would be useful to know beforehand what type and
size of construction plant is available in the vicinity of the village or landing.

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 International Journal of Advanced Academic Research (Sciences, Technology and Engineering) | ISSN: 2488-9849
Vol. 6, Issue 12 (December, 2020) | www.ijaar.org
Journal DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849
Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

Figure 17: Pictures of settlement block poured in the breakwater and set up of a total station to
measure settlements (Omar, 2017).

5.0 CASE HISTORY OF BREAKWATER DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

The port of Lagos is one of the largest and busiest in Africa and it plays a big role in Nigerian
economy. The harbour is protected from the Atlantic Ocean by three breakwaters known as
harbour mole. The two largest breakwaters protrude into the ocean and protect the main channel
leading ship into the harbour, maintaining the flow of water through the channel and reduce the
need for expensive dredging work. Without the breakwater, an ocean surge would be more likely
to flood the whole Lagos Island and lagoon causing a massive disruption. For instance in 2012,
ocean surge Kuramo beach in Victoria Island flooding the nearby area and claiming the lives of
16people. In 2007, ocean surge in bar beach also cause a major disaster along Ahmadu Bello
way causing damages to engineering structures, properties in the vicinity. Although before now
Eko Atlantic project has been ongoing in 2003 but due to the disastrous effects of ocean surge on
harbour, Lagos state Government order for the demolition of civil structure near bar beach for
the full commencement of Eko Atlantics project. The construction of this engineering structure
like breakwaters will help reduce the effects of ocean surge, erosion on beaches, flooding and in
turn protect the harbor, create opportunities for fishermen and reclaim land from the sea for
development and Agricultural purposes. The materials used during the construction the
breakwaters are mixture of both rocks (igneous rocks) and concrete material. The diagram below
shows the effects of ocean surge on environment. This project is still ongoing till date.

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 International Journal of Advanced Academic Research (Sciences, Technology and Engineering) | ISSN: 2488-9849
Vol. 6, Issue 12 (December, 2020) | www.ijaar.org
Journal DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849
Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

Figure 18: Eko Atlantic dream City project Lekki and Victoria Island Lagos (Omar, 2017)

Figure 19: Geotechnical designs of Eko Atlantic project (Omar, 2017)

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 International Journal of Advanced Academic Research (Sciences, Technology and Engineering) | ISSN: 2488-9849
Vol. 6, Issue 12 (December, 2020) | www.ijaar.org
Journal DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849
Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

Figure 20: Eko Atlantics Project/Work in progress (Omar, 2017).

6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Breakwaters are structures constructed in coastal areas to protect ships and shipping facilities
(including harbours and navigation channels) from effects of sea/ocean and sedimentation. Other
coastal structures that are constructed to serve same or related purposes include: jetties, groins,
seawalls, bulkheads and revetments. The three types of breakwaters are: rubble-mound
breakwater, vertical-wall or caisson breakwater; and floating breakwater.
Geotechnical aspects of breakwater design and construction refer to use of geotechnical
engineering principles and practices in the design and construction of breakwaters. Materials
generally used in the construction of breakwaters include: crushed rocks/building stone, soils,
concrete and geotextiles (synthetic/plastic fibre).
Highlights of the papers are:
a) Description of some coastal environmental problems such as coastal erosion in North
Carolina, USA and flooding (caused by storm surges) of beaches/ residential areas in Lagos,
Nigeria.
b) Description of some functional breakwaters that are used in mitigating those environmental
problems such as Taconite Harbour Breakwater (Minnesota USA) and Lagos
Harbour/Residential Area Breakwater (Lagos, Nigeria)
c) The Recommendations:
i) Detailed geotechnical investigation of the proposed site of any breakwater in terms of nature
of foundations and availability of construction of materials for the project should be
conducted.

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Journal DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849
Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

ii) Installed breakwaters should be constantly monitored using relevant instruments to evaluate
their performance, stability and durability against wave action.
iii) Integrated research on design and construction of breakwaters and other coastal protection
structures should be vigorously pursued to ensure improvements in the relevant engineering
principles and practices (geotechnical, coastal, environmental and construction engineering)
that influence breakwater design and construction.

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 International Journal of Advanced Academic Research (Sciences, Technology and Engineering) | ISSN: 2488-9849
Vol. 6, Issue 12 (December, 2020) | www.ijaar.org
Journal DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849
Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

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Article DOI: 10.46654/ij.24889849.e61215

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