INDUOTMEAI

MANIC

an l|ll|l| publication Albert W. Kemp

 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2009

http://www.archive.org/details/industrialmechanOOkemp
INDUOTMIAL
MECHANICS
© 1999 by American Technical Publishers, Inc.

All rights reserved

123456789- 99 -9876543

Printed in the United States of America

ISBN 0-8269-3690-3
 Acknowledgments
y\\^?f-\\\^^^-^^^\^\%-?:y^^

The author and publisher are grateful to the following companies and organizations for providing technical infor-
mation and assistance. Companies preceded by an asterisk (*) have provided photographs that were used on the cover.

Acco Chain & Lifting Products Division Honeywell's MICRO SWITCH Division

Advanced Assembly Automation Inc. Humphrey Products Company

ARO Fluid Products Div.. Ingersoll-Rand Ingersoll-Rand Material Handling

Atlas Technologies. Inc. Lift-All Company, Inc.

* Ballymore Company. Inc. Lift-Tech International. Division of Columbus

Baldor Electric Co. McKinnon
Bimba Manufacturing Company Lovejoy, Inc.

Boeing Commercial Airplane Group LPS Laboratories, Inc.

Boston Gear® Ludeca Inc., representative of PRUEFTECHNIK AG.

The Caldwell Group. Inc.
* Manufacturing & Maintenance Systems, Inc.

Cincinnati Milacron Martin Sprocket & Gear Inc.

Clippard Instrument Laboratory, Inc. Miller Equipment

Columbus McKinnon Corporation Industrial

* North American Industries, Inc.

Products Division * NTN Bearing Corporation of America

Cone Drive Operations Inc./Subsidiary of Textron Inc. Oil-Rite® Corporation

Cone Mounter Company Pacific Bearing Company

Continental Hydraulics Panduit Corp.
CooperTools Parker Hannifin - Pneumatic Division North
The Crosby Group, Inc. America
Crowe Rope Industries LLC PLI Incorporated
DoALL Company Power Team. Division of SPX Corporation
Dow Coming Corporation Precision Brand Products, Inc.

Eaton Corporation PredictVDLI

* Emerson Power Transmission Ratcliff Hoist Co.

Engelhardt Gear Co. Ruud Lighting, Inc.

Exxon Company Saylor-Beall Manufacturing Company

Fenner Drives SEW-Eurodrive, Inc.

Flow Ezy Filters, Inc. The Sinco Group, Inc.

* Fluke Corporation Snorkel

Gast Manufacturing Company * SPM Instrument, Inc.

The Gates Rubber Company Sprecher + Schuh

GE Motors & Industrial Systems The Timken Company
Greenlee Textron Inc. Tractel Inc., Griphoist® Division

Guardian Electric Mfg. Co. Vibration Monitoring Systems, Inc.

* Harrington Hoists Inc. * Werner Ladder Co.
Heidelberg Harris, Inc. Wire Rope Technical Board
m Calculations

Rigging 17

LJJ Lifting 63

Ladders and Scaffolds 87

m Hydraulic Principles 109

r Practical Hydraulics 133

Pneumatic Principles 167

E Practical Pneumatics 183

Lubrication 211
 1

'
10^ Bearings
R II
225

'I Flexible Belt Drives 243

ill Mechanical Drives

I I'
257

1
Vibration 271

— -11 Alignment 289

'I Electricity 319

Appendix 347

=J Glossary 383

I
11 Index 399
 Introduction ^
IndustrialMechanics is a comprehensive introduction to fundamental industrial mechanical con-
and equipment. The textbook is designed for industrial mechanics, technicians,
cepts, principles,
and maintenance personnel. Photographs from over 60 major manufacturers and organizations have
been included to help illustrate the broad range of technical information used in industry today.

Industrial Mechanics covers topics such as rigging and lifting, ladders and scaffolds, hydraulics
and pneumatics, lubrication, bearings, flexible belt and mechanical drives, vibration, alignment,
and electricity. The comprehensive Appendix contains many useful tables, charts, and other sup-
plemental reference material. The Glossary defines nearly 800 technical terms used throughout the
textbook. An extensive Index is also included.

Industrial Mechanics Workbook tests for each of the major concepts presented in the textbook.
Answers to theworkbook problems are in the Instructor's Guide. To obtain information on related
training products, visit the American Tech web site at www.go2atp.com.

The Publisher
Talcu
culations
ftapter'

r ormulas are used daily in calculations to determine

the various quantities used in industry. Linear meas-
urements are used to determine the area of plane flg-
ures. The size and weight of objects are used to
determine fit and weight for lifting. Measurements
may be made in the British (U.S.) system or in the
metric system. Volume is calculated to determine the
capacity of containers used for storage and in hy-
draulic and pneumatic systems.

The Caldwell Group, Inc.

FORMULAS A formula is a mathematical equation that contains

a fact, rule, or principle. Formulas are used in all trade

areas. They are used to find the area of plane figures

An equation means of showing that two numbers
is a
such as circles, triangles, quadrilaterals, etc. Italic let-
or two groups of numbers are equal to the same
ters are used in formulas to represent values (amounts).
amount. See Figure 1-1.
For example, a + b = c is a formula. See Figure
1-2. In a formula, any number or letter may be trans-
posed from left to right or from right to left of the
EQUATIONS equal sign. When transposed, the sign of the number
or letter is changed to the opposite sign.

The sign is always in front of the number or letter

of which it is a part. For example, in the formula a

+ b = c, if b - 4 and c - 12, the value of a is found
by changing the formula to a = c - b, or a - 12 -
4. A formula can be changed to solve for any un-
known value if the other values are known. Subscript
letters or numbers may be used in formulas to dis-
tinguish between similar dimensions of different ob-
jects. For example, V, may indicate the volume of a
cylinder and V, may indicate the volume of a tank.

r^A motor operating at a standard speed of 1800

s~^ rpm rotates 2,592,000 times in a 24-hour period
Figure 1-1. An equation is a means of showing that two
numbers, or two groups of numbers, are equal to the
(1800 x24x60 = 2,592,000).
same amount.
2 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

^ FORMULAS

(^ + b:
GIVEN
 Calculations 3

r- DEGREES
^—MINUTES
60°-35'-151L
V QprnMf
ANY POSITION OTHER
THAN HORIZONTAL
OR VERTICAL

II / ,
\ LA t^''- \Zi
STRAIGHT INCLINED STRAIGHT RIGHT ACUTE OBTUSE
LINE (SLANTED)
LINE

PARALLEL
h
PERPENDICULAR
&.— t
COMPLEMENTARY SUPPLEMENTARY
LINES LINES

Figure An angle the intersection of two lines.

\'^(^0
1-4. is /

IZON-7

When referring to an angle, the vertex letter is

read second. The angle symbol (Z) is used to indicate

HORIZONTAL VERTICAL
LINE LINE an angle. The way the two sides of an angle intersect
determines the size and type of angle.
Figure 1-3. A line is the boundary of a surface.
Angles are measured in degrees, minutes, and sec-

A straight line is the shortest distance between onds. The symbol for degrees is °, the symbol for
two points. It is commonly referred to as a line. A minutes is ', the symbol for seconds is ". There are
curved line is a line that continually changes direc- 360° in a circle (one revolution). There are 60' in
tion. It is commonly referred to as a curve. one degree and 60" in one minute. For example, an
All lines may be drawn in any position, unless angle might contain 112°-30'-12".
they are horizontal or vertical. An inclined line is a
A straight angle is two lines that intersect to form
line that is slanted. It is neither horizontal nor ver-
a straight line. It is one-half of a revolution, or
tical. Parallel lines are two or more lines that remain
The symbol
369^2 = 180°. A straight angle always contains 180°.
the same distance apart. for parallel lines

is II.
A right angle is two lines that intersect perpen-

A perpendicular line is a line that makes a 90° dicular to each other. It is one-fourth of a revolution,

angle with another line. The symbol for perpendicu- or ^^% = 90°. A right angle always contains 90°.

lar is 1. A horizontal line is a line that is parallel An acute angle is an angle that contains less than
to the horizon. It may be referred to as a level line. 90°. An obtuse angle is an angle that contains more
A vertical line is a line that is perpendicular to
than 90°. For example, a 45° angle is an acute angle,
the horizon. It is often referred to as a plumb line.
and a 135° angle is an obtuse angle.
Plumb is an exact verticality (determined by a plumb
bob and line) with the Earth's surface. Lines can intersect to create more than one angle.
Complementary angles are two angles formed by
three lines in which the sum of the two angles equals
Angles
90°. Each complementary angle is an acute angle.
For example, a 30° angle and a 60° angle are acute
An angle is the intersection of two lines or sides.
angles that are complementary angles.
See Figure 1-4. The vertex is the point of intersection
of the sides of an angle. To identify angles, letters To find the complementary angle of a known acute
are placed at the end of each side and at the vertex. angle, subtract the known angle from 90. For exam-
 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

pie, to find the complementary angle of a 40° angle, Area

subtract 40 from 90 (90 - 40 = 50). The comple-
mentary angle to a 40° angle is a 50° angle. Area is the number of unit .squares equal to the sur-
face of an object. For example, a standard size sheet
Supplementary angles are two angles formed by
three lines in which the sum of the two angles equals of plywood is 4' x 8'. It contains an area of 32 sq

180°. For example, a 45° angle and a 135° angle are ft (4x8 = 32 sq ft).

supplementary angles. Area is expressed in square inches, square feet,

To find the supplementary angle of a known angle, and other units of measure. A square inch measures
subtract the known angle from 180. For example, 1" X 1" or its equivalent. A square foot contains 144
to find the supplementary angle of a 70° angle, sq in. (12" x 12" = 144 sq in.). The area of any
subtract 70 from 180 (180 - 70 = 1 10). The sup- plane figure can be determined by applying the

plementary angle to a 70° angle is a 110° angle. proper formula. See Figure 1-5.

Adjacent angles are angles that have the same ver-

tex and one side in common. Adjacent angles are
formed when two or more lines intersect. Circles
For example, when two straight lines intersect,
four angles and four sets of adjacent angles are A circle is a plane figure generated about a center-
formed. The sum of adjacent angles that form a point. See Figure 1-6. All circles contain 360°. The
straight line equals 180°. The two angles opposite circumference is the boundary of a circle.

each other when two straight lines intersect are equal. The diameter is the distance from circumference
to circumference through the centerpoint. The cen-
lerpoint is the point a circle or arc is drawn around.
Warning: Always verify quantities when mixing An arc is a portion of the circumference. The ra-
chemicals. dius is the distance from the centerpoint to the cir-
cumference. It is one-half the length of the diameter.

A chord is a line from circumference to circum-

Linear Measure ference not through the centerpoint. A quadrant is

one-fourth of a circle containing 90°.

y Linear measure is the measurement of length. It is\
used to find the one-dimensional length of an object.
A sector is a pie-shaped piece of a circle. A seg-
ment is the portion of a circle set off by a chord. A
It measures distances such as how far, how long. etc.
semicircle is one-half of a circle containing 180°.
The common units used for linear measure are the
inch (") in the English system and the millimeter Concentric circles are two or more circles with
(mm) in the metric system. different diameters but the same centerpoint. Eccen-
tric circles are two or more circles with different
diameters and different centerpoints.

A tangent is a straight line touching the curve of

the circumference at only one point. A tangent is

perpendicular to the radius. A secant is a straight

line touching the circumference at two points.

Circumference of a Circle (Diameter). When the

diameter is known, the circumference of a circle is
found by applying the formula:

C = nD
where
C = circumference

7t = 3.1416

Linear measurement is the measurement of length. D = diameter

Calculations 5
 '

6 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

For example, what is the area of a 28" diameter

circle?

A = .7854 X D-
A = .7854 X (28 x 28)
A = .7854 X 784
A = 615.754 sq in.

FULL CIRCLE ECCENTRIC CONCENTRIC Area of a Circle (Radius). When the radius is

known, the area of a circle is found by applying the

CENTERPOINT formula:

A = nr
where
A - area

K = 3.1416
r = radius squared

For example, what is the area of a 14" radius circle?

A = nr
A = 3.1416 X (14 X 14)

A = 3.1416 X 196
A = 615.754 sq in.

Triangles
/y°° /\\ SEMICIRCLE
A triangle is a three-sided polygon with three interior
angles. The sum of the three angles of a triangle is

always 180°. The sign (A) indicates a triangle. See

Figure 1-7. The altitude of a triangle is the perpen-
dicular dimension from the vertex to the base. The
base of a triangle is the side upon which the triangle
Figure 1-6. A circle is a plane figure generated about a
centerpoint. stands. Any side can be taken as the base.

TRIANGLES

/ SYMBOL
ALL ^ CONTAIN
60° + 60° + 60° = 180°
180°
SCALENE

EACH ANGLE
LESS THAN 90° GREATER THAN 90°

RIGHT ISOSCELES EQUILATERAL

NO EQUAL SIDES, TWO EQUAL SIDES,
ONE 90° ANGLE TWO EQUAL ANGLES

Figure 1-7. A triangle is a three-sided polygon with three interior angles.

 Calculations 7

The angles of a triangle are named by uppercase The length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle
letters.The sides of a triangle are named by lower- is found by applying the formula:
case letters. For example, a triangle may be named = Va- +
c b'
AABC and contain sides d, e, and f.
where
The different kinds of triangles are right triangles, c = length of hypotenuse
isosceles triangles, equilateral triangles, and scalene a- = length of one side squared
triangles. A right triangle is a triangle that contains
b- = length of other side squared
one 90° angle and no equal sides. An isosceles tri-

angle is a triangle that contains two equal angles

and two equal sides. An equilateral triangle is a tri-
PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
angle that has three equal angles and three equal
sides. Each angle of an equilateral triangle is 60°. A
scalene triangle is a triangle that has no equal angles
or equal sides. A scalene triangle may be acute or
obtuse. An acute triangle is a scalene triangle with
b = A
each angle less than 90°. An obtuse triangle is a sca-

lene triangle with one angle greater than 90°.

Area of a Triangle. The area of a triangle is found

by applying the formula:

A = Vibh
where

A = area

'/2 - constant

h = base

h = height

For example, what is the area of a triangle with

a 10" base and a 12" height?

A = Vibli

A = V2 X {\0 X ]2)

A = I/2
X 120

A = 60 sq in.

Pythagorean Theorem. The Pythagorean Theorem

states that the square of the hypotenuse of a right
triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the
other two sides. The hypotenuse is the side of a right
triangle opposite the right angle.

A right triangle is said to have a 3-4-5 relationship

and often is used for laying out right angles and
checking corners for squareness. To check a corner
for squareness, measure 3' along one side and 4'
along the other side. These two points measure 5'

apart when the corner is square. See Figure 1-8.

8 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

For example, what is the length of the hypotenuse

of a triangle having sides of 3' and 4'?

Regular Polygons

A polygon is a many-sided plane figure. All polygons

are bound by straight lines. A regular polygon is a
polygon with equal sides and equal angles. An ir-

regular polygon has unequal sides and unequal an-

gles. Polygons are named according to their number
of sides. Typical polygons include the triangle (three
sides), quadrilateral (four sides), pentagon (five
sides), hexagon (six sides), and octagon (eight sides).
See Figure 1-9.

POLYGONS
 Cakulalioits 9

A square is a quadrilateral witii all sides equal

and four 90° angles. A rectaniile is a quadrilateral

with opposite sides equal and four 90° angles. A

rhombus is a quadrilateral with all sides equal and
no 90° angles. A rhomboid is a quadrilateral with
opposite sides equal and no 90° angles.
The square, rectangle, rhombus, and rhomboid are
parallelograms. A parallelogram is a four-sided plane
figure with opposite sides parallel and equal.
A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with two sides par-
allel. A trapezium is a quadrilateral with no sides
parallel. Trapezoids and trapeziums are not parallelo-
grams because all opposite sides are not parallel.

Area of a Square or Rectangle. The area of a square

or the area of a rectangle is found by applying the
formula:
Industrial facilities are designed based on square footage for the
ficient layout of production line equipment
A = / X ,r

where
A = area Regular Solids
/ = length
A tetrahedron is a regular solid of four triangles. A
w = width hexahedron is a regular solid of six squares. It is

For example, what is the area of a 22'-0" x l6'-0" commonly referred to as a cube. An octahedron is a

storage room? regular solid of eight triangles. A dodecahedron is a

regular solid of twelve pentagons. An icosahedron is

A = I X w a regular solid of twenty triangles.

A = 22 X 16

A = 352 sq ft Prisms

A prism is a solid with two bases that are parallel

SOLIDS and identical polygons. Bases are the ends of a prism.
The three or more sides of a prism are parallelo-

Polyhedra are solids bound by plane surfaces (faces).

grams. See Figure 1-12. A prism can be triangular,
rectangular, pentagonal, hexagonal, octagonal, etc.,
Regular solids (polyhedra) are solids with faces that
according to the shape of its bases.
are regular polygons (equal sides). Irregular polyhe-
Lateral faces are the sides of a prism. There are
dra are solids with faces that are irregular polygons
(unequal sides).
as many of these lateral faces as there are sides in
one of the bases.
Solids have length, height, and depth. The five
regular solids are the tetrahedron, hexahedron, octa-
The altitude of a prism is the perpendicular dis-

hedron, dodecahedron, and icosahedron. Other com-

tance between the two bases. When the bases are
perpendicular to the faces, the altitude equals the
mon solids are prisms, cylinders, pyramids, cones,
edge of a lateral face.
and spheres. Less common solids include the torus
and ellipsoid. See Figure l-ll.
A right prism is a prism- with lateral faces per-
pendicular to the bases. An oblique prism is a prism
with lateral faces not perpendicular to the bases.
A parallelepiped is a prism with bases that are
The National Institute of Standards and Tech-
P:nology)

(NIST) is the federal agency that es-

parallelograms. A right parallelepiped is a prism with

tablishes accurate measurement standards for sci-

all edges perpendicular to the bases. A rectangular

ence, industry, and commerce in the United States. parallelepiped is a prism with bases and faces that
are all rectangles.
10 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

REGULAR SOLIDS 8 TRIANGLES

20 TRIANGLES
12 PENTAGONS

-4 TRIANGLES

TETRAHEDRON HEXAHEDRON OCTAHEDRON DODECAHEDRON ICOSAHEDRON

PRISMS PARALLELEPIPEDS

r^
<I V
RIGHT OBLIQUE RIGHT RIGHT OBLIQUE
RECTANGULAR RECTANGULAR TRIANGULAR PENTAGONAL HEXAGONAL

CYLINDERS PYRAMIDS
AXIS

-BASE- -BASE-^
RIGHT OBLIQUE RIGHT RIGHT OBLIQUE
CIRCULAR CIRCULAR TRIANGULAR RECTANGULAR PENTAGONAL

FRUSTUM - PARALLEL TO BASE

TRUNCATED- ANGLED TO BASE

BASE-
OBLIQUE CIRCULAR OBLIQUE CIRCULAR
(FRUSTUM) (TRUNCATED)

OTHERS
AXIS

Figure 1-11. Solids have length, height, and depth.

 1

Calculations 1

CYLINDERS

RIGHT RIGHT
TRIANGULAR PENTAGONAL
/^— AXIS
>^'

^^- BOTTOM
OBLIQUE BASE-
HEXAGONAL RIGHT OBLIQUE
CIRCULAR CIRCULAR

Figure 1-13. A cylinder is a solid generated by a straight

line (genatrix) moving in contact with a curve and
remaining parallel.

RIGHT OBLIQUE
RECTANGULAR RECTANGULAR

PARALLELEPIPEDS

Figure 1-12. A prism is a solid with two bases that are

parallel and identical polygons.

Cylinders

A cylinder is a solid generated by a straight line

(genatrix) moving in contact with a curve and re-
maining parallel to the axis and its previous position. RIGHT RIGHT
Each position of the genatrix forms an element of TRIANGULAR RECTANGULAR
the cylinder. (TRUNCATED)
A right cylinder is a cylinder with the axis per-
pendicular to the base. An oblique cylinder is a cyl-

inder with the axis not perpendicular to the base.

See Figure 1-13.

Pyramids

A pyramid is a solid with a base that is a polygon OBLIQUE

PENTAGONAL
and sides that are triangles. The vertex is the common
point of the triangular sides that forms the pyramid. Figure 1-14. A pyramid is a solid with a base that is a
See Figure 1-14. polygon and sides that are triangles.
12 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

The altintcle of a pyramid is the perpendicular dis- Conic Sections. A conic section is a curve produced
tance from the vertex to the base. Pyramids are by a plane intersecting a right circular cone. A right
named according to the kind of polygon forming the circular cone is a cone with the axis located at a
base, such as triangular, quadrangular, pentagonal, 90° angle to the circular base. The four conic sections
and hexagonal. are the circle, ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola. See
Figure 1-16.
A regular pyramid has a base that is a regular
polygon and a vertex that is perpendicular to the cen-
ter of the base. The slant heigh! is the distance from
the base to the vertex parallel to a side. It is the CONIC SECTIONS
altitude of one of the triangles that forms the sides.

Cones

A cone is a solid generated by a straight line moving

in contact with a curve and passing through the ver-
tex. Cones have a circular base and a surface that
tapers from the base to the vertex.

The altitude of a cone is the perpendicular distance

from the vertex to the base. The slant height is the
distance from the vertex to any point on the circum-
ference of the base. See Figure 1-15.

CIRCLE ELLIPSE
Plane perpendicular Plane oblique to axis
at greater angle
with axis than elements

GENATRIX

RIGHT CIRCULAR OBLIQUE CIRCULAR

(FRUSTUM)

BASE-'
OBLIQUE CIRCULAR PARAEOLA HYPERBOLA
Plane oblique to axis Plane at smaller
(TRUNCATED) at same angle with angle with axis
axis as elements than with elements

Figure 1-15. A cone is a solid generated by a straight

line (genatrix) moving in contact with a circle and passing Figure 1-16. A conic section is a curve produced by a
through the vertex. plane intersecting a right circular cone.
 CalciilalUms 13

A circle is a plane figure formed by a cutting plane

perpendicular to the axis of a cone. An ellipse is a

plane figure formed by a cutting plane oblique to

the axis of a cone, but at a greater angle with the
axis than with the elements of the cone.

A parabola is a plane figure formed by a cutting

plane oblique to the axis and parallel to the elements

of the cone. A hyperbola is a plane figure formed
by a cutting plane that has a smaller angle with the
axis than with the elements of the cone.

Frustums. A frustum of a pyramid or cone is the

remaining portion of a pyramid or cone with a cutting
plane passed parallel to the base. A truncated pyramid
GREAT
CIRCLE -A.,'^
NT
or cone is the remaining portion of a pyramid or
cone with the cutting plane passed not parallel to

the base. See Figure 1-17.

FRUSTUMS AND TRUNCATIONS

CUTTING PLANE
PARALLEL
TO BASE
SURFACE
PARALLEL
TO BASE

RIGHT TRIANGULAR FRUSTUM OF RIGHT

PYRAMID TRIANGULAR PYRAMID

SURFACE NOT
PARALLEL
TO BASE

RIGHT TRIANGULAR RIGHT TRIANGULAR

PYRAMID PYRAMID (TRUNCATED)

Figure 1-17. A frustum is the remaining piece of a pyramid

or cone with a cutting plane passed parallel to the base.

Spheres

A sphere is a solid generated by a circle revolving

about one of its axes. All points on the surface are
an equal distance from the center of the sphere. See
Figure 1-18.
14 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

A cubic foot contains 1728 cu in. (12" x 12" x Volume of a Rectangular Solid. The volume of a

12" = 1728 cu in.). A cubic yard contains 27 cu ft

rectangular solid is found by applying the formula:

(3' X 3' X 3' = 27 cu ft). V = / X w X /!

where
V = volume
Finding Volume
/ = length

a solid figure can be determined by

w = width
The volume of
applying the proper formula. See Figure 1-19. h - height

VOLUME OF A
RECTANGULAR SOLID
 Calculations 15

For example, what is the volume of a 24" x 12"

8" rectangular solid?

V = I X w X h

V = 24 X 12 X 8

V = 2304 cu in.

Volume of a Cone. The volume of a cone found

is
CYUNDERPISPyVCEMENT* „
by first solving for the area of the base and then
solving for volume. The area of the base is found
by applying the formula:

Ah = .7854 X D-
where

Ah = area of base
.7854 = constant

D' = diameter squared

The volume of the cone is then found by applying

the formula:

where
V = volume
Ah - area of base
a = altitude

3 = constant

For example, what is the volume of a cone that

has a 14" diameter and a 35" altitude?
1. Solve for the area of the base.

Ah = .7854 X D-
Ah = .7854 X (14 X 14)
Ah = .7854 X 196
Ah = 153.938 sq in.

2. Solve for the volume.

 16 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

For example, what is the volume of a sphere that

has a 2'-0" radius?

., 4x3.1416x2'

V = 33.510 cu ft

Volume of a Cylinder (Diameter). When the diame-

ter is known, the volume of a cylinder is found by
applying the formula:

V = .7854 X D- X h

where

V = volume
.7854 = constant

D- = diameter squared

h = height

For example, what is the volume of a tank that is

4'-0" in diameter and 12'-0" long?

V = 7854 X D- X
. h

V = .7854 X (4 X 4) X 12

V = .7854 X 16 X 12

V = 150.797 cu ft

Volume of a Cylinder (Radius). When the radius is

known, the volume of a cylinder is found by applying

the formula:

V = 71/-= X /

he volume of air contained in the tanl< of a compressor is calculated

y applying the volume formula for a cylinder where

V - volume
Volume of a Sphere (Radius). When the radius is

known, the volume of a sphere is found by applying n = 3.1416

the formula: /- = radius squared

/ = length

For example, what is the volume of a tank that

where
has a 2'-0" radius and is 12'-0" long?
V = volume
V = nr- X /
4 = constant

jr = 3.1416 V = 3.1416 X (2 X 2) X 12
/•' = radius cubed V = 3.1416 X 4 X 12

3 = constant V = 150.797 cu ft
 Rigging

Rigging is securing equipment in preparation for lift-

ing by means of rope, chain, or webbing. Loads must
be balanced and load weights calculated for safe load
lifting. Rope is used for lifting because of its length

and flexibility. Chain is used in situations in which

other materials would be damaged by the load or en-
vironment. All rigging components should be in-
spected initially, frequently, and periodically. Repair
and testing of rigging components must be completed
by the manufacturer.

Lift-All Company. Inc.

RIGGING

The shape, weight, and location where a load is to

be moved must be known prior to rigging and lifting.
ZhT
Rigging is securing equipment or machinery in prepa-
ration for lifting by means of rope, chain, or webbing.
Lifting is hoisting equipment or machinery by me-
chanical means.
^rrn
The weakest component determines the strength
of the entire lifting system. For this reason, the limi- SYMMETRICAL
tation of every component used to move a load must
be determined. Other considerations include the con-
ditions (indoor or outdoor), travel path, equipment, ,,^ CENTER OF GRAVITY IS
and the skill level of the workers. f NOT ALONG CENTER LINE
I
(t

Load Balance

The shape of a load normally determines its center

of gravity. The shape of a load may be symmetrical
^EACH HALF IS NOT
or asymmetrical. See Figure 2-1. A symmetrical A MIRROR IMAGE
load is which one-half of the load is a
a load in
mirror image of the other half. Symmetrical loads
ASYMMETRICAL
include straight pipe sections, motors, paper rolls, Figure 2-1. The shape of a load normally determines its

and sheet metal. center of gravity.

 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

An asymmetrical load is a load in which one-half

of the load is image of the other half.
not a mirror
Asymmetrical loads include most machinery, motor
and pump assemblies, pipe and valve assemblies,
and engines.

Some loads are equipped by the manufacturer with

lifting lugs for ease in lifting and transporting. A
lifting tug is a thick metal loop (eyebolt) welded or
screwed to a machine to allow balanced lifting. Lift- BALANCED LOAD UNBALANCED LOAD
ing lugs eliminate the need for additional rigging. ONE SLING
Center of gravity is the balancing point of a load.
The center of gravity of a load must be determined
before lifting to prevent tipping or toppling of the
load. Complex shapes and materials make it difficult
to determine the center of gravity for most loads.
Some manufacturers mark the center of gravity on
their equipment, while others offer specification
sheets that include center of gravity information. Cal-
culations determining the center of gravity may be UNBALANCED LOAD
made from weight, shape, and material standard in-
TWO SLINGS
formation. An educated guess may be made, placing
the center of gravity in an approximate location. Figure 2-2. A load lifted outside its center of gravity may
shift or create excess side stress on one sling.
A load may be lifted without chance of tipping
or toppling once the center of gravity is determined Load toppling occurs when a load is unbalanced
(balanced load). See Figure 2-2. Load tipping occurs because it is unstable or top heavy. Unbalanced loads
when a load is unsteady, unbalanced, or unstable. may shift toward the center of gravity and create a
dangerous condition when lifted. Most of the weight
is placed on one sling if two slings are used to lift

an unbalanced load.

Lifting equipment is connected after the center of

gravity is determined. The load is lifted slightly to

observe stability or weight shifting. The lifting equip-

ment is readjusted towards the heavy (dipping) side
of the load if an imbalance is observed. This proce-
dure is continued until the load is balanced and sta-

ble. Imbalance is a lack of balance.

In addition to the vertical center of gravity, the

horizontal weight center (horizontal center of grav-
ity) of a load must also be determined. The horizontal
weight center is a weight mass above a pivot point
that causes a load to topple because it is top heavy.
The lifting equipment must not be attached to the

load at any point lower than the horizontal weight

center. A load may be unstable and subject to top-
pling if lifting equipment is placed below the hori-
zontal weight center of a load. See Figure 2-3.
The sling apex must be above the horizontal
weight center if a load is to be lifted from the base
Symmetrical loads are using one sling by placing the sling at
lifted
the center of the load and lifting slightly to observe weight shifting. of a machine or skid. The sling ape.x is the uppermost
The sling is adjusted and the process repeated until the load is stable. point where sling legs meet.
 Rigging 19

Load weights are normally determined by calcu-

lation if manufacturer's printed information is not
available. Load weights may be calculated using stock
material weight tables or the area, volume, and load
material weight information. The full-load weight
should include the weight of the rigging equipment.
To obtain the full-load weight, add the total material
weight to the weight of the rigging equipment.

Sprecher + Schuh

Overhead cranes driven by electric motors are used to move heavy

metal beams.

UNBALANCED
LOAD Stock Material Weight Tables

Stock material weight tables are used when a load

Figure 2-3. A load may be unstable and subject to
if lifting equipment is placed below the horizontal
toppling consists of basic stock materials such as steel or brass
weight center of the load. bar stock. Stock material weight tables are available
listing the weight of materials by their linear, square,

CALCULATING LOAD WEIGHTS or cubic measurements in either the English or metric

systems. See Appendix. For example, a 1" diameter

The weight of a load is calculated after considering round steel bar weighs 2.67 lb/ft (from Weight of

the shape and size of the load. The weight of the Steel and Brass Bar Stock table). See Figure 2-4.
load may be found on the data plate located on the Common stock materials include round and square
equipment, on shipping documents, or on the manu- bar. round and square tubing. I-beam, angle stock,
facturer's product bulletin. Always ensure that the tee stock, channel, and plate. Tables for these com-
weight has not changed since the last printing or mon shapes may be located through the American
entry when data is obtained from printed docu- National Standards Institute (ANSI). The weight of
ments. Weight changes often occur when equip- stock material is found by referring to the proper
ment has been modified or when a product is left stock material weight table and applying the formula:
in a holding vessel.
W= Ix w/ft

where
/5t\ Per the National Safety Council, a disabling
^-^ injury occurs on the job every 9 sec and a per-
W = weight (in lb)

son is killed on the job every hour and a half. / - length (in ft)

w/ft = weight (in lb/ft)

20 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

WEIGHT OF STEEL AND BRASS

BAR STOCK*
 Rigging 21

Material Weight Calculations For example, what is the total material weight of
an uncovered steel tank 4'-8" in diameter and 5'- 11"
Material weight calculations are made using the vol- deep with a wall thickness of 'A"? See Figure 2-5.
ume of the object and the weight of the material if
Note: Dimensions are rounded off to 5' diameter and
the load weight cannot be determined using a mate-
6' depth. Pi is rounded to 3.
rial weight table. The figures used in this method
should be rounded off to allow rapid calculations.
Rounding ajf is the process of increasing or decreasing
a number to the nearest acceptable number. For material
-ROUNDED TO 5'

weight calculations, numbers are rounded to the nearest

50. Any numbers in question should be rounded up for
added safety. For example, 490, 325, 782, 110, 231,
and 506 can be added rapidly if the numbers are

rounded off to 500, 350. 800, 100, 250, and 500.

Rounded-off calculations give dependable infor-

mation for calculating load weights. With experience,
rounded-off calculations become rapid and precise -ROUNDED TO 6'

enough for safe rigging. The total material weight

of loads with multiple regular shapes is estimated by
applying the procedure:

1 Find the area of the vessel bottom. The area of the

vessel bottom is found by applying the formula:
Ah = Kr
where
Ab = area of bottom Figure 2-5. Numbers may be rounded off to allow rapid
material weight calculations.
7C = 3.1416
r^ - radius squared
2. Find the area of the sides. The area of the vessel 1. Find the area of the vessel bottom.
side is found by applying the formula:
At = nr
As = ds X n X Is
where Ai, = 3 X (2.5 X 2.5)
As = area of side A, = 3 X 6.25
ds = diameter of side
Afc = 18.75 sq ft (round to 19 sq ft)
71 = 3.1416
Is - length of side 2. Find the area of the sides.

3. Find the total area of the vessel. The total area A, ^ d, X K X /,

of the vessel is found by applying the formula:

As =5x3x6
Av = Ah + As
A, = 90 sq ft
where
Av - total area of the vessel 3. Find the total area of the vessel.
Ah - area of bottom A, = Ai, + As
As = area of side
Av =19-1-90
4. Find the total material weight. The total material
Av = 109 sq ft (round to 110 sq ft)
weight is found by applying the formula:
Find the total material weight.
W := Av X w/sq ft
4.

where W = Av X w/sq ft

W = total material weight (in lb) W = 110 X 10.2 (from Weight of Steel Plate
A, = area of vessel table)

w/sq ft = material weight per square foot W = 1122 lb

22 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

SLINGS Sling Combinations

A sling is a line consisting of a strap, chain, or rope

A sling consists of a section of the main component
(rope, chain, etc.) with a loop at both ends. Basic
used to lift, lower, or carry a load. Slings used to
slings include vertical (single-leg), choker, U, basket,
lift loads are made of various components. The main
sling components lift the load. Main sling compo- and bridle. Tables are used to determine the safe load

nents include wire rope, fiber rope, chain, webbing, capacities of specific rigging components such as

and round sling. See Figure 2-6. Other sling compo- rope, webbing, chain, etc., and may also rate their
attachments. See Figure 2-8.
nents include rigging hardware attachments such as
clips, hooks, eyebolts, shackles, sockets, wedge sock-
ets, triangle choker fittings, and master links. See Lifting using a vertical sling is a straight vertical

Figure 2-7. pull. The straight connection between the hook and
the load offers 100% load capacity of the single
sling. A single-leg sling is used to lift loads such
I (c^ The American Society of Mechanical Engi-
I neers (ASME) helps establish safe structural
as pumps, motors, gear drives, or any device
I design of hoists and cranes. equipped with a single eyebolt or lifting lug that
has not been modified.

MAIN SLING COMPONENTS

WIRE ROPE FIBER ROPE

WEBBING ROUND SLING

Figure 2-6. Main sling components include wire rope, fiber rope, chain, webbing, and round sling.
 Rigging 23

RIGGING HARDWARE ATTACHMENTS

-CHAIN EYEBOLT

HOOK EYEBOLT SHACKLE

TRIANGLE
WEDGE SOCKET CHOKER FITTING MASTER LINK

Figure Other sling components include rigging hardware attachments such as

2-7. clips, hooks, eyebolts, shackles,
sockets, wedge sockets, triangle choker fittings, and master links.

A choker sling is created by slipping the loop from load must be determined by multiplying the vertical
one end of the sling over the other end (choke junc- load rate by a sling angle loss factor.
tion) after wrapping the load. Choker sling loads are
commonly center-balanced loads such as pipes, bars, A bridle sling consists of two or more straight
poles, etc. Choker sling load capacity is considerably slings using identical sling constructions, length, and
less than that of a vertical sling. The reduced capacity previous loading experience. Normal stretch must be
is due
to the angle of pull created at the choke junc- the same for paired slings to avoid overloading in-
tion.Each degree from the vertical 0° angle position dividual legs and unbalancing the load during the
increases tension on the sling. lift. Bridle slings are used where more than one
straight sling is required to make the lift, such as
A U-sling is a single line looped under the load.
lifting drums, machinery, or lengths of material.
The ends of the U-sling are attached to different
hooks of the lifting device. A basket sling uses one
sling, similar to the U-sling. However, the two eye (^\ Welding rigging attachments can be hazardous.
loops of the sling are attached to the lifting device ^^ Knowledge of materials, heat treatment, and weld-
at a single point. The basket sling has a reduced ca- ing procedures are necessary for proper welding.
pacity due to the angles of the sling legs. The rated
24 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

BASIC SLING COMBINATIONS

VERTICAL CHOKER
(SINGLE-LEG)

BASKET

SLING ROPE LOAD CAPACITY 6x19

CLASSIFICATION (2000 LB TON)
 Rigging 25

Angular Sling Load Capacity For example, what is the total lifting capacity of
a two-leg sling made of -Vs", 6 x 19, IPS-FC wire
Angular lifting tension increases and load capacity rope with sling loops constructed of U-bolt clips and
decreases as the sling angle decreases. The sling an-
sling angles of 50°? Note: The vertical load rate for
gle decreases as the lifted load widens. See Figure
U-bolt clips is .97.
2-9. The load capacity of choker, basket, or bridle
slings is calculated by applying the formula: LC = vl X I X s

LC = vl X I X s LC = .97 X 2 X .766

where LC = 1.486 t

LC = load capacity (in t)

i7 = vertical load rate (from Vertical Sling ROPE

Component Load Capacity 6x19 IPS-FC
Rope is used for lifting because of its length and
Classification table)
flexibility. Rope is flexible due to its construction of
/ := number of sling legs (not more than two) many wires or fibers and small strands. Rope is

s = loss factor (from Sling Angle Loss Factors manufactured from wire, organic fibers, or synthetic
table) fibers, and is widely used for transporting loads.

SLING ANGLES
^^^4.r--.^'ffl^??'^--i^.W^IW

What is the loss factor if the sling angle is 60°? SLING ANGLE LOSS FACTORS |

s = .866 (from Sling Angle Loss Factors table)

What is the loss factor if the sling angle is 45°?

s = .707 (from Sling Angle Loss Factors table)

What is the loss factor if the sling angle is 30°?

s = .500 (from Sling Angle Loss Factors table)

26 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Rope Construction ROPE CONSTRUCTION

Fiber rope is constructed by twisting fibers into yarn,
yarn into strands, and strands into rope. Yarn is a
continuous strand of two or more fibers twisted to-

gether. A strand is several pieces of yarn helically

laid about an axis. A helix is a spiral or screw shape
form. Strands are twisted (laid) to form the rope. (T) FIBERS TWISTED
^-^ INTO YARN
Wire rope is constructed by twisting wires into
strands around a wire core. The strands are laid to (i) YARN TWISTED
^-^ INTO STRANDS
form the wire rope. The strands are often laid around
a fiber core. See Figure 2-10. (3) STRANDS TWISTED
^-^ INTO ROPE
Lay and Strands. Rope lay is the length of rope in
which a strand makes a complete helical wrap around
FIBER ROPE
the core. A rope lay also designates the direction of
the helical path in which the strands are laid. The
strands form a spiral to the right in a right lay rope.
The strands form a spiral to the left in a left lay
rope. The right and left lay rotation produces regu- FIBER CORE
lar-lay or lang-lay rope. Regular-lay and lang-lay
rope have different advantages.
A regular-lay rope is a rope in which the yarn or (T) WIRES TWISTED INTO
^-^ STRANDS AROUND
wires in the strands are laid in the opposite direction
WIRE CORE
to the lay of the strands. A right regular-lay rope is
(2) STRANDS TWISTED
a rope in which the strands are laid to the right and ^-^ INTO ROPE
the yarn or wires are laid to the left. A left regular-lay
rope is a rope in which the strands are laid to the
left and yarn or wires are laid to the right. A lang-lay
rope is which the yarn or wires and strands
a rope in WIRE ROPE
are laid in the same direction. A right lang-lay rope
is a rope in which the yarn or wires are laid to the

right and the strands are laid to the right. A left lang-
lay rope is a rope in which the yarn or wires are
0'
laid to the left and the strands are laid to the left.
RIGHT REGULAR-LAY
Right regular-lay rope
purposes due
is generally used for rigging
to its resistance to rotation. Lang-lay
L/i

®1 ; STRANDS TWISTED
IN CLOCKWISE
ROTATION
ropes are used where flexibility and fatigue resistance d),
are required. 1
LEFT REGULAR-LAY
'
®2) STRANDS TWISTED
COUNTERCLOCKWISE
ROTATION
IN

Rope Diameter. The diameter of wire rope is deter-

3) YARN OR WIRES
mined by the largest possible outside dimension. See
(D TWISTED IN
CLOCKWISE
Figure 2-11. The outside dimension (diameter) is the
}® ROTATION
circle that fully encircles the rope.
ured from the high spot on one side of the rope to
The rope is meas-
RIGHT LANG-LAY ®4) YARN OR WIRES
TWISTED IN
COUNTERCLOCKWISE
the high spot on the opposite side using vernier cali- ROTATION
pers. New ropes are normally slightly larger in di- ®, \®
ameter than the specifications indicate.
LEFT LANG-LAY

/Hh\ Fiber core wire rope slings of all grades shall

^^ be permanently removed from service if they
Figure 2-10. Fiber rope is constructed by twisting fibers

into yarn, yarn into strands, and strands into rope. Wire
are exposed to temperatures exceeding 200°F. rope is constructed by tw/isting wires into strands around a
wire core.
 Rigging 27

-VERNIER CALIPER

Lift All C ompaity

Synthetic slings, such as web slings and roundslings. are used

i
to lift

loads that must be protected from damage.

INCORRECT

Figure 2-11. The diameter rope

Synthetic fiber rope is normally not affected by
of wire is determined by
the largest possible outside dimension. moisture because moisture is not absorbed by the fi-

bers.However, the fibers may become brittle and

weakened if synthetic rope is coated with ice.
Rope Strength
Temperature. Manufacturers supply data on the tem-
A rope loses strength during use due to moisture, perature limits of rope. Wire rope with a fiber core
temperature, chemical activity, and bending. The should not be used in temperatures over 180°F
typical breaking strength of rope shown in charts (82.2°C). Wire rope with a wire core is used in
or tables is based on new rope. Rope wear is in- temperatures up to 400°F (204. 4°C). The strength
dicated by abrasion marks, stretching or breaking of fiber rope is rated for use in the temperature range
of wire or fibers, or a reduction in rope diameter. of -20°F to 100°F (-28°C to 65°C).
See Figure 2-12.

Moisture. The effects of moisture vary between rope Chemical Activity. Reaction to acids, alkalies, caus-

types. V/ire ropes should be kept lubricated to prevent tic solutions, or fumes cause rapid damage to rope.

rusting. Moisture affects wire rope by causing it to

An acid is any of a large class of sour substances
rust from the inside out. Weakening from rust may with a pH value less than 7. An alkali is a bitter

not be indicated until the rope breaks. substance with a pH value greater than 7. Acids and
alkalis turn certain materials to salts by means of
Natural fiber rope may absorb moisture and decay corrosion. Corrosion is the action or process of eat-
or rot. Most rope manufacturers treat natural fiber ing or wearing away gradually by chemical action.
rope with waterproofing. However, enough moisture A caustic solution is a liquid that creates heat and
may still be absorbed to significantly weaken a natu- corrosion. Common caustic solutions include potash
ral fiber rope when frozen. Natural fiber rope must (water and potassium hydroxide) and soda (water and
be completely thawed before use. sodium hydroxide).
28 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

CONDITIONS AFFECTING ROPE

Moisture
Fiber Rope
Wire Rope
Synthetic

<S^S5SSS:
ROT, MILDEW, AND
BRITTLENESS
FROM ICING

Temperature
Overheating destroys lubrication High temperature dries out fibers j
Excess heat softens synthetic
applied during manufacturing making them brittle fibers allowing them to stretch

Chemicals
Must be coated with vinyl, nylon, Begins to deteriorated almost Designed to withstand many
Teflon, or zinc for use in certain immediately in chemically-active chemical conditions
chemical environments environments

Bending

LESS EFFICIENT

-SHARP BENDS REDUCE

STRENGTH AND DAMAGE
WIRES OR FIBERS

MORE EFFICIENT

Figure 2-12. Moisture, temperature, chemical activity, and bending reduce rope strength.

Rope used in acidic or alkaline environments must tions. Consult the rope manufacturer before using a
be designed specifically for such use. Wire rope used rope in a chemical environment.
in certain chemical environments such as battery
shops, metal-plating shops, pickling plants, or pulp Bending. Bending subjects rope to stress. Small di-

and paper mills is coated with vinyl, nylon. Teflon, ameter bends can reduce strength efficiency by more
or zinc. Natural fiber rope begins to deteriorate im- than 50%. Rope efficiency depends on the curve/rope
mediately in a chemically-active environment. Syn- (D/d) ratio. The cun'e/rope (D/d) ratio is the ratio be-
thetic fiber rope materials such as vinyl are tween the diameter of a curved component (D), such
manufactured to withstand many chemical condi- as a pulley, and the nominal diameter of the rope (d).
 Rigging 29

The D/d ratio is compared to a rope bending ef-

ficiency chart to determine the rope's efficiency fac-
tor. See Figure 2-13. The information obtained for
plotting the rope bending efficiency chart is estab-
lished from static load tests applied to rope bent over
stationary diameters.

ROPE BENDING EFFICIENCY

30 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Wire Rope Construction. Wire rope is also classi- layer is Seale wire used for wear and the inner layers
fied by the design of the wire pattern. While many are Warrington wire used for flexibility.
pattern variations exist, the most common wire ropes Most rigging rope is constructed with a center
used for basic rigging are filler wire, Warrington. (core) of various materials. Core materials include
Scale, and Warrington-Seale. Each type uses wires fiber, polyvinyl, thin wire rope, or a multiple-wire
of different sizes and offers more or less flexibility strand. Fiber cores (PCs) are made of sisal or manila
and wear than the others. See Figure 2-14. fibers and are shaped to keep the strands in order
and to act as a protecting cushion. Polyvinyl cores
are used in areas of certain chemical or caustic so-
lutions or fumes. Independent wire rope core (IWRC)
is a small 6x7 wire rope with its own core of wire
strands. IWRC resists crushing and offers consistent
stretching. Multiple-wire strand core (WSC) is gen-
erally constructed of multiple wire strands similar to
those used in wire rope construction. WSC is gener-
FILLER WIRE WARRINGTON ally less nexible than IWRC. However, WSC and
IWRC are rated 7'/2'7r stronger than other core types.

Rope wire is made from several types of metals,

including steel, iron, stainless steel, monel, and
bronze. Wire rope manufacturers select the wire that
is most appropriate for general requirements of the
finished product. The most widely used material is
steel with a high carbon content. This steel is avail-

able in a variety of grades, each having properties

related to the basic curve for steel rope wire. Grades
of wire rope are traction steel (TS). mild plow steel
(MPS), plow steel (PS), improved plow steel (IPS),
extra improved plow steel (EIPS), and extra extra
improved plow steel (EEIPS).

Galvanized (coated with zinc) wire rope may be

required for harsh or corrosive environments. Typical
rigging and lifting wire rope is uncoated (Bright).
Galvanized wire rope is approximately 10% lower in

strength than Bright rope.

Figure 2-14. The most common wire ropes used for basic
rigging are filler wire, Warrington, Seale, and Wire Rope Strength. The strength of rope used for
Warrington-Seale.
safely lifting a load is determined by its breaking
The breaking strength (ul-
strength. See Figure 2-15.
timate strength) of rope is obtained from actual
Filler wire is wire rope that uses fine wires to fill breakage tests. Safe load limits vary with different

the gaps between the major wires. Filler wire rope lifting applications but are generally established by
construction is the most flexible, but wears more than dividing the breaking strength by a safety factor.

Warrington or Seale wire rope. Warrington wire is wire

rope constructed of strands consisting of more than one
size wire staggered in layers. Warrington wire rope is ^^
^^
A life sign is a sign that identifies a caution,
hazard, danger, instruction, or position of life
less flexible than filler wire rope, but wears better.
saving devices. Life signs are generally designed to
Seale wire is wire rope that uses different size wire
be used as a standard international safety device.
in different layers. Seale wire rope is less flexible They are pictorial so they can be understood regard-
than Warrington wire rope, but is the least suscep- lessof language, and are color coded to indicate
tible to wear. A combination of Warrington and Seale importance.
wire provides the best wear and flexibility. The outer
 Rigging 31

WIRE ROPE STRENGTH

 32 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

2. Determine rope strength needed to lift the load.

SLING MATERIAL
R. = t X 5 STRENGTH CAPACITIES*
/?> = 2 X 5
Rated Capacities (in Tons)*^
/?, = 10 t

3. Determine rope size to be used.

The proper wire rope to be used for lifting the

machine is determined as '/:" 6x19 standard hoisting

fiber core rope (from Wire Rope Strength table).

Wire Rope Technical Board

A tension break is the result of overloading wire rope.

Once the proper wire rope size is determined, the

load capacity of choker, basket, or bridle slings used Figure 2-16. Rated strength capacities of 6 x 19 wire rope
to lift the load are determined. See Figure 2-16. The are based on the rope diameter and sling.
load capacity of a sling is found by applying the
formula; Wire Rope Rotation. Due to the nature of its con-

LC = vl X I X s
struction, rope must not be allowed to spin or rotate
while being used. A special rotation-resistant rope is
where
used in applications such as a single part line or situ-
LC = load capacity (in t) ations where operating conditions require a rope to
vl = vertical load rate (from Sling Material Strength resist cabling. Cabling is a rope's attempt to rotate

Capacities table) and untwist its strand lays while under stress.

/ = number of sling legs (but not more than two) Rotation-resistant ropes are available in single-
s = loss factor (from Sling Angle Loss Factors layer and multi-layer strand classifications. A single-
table) layer strand wire rope consists of a single layer of
strands, without a core, where each strand supports one
For example, what is the working load capacity another. A multi-layer strand wire rope consists of two
of a wire rope sling using a Vj" 6x19 IPS/FC rope, or more layers of strand laid in opposing directions.
a 2-leg sling, and a 70° load angle?

Cutting Wire Rope. The ends of wire rope must be

Note: The loss factor of a sling with a 70° secured by binding (seizing) to prevent raveling, un-
load angle equals .940 (from Sling Angle Loss Fac- safe loose wires, or strength reduction before cutting
tors table). wrapping placed around
a wire rope. Seizing is the

LC = vl X I X s
all strands of a rope near the area where the rope is

cut. See Figure 2-17. Seizing holds the strands firmly

LC = 2.0 X 2 X .940
in place by the tight turning of seizing wire. This
LC = 3.76 t must be done twice to both ends before the cut.
 trigging 33

SEIZING
34 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

WIRE ROPE TERMINATIONS

OPEN CLOSED
SPELTERED SPELTERED
SOCKET SOCKET

Figure 2-18. Common wire rope terminations include thimbles and sockets.

swaged, speltered, and wedge designs. Swaged and

speltered sockets are permanent wire rope attach-
ments. Permanent wire rope attachments have the
highest efficiency rating.
3 Z
j

f 3 2 A swaged socket is a compressed socket assembled

V 4

5
~2

3
to the

are
wire rope under high pressure.
compressed in a hydraulic
Swaged sockets
press. A speltered
f
socket is a socket assembled by separating the wire
1 5 4
-U-SECTION rope ends after inserting the rope through the socket
4 6 5
collar. Molten zinc or resin is poured into the collar,

creating a solid assembly. Swaged and speltered

sockets are 100% efficient due to the manufacturing
and assembly process.

A wedge socket is a socket with the rope looped

within the socket body and secured by a wedging
action. Wedge sockets are popular because rapid po-
sition changes are possible and installation and dis-

mantling processes are fairly easy. However, because

of its design, a wedge socket can be incorrectly in-
stalled, creating a sharp bend on the live end of the
Figure 2-19. Clip connections must be arranged, spaced,
and assembled properly to maintain the strength of the rope. rope.The live end must be in line with the socket.
The exposed dead-end section must extend out of the
The U-section is assembled against the dead-end wedge a minimum of eight rope diameters. See Fig-
section.Rope damage occurs if the U-section is as- ure 2-20.
sembled against the live end. The first clip is installed
4" from the dead end and the nuts are tightened. Next.
the second clip is installed at the thimble and the Fiber Rope
nuts are finger-tightened. The remaining clips are as-
Rope constructed of fibers is preferred for some ap-
sembled finger-tight. Finally, a strain is placed
plications because fiber is less likely to gouge or
against the rope and the remaining nuts are alter-
mar equipment surfaces than wire rope or chain. Fi-
nately tightened.
ber rope is classified by the materials used to con-
A socket is a rope attachment through which a struct the rope. Fiber rope can be made from either
rope end is terminated. Wire rope sockets include natural or synthetic fibers.
 Rigging 35

WEDGE SOCKETS NOMINAL FIBER ROPE STRENGTH*

INCORRECT

Figure 2-20. Proper installation of a werige socket has the

live end of a rope in line with the socket.

Natural fibers are obtained from plants. Plants

used in the manufacture of fiber rope include cot-

ton,hemp, manila, and sisal. Manila fiber is used

predominantly for lifting and is derived from the ba-
nana plant.

Natural fiber quality varies because the living

plant quality varies. This affects the quality of the
finished rope. The grade of rope is classified by the
quality (grade) of fiber used. Common manila rope
classifications include yacht rope, number I, number
2, and hardware. Only yacht and number 1 class ma-
nila rope should be used for lifting. Number 2 and
hardware classes of manila rope should not be used
for lifting because, in some cases, the quality, type,
and grade of fiber is unknown.

Synthetic materials used for rigging and lifting in-

clude nylon, polypropylene, and polyester. Synthetic
ropes are used more commonly today because of the
consistent quality of fiber from one rope to another.
Also, the breaking strength of synthetic fibers is ap-
proximately twice that of manila fibers. Synthetic fi-

bers are generally stronger than short natural fibers

because the synthetic fiber is continuous throughout

the length of the rope. See Figure 2-21.

Synthetic materials are used in ropes specifically

for their special properties. Nylon is used primarily
for strength, polyester for dimensional stability, fi-

berglass for electrical properties, vinyl for chemical

properties, and polypropylene for flotation. Another
advantage of synthetic fibers is that they do not mil-
dew, rot, or decay as natural fibers do.
36 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Fiber rope is constructed of three or more strands polypropylene 6, and polyester and nylon 9. All rope
(normally three) with or without a core. A lay is a strengths should be increased where life, limb, or

complete helical wrap of the strands of a rope. The valuable property is involved.

lay is used when inspecting a rope. Remove any rope

Fiber Rope Applications. Binding (fastening) loads
from service if there measurable increase in lay
is a
with a rope normally requires some form of hitch or
length or reduction of rope diameter. For example,
knot. A hitch is the interlacing of rope to temporarily
a rope classified as having three rope lays per foot
secure it without knotting the rope. Knotting is fas-
must have a measurement of 4" per lay.
tening a part of a rope to another part of the same
The rope lay length measurement is used to de- rope by interlacing it and drawing it tight.

termine if the rope has stretched any measurable All knots involve changing direction of the rope
amount due to age or load. The initial measurement
axis and pinching against another part of the rope.
is made when the rope is new. This gives a compari- an imaginary straight line that
For a rope, an axis is
son figure for all future measurements. Measure-
runs lengthwise through the center of the rope. Each
ments should be at a length of 1' or 2' and at the sharp change of direction weakens a rope. A knot in
same area of rope at each measurement. The meas- a rope can reduce rope efficiency by as much as 55%.
urement should include whole lay lengths. For ex- For example, straight rope has an efficiency of 100%,
ample, if four complete lays of a rope are recorded an eye splice over a thimble has an efficiency of
at r-4", all future measurements would determine if 90%, a short splice has an efficiency of 80%, and
the rope has or has not stretched beyond the r-4" an overhand knot has an efficiency of 45%.
at four lays.
Most rope hitching and knotting terminology was
Fiber Rope Strength. Rope strength varies accord- derived from nautical (sailing) terms. Basic elements
ing to the degree of twist of each construction step. used when working with rigging knots include bight,
A high strength grade has a light degree of twist and loop, whipping, working end, working part, standing

is referred to as soft lay grade. Rope with a high part, standing end, kinks, nips, and eye loops. See
resistance to abrasion is referred to as hard lay and Figure 2-23.
has a high degree of twist. Ropes formed into cables A bight is a loose or slack part of a rope between
use two or more three-strand ropes twisted together. two fixed ends. A loop is the folding or doubling of
Specific breaking strength of fiber rope varies a line, leaving an opening throughwhich another line
greatly. Always consult the rope manufacturer's may The working end is the end of the working
pass.
specifications when choosing rope for an application. part of a rope. The viorking part is the portion of

Safe rope strengths for fiber rope are calculated the rope where the knot is formed. The standing end

using the same method as for wire rope. The vertical is the end of the rope that is normally fixed to a

breaking strength is divided by a safety factor to de- permanent apparatus or drum, or is rolled into a coil.

termine the maximum allowed load for a straight ver- The standing part is the portion of the rope that is

tical pull. The safety factor for manila rope is 5, not active in the knot-making process.

f- EYE LOOP ^
 Rigging 37

The working end of a rope is protected from A splice is the joining of two rope ends to form
untwisting or raveling by whipping (seizing), splic- a permanent connection. See Figure 2-25. Splices are
ing, or crowning. Synthetic fiber rope is finished used to join the ends of two ropes of similar strength
off by sealing fibers together with a match or sol- and thickness. Splices include the short splice and
dering iron. the long splice. A short splice uses an unlay of six
to eight rope strands on each rope. An unlay is the
Whipping (seizing) is tightly binding the end of a untwisting of the strands in a rope. A short splice,
rope with twine before it is cut. See Figure 2-24. when braided together, increases the rope diameter.
Rope is whipped by applying the procedure: This makes the short splice unsuitable for pulley use.
1. Form a bight with the end of the twine and lay A long splice uses an unlay of 15 turns and does not
along the rope to be whipped. increase the rope diameter. A long splice is formed
by applying the procedure:
2. Wrap twine tightly around the rope, gradually
working toward the rope end. The turns are laid 1. Unlay 15 turns and place a temporary whip on
hard against each other without overlapping. both rope standing parts.
3. Tuck twine through the loop at the end of the 2. Whip the strand ends.
rope.
3. Place the two rope ends (standing part termina-
4. Pull loop halfway through whipping by pulling
tions) together, alternating strands of one end with
other end of the twine.
the strands of the other.
5. Trim loose twine ends close to the turns.
4. Remove the temporary whip from one rope and
6. Seal synthetic fibers with heat. unlay one strand about 10 additional turns.

5. Fill the void in the grooves of the 10 turns with

the matching strand of the other rope.

6. Remove the temporary whip from the other rope

and unlay 10 additional turns.

(D FORM BIGHT WITH END OF TWINE AND

^^ LAY ALONG ROPE
(2) WRAP TWINE TIGHTLY AROUND ROPE

(3) TUCK TWINE THROUGH LOOP

(4) PULL LOOP HALFWAY THROUGH
^-^ WHIPPING

(5)tRIM LOOSE ENDS

(e) SEAL SYNTHETIC FIBERS WITH HEAT

Polypropylene rope is a synthetic fiber rope that is available in a

Figure 2-24. Whipping is tightly binding the end of a rope variety of colors, has a working temperature range of -2CfF to 20CPF,
with twine before it is cut. and excellent resistance against acids, alkalis, mildew, and rot.
38 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

LONG SPLICES

(T) UNLAY 15 TURNS. PLACE TEMPORARY (e) REMOVE TEMPORARY WHIP. UNLAY
^-^ WHIP ON BOTH ROPE STANDING PARTS ^-^ 10 ADDITIONAL TURNS

(2)WHIP STRAND ENDS (7) FILL VOID WITH OTHER ROPE

(3) PLACE TWO ROPE ENDS TOGETHER (q) repeat unlay AND VOID FILL
^-^ALTERNATELY IN EACH DIRECTION
(4) REMOVE TEMPORARY WHIP FROM
^^ ONE ROPE AND UNLAY 10 (9)tIE OFF EACH LAY

(10) CLIP STRAND ENDS. TUCK LOOSE ENDS

® FILL VOID WITH OTHER ROPE

Figure 2-25. A splice is tlie joining of two rope ends to form a permanent connection.

7. Fill the void in the grooves of the 10 turns with 1. Unlay rope ends eight turns and whip the strand
the matching strand of the other rope. ends.

8. Repeat unlay and void fill alternately in each di- 2. For a three-strand rope, loop strand 1 and lay
rection. strand 2 over strand 1 and down the side of the
rope.
9. Tie off each lay of strands using an overhand knot
and begin tucking the strand from one rope 3. Lay strand 3 over strand 2 and through strand 1

through the strands of the other rope. A minimum loop.

of two tuck sets is required. A tuck set is wedging 4. Snug strands 1, 2, and 3.
a strand of rope into and between two other rope
5. Tuck strand 1 through strand 2 of the standing
strands.
part of the rope.
10. Clip the strand ends after rolling and pounding
6. Alternately tuck each strand. Trim ends. The
the splice.
crown of the rope becomes tighter with time
and use.
Splicing the working end of a rope into a crown
or eye loop produces a workable, neat, and permanent
rope termination. Crowning is a reverse strand splice (Wh) Spliced fiber rope slings shall not be used un-
that is used when an enlarged rope end is desired or ^"^ less they have been spliced in accordance with
not objectionable. See Figure 2-26. A rope crown ter- OSHA 1926.251.
mination is formed by applying the procedure:
 Rigging 39

CROWNING

STRAND 2 -

(j\ STRAND
WORKING END

(T) UNLAY ENDS EIGHT TURNS, WHIP

^-^ STRAND ENDS

(2) LOOP STRAND 1 . LAY STRAND 2 OVER

^-^ STRAND 1

(3) LAY STRAND 3 OVER STRAND 2 AND

^-^ THROUGH STRAND 1 LOOP

(4) SNUG STRANDS 1 , 2, AND 3

(iy THROUGH STRAND 2
(5) TUCK STRAND 1

(?) ALTERNATELY TUCK EACH STRAND.

^-^ TRIM ENDS

Figure 2-26. Crowning is a reverse strand splice that is used when an enlarged rope end is desired or not objectionable.

An eye loop is a rope splice containing a thimble.

See Figure 2-27. Eye loops are spliced for a perma-
nent termination. A thimble is inserted for strength
and wear and is held in place by whipping. Wire
rope thimbles must not be used with fiber rope. An
eye loop is formed by applying the procedure:

1. Unlay four turns of strand. Place a temporary whip

on the standing part and whip the strand ends.

2. Form the eye of thimble size.

3. Tuck strand 1 through the standing part at 90° to

the lay of the rope.

4. Tuck strand 2 through the standing part in the

same direction.

5. Turn the assembly over and tuck strand 3 through

standing part.

6. Alternately tuck each strand through the standing

part. Trim ends. Crowe Rope Industries LLC
7. Remove the temporary whipping. Insert thimble
Eye loops may be formed to attach hooks to the ends of a length
and add whipping. of rope.
40 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

EYE LOOPS

® UNLAY FOUR TURNS. PLACE

TEMPORARY WHIP ON STANDING PART
AND WHIP STRAND ENDS

(D FORM EYE OF THIMBLE SIZE

(D

®]
®]
®\

Figure 2-27. An eye loop is a rope splice containing a thimble.

Knots and Hitches. A knot is the interlacing of rope turn allows for two gripping nips. A nip is a pressure
to form a permanent connection. A hitch is the in- and friction point created when a rope crosses over
terlacing of rope to temporarily secure it without itself after a turn around an object. A nip is an es-
knotting the rope. Knots are designed to form a per- sential ingredient of any knot because of the pressure
manent connection that may be untied. Hitches are and friction. See Figure 2-28. A half hitch knot is

designed for quick release. Knots lose from 10% to formed by applying the procedure:
80% of the strength of a rope, depending on the knot 1. Form a loop with the working end crossed over
used. A rope fails at the short bend in the knot if a the standing part.
rope fails under stress due to the presence of a knot.
2. Tuck working end under and through loop.

Common rigging knots include the double hitch,

slip, bowline, and wagoneer's hitch knots. Many
knots are variations using the basic half hitch knot.
(HH) The end of a rope thai has been welded during
A double hitch knot is a knot with two half hitch torch cutting should be cut off prior to inserting
knots. A half hitch knot is a binding knot where the into a socket so the individual wires and strands may
working end is laid over the standing part and stuck slide and adjust when the rope is bent in the socket.
through the turn from the opposite side. The double
 Rigging 41

HITCH KNOTS A slip knot is a knot that slips along the rope
from which it is made. A slip knot forms a noose
which, when placed around an object, is progres-
sively tightened by strain on the standing part. See
Figure 2-29. A slip knot is formed by applying the

/ \^LOOP procedure:

1. Form a loop by placing the working end over the

standing part.

2. Tuck working end under and through loop.

3. Pass standing part through loop.

^i„^^^ ^~^^- WORKING

SLIP KNOTS

©1 ; FORM LOOP WITH WORKING END

CROSSED OVER STANDING PART

®2;TUCKW0RKING END UNDER AND

THROUGH LOOP

O^ HALF HITCH KNOT

o DOUBLE HITCH KNOT

(TWO HALF HITCH KNOTS)
Figure 2-28. Half hitch and double hitch knots are not
secure knots, but are the base formation of other knots.
(T) FORM LOOP BY PLACING WORKING

from which it
END OVER STANDING PART

(2) TUCK WORKING END UNDER AND

THROUGH LOOP
(3) PASS STANDING PART THROUGH LOOP

Figure 2-29. A
is
slip
made.
knot is a knot that slips along the rope
42 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

A bowline knot is a knot that forms a loop that Thread the working end beneath and through the
is absolutely secure. See Figure 2-30. The more strain loop.
placed on the rope, the stronger the knot becomes.
Pass the working end around the back side of the
The knot is easily released when needed. A bowline
standing part.
knot is formed by applying the procedure;

1 . Loop working part of rope over standing part. Al- Pass the working end back through the loop. Tighten
low enough rope to give the size loop required. by pulling the standing part and working end.

BOWLINE KNOTS

STANDING
PART

WORKING
END

(T) LOOP WORKING PART OF ROPE (s) PASS WORKING END AROUND BACK OF
^-^ ^-^ STANDING PART

(2) THREAD WORKING END THROUGH LOOP (4) PASS WORKING END BACK THROUGH LOOP

Figure 2-30. A bowline knot is a knot that forms a loop that is secure but is easy to release.
 Rifmiiifi 43

A wai^oneer's hitch knot is a knot that creates a

load-securing loop from the standing part of the rope.
See Figure 2-31. A wagoneer's hitch knot is formed
by applying the procedure:
1. Form a loop where the drawing loop is required
by placing the working part on top of the stand-
ing part.

2. Form a second loop from the working part and in-

sert into the first loop. Snug the knot assembly by
pulling on the second loop and the standing part.

3. Bring the working end through the second loop

after passing the working end through load-secur-
ing hooks or loops.

4. Pull the working end tight and into a half knot to

secure the load.

WAGONEER'S HITCH KNOTS

A clove hitch is a quicl<, simple method of fastening a rope around

a post, pole, or stake.

Hitches work by the pressure of rope being pressed

together. The standing part of the rope is nipped

(jammed) over the working part. Because of the fric-

tion created by nipping, the greater the pull on the
rope, themore tightly the standing part nips the work-
ing part and prevents it from slipping through.
Hitches should never be formed with slippery rope
or wire. Hitches created from rope are the timber
hitch, clove hitch, cat's-paw hitch, cow hitch, scaf-
fold hitch, and blackwall hitch.

(?) FORM LOOP BY PLACING WORKING PART ON TOP A timber hitch is a binding knot and hitch com-
OF STANDING PART
bination used to wrap and drag lengthy material. A
(2) FORM SECOND LOOP AND INSERT INTO FIRST
LOOP. SNUG KNOT ASSEMBLY timber hitch may be used to wrap and drag logs,
A
® 3 ) BRING WORKING END THROUGH SECOND LOOP
AFTER PASSING THROUGH LOAD HOOK OR LOOP
pipes, beams, etc. See Figure 2-32.
is formed by applying the procedure:
timber hitch

® PULL WORKING END TIGHT 1 Loop

to
the working end around the standing
form the binding knot.
part

2. Twist the working end in the direction of the lay

Figure 2-31. A wagoneer's hitch knot is a knot that of the rope three or four times.
creates a load-securing loop from the standing part of
the rope. 3. Pull the working end tight to maintain form.
 44 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

TIMBER HITCHES A clove hitch is a quick hitch used to secure a

rope temporarily to an object. A clove hitch is used
because it is attached quickly, holds firmly, and has
a rapid release.See Figure 2-33. A clove hitch is

formed by applying the procedure:

1 . Cross one hand over the other and grasp the rope
with both hands.

Uncross the hands.

Bring the rope together to form two loops Place

over the object to he secured.

CLOVE HITCHES

(T) CROSS HANDS AND GRASP ROPE

(2) UNCROSS HANDS

(3) FORM TWO LOOPS. PLACE OVER
^-^ OBJECT TO BE SECURED

<3)

(D LOOP WORKING END AROUND

^-^ STANDING PART

(2) TWIST WORKING END 3 OR 4 TIMES

(3) PULL WORKING END TIGHT

Figure 2-32. A timber hitch is a binding knot and hitch

combination used to wrap and drag lengthy material.

A timber hitch, which does not jam and comes undone readily when
the pull ceases, is used to tow or hoist cylindrical objects, such as Figure 2-33. A clove hitch is a quickly-formed hitch used
logs, poles, etc. tosecure a rope temporarily to an object.
 Rigging 45

A cat's-paw hitch is a hitch used as a light-duty, A cow hitch is a hitch used to secure a tag line
quickly-formed eye for a hoisting hook. See Figure to a load. A cow hitch is made and released easily
2-34. A cat's-paw hitch is formed by applying the but is firm enough to steady loads. See Figure 2-35.
procedure: A tag line is a rope, handled by an individual, to

1. Grasp the rope with both hands, leaving plenty control rotational movement of a load. A cow hitch

of bight.
is formed by applying the procedure:

2. Rotate both hands in the opposite direction and con- 1. Loop the line and pass the loop around the object.
tinue to rotate the two loops for two complete turns.
2. Draw the rope through the loop.
3. Place the eye over the end of a hook.
3. Pull snug.

COW HITCHES
CAT'S-PAW HITCHES

(T) GRASP ROPE WITH BOTH HANDS

(2) ROTATE HANDS SEVERAL TIMES

^-^ IN OPPOSITE DIRECTION

(3) PLACE EYE OVER END OF HOOK

(T) LOOP LINE AND PASS AROUND OBJECT

(2) DRAW ROPE THROUGH LOOP

(3) PULL SNUG

Figure 2-34. A cat's-paw hitch is a quickly-formed eye for Figure 2-35. A cow hitch is a hitch used to secure a tag
light-duty lifting. a load.
line to
46 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

A scaffold hitch is a hitch used to hold or support

BLACKWALL HITCHES
planks or beams. See Figure 2-36. A scaffold hitcli
is made from a clove hitch and a bowline knot. A
scaffold hitch is formed by applying the procedure:
1. Attach a clove hitch to the object.

2. Tie the working end to the standing part using a

bowline knot.

SCAFFOLD HITCHES

1 ) ATTACH CLOVE HITCH TO OBJECT

2) TIE WORKING END TO STANDING PART

-^ USING BOWLINE KNOT

PASS WORKING END

TWICE AROUND
HOOK SHANK

Figure 2-37. A blackwall hitch is a hitch made for securing

a rigging rope to a hoisting hook.

WEBBING

Webbing is a fabric of high-tenacity synthetic yarns

woven into flat narrow straps. See Figure 2-38. A
synthetic yarn is yarn made of twisted, manufactured
fibers such as nylon or polyester. Webbing is con-
structed in one to four plies, with protected edges
and red warning cores to indicate wear or damage.
Webbing for rigging purposes is normally used when
maximum load damage protection is required. The
Figure 2-36. A scaffold hitch is used to support planks or softness of the webbing material, along with its wide
beams. and flat design, offers excellent protection for glass
and polished or painted loads.
A blackwall hitch is a hitch made for securing a
rigging rope to a hoisting hook. See Figure 2-37. A Webbing for rigging purposes is made of woven
blackwall hitch should be made from natural fiber nylon or polyester with selvedges. Selvedge is a knit-

ropes only because synthetic ropes may A ted or woven edge of a webbing formed to prevent
slip. black-
wall hitch is formed by applying the procedure:
raveling.Most web sling damage starts on the edge
and progresses across the web face.
1. Pass the working end twice around the shank of
The thickness (number of plies) determines the
a hook.
duty rating of webbing. A ply formed
is a layer of a
2. Cross it under the standing part in the mouth of
material.The number of plies is the number of thick-
the hook.
nesses of load-bearing webbing used in the sling as-
sembly. Slings are available in one- to four-ply
construction, with widths ranging from 1" to 12".
(db) Hands or fingers shall not he placed between
the sling and its load while the sling is being Generally, web slings are constructed of one or two
lightened around the load. plies with three- or four-ply slings reserved for spe-
cial conditions.
 Rigging 47

Lift- All Company, Inc.

Braided Tuflex roundslings from Lift-All are made from three (6-part) or
four (8-part) individual Tuflex endless synthetic slings made from con-
tinuous loops of polyester yarn covered by a double wall tubular jacket.

Sling loop eyesmay be too wide to properly fit

into the bowl of a hoist hook. A tapered loop eye
is formed by folding the webbing to a narrower
width at its bearing point to accommodate the lift-

ing device. Another common component of web

slings is wear pads. A wear pad is a leather or

webbed pad used to protect the web sling from dam-

WEB SLING CONSTRUCTION age. Wear pads are either sewn (fixed) or sliding for
adjustable protection.
Figure 2-38. Webbing is a fabric of high-tenacity synthetic
yarns woven into flat narrow straps. Basic web slings are assembled in various ways
to be used as vertical, basket, or choker hitches. Web
slings are fabricated in six configurations (Type I
some cases, special colored yarns are woven into
In
through Type VI). See Figure 2-39,
the webbing core to indicate excessive wear or cuts.
The webbing must be removed from service when these Type I is a web sling made with a triangle fitting
warning cores of colored yarn are exposed. on one end and a slotted triangle choker fitting on
the other end. Type I web slings are used for vertical,
Web sling construction consists of the length basket, or choker hitches. Type I web slings are also
(reach), body, splice, and loop eye. The web sling used in cargo hold down situations where the web-
length is the distance between the extreme points of bing consists of a tightener and end fittings at each
a web sling, including any fittings. The y\eb sling end. The strapping, being attached at two different
body is the part of the sling which is between the hold down points, is then tightened over the cargo.
loop eyes or end fittings (if any). The splice of a Type II is a web sling made with a triangle fitting
web sling is the lapped and secured load-bearing part on both ends. Type II web slings are used for vertical
of a loop eye. The loop eye of a web sling is a length or basket hitches. Type III is a web sling made with
of webbing folded back and spliced to the sling body, flat loops on each end with the loop eye openings

forming an opening. in the same plane as the body sling. It is also known
48 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

as an eye-to-eye sling. Type III web slings are used as agrommet sling. Type V web slings are used for
for basket hitch applications or as a choker hitch by numerous applications and are the most widely used.
passing one eye around the load and through the op- Because they have an endless design, they may be
posite eye. The eye of a Type III web sling is gen- used in a basket, vertical, or choker hitch application.
erally flat but is available tapered to permit use on
crane hooks.
Type VI is a web sling sometimes made from a
Type IV is a web sling made with both eyes Type V sling by adding a wear pad the length of the
twisted to form loop eyes which are at right angles sling body. The wear pad may be on one side or both

to the plane of the body sling. It is also known as a sides of the sling body and is only long enough to
twisted eye sling. Type IV web slings are used for form eye loops at each end, which are at right angles
choker hitch applications. to the plane of the web body. It is also known as a
reverse eye sling. Type VI web slings are used for
Type V is an endless web made by joining
sling rugged service, such as lifting irregularly-shaped ob-
the ends with a load-bearing splice. It is also known jects such as stone, etc.

xo.AM^, r: SLOTTED TRIANGLE

I^.^.^*-^ CHOKER FITTING
FITTING

TYPE I TYPE IV

CONTINUOUS LOOP-
TRIANGLE FITTINGS

TYPE II
e 3
llitil]

SLING VERTICAL CAPACITIES |

 3. Calculate lifting capacity. Lifting capacity is

(^ Per OSHA 1926.251, employers shall have each found by applying the formula:
web sting marked or coded to show the
synthetic
name or trademark of the manufacturer, rated ca- LC = rl X I X s

pacities for the type of hitch, and type of material. where

LC = lifting capacity (in lb)

vl = sling vertical capacity (in lb)

Webbing Strength / = sling leg(s)

s = sling angle loss factor

Sling vertical capacity tables give the minimum cer-
tified tensile strength for various classes, types, and For example, what is the lifting capacity of a bas-
number of plies in webbing. Webbing sling strength ket hitch using a 1" wide. Class 7, Type V endless
capacity is rated for one-ply or two-ply in Class 5 sling without fittings having a 45° sling angle? See
or Class 7. The specification of Class 5 or Class 7 Figure 2-40.
is a specification for the manufacturer, with Class 7
being approximately 45% stronger than Class 5.

Webbing material strength is based on new web-

bing material. Factors that affect webbing strength
include mishandling, environmental conditions, and
ultraviolet light. Dragging webbing on the floor, ty-
ing in knots, pulling from under a load when the
load is resting on the webbing, or dropping with met-
al fittings are all types of mishandling. Bunching of
material between the ears of a clevis, shackle, or
hook also weakens webbing strength.

Chemicals create environmental conditions affect-

ing webbing strength. These conditions cause varying
degrees of degradation. The proper webbing material
must be used in chemically active areas. Polyester
is resistant to many acids, but is still subject to some
degradation. Nylon is resistant to many alkalis, but
may be subject to moderate degradation. Webbing
slings are not to be used if the end fittings are alu-

minum and alkalis or acid are present. Exposing syn-

thetic webbing to ultraviolet light, such as sunlight
or arc welding, affects the strength in varying de-
grees. The effects of ultraviolet degradation can oc-
cur without any visible indication.

The strength of webbing for vertical slings is used

to determine strength capacities of choker, basket,
and bridle sling hitches. Strength capacities are af-

fected by the sling angle. Sling angle is measured

from the horizontal to the point of attachment of
multi-legged slings. The actual lifting capacity of a
sling at a specific sling angle is found by applying
the procedure:

1. Determine sling vertical capacity, (from Sling Ver-

tical Capacities table)

2. Determine sling angle loss factor, (from Sling An-

gle Loss Factors table)
50 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

2. Determine sling angle loss factor.

s = .65 (from Sling Angle Loss Factors

3. Calculate lifting capacity.

LC = vl X I X s

LC = 4400 X 1 X .65
LC = 2860 lb

CHOKER HITCH
 Rigging 51

RIGGING TECHNIQUES
BASKET HITCHES EYEBOLTS CHOKER HITCHES

CORRECT CORRECT

INCORRECT INCORRECT INCORRECT

CORRECT CORRECT

INCORRECT INCORRECT INCORRECT

Figure 2-42. The type of web sling selected and its use must be made with safety as the main consideration.
52 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

ROUND SLINGS

PROTECTIVE COVER

IDENTIFICATION TAG -

IJft-All Ciinpaiiy

ROUND SLING COLOR AND CAPACITY RATING* |

 l^'8S'"g 53

Chain Construction requirement for sling chain and is not to be used as

a determination for replacement. Chain that has ex-
Chain and chain attachment strength depends on the ceeded I '/2% elongation from new should be removed
composition of the steel from which they are made from service. Any number of links may be used for
and the heat treatment process. The material and the measuring elongation, but the amount of used links
manufacturing process determines the tensile, shear, should equal the number of new links. The chain
and bending strength of chain. should be taut during measurement. See Figure 2-44.
Tensile strength is a measure of the greatest
amount of straight-pull stress metal can bear without
tearing apart. Shear strength is a metal's resistance REMOVE FROM SERVICE IF
ELONGATION EXCEEDS ^% 1
to a force applied parallel to its contacted plane.
Bending strength is a metal's resistance to bending
or deflection in the direction in which the load is

applied. The temperature used in the chain manufac-

turing process determines the metal's hardness. Steel
becomes very hard and brittle when heated to a red
color and quenched (dipped) in water. As the metal
is heated, the grain (carbon structure) within the met-
al becomes unstructured (without a pattern). The
structure is stilled (frozen) in an unstructured posi-
tion when the metal is quenched.
NEW CHAIN USED CHAIN
Tempering allows the carbon structure to be held Four links of a new chain measure 8" . After use, four links
in more structured patterns. Tempering is the process measure 8.25" . Should chain be removed from service?
8" X. 015 = .12"
in which metal is brought to a temperature below its
8" + .12 = 8.12"
critical temperature and allowed to cool slowly. Slow
8.25" >8.12"
cooling methods include no quenching (air), quench-
Yes, remove used chain from service.
ing in oil, or quenching in salt for a very slow cool.
Tempering of chain metal determines whether a chain Figure 2-44. Chain should be removed from sen/ice if the
gives or flexes under pressure or breaks with a snap measurement of used chain exceeds 1V2% elongation
of the chain. from that of new chain.

Steel hardness is measured with a Brinell hardness

The National Association of Chain Manufacturers
tester and given a Brinell number ranging from ap-
(NACM), in conjunction with the International Or-
proximately 150 for soft metal to 750 for hardened
ganization for Standardization (ISO), develops pro-
metal. A typical sling chain varies from 250 to 450
grams to standardize materials and processes for chain.
Brinell depending on the manufacturer. This is
The four main types of chain are binding chain, rigging
equivalent to a material tensile strength of 125,000
chain, lifting chain, and hoist apparatus chain. Each
Ib/sq in. to 230,000 Ib/sq in.
chain, except for hoist apparatus chain, has a periodic
Steel used for rigging or hoisting chain is com- embossing of a grade number or letter, indicating its
posed of premium quality, heat-treated, high-strength capability. NACM specifies that identification must
materials. This steel .35% carbon
alloy contains
appear at least once every 36 links. See Figure 2-45.
maximum, .035% phosphorus maximum, and .040% Each chain is classified as follows:
sulfur maximum. A steel alloy is metallic material
formulated from the fusing or combining of two or • Grade 43 - High-test steel chain having a carbon
more metals. content of approximately .15% to .22%. A '/:"

Alloy material is chosen for sling chain to reduce grade 43 chain is rated as having a working load
the occurrence of fracturing of the metal. A fracture limit (WLL) of 9200 lb. The working load limit
is a small crack in metal caused by the stress or (WLL) is the maximum pull that should be applied
fatigue of repeated pulling or bending forces. to a vertical load. This chain is generally used for
Through the combination of alloy metals and tem- binding loads or tie downs and is embossed with
pering, sling chain is capable of 15% to 30% elon- an HT, $, $3, or M. Carbon steel chain is not to
gation before breaking. This is a safety specification be used in overhead lifting.
54 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

CHAIN CLASSIPICATION
 Rigging 55

2. Determine sling angle loss factor.

= .500 (from Sling Angle Loss Factors ^h) Always inspect the point where a load contacts
s table) ^^ a hook to ensure the load is properly seated
3. Calculate lifting capacity. within the throat opening. Never force or hammer
hooks or chain into position.
LC ^ vl X I X s

LC = 28.300 X 2 X .500
LC = 28,300 lb

Rigging Chain Attachments

Typical connecting attachments between rigging and

the hoisting device include shackles, master links,
and hooks. A shackle is a U-shaped metal link with
the ends drilled to receive a pin or bolt. The removal
of the pin or bolt allows an opening for one or more
loop eyes that can be attached to complete a sling.
Shackles are made in a straight-U design (chain
shackle) or a curved-U design (anchor shackle). A
shackle may be used to make the connection be- CooperTools
tween the rigging assembly and the hoisting hook.
Care should be taken to select the type, grade, and size recommended
Shackle strength varies to conform to load weight.
by the manufacturer where attachments such as rings or hooks are
See Figure 2-47. designed for use with chain in sustaining loads.

GRADE 80 CHAIN LOAD LIMITS*

56 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

SHACKLES J^^^B
 Rigging 57

the alloy steel chain. For example, a V2" Grade 80 Hooks are made in various shapes, designs, and
alloy steel chain is rated as having a 12,000 lb WLL. sizes and are normally forged of alloy steel. Con-
However, a V2" master link is rated as having a 4920 necting (load) hooks are quenched and tempered so

WLL they are the first to bend or give in an overload situ-

lb and a -V4" master link is rated at 10,320 lb
ation. The hook should be the weakest member of
WLL. Therefore, a 1" master link with a 24,360 lb
the hoisting equipment.
WLL must be used in a '/>" chain sling assembly if

it is to be of equal or greater strength. Bend (deformation) is a permanent movement of

the hook attempting to straighten. Hook deformation
The WLL of the weakest component should be
becomes the measurable part of rigging overload. For
the working load limit of the entire sling assembly
this reason, hooks should never be heated above 800°F
if a sling is required to be assembled using attach-
or become part of a welding situation. Heat applied to
ments with different working load limits. Do not use
a hook can temper the metal, reducing its strength.
makeshift hooks, links, or fasteners fashioned from
bolts, rods, or other materials. The hook is a major Hooks may be gated or ungated, or contain a cle-
link between the rigged load and the hoisting equip- vis, eye, or swivel. Some hooks are equipped with
ment. A hook is a curved or bent implement for hold- latches or gates to prevent the sudden release of shifted
ing, pulling, or connecting another implement. See sling legs.
Figure 2-49.
Hoisting hooks used for rigging purposes include
choker, grab, foundry, swivel, and sorting hooks. See
Figure 2-50. A hoisting hook is a steel alloy hook
used for overhead lifting and is connected directly
to the piece being lifted. See Figure 2-51.

The hoisting hook attached to rigging may be de-

signed to swivel. The swivel on a hoisting hook al-
lows the load to turn without damaging or twisting
the chain. A swivel hook is used only as a hook-po-
sitioning device and is not intended for load rotation.
Special load rotation swivel hooks are available for
such applications.

A choker hook is a sliding hook used in a choker

sling and is hooked to the sling eye. A grab hook is
a hook used to adjust or shorten a sling leg through
the use of two chains. The grab hook is connected
to a short length of chain that is attached to the mas-
ter link. The longer (rigging) sling leg is shortened

by engaging one of the links in the longer chain into

the hook. A foundry hook ishook with a wide,
a
deep throat that fits the handles of molds or casting.
A sorting hook is a hook with a tapered throat and
a point designed to fit into holes.

"p^ Special custom design clamps, hooks, or other

'^-^ lifting accessories shall be marked to indicate
SWIVEL their safe working loads. "Mousing" the hook or
latch by tying wire around the opening is an unsafe
practice and is not permitted by OSHA regulations.
Figure 2-49. A hook is a curved or bent implement for
holding, pulling, or connecting another implement.
58 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

HOISTING HOOKS RIGGING COMPONENT INSPECTION

Inspection of rigging equipment covers inspection,

recordkeeping, and storage. Maintenance of rigging
components does not include making temporary re-
pairs. Temporary repairs of rope, webbing, or chain
should never be attempted. The component should
be tagged "Defective - Do Not Use" and removed
from service when there is an indication that repairs
are necessary. Repair of rigging components can be
completed and tested by the manufacturer of the com-
ponent if needed.

An examination of all rigging equipment should

be done initially, frequently, and periodically. Before
any rigging component is placed in service, it shall be
initially inspected to ensure that the specifications and
condition requirements are correct. Frequent inspection
is completed by the person using the rigging com-
ponent each time it is used. Periodic inspections are
conducted by designated, knowledgeable individuals.

The frequency of periodic inspection is determined

by the service conditions and frequency of use. Ex-
perience, gained on the service life of the compo-
nents, can also determine frequency of periodic
inspection. However, periodic inspection of rigging
components shall be conducted at least annually, with
the exception of round slings, which shall be in-
spected at least monthly.

FOUNDRY SWIVEL SORTING Wire Rope Inspection

Figure 2-50. Hoisting hooks used for rigging purposes Kinking, core protrusion, and bird caging may be
include choker, grab, foundry, swivel, and sorting hooks.
encountered when inspecting wire rope. See Figure
2-52. Kinking is a sharp permanent bending. Kinking
The load supported by a hoisting hook should be is normally caused by improper removal of wire
supported from the center or bowl of the hook. Hook rope from a spool or improper storage. Kinking
failure is likely to occur if the load shifts or is applied weakens a wire rope and in many cases makes it

to the tip or from an area between the bowl and the useless.
tip. Tip loading of hoisting hooks greatly decreases
Core protrusion is a damage condition of wire rope
their lifting capacity. Hooks should be chosen for
where compressive forces from within the rope force
their proper strength rating. Specific size dimensions
the strands apart. This happens when core material
allow for specific load capacity.
is squeezed out of the rope due to corrosion or deg-
radation of the core. Core protrusion removes the
support from the outer strands, reducing the effi-
(Hb) Wire rope, shackles, rings, master links, and
^-"^
other rigging hardware must be capable of ciency of the rope.
supporting, without failure, at least five times the
Bird caging occurs from overloading, twisting, or
maximum intended load. Where rotation resistant
squeezing when the rope is under load and is sud-
rope is used, the slings shall be capable of support-
denly released. Bird caging is a damage condition
ing, without failure, at least ten times the maximum
intended load. of wire rope where the strands separate and open
forming a shape similar to a bird cage.
 Rigging 59

HOISTING HOOK CAPACIT :msmm

The Crosby Croup. Inc.

EYE HOOK CAPACITY |

 60 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

WIRE ROPE INSPECTION FIBER ROPE INSPECTION

CUTS/BROKEN FIBERS

CORE PROTRUSION
KINKING

EXCESSIVE WEAR
BIRD CAGING
Wire Rope Technical Board

Figure 2-52. Kinking, core protrusion, and bird caging

may be encountered when inspecting wire rope.
MELTING/CHARRING

Figure 2-53. Fiber rope inspection is used to remove a

rope from service before the rope's condition poses a
hazard with continued operation.

Webbing and Round Sllng Inspection

Webbing should be inspected at least annually and

round slings should be inspected monthly. See Figure
2-54. Conditions of webbing or round slings that are
considered reason for removing from service include:

• Acid or alkali damage

• Melting, charring, or weld spatter on any part

• Holes, tears, cuts, snags, or embedded particles

Lift-All Company, Inc.

Per OSHA 1926.251, each wire rope used in hoisting or lowering or

• Broken or torn stitching in the load-bearing splices
in pulling loads shall consist of one continuous piece without knots • Excessive abrasive wear
or splices except for eye splices in the ends of wires and for endless
rope slings. • Knots in any part of the sling
 Rigging 61

• Discoloration or stiffness Stretching

• Edge tears Hook throat opening in excess of 15%
• Punctures
Hook tip twisted more than 10% from the plane
• Any conditions which cause doubt as to the of the unbent hook
strength of the sling
Hook shows cracks or signs of abuse

Chain links bent or do not seat or flex properly

Chain Inspection

Chain should be inspected annually. Repairs to rig-

ging and hoisting chain should only be made and RIGGING EQUIPMENT STORAGE
tested by the chain manufacturer. Never use mechani-
cal coupling links or repair links to repair any sub-
Proper care, use, and storage of rigging equipment
standard rigging or hoisting chain. See Figure 2-55.
prevents damage and ensures safety. Rope, webbing,
Conditions of chain that are considered reason for
and chain slings must be kept in an assigned area
removing from service include:
that is kept clean, neat, dry, and away from harmful
• Nicks, gouges, or wear having a depth in excess fumes or heat. Synthetic webbing, round slings, and
of the values given in maximum allowable link natural fiber rope should be stored out of sunlight
wear tables and away from areas used for arc welding.

WEBBING AND ROUND SUNG INSPECTION

ACID DAMAGE MELTING/CHARRING

CUTS ON WEB FACE EXCESSIVE WEAR

EDGE TEAR

Lift- All Company, Inc.

Figure 2-54. Webbing should be inspected at least annually and round slings should be inspected monthly.
62 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

CHAIN INSPECTION specifically posted, "Warning - Do Not Use." Imme-

diately dispose of damaged or worn sling or sling
attachments that are not to be repaired.

RIGGING COMPONENT
RECORDKEEPING

Written inspection records and use of slings and sling

components should be created for each new sling.
Inspection records may cover the basic requirements
of an annual inspection or be more comprehensive
and frequent. The amount of rigging done by the user
dictates the frequency and depth of recordkeeping.

A basic inspectiondocument (log book) begins by

issuing a serial number to the sling. The basic form
includes the date purchased, condition at purchase,
type, rated strength, list of included attachments or
components, date of periodic inspections, inspecting
BENT LINKS personnel, and comments for each inspection.

Figure 2-55. Chain should be inspected annually.

Log book inspection forms may also include dates
and hours of each use, department where used, initial
Kinking is prevented when slings are neatly hung
sizes and diameters, and sizes and diameters at each
from racks or lengthy rope is rolled onto spools.
inspection, with part numbers given to each sling at-
Slings or sling components must not be left laying
tachment. Ahhough frequent inspections made before
where vehicles or forklifts may run over them or
and after each use are visual, unusual or abnormal
where heavy loads may be set on them. Avoid drag-
conditions should be reported and included in the
ging slings over abrasive surfaces or sharp objects.
log book. All log book entries, if comprehensive, of-
To prevent accidental use, damaged slings slated fer enough historical information to chart sling deg-
for manufacturer's repair must be stored in an area radation and life expectancy.
 oiaptef
n
Lifting is the hoisting of equipment using mechanical
means. Hoists may be manually-operated or power-
operated hoists. Overhead hoists and cranes are regu-
lated by a large number of standards. Hoist safety
requires inspection at frequent and periodic intervals.

Harrington Hoists Inc.

LIFTING DEVICES Block and tackle assemblies begin with the rope
being reeved over a pulley. Reeving is passing a rope

Many lifting devices in use today use the centuries- through a hole or opening or around a series of pul-

old principle of the block and tackle (rope and pul-

leys. The capacity, lifting speed, and lifting distance

ley). Blocks and tackle were used to move sails,

of a block and tackle is determined by the number

spars, and other components on sailing ships. Much of parts and the number of pulleys. A part is a rope
length between the lower (hook) block and the upper
of the block and tackle terminology used today is

based on nautical applications. Today, blocks and block or drum. The greater the number of parts, the
greater the lifting capacity.
tackle are primarily used for industrial lifting.

Lifting is the hoisting of equipment or machinery Mechanical Advantage. Mechanical advantage is

by mechanical means. Lifting is accomplished by us- the ratio of the output force of a device to the input

ing hand-operated or power-operated equipment. In- force. Applied force on the lead line of a block and
dustrial liftingequipment generally consists of the tackle assembly is useful only if the force is either

rigging assembly, hoist, and hoist support. Each com- dynamic (moving). A lead line is the
static (held) or

ponent relies on the integrity of the other compo- which force is applied to hold
part of the rope to

nents. Lifting is attempted only after all components or move a load. A static force on a block and

are determined to be safe. tackle is strong enough to hold a load, but not
strong enough to move a load. Block and tackle
assemblies may have one-part, two-part (double),
Block and Tackle
or three-part reeving.

A block and tackle is a combination of ropes and

sheaves (pulleys). See Figure 3-1. A block is an as-
sembly of hook(s), pulley(s), and frame suspended '
The nominal breaking strength of the most
by hoisting ropes. Tackle is the combination of ropes
P: heavily loaded rope in a system shall be no m
and block assemblies arranged to gain mechanical
advantage for lifting.
less than J'/z times the load applied to that rope
u
64 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

BLOCK AND TACKLE

ONE-PART TWO-PART (DOUBLE) THREE-PART

BLOCK REEVING (100%) REEVING (50%) REEVING (33%)
Figure 3-1. A block and tackle is a combination of ropes and sheaves (pulleys).

One-part reeving has one line between the load For example, what is the force required to hold a
and the block. There is little or no mechanical ad- 500 lb load using a four-part reeving system? Note:
vantage to one-part reeving. Two-part reeving has two The rope and hook components total 30 lb.
lines between the load and upper block. Two-part
reeving reduces the holding or lifting effort by ap- L = -
proximately 50%. Three-part reeving has three lines
between the load and upper block. Three-part reeving
reduces the load by three, giving V3 of the support
L = 132.5 lb
to each line.

Under ideal conditions (no friction), the mechani- The characteristics of tackle are similar to the
cal advantage of a block and tackle equals the number characteristics of a lever and fulcrum in that forces
of parts of rope that support the load. Therefore, a may be multiplied by the device, but the lesser the
two-part block (reeving) system has an ideal me- force required to produce a known pull, the greater

chanical advantage of 2. the distance required for the force to be moved to

A three-part block system (three-part reeving) con- do the required work.

sists of an upper block with two pulleys and a lower
As a force becomes greater than the static force
block with one pulley. Because three ropes support
on a load, the force becomes dynamic and strong
the load, each rope supports '/t of the load. The enough to overcome any opposing forces, such as
amount of static force required to hold a load is cal- friction and weight, and the load moves. All dynamic
culated by applying the formula: mechanical power is subject to the basic principle of

^ force and time. This principle states that whatever is

Z. =
/' lost to time is gained as force, and whatever is lost

where to force is gained as time. This principle is observed

in a block and tackle assembly where no two pulleys
L = lead line force (in lb)
travel at the same speed. In a block and tackle as-
w= total load weight including weight of slings, sembly, the lead line pulley rotates faster than the
containers, etc. (in lb) load pulley. For example, a two-part, double-reeved
p = number of parts load moves one-half the speed of the lead line. As
 Lifting 65

reeves are added, the lifting force of the load is in-

creased, the lifting speed is decreased, and the lifting

distance is decreased. All of these are equal to the
number of parts added. See Figure .^-2.

A load is raised 1' if the lead line on a four-part

reeve is pulled 4'. Also, the force required by the

lead line is 20 lb ('/4 of the load) if the load is 80
lb. The mechanical advantage of a four-part reeve niiw
jcALDWttico
under ideal conditions is 4. See Figure 3-3. The dis-
I
tance the load moves is decreased by additional pul- r'
leys to the same extent that the ideal mechanical
advantage is increased by additional pulleys.
& The Caldwell Group, Inc.

(Hh) Lifting hazards include overloading, dropping

or slipping of the load caused by improper Mechanical advantage gained from using a block and tackle during
lifting allows a small t)oist motor to lift a fieavy load.
hitching or slinging, obstruction of the free passage
of the load, and using equipment for a purpose for
which it was not intended or designed.
Force. Force on the lead line is increased once the
load starts to move. This force differs according to
the type of pulley used. Pulleys may be plain bearing
pulleys or rolling-contact bearing pulleys. A 109 lb
For example, a 20 lb lead line force lifts 40 lb (100 X 1.09 = 109 lb) force is required to move a
with two-part reeving. The 20 lb force must be moved 100 lb load using one-part reeving and plain bearing
3' to move the 40 lb load 1 '/i'- With three-part reev- pulleys. A 104 lb force is required if rolling-contact
ing, the 20 lb lead line force lifts 60 lb, but the 3' bearing pulleys are used (100 x 1.04 = 104 lb). See
lead line movement moves the load only 1'. Figure 3-4.

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE

TWO-PART REEVE -^ THREE-PART REEVE

i
DECREASE
TRAVEL =24"- TRAVEL = 24
LIFTING
DISTANCE

I
DECREASE
24": 12" = 2:1 24":8"=3:1

LIFTING
SPEED

t
INCREASE
LIFTING
FORCE MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE
2:1 3:1

Figure 3-2. As reeves are added, the lifting force of the load is increased, the lifting speed is decreased, and the lifting

distance is decreased.
66 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

FOUR-PART REEVIN LEAD LINE FACTORS*

PULLEYS (S)

Figure 3-3. The mechanical advantage of a four-part

reeve under ideal conditions is 4.

The weight capable of being lifted is equal to the

lead line force multiplied by the number of parts sup-

porting the load. The formula used to find the dy-
namic force required to move a load assumes that

the number of parts of line is equal to the number

of pulleys. Multiple reeving also permits the use of
smaller diameter rope, pulleys, and drum. Lead line
force is calculated by applying the formula:

L = fx w
where
L - lead line force (in lb)

/= lead line factor (from Lead Line Factors table)

w - weight of load (in lb)

For example, what is the force required to move

a 6000 lb load using an eight-part reeving system
equipped with plain bearing pulleys?

L=fxw
L = 0.181 X 6000
L = 1086 lb

(^) Each hoist shall have its rated load marked on

^-^^
it or its front load block. This marking shall

he clearly legible from the ground or floor.

 Lifting 67

WORM AND BEVEL GEAR DRIVES

-BEARING
-WORM GEAR

WORM GEAR BEVEL GEAR

Figure 3-5. Worm and bevel gear drives offer extra force to ttie lead pull, thereby multiplying the reeving force.

A bevel gear is a gear that connects shafts at an The hand-chain drop is the distance between the
angle in the same place. Bevel gears are generally lower portion of the hand chain to the upper limit
at right angles with each other, but may be positioned of the hoist hook travel. Lift is the distance between
at angles other than 90°. Unlike the worm gear hoist, the hoist's upper and lower limits of travel. Head-
bevel gear hoists normally require a braking or latch- room is the distance from the cup of the top hook
ing mechanism to prevent reverse rotation. The worm to the cup of the hoist hook when the hoist hook is
and bevel gear drives use gear reduction principles at its upper limit of travel. The top hook is the hook
with the smaller gear being the drive gear. assembled to the top of a hoisting mechanism to al-
low for overhead suspension. Top hooks, like hoist
hooks, should be drop-forged from alloy steel and
Hand-Chain Hoists. A hand-chain hoist is a manu-
should be heat-treated to open slowly when over-
ally-operated chain hoist used for moving a load.
loaded. Reach is between the cup of the
the distance
Hand-chain hoists are suspended overhead from a top
top hook and hook when the
the cup of the hoist
hook attached to a supporting structure. Supporting
hoist hook is at its lower limit of travel. Reach is
structures may be tripods, trolleys, cranes, or other
the sum of the lift and headroom.
fixed points. Hand-chain hoists are normally rated
for '/4 t to 50 t.

Lever-Operated Hoists. A lever-operated hoist is a

A hand-chain hoist uses two chains, the hand chain lifting device that is operated manually by the move-
and the hoist chain. See Figure 3-6. A hand chain ment of a lever. See Figure 3-7. Lever-operated hoists
is a continuous chain grasped by the operator to op- are used in confined and awkward areas and many
erate the pocket wheel. A pocket wheel is a pulley- are small enough to be kept in a tool box. Lever-
like wheel with chain link pockets that are connected operated hoists are generally used to lift light
to the hoist mechanism. A hoist chain is the chain loads. A light load is a load that weighs from 200
that raises the load. The rotation of the pocket wheel lb to 500 lb. An automobile engine is an example of
causes the hoist chain to raise or lower the load. a light load.
68 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

to adjust and lest a slip clutch, determine that the

HAND-CHAIN HOISTS
supporting structure is capable of safely supporting
a load equal to 175% of the hoist-rated load plus the
weicht of the hoist.

LEVER-OPERATED HOISTS

UPPER LIMIT
OF HOIST
HOOK TRAVEL

HOIST
HOOK LOWER LIMIT
OF HOIST SHORT STROKE
HOOK TRAVEL HAND LEVER

Ralcliff Hoist Co.

Figure 3-6. A hand-chain hoist is a manually-operated
chain hoist used for moving a load. Figure 3-7. A lever-operated hoist is a lifting device that is

operated manually by the movement of a lever.

Two major types of lever-operated hoists are
ratchet and slip-clutch models. Lever-operated hoists
have ratchet mechanisms to prevent reversal. A Lever-operated hoists are subject to shock loads
ratchet is a mechanism that consists of a toothed
and severe conditions. Although the load may not be
wheel and a spring-loaded pawl. A pawl is a overweight, the shock can cause the friction brakes to
mechanism used to prevent the ratchet wheel from slip or freeze. For this reason, some lever-operated hoist
turning backwards. Some manufacturers design may be unreliable
manufacturers believe a slip clutch
safety-slip clutches into lever-operated hoists to
or unsafe and do not manufacture slip-clutch models.
prevent unsafe overloading.

A slip clutch is a spring-loaded, friction-held fiber

disc that is adjusted to slip at 125% to 150% of the Power-Operated Hoists
hoist-rated load. Many slip clutches are preset by the
manufacturer, while others are adjustable. Adjustable A power-operated hoist is a hoist operated by pneu-
slip clutches must never be adjusted to hold over
matic or electric power and use either chain or wire
175% of the hoist-rated load. rope as the lifting component. Chain or wire rope
Never lift more than the hoist-rated load, except power-operated hoists are selected based on the
for clutch adjustment and testing. Before attempting heaviest load to be lifted. See Figure 3-8.
 Liftiiif; 69

Pneumatic Hoists. A pneumatic hoist is a power-op-

POWER-OPERATED HOISTS
erated hoist operated by a geared reduction air motor.
Pneumatic hoists have distinct advantages over elec-
SELF-ADJUSTING tric hoists. An advantage is that there is no explosion
DISC BRAKE hazard in areas such as paint spraying or petrochemi-
cal facilities because compressed air does not pro-
duce electric arcing.
A requirement for heavy-duty applications is the
ability for unlimited start/stop situations. Air motors
are inherently self-cooling and able to start, stop, and
reverse without overheating and are ideal for high
UPPER AND ambient temperature applications. Ambient tempera-
LOWER
LIMIT STOPS ture is the temperature of the air surrounding a piece
of equipment.
Pneumatic controls have the advantage of variable
speed to lift a load from slow to full speed while
allowing smooth movements. A disadvantage of
pneumatic operation is the chance that the operation
will consume a greater amount of air than the avail-

able air supply. Because air compressor output is

rated in horsepower, compressor horsepower must be

PILOT converted to hoist standard cubic feet per minute
PENDANT (scfm) required by the hoist when selecting the re-
CONTROL
quired capacity compressor for a given hoist. See
Ingemoll-Raitd Material Handlinf^ Figure 3-9.
PNEUMATIC
AIR FLOW REQUIREMENTS

Harrin^lon Ho
ELECTRIC
70 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

For example, what is the minimum compressor size A limit switch is a device that cuts off the power
required for a pneumatic hoist that requires 75 scfm? automatically at or near the upper limit of hoist

scfm travel. All pneumatic and electric hoists are equipped

HP with an upper limit switch to prevent damage from
4
overwrap. Limit switches are safety switches and are
75
HP not to be used as stop switches. See Figure 3-10.
4

HP = 18.75 HP
When equipment such as a large hoist, pneumatic
motor, or air drill is to be purchased to replace elec-
pneumatic units require a certain scfm
trical units, the

for operation. To maintain a sufficient supply of com-

pressed air, the scfm of new and existing equipment
must not be higher than the present compressor sys-
tem output. The scfm output of a compressor is found
by applying the formula:

scfm = 4 X HP
For example, what is the scfm of a compressor
rated at 15 HP?
scfm ^ 4 X HP
scfm = 4 X 15
scfm = 60 scfm

( ) All outdoor cranes shall be provided with se-

I

f cure fastenings adequate to hold the crane

against 30 psf wind pressure. Special anchorage
shall be provided by the user in areas where wind
forces are anticipated to be in excess of 30 psf.

Electric Hoists. Common industrial electric hoist ca-

pacities range from V4 t to 20 t. Depending on the

capacity of the hoists, the power supply range is

1 1 VAC, 208 VAC, 230 VAC, 460 VAC. or 575 VAC

The operator's controls are
(volts alternating current).
low-voltage (normally 24 V) to provide electrical
shock protection. Many electric hoists are equipped
with mechanical and electrical safety overload pro-
tectors. Mechanical overloads (slip clutches) refuse
Lift-Tech Inleniational. Division of Columbus McKinnon
to lift (by means of a slipping action) when a load
is applied beyond their capacity. Electrical overloads Figure 3-10. Limit switches are devices which cut off
are brake mechanisms activated when power is re- the power automatically at or near the upper limit of
moved or lost. Hoist operating controls require push- hoist travel.

button or lever action and an upper limit switch.

Liftingmust be done under the control of an op-

A pendant is used by the hoist operator to control erator at times. Sudden or jerky movements, rapid
all

load movement from the floor or other level beneath dropping, or high speeds in short distances can dam-
the crane. A pendant is a pushbutton or lever control age the load or lifting equipment. The movement of
suspended from a crane or hoisting apparatus. a load must always be in view of the hoist operator.
 Lifting 71

Drum Wrap. Drum wrap is the rope length required grooves if the drum is equipped with grooves. Incor-

to make one complete turn around the drum of a rect winding damages the rope.
hoist or crane. An overwrap condition occurswhen
Care must be exercised when transferring rope
the drum wraps enough rope or wire so that the load
from a reel to a hoist drum. A reel is a wooden as-
block comes in contact with the hoist or crane. If
sembly on which wire rope is wound for shipping
the load block comes in contact with the hoist or
and storage. During rope transfer, the unreeling proc-
crane, ropes can be severely stretched or broken,
causing the load to drop.
ess should be straight and under tension. A light
squeezing pressure well away from the drum is used
The proper direction for winding the first layer
when guiding the wire rope onto the drum. Always
on a drum is determined by the lay of the rope. The
wear gloves when handling wire rope. Never handle
rope lay determines if the rope is wound over or
wire rope with bare hands.
under on the spool. The rope should be overwound
from left to right if the rope is anchored on the left While grooved drums offer few winding problems,
and the rope is a right lay rope. See Figure 3-11. smooth-face drums can be more difficult to wind and
the proper procedure must be followed. The first
layer of rope should be wound with sufficient tension
DRUM WRAP to ensure a close heli.x with each wrap being wound
as close as possible to the preceding wrap. The first

layer acts as a helical groove, which guides the suc-

cessive layers. For this reason, the first layer should
not be unwound on a smooth drum. As the rope is

forced up to the second layer at the flange, a reverse

helix is created, causing the rope to crossover. A
crossover is one wrap winding on top of the preced-
ing wrap. The crossover is the point at which the
rope winds back over two rope grooves to advance.
See Figure 3-12.
UNDERWIND UNDERWIND
LEFT TO RIGHT RIGHT TO LEFT
CROSSOVER

OVERWIND OVERWIND GROOVED DRUM

LEFT TO RIGHT RIGHT TO LEFT SMOOTH DRUM

Figure 3-11. The proper direction for winding the first

layeron a drum is determined by the lay of the rope.

The drum must be observed to ensure a two-wrap

minimum if the system is not equipped with a low-
limit switch. The two-wrap minimum ensures the
strength of a two-reeve pull against the rope and
drum attachment. The attachment would not hold a
load if all the rope is unwound from the drum. A
drum that is rewound must be rewound in the same
Figure 3-12. A crossover is one wrap winding on top of
direction and the rope seated properly in the drum the preceding wrap.
72 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

HOIST SAFETY safeguarding of persons and property from hazards

arising from the use of 610 cov-
electricity. Article

Overhead hoists and cranes are regulated by a large equipment and wir-
ers the installation of electrical
ing used in connection with cranes, monorail
number of standards. A standard is a guideline
hoists, hoists, and all runways.
adopted by regulating authorities. Regulating authori-
ties include OSHA, ANSI, ISO, CMAA, ASME, and The two most prevalent standards in hoist safety

NFPA. Standards organizations pertinent to lifting and operating rules are that industrial hoists and
loads include: cranes are not designed for and should not be used
for lifting, supporting, or transporting humans, and
• OSHA - The Occupational Safety and Health Ad-
loads or empty hook blocks should not be used over
ministration specifies safety standards through the
any individual, especially if the load is held mag-
U.S. Department of Labor and the Occupational
netically or by vacuum.
Safety and Health Act. OSHA is concerned with
the development and enforcement of safety stand-
ards for industrial workers.

• ANSI - The American National Standards Institute

(dp\ All running ropes in continuous service should
is a standards-developing organization that adopts be visually inspected once each working day.
and co-publishes standards that are written and ap- A thorough inspection of all ropes shall he made at
proved by member organizations. ANSI branches leastonce each month and a full written, dated, and
out and connects its member organizations by uni- signed report of rope condition kept on file where
readily available to appointed personnel.
fying their adopted standards. ANSI manages United
ISO standards activities.
States participation in
See ANSI AlO. 22-1990, Rope-Guided and Non-
guided Worker's Hoists - Safety Requirements. Inspection Programs and Procedures

• ISO - The International Organization for Stand- Verification that hoisting equipment meets current
ardization is a nongovernmental international or- code requirements must be made if an inspection
ganization that is comprised of national standards program is being developed and records of initial
institutions of over 90 countries (one per country). installation or subsequent modifications are not
The ISO provides a worldwide forum for the stand- available. Verification includes a step-by-step proce-
ards developing process. dure similar to that of inspecting and checking a new
hoist. See Appendix.
• CMAA - The Crane Manufacturers Association
of America, Inc. is an organization of the leading Regularly Scheduled Inspection. Existing equip-
crane manufacturers in the United States devel- ment must be inspected at frequent and periodic in-
oped for purpose of promoting stand-
the tervals. Frequent inspections are conducted daily and

ardization and providing a basis for proper monthly. Daily inspections are accomplished with the
equipment selection and use. CMAA is instru- assistance of a checklist and may not require the sig-
mental in establishing many crane-operating nature of the person making the inspection. See Fig-
practice standards. ure 3-13. These checks are mostly visual and include
identifying unusual sounds or temperatures that may
• ASME - The American Society of Mechanical indicate problems.
Engineers helps establish safe structural design
of hoists and cranes. In conjunction with ANSI.
The exception to this procedure is the brake

ASME develops safety standards for hoists and

mechanism. The brake mechanism should be
cranes. See ANSI/ASME B30. 2-1990, Over- checked frequently by operating the hoist with and
without a load and by testing its holding power at
head and Gantry Cranes (Top Running Bridge.
various levels. Any repairs or major adjustments per-
Single or Multiple Girder, and Top Running Trol-
ley Hoist).
formed as a result of the inspection must be recorded
on a written report. The report should identify the
• NFPA - The National Fire Protection Association hoist serviced and indicate work performed, the date,
publishes the National Electrical Code® (NFPA reason, individual performing the inspection, and the
70), which contains standards for the practical parts replaced.
 Lifting 12>

ELECTRIC HOIST CHECKLIST

 74 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

provides a checklist. This checklist can be used or ing, load-bearing thickness, tip twisting,chemical
it can serve as a guide in preparing a checklist better damage, and damage. Wire rope inspection
latch
suited to a particular situation. In addition to inspec- covers reduction in rope diameter, broken wires,
tion of hooks, wire rope, and chain, basic periodic worn outside wires, distortion damage, weld spat-
or semiannual inspection checklists must include ter, and corroded rope. Examination for elongation,

braking systems and limit switches. gouges, bending, and worn chain is included in
Hook, wire rope, and chain inspection for hoists chain inspection. Chain assemblies should not be
isidentical to inspection for rigging components. stored where they may be subject to damage or where
Hook inspection is concerned with the throat open- exposed to corrosive action.

WESTON BRAKE
RATCHET PAWL HANDWHEEL FOR
HAND CHAIN
RATCHETDISC- WATHREADED
CENTER HOLE

LOAD SHEAVE
(W/INTEGRAL LOAD GEAR)
FOR LOAD CHAIN

The mechanical brake employed in Harrington hoists a Weston Brake. i.s When the pulling on the hand chain ceases, as would happen be-
The Weston Brake was invented by Mr. Weston in the beginning of the tween pulling strokes or when the load has reached its intended po-
1900s and was introduced into the hoist industry around 1910. In one sition, gravity acting on the load tends to cause the load sheave to

form or another, it is used in practically all hand hoists worldwide. rotate in the backward (lowering) direction. This rotational torque is
transmitted through the gears to the pinion shaft and keeps the brake
The Weston Brake is comprised of brake components, such as the
components cinched tightly together. With the pinion shaft and brake
friction disc with splined center hole, friction plates, ratchet disc,
components cinched tightly together as a single body, the entire as-
ratchet pawls, and handwheel with threaded center hole.
sembly attempts to rotate in the backward (lowering) direction. The
When the hand chain is used to rotate the handwheel in the forward ratchet pawls engage the ratchet disk and prevent this. Thus, the brake
(hoisting) direction, the threaded center portion of the handwheel stops the load from lowering.
screws the handwheel tighter onto the threaded portion of the pinion
When the hand chain is used to rotate the handwheel in the back-
shaft. This squeezes the handwheel, the two friction plates, and the
ward (lowering) direction, the threaded center portion of the hand-
ratchet di.sc up against the friction disc. The friction di.sc. which is
wheel begins to back the handwheel off the threaded portion of the
mated to the splined portion of the pinion shaft, cannot move along
pinion shaft, which decompresses the brake components. This allows
the pinion shaft because of the shoulder at the end of the splined
the pinion shaft to rotate in the backward (lowering) direction, which
portion of the pinion shaft. Therefore, the squeezing cinches the brake
it begins to do by virtue of the load itself. As the load begins to fall
components together and the rotational motion imparted by the hand
and causes the pinion shaft to rotate in the backward direction, the
chain is transmitted to the pinion shaft.
threaded portion of the pinion shaft causes the handwheel and the
The pinion shaft, which runs through a hole in the center of the other brake components to cinch up tight again, and the lowering of
load sheave, engages gear 2 and gear 3. When the pinion shaft rotates, the load stops. The lowering of the load cea.ses until the handwheel
it transmits its rotation to these two gears, which in turn are engaged is again rotated in the lowering direction. In this way, the lowering
to the geared portion of the load sheave. The rotation of gear 2 and of the load is actually accomplished by a series of very small con-
gear 3 is transmitted to the load sheave and the load is lifted. trolled falls that are perceived as a smooth motion.

Harrington Hoists Inc.

The Peerless LB leverhoist from Harrington contains Weston load brake using two brake pads witli four braking surfaces for positive
brake action.
Hoist Motor Brake Inspection

Braking systems must be inspected betore each shift

change or prior to use after periods of nonuse. Daily

hoist brake inspections are concerned with braking
inlegrily (hook dritU. Hook drift is the slippage of
a hook caused b\ insutficient braking.

To inspect lor hook drill, the hoisi is opcr.itcd m

the lifting aiul lowering dircclioii wilhoul load on
the hook Ihe hook is stopped to check operation ol
ihe hoisi braking system. The drift of the hook should
not exceed I" in either direction. The motor brake
normalK rciiuires adjustment or lining replacemenl
if hook drift exceeds I",

Typical
 76 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Inspect brake linings for warpage by laying them Conducting Load Tests
on a clean, flat, level surface. Lay a straightedge across

the center and check for gaps as the straightedge is Warning signs and barriers must be used on the floor
rotated. Typically, gaps of Vsa" or more require that beneath a hoist, crane, or system. A mechani-
lifting
the brake linings be replaced. See Figure 3-15. cal load brake test checks the hoist braking system
for proper operation. All personnel should be alerted
that a free-fall condition could exist during a me-
chanical load brake Attach a rated capacity load
BRAKE LINING INSPECTION test.

to the hoist hook. Before lifting the load, slowly re-

move any slack from the line. Raise the load a few
-STRAIGHTEDGE inches and stop. If the load stops and the brakes hold,
continue raising and lowering the load several feet,

stopping the hoist several times in each direction to

check the brakes. Next, check the hoist with a load
equal to 125% of its rated load capacity. This check
tests any load-limiting devices. Load-limiting devices
for power-operated hoists are normally rated at 1 10%
of the hoist's rated load capacity.

BRAKE Hoist limit switches and other safety devices

LINING--' I
should be checked daily or at the start of each shift
ROTATION OF / when the hoist is in operation. Hoists should never
STRAIGHTEDGE-^ L MAXIMUM
\

be operated without the protection of a properly func-

ALLOWABLE GAP-
tioning limit switch. Limit switches should be
checked without a load on the hook and in the low
Figure 3-15. A straightedge is placed across the brake
linings to check for warpage. speed on multiple-speed hoists. Hoists with one-
speed operation should be inched into the limit
switch. Inching is slow movement in small degrees.

Hoist limit switches are checked by activating the

hoist to run in the lifting direction. The hoist is

inched up near its upper limit of travel until the limit

switch arm or weight is lifted. This stops the load

block. A continuity tester can be used to indicate
open or closed circuits without the need for electrical
power if the limit switch appears to be faulty.

After the switch has been checked or corrected,

install and reactivate all guards and safety devices.

Finally, remove warning or out-of-order signs and

maintenance equipment. Following each inspection,
use a maintenance report form to report results of
all approved tests and checks.

EYEBOLTS

An eyebolt is a bolt with a looped head. Eyebolts, like

lifting lugs, are used primarily as lifting tools. The two
Harrington Hoists Inc. and forged
basic types of eyebolts are formed steel

steel. Formed steel eyebolts are not strong enough

lioists with an overhead crane are used to move
Harrington electric
bundles of aluminum and steel tubing through the warehouse of a for heavy weights and should not be used in lifting

greenhouse manufacturer applications. Only forged steel eyebolts should be

 Liftmi; 77

used for lifting applications. Three common types of

ANGULAR LIFTING
forged eyebolts are machinery, regular nut. and shoul-
der nut eyebolts. See Figure 3-16. See Appendix.

WASHERS
OFFER
FLUSH FIT LOAD

SHOULDER
NOT FLUSH
WITH LOAD -

i -ii DiA INCORRECT

'-s^'length-

FORMED STEEL MACHINERY

(FORGED STEEL)

i - Ij DIA
2"- 20" LENGTH

j -1 j DIA
2 "-15 "LENGTH

REGULAR NUT SHOULDER NUT

(FORGED STEEL) (FORGED STEEL)
Figure 3-16. An eyebolt is a bolt with a looped head.

The regular nut eyebolt and the shoulder nut eye-

bolt (where the shoulder is not used) should never
be used for angular lifting. Angular lifting force
should only be applied to an eyebolt that is firmly
supported by a shoulder. See Figure 3-17. CORRECT INCORRECT
Attaching eyebolts is accomplished by screwing
the eyebolt into a threaded hole or inserting an eye-
bolt shank through a hole and securing it with a nut. SHIM THICKNESS FOR 90° ROTATION
The machinery eyebolt most commonly used
is the
eyebolt. Machinery eyebolts must be screwed in until
the shoulder is tight against the load.

Always inspect an eyebolt before use and never

use one that shows signs of wear, fatigue, or damage,
or one that is bent or elongated. Inspect for clean
threads and sharp shoulder corners. Washers must be
used to create a tight shoulder-to-load fit if the shoul-
der is not sharp and the load has not been counter-
sunk. Never undercut an eyebolt shank.

{) Always use shoulder nut eyebolts for angular

^ lifting and never use an eyebolt that shows
signs of wear or damage.
 78 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

EYEBOLT CAPACITIES

2 X DIAMETER

2^ X DIAMETER

Acco Chain & Ufting Products Div

SLING EYEBOLT CAPACITY LOSS
Stacker cranes from Louden have continuous 360 rotation to provide
flexibility in removing and positioning steel bundles.

After a machinery eyebolt has been installed and

tightened, the eye of the eyebolt must be perpen-
dicular (at 90°) to the sling line for any degree of
side pull. Adjusting the pivot of the eyebolt for
proper alignment is accomplished by placing a

shim under the shoulder. The shim thickness deter-

mines the angle of unthread rotation and varies ac-
cording to the eyebolt size. Unthread rotation is
counterclockwise rotation of an eyebolt having
right-handed threads, or the clockwise rotation of
an eyebolt having left-handed threads. Unthread ro-
tation can be anywhere from 5° to 90° to ensure a
right angle to the sling line.

(dp) Lifting equipment should not be installed, op-

erated, or maintained by any person who does
not understand the contents of the installation and
operation manual. Serious bodily injury, death,
and/or property damage may result from failure to
read and comply with the manufacturer's instructions.

As a sling moves from a vertical to an angular

position (decreased sling angle), the capacity of the
eyebolt is reduced. Each degree of change requires
a reevaluation of the eyebolt's safe limits. The safe
limit is increased if the sling angle is increased. The
safe limit is reduced if the sling angle is reduced.
See Figure 3-18.
 Liftii'ii 79

slid through an unthreaded hole in a load and held be obtained from distributors' or manufacturers' cata-
in place by two nuts firmly secured against each other logs when a particular eyebolt is to be used. General
on the bottom of the load with a third nut secured lifting capacities of eyebolts may be used as a pri-
on top of the load. mary estimation when designing lifting assemblies.

When Typical eyebolt angular lift capacity is calculated

a shoulder nut eyebolt is used, the threaded
using a constant of .21 for sling angles of less than
portion of the shank must protrude through the load
sufficiently to allow full engagement of the nut.
45° and .25 for slings angles greater than 45°. The

Washers must be used to take up the excess between constant is multiplied by the eyebolt manufacturer's

(he nut and the load if the unthreaded portion of the working load limit for vertical lifts. See Figure 3-21.
shoulder nut eyebolt protrudes so far that the nut This figure is divided by the sling angle loss factor

cannot be tightened securely against the load. The to determine the working load capacity. See Appen-
washers must exceed the distance between the bottom dix. Working load capacity is found by applying the
of the load and the last thread of the eyebolt. The formula:

shoulder of the eyebolt must be tightly secured

against the load surface. See Figure 3-20.
where
L - working load capacity (in lb)
Eyebolt Loads
c = constant (.21 for sling angles less than 45°;

Eyebolt load ratings are affected by the angle of pull .25 for sling angles greater than 45°)

on the eyebolt. A straight vertical pull of a shoulder n7 = eyebolt working load limit (in lb)

nut eyebolt offers 100% of the eyebolt load rating. s = sling angle loss factor (from Sling Angle
An angular pull of 45° reduces the eyebolt load rating Loss Factors Table)
by as much as b5'7c.

Until international standards are specifically de-

fined and adhered to by all manufacturers, actual eye-
^P'use an eyebolt
I
Always inspect eyebolts before use and never
bolt load ratings will vary between
significantly if its eye is bent or elongated.
manufacturers. Specific load rating information must

REGULAR NUT EYEBOLTS

DOUBLE
HEX NUT NUTS
SECURELY
'
DEPTH: TIGHTENED , ,.,
:DIA
THREADED wore ONE EYEBOLT NOTE: MORE THAN ONE
DEPTH: 2 x DIA DIAMETER OF THREADS EYEBOLT DIAMETER OF
OR LESS, USE TWO NUTS THREADS, USE ONE NUT

Figure 3-19. A regular nut eyebolt is normally screwed into the load and held firm using a secured hex nut.
80 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

SHOULDER NUT EYEBOLTS SHOULDER NUT EYEBOLT WORKING

LOAD LIMITS -VERTICAL LIFTS

Figure 3-20. Washers must be used to take up the excess

between the nut and the load the unthreaded portion of
if

the shoulder nut eyebolt protrudes so far that the nut

cannot be tightened securely against the load.

For example, what is the working load capacity

of a 50° bridle sling using a -V4" shoulder nut eyebolt?

X wl
L =
s

15 X 5200
L =
.766

1300
L
.766

L = 1697.128 lb

A simplified method of adjusting the working load

limit for eyebolts used with an angle sling is to make
a 30% or 25% adjustment to loads over or under 45°.
Working loads with a sling angle over 45° are ad-
justed by 25%. Working loads with a sling angle un-
der 45° are adjusted by 30%. For example, a -V4"

eyebolt having a sling angle of 50° is multiplied by

.25 (25%), giving the adjusted working load limit of

1300 lb (5200 X .25 = 1300 lb).

Force is applied slowly after slings have been at-

tached to the eyebolts. The load is watched carefully

and the operator must be prepared to stop if the load
shows signs of shifting or buckling. Buckling occurs
if a load is not stiff enough to resist the force of
angular loading. Ensure a bridle sling combination
is used when using two-leg slings. Never reeve slings
from one eyebolt to another. Reeving slings alters
the load strength of sling materials. See Figure 3-22.
 Liflinfi 81

Double-leg gantry cranes are used on two parallel

floor rails. In some cases, the double legs are on
wheels, which allows the gantry crane to operate
across any flat floor surface.
-USE SPREADER BAR

-BUCKLING OCCURS
ON FLEXIBLE LOADS

Baldor Electric Co.

INCORRECT
Gantry cranes are used outdoors for tt)e lifting of cut stone.

Figure 3-22. Buckling occurs if a load is not stiff enough to

resist the force of angular loading.
Jib Cranes

Gantry Cranes
A jib crane is a crane that is mounted on a single
A gantry crane is a crane with bridge beams sup- structural leg. The three basic types of jib cranes are
ported on legs. See Figure 3-23. The legs are sup- wall-mounted, base-mounted, and mast. See Figure
ported by end trucks that normally travel on floor 3-24. Wall-mounted jib cranes are top-braced or can-
rails. Floor rails are small-gauge railroad rails, which tilevered and may have a stationary or a partial ro-
are recessed into the floor or set directly on top of tating boom. A cantilever is a projecting beam
the floor surface. (boom) or member supported at only one end.

An end truck is a roller assembly consisting of a

Base-mounted jib cranes are free-standing cranes
frame, wheels, and bearings generally installed or
removed as complete units. Some gantry crane legs
on a heavily-supported base mounting. The boom of

are supported by wheels for movement across flat

a base-mounted jib crane may be stationary or be

floor surfaces.
capable of 360° rotation.

Gantry cranes may be single-leg or double-leg

gantry cranes. A single-leg gantry crane is normally Mast jib cranes have one structural leg (mast)
a supplemental crane for a large capacity overhead mounted to the floor and/or ceiling. Mast jib cranes
crane. In this application, one side of the bridge beam are cantilevered, underbraced. or top-braced. Mast jib
is attached to a leg which rolls on a floor rail and cranes may be stationary or installed with upper and
the other side is attached to an overhead crane rail. lower bearings for partial or 360° rotation.
82 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

GANTRY CRANES
 Liftinf^ 83

The booms on all three types of cranes serve as

tracks for hoisting mechanisms. Prior to lifting a jib
OVERHEAD CRANES
crane load, slack must be taken up slowly. Removing
slack minimizes shock to the crane boom. Rotating
the boom on a jib crane should be done slowly and
easily to prevent damage to the load, surroundings,
or individuals.

^5) All exposed noncurrent-carrying metal parts of

^"^ cranes, hoists, and accessories shall be joined
together into a continuous conductor so that the en-
tire crane or hoist grounded per NEC
is 250. '

Branch and hoists shall be pro-

circuits for cranes
tected by fuses or ITCBs having ratings in accord- TOP-RUNNING CRANE
ance with NEC® Table 430-152.
WITH TOP-RUNNING HOIST

Overhead Cranes
Dimension between
flange landings
An overhead crane is a crane that is mounted be- of both wfieels

tween overhead runways. Three common overhead S = Beam flange width

crane configurations are the top-running crane with
top-running hoist, the top-running crane with un-
derhung hoist, and the underhung crane with un-
derhung hoist. See Figure 3-25. Overhead cranes are
normally operated from the cab or pendant pushbut-
ton station. The cab is a compartment or platform
attached to the bridge girder from which an operator
may ride while controlling the crane.
Top-running cranes with top-running hoists are the
most common overhead crane configuration. A bridge
girder is the principal horizontal beam that supports
the hoist trolley and is supported by the end trucks.
A hoist trolley is the unit carrying the hoisting
mechanism that travels on the bridge girder. End trucks
are units consisting of truck frame, wheels, bearings,
axles, etc., which support the bridge girder(s).
TOP-RUNNING CRANE
WITH UNDERHUNG HOIST
End trucks on top-running cranes travel on small
gauge railroad rails mounted on top of the overhead
runways. A runway is the rail and beam on which
the crane operates. Either single- or double-bridge
girders support the hoist trolley. The hoist trolley
travels on rails mounted on top of the bridge gird-
ers in top-running cranes with top-running hoists.

Top-running cranes with underhung hoists are

top-running single-bridge girder cranes with un-
derhung hoist trolleys. The end trucks travel on
rails mounted on top of the runways. A single- UNDERHUNG CRANE
bridge girder supports the hoist trolley, which trav- WITH UNDERHUNG HOIST
els on the upper surface of the lower flange of the
Figure 3-25. An overhead crane Is a crane that is
bridge girder.
mounted between overhead runways.
84 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS
 Lifting

creased gradually. Do not attempt to lift a load that General Practice Conditions. Generally, no person
is beyond the load capacity of any of the rigging, should be permitted to operate a crane who cannot
lifting, or crane components. Hoist brakes should speak the appropriate language, read and understand
be tested with the load a few inches off the floor. the printed instructions, or who is not of legal age
This is especially necessary if the load is near or to operate the equipment. Anyone who is hearing or
at capacity. Check the load for drift in the raise eyesight impaired or may be suffering from heart or
and lower positions. Drift is the slippage of a load other ailments which might interfere with safe per-
caused by insufficient braking. Return the load to formance should not operate a crane. The operator
the floor and notify the supervisor if a drift of 1" must have carefully read and studied the operation
or more is noticed. A suspended load must not be manual and have been properly instructed.
left unattended.

(J Crane designs should conform to applicable

g American Institute of Steel
specifications of the
Construction (AISC), Uniform Building Code
(UBC), Crane Manufacturers Association of Amer-
ica (CMAA), and American National Standards In-
stitute (ANSI).

With the mainline switch open (power OFF), the

crane operator should operate each master switch
or pushbutton in both directions to get the "feel"
CORRECT INCORRECT of each device and to determine that they do not
bind or stick in any position. The operator should
Figure 3-26. A crane should not be used tor a side pull.
report the condition to the proper supervisor im-
mediately if any switch or pushbutton binds or
Place all crane controls in the OFF position if sticks in any position.
power is interrupted during operation. After power
is restored, check all controls for satisfactory opera-
tion and correct direction before use.

To be safe and efficient, crane operation requires

skill, the exercise of extreme care and good judg-
ment, alertness, and concentration. Crane operators
must adhere to proven safety rules and practices
as outlined in applicable and current ANSI and
OSHA standards.

Hand Signals. Many cab-operated cranes require the

assistance of an additional person. The assistant,
working in conjunction with the cab operator, gives
crane and hoist communication in the form of stand-
ard hand signals. See Figure 3-27.

Loads should not be moved unless standard crane

signals are clearly given, seen, and understood. The
operator must pay particular attention to the required
moves signaled by the assistant. The operator takes
North American Industries, Inc.
signals only from the assistant. The only exception
to this rule is that the operator must obey a stop
Overhead bridge cranes from North American Industries are available
signal, at all times, no matter who gives it. A stop with variable speed controls lor precise increases and decreases in
signal may be given by anyone. travel speed to prevent swinging loads caused by ON/OFF controls.
86 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

HOIST TROLLEY TRAVEL MULTIPLE TROLLEYS

'

With forearm vertical, forefinger With arm extended downward, With palm up, fingers closed, Hold up one finger for block
pointing up, move hand in smal forefinger pointing down, move thumb pointing in direction of and two fingers for block 2.
honzontal circles hand in small honzontal circles motion, jerk hand horizontally Regular signals follow

EMERGENCY STOP RAISE BOOM LOWER BOOM

With arm extended, palm down, With both arms extended, With arm extended, fingen With arm extended, fingers
hold position rigidly palms down, move hands closed, point thumb up closed, point thumb down
rapidly right and left

BRIDGE TRAVEL MOVE SLOWLY RAISE BOOM AND LOWER BOOM AND
LOWER LOAD RAISE LOAD

Use one hand to give any With arm extended, thumb With arm extended, thumb
With arm extended forward, motion signal and place other pointing up, flex fingers in and pointing down, flex fingers in

hand open and slightly raised, hand motionless in front of out as long as load movement and out as long as load
make pushing motion in hand giving the motion signal IS desired movement is desired
direction of travel (lower slowly shown)

Figure 3-27. Standard hand signals are given as communication between the crane operator and the assistant.
 4
Chapter
,

Ladders and scaffolds are used in industry to raise

workers to correct working heights. Ladders are con-
structed of wood, metal, or fiberglass and scaffolds
are constructed of wood or metal. Proper safety pre-
cautions must be observed when working from lad-
ders and scaffolds.

Werner ladder Co.

LADDERS Wood Ladders

A ladder is a structure consisting of two siderails

A wood ladder is a ladder constructed of wood. The
advantages of wood ladders include relatively low
joined at intervals by steps or rungs for climbing up
cost, ability to take abuse, nonconductivity of elec-
and down. Ladders are manufactured in lengths of
tricity, and good temperature insulating qualities.
3' to 50'. Ladders are constructed of wood, metal,
Nonconductivity of electricity makes wood ladders
or fiberglass. All ladders, regardless of the construc-
relatively safe to use when working around power
tion material, are manufactured to meet the same
lines and service-entrance conductors. Wood ladder
standards. Ladder purchase is generally decided by
temperature insulating qualities prevent the transmis-
cost, use, and in some cases, portability. Industrial
sion of excessive heat or cold to a worker.
ladders include fixed, single, extension, and steplad-
ders. See Figure 4-1. The disadvantages of wood ladders include dete-
rioration with age, shrinkage causing loose rungs
must be used only for the purpose
All ladders when the wood becomes dry and warm, and the need
for which they are designed. Ladders must not be to maintain their integrity by regularly coating them
used as pry bars or horizontal platforms. All ladders with clear shellac or linseed oil. Wood ladders should
must be equipped with nonslip safety feet such as never be painted. Paint covers any defects that may
butt spurs or foot pads. See Figure 4-2. A butt spur otherwise be seen.
is a notched, pointed, or spiked end of a ladder
which helps prevent the ladder butt from slipping. Wood ladders must be stored on their edge away
Butt spurs are generally attached to long ladders from excessive dampness, dryness, and heat to reduce
such as extension ladders. A foot pad is a metal the possibility of warping. All wood ladders should
swivel attachment with rubber or rubber-like tread be stored by hanging horizontally on hooks spaced
which helps prevent the ladder butt from slipping. 4' to 6' apart. This minimum storage hook spacing
Foot pads are normally attached to short ladders prevents sagging and offers easy access to a ladder
such as stepladders. for inspection.
 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

^SIDERAILS

^~^-

liullymore Company, Inc.

FIXED SINGLE

. SIDERAILS

Werner Ladder Co.

EXTENSION

Figure 4-1 A ladder

. is a structure consisting of two sideralls joined at intervals by steps or rungs for climbing up and down.

Metal Ladders caution is necessary if metal ladders are used near elec-
trical power lines, service-entrance conductors, and
A metal ladder is a ladder constructed of metal (nor- electrical equipment because of their good electrical

mally aluminum). The advantages of metal ladders in- conductivity.

clude relatively light weight, extreme toughness,
resistance to splintering or cracking when subjected
Fiberglass Ladders
to impact, and resistance to deterioration with age.
These qualities reduce maintenance of metal ladders
to inspection and lubrication, without the need for
A fiberglass ladder is a ladder constructed of fiberglass.
Fiberglass ladders are rapidly becoming the most popu-
sanding and refinishing.
lar type of ladder, particularly in stepladders. Advantages
A disadvantage of metal ladders is their tendency of fiberglass ladders are that they do not conduct elec-
to become very cold in winter and very hot in sum- tricity when dry, can withstand considerable abuse, do
mer. In addition, metal ladders should not be used not require surface finishing, and are more comfortable
within 4' of electrical circuits or equipment. Extreme to use than metal ladders in cold or hot environments.
 LMiicters and Scaffolds

LADDER SAFETY FEET

90 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Climbing Techniques the rung. Upward progress should be caused by the

push of the leg muscles and not the pull of the arm
Climbing may begin only after a ladder is properly muscles. When climbing, tools, parts, or equipment
secured. Climbing movements should be smooth and must be secured in a pouch or raised and lowered
rhythmical to prevent ladder bounce and sway. Safe with a rope.
climbing employs the three-point contact method. In
the three-point contact method, the body is kept erect,
the arms straight, and the hands and feet make the
Two and one hand, or
Fixed Ladders
three points of contact. feet
two hands and one foot are in contact with the ladder
rungs at all times. A fixed ladder is a ladder that is permanently at-

tached to a structure. Fixed ladders are commonly

Avoid reaching above shoulder level to grasp a constructed of steel or aluminum. Fabrication of a
rung to maintain balance and unobstructed knee fixed ladder, including design, materials, and weld-
movements. Each hand should grasp the rungs with ing, must be done under the supervision of a qualified
the palms down and the thumb on the underside of licensed structural engineer. See Figure 4-4.

FIXED LADDERS

-
PERMANENTLY
ATTACHED TO
STRUCTURE

-SAFETY CAGE
REQUIRED
OVER 24'
LENGTH 24' OR LESS

-BUILDING

-CAGE OR WELL

°yER24-
-LADDER
ATTACHMENTS ' ^ ^"

LENGTH OVER 24' TO 50' LENGTH OVER 50'

Figure 4-4. A fixed ladder is a ladder that Is permanently attached to a structure.

 Uukiers and Scaffolds 91

For fixed ladders, the width between siderails is Platforms should be a minimum of 24" wide by
normally 16" and the spacing between rungs is 12". 30" long with railings and toe board. Railings
Each rung cross-section must be aminimum of -V4" around platforms are commonly 3'-6" high. Adja-
in diameter. The rungs must be a minimum of I" in cent ladder sections are offset at each landing by
diameter if a steel fixed ladder is located in an un- no more than 18".
usually corrosive environment. Fixed ladder siderails
Fixed ladders are installed in a range between 60°
for use in normal conditions must be made of mate-
and 90° from horizontal. The range between 60° and
rial sized for gripping and are typically 2'/2" wide
75° is considered to be the fixed ladder substandard
and Vs" thick. Unusually corrosive environments re-
pitch range and is to be used only for special con-
quire siderail material V2" thick.
ditions. Fixed ladders are not to be installed over
Fixed ladders are normally attached to a building
90° from horizontal. See Figure 4-5.

or structure at spaces of 10' or less with a minimum

distance of 7" from the center of the rung to the
building. Siderails of a fixed ladder must extend a
FIXED LADDER INSTALLATION
minimum of 3'-6" above the landing for a walk-
through ladder and 4'-0" above the landing for a side FIXED LADDER RANGE -A
90' 75° 60° I

access ladder. Each rung of a fixed ladder must sup-

port 250 lb.

Fixed ladders over 24' in length must have a cage,

well, or ladder safety system. A cage is a barrier or
enclosure mounted on the siderails of a fixed ladder
or fastened to the structure. Cages are also referred
to as cage guards or basket guards. A well (shaft) is

a walled enclosure around a fixed ladder. A well pro-

vides a climber the same protection as a cage. Cages
must start no less than 7'-0" and no more than 8'-0"
from the ground or platform.

A ladder safety system is an assembly of compo-

nents whose function is to arrest the fall of a worker.
Ladder safety systems consist of a carrier and its

associated attachments. A carrier is the track of a

ladder safety system consisting of a flexible cable
or rigid rail secured to the ladder or structure. The
carrier is attached to a safety sleeve. A safety sleeve
isa moving element with a locking mechanism that
is connected between a carrier and the worker's
Figure 4-5. Fixed ladders are installed in a range between
body belt.
60° and 90° from horizontal.

A cage, well, or ladder safety system must be pro-

vided where a single length of climb is greater than
24' but less than 50'. The ladder must consist of mul-
Single Ladders
tiple sections (50' maximum each) if a cage or well
is used. A landing platform must be provided at least A single ladder is a ladder of fixed length having
every 50' within the length of climb. A platform is only one section. Typical lengths of single ladders
a landing surface which provides access/egress or rest vary from 6' to 24'. Single ladders offer the con-
from a fixed ladder. The length of climb may be con- venience of use by one person. However, they are
tinuous if a ladder safety system is used. Rest plat- limited in their versatility because a given length
forms must be provided at maximum intervals of 150' ladder may be safely used only within a small
on fixed ladders using a ladder safety system. height range.
 92 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

^'

To ,r (end a ladder safely, use the 3-point climbing method,

in hvmo.) one I, and and two feet or two hands and one foot are in
contact with the ladder rungs at all times.

Extension Ladders

An extension ladder is an adjustable-height ladder

with a fixed bed section and sliding, lockable fly
section(s). The bed section is the lower section of
an extension ladder. The fly section (first fly, second
fly, etc.) is the upper section(s) of an extension lad-
der. See Figure 4-6.

A pawl lock is a pivoting hook mechanism at-

tached to the fly section(s) of an extension ladder.

Pawl locks are used to hold the fly section(s) at the
desired height. The three main parts of a pawl lock
are the hook, finger, and spring. See Figure 4-7.

The rungs nest into the hook of each pawl, pre-

venting downward movement of the fly section. The
fly section is lowered by first raising the fly section
just enough for a rung to pass below the finger of
the pawl lock. The fly section is then lowered. When
lowered, the rung forces the finger up, preventing
the rungs from nesting into the hook. To hold the
fly section in place, the pawl lock must be lowered
slightly below a rung to allow the finger to drop.
The fly is then raised slightly to allow the spring to
force the pawl hook over the rungs.
 LuMers ami Scaffohls 93

PAWL LOCKS

FLY SECTION FLY SECTION

HELD IN PLACE BEING RAISED BEING LOWERED

Figure 4-7. A pawl lock is a pivoting hook mechanism attached to the fly section(s) of an extension ladder.

Raising Ladders. Raising a ladder involves a level. Place one foot approximately 10" to 12" in
smooth, proper, and safe operation. Care must be front of one of the ladder legs. Use the free hand to
taicen before beginning a raise to ensure that electri- apply an upward pressure and an outward pull to
cal conductors or equipment are not present. slide the butt of the ladder to the foot. This procedure

Single or extension ladders may be raised with is continued until the ladder is in the approximately
the ladder tip away from the building or with the correct position and angle. Adjust the fly section for

ladder tip against the building. The method used is the proper height and readjust the ladder as necessary

determined by whether the ladder is raised indoors for the proper angle.

or outdoors, the presence of overhead obstructions,

the setup area, and the ladder size. See Figure 4-9. To raise a ladder with the ladder tip against the
building, place the ladder tip against the building
To raise a ladder with the ladder tip away from
with the fly section fully retracted and to the upside.
the building, place the butt end of the ladder against
Standing with back to the wall, lift the ladder tip
the building with the fly section retracted and to the
while pulling the butt end toward the wall. The
down side. Grasp the rung at the ladder tip with both
ladder tip remains against the wall while reposi-
hands. Raise the tip and walk under the ladder, grasp-
tioning for another lift and pull. This procedure is
ing succeedingly lower rungs while walking toward
continued until the ladder is in the approximately
the building.
correct position and angle. Adjust the fly section for
When the ladder is erect, hold the ladder against the proper height and readjust the ladder as necessary
the wall by placing force with one hand at about eye for the proper angle.
94 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

RAISING LADDERS

Figure 4-8. Extension ladder fly sections are raised and

lowered with the use of halyards. TIP AGAINST BUILDING

Figure 4-9. Single or extension ladders are raised with the

tipaway from or against the building.
Never attempt to raise long extension ladders
alone. At least two people are required to raise long
extension ladders into position, with one person on
each side of the ladder. Lifting and pulling are done Extension Overlap and Height. Extension ladders
together until the ladder reaches its final position.
must have positive stops to prevent overextension of
Three or more people may be required to raise ex- the fly section(s). The overlap of the fly section must
tension ladders to overhead beams or pipes. Two peo- be at least 3' for extension ladders up to 36', 4' for

ple raise the ladder and one or two people firmly extension ladders over 36' and up to 48', and 5' for
secure the butt end. extension ladders over 48' and up to 60'.
 Ladders and Scaffolds 95

Exlension ladders are positioned on a 4 : 1 ratio

(75° angle). For every 4' of working height. 1' of

space is required at the base. Working height is the
distance from the ground to the top support. The top
support is the area of a ladder that makes contact
with a structure. For example, a 12' ladder should
be placed at an angle that places the butt end 3' from
the wall. See Ficure 4-10.

POSITIONING EXTENSION LADDERS

VERTICAL DIMENSION
(WORKING HEIGHT)

EXTENSION LADDER
SECTION OVERLAP
96 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Standoffs. A staiulojf'is a ladder accessory that holds

a single or an extension ladder a fixed distance from
a wall. A standoff is attached to the ladder with ad-
justable U-bolts. Adjustable, non-slip tips on each
end of the standoff help protect the wall surface from
marring or scratching. Standoffs provide a comfort-
able working distance between a wall and the worker.
Standoffs are particularly useful for painting around
windows, etc. See Figure 4-12.

^^^'--1'^^?^
 Uidde IS and Scaffolds 97

SCAFFOLDS
(J Scaffold design shall be such as to produce a

J' platform unit that will safely support the speci-

A scaffold is a temporary or movable platform and
fied loads. The material selected shall he of sufficient
structure for workers to stand on when working at a
strength to meet the performance requirements and
height above the floor. Three basic types of scaffolds shall be protected against corrosion unless inherently
are pole, sectional metal-framed, and suspension corrosion-resistant to normal atmospheric conditions.
scaffolds. See Figure 4-14.

SCAFFOLDS

GUARDRAIL
UPRIGHTS ^^ MIDRAIL
TOEBOARD

SUSPENSION
Figure 4-14. Three basic types of scaffolds are pole, sectional metal-framed, and suspension scaffolds.
 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

A scaffold generally consists of wood planks or Regulations and Standards

metal platforms to support workers and their mate-
rials. Scaffolds must not be supported by any unstable OSHA regulations governing the use of scaffolds
object, such as boxes, concrete blocks, or loose require that a scaffold may be erected, moved, or
bricks. Scaffold footing must be sound and stable dismantled only under the supervision of a com-
and must not settle or displace while carrying the A competent person
petent person. is a person ca-
maximum intended load. A maximum intended load pable of recognizing and evaluating employee
is the total of all loads, including the working load, exposure to hazardous substances or to other unsafe
the weight of the scaffold, and any other loads that conditions and of specifying the necessary protec-
may be anticipated. Scaffolds and their components tion and precautions to be taken to ensure the
must be capable of supporting at least four times their safety of all employees. Refer to OSHA and ANSI
maximum intended load. for guidelines. OSHA industry standards are found
in CFR Title 29 Part 1910.28 and 29, Safety Re-
quirements for Scaffolding or Part 1926.451, Scaf-
All scaffolds 10' or more above ground must have folding. ANSI standards are found in ANSI
guardrails, midrails, and toeboards. A guardrail is a A 10.8-2001, Safety Requirements for Scaffolding.
rail secured to uprights and erected along the exposed
sides and ends of a platform. A midrail is a rail se-
cured to uprights approximately midway between the Pole Scaffolds
guardrail and the platform. A toeboard is a barrier
to guard against the falling of tools or other objects. A pole scaffold is a wood scaffold with one or two
Toeboards are secured along the sides and ends of a sides firmly resting on the floor or ground. See Fig-
platform. Guardrails must be installed no less than ure 4-15. A single-pole scaffold is a wood scaffold
38" or more than 45" high, with a midrail. Guardrail with one side resting on the floor or ground and the
and midrail support is to be at intervals of no more other side structurally anchored to the building. A
than 10'. double-pole scaffold is a wood scaffold with both

POLE SCAFFOLDS

Figure 4-15. A pole scaffold is a wood scaffold with one or two sides firmly resting on the ground.
 Ladders and Scajfolds 99

sides resting on the floor or ground and is not struc- to project at least 3" over the ledgers. Ledgers must
turally anchored to a building or other structure. be long enough to extend over two pole spaces and
The uprights of pole scaffolds are assembled from must not be spliced between poles. Cross braces
wood or metal legs (poles). Uprights must be plumb are assembled between the left and right uprights.
and securely braced to prevent displacement or sway- Cross braces must be long enough to extend over
ing. The poles are to be erected on suitable bases or two pole spaces. Both diagonal and cross braces are
footings, which must be strong enough and large used to prevent buckling and lateral movement. Di-
enough to support the maximum scaffold load with- agonal braces are included in the scaffold assembly
out settling or displacement. Unstable objects such between the inner and outer uprights (pole sets). All
as barrels, boxes, loose brick, or concrete blocks pole scaffolds must be constructed using minimum-
must not be used to support scaffolds. Steel plate and maximum-sized components according to their
supports are used under steel poles and a minimum duty rating. See Figure 4-16.
of 2" planking support is used under wood poles. Wood pole scaffolds are constructed from select
Each base or footing must be of sufficient size and clear lumber for maximum strength. Duplex-head
thickness to support at least four times the maximum nails are used to make dismantling easier. All nails
intended load. must be driven in their full length and in directions

Pole scaffolds must be constructed with guardrails, where the pull is across their length, not with their
midrails, toeboards, planking, bearers, ledgers, cross length. Nails smaller than 8d common must not be

braces, diagonal braces, and footings. The complete used to construct scaffolds. See Appendix.
assembly must be plumb, level, square, and rigid.
Scaffold platform planks consist of 2" nominal
Toeboards prevent tools or materials from being structural planks. Maximum permissible planking
knocked or kicked off of the platform. The bottom of spans vary according to wood thickness and width.
toeboards should make contact with the platform and For example, the maximum permissible span for a 2
the top of the toeboard should be more than 3'/2" from X 10 (nominal) plank on a light-duty scaffold is 10'.
the platform. Bearers (putlogs) must be long enough See Figure 4-17.

POLE SCAFFOLD COMPONENTS*

100 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

^^« PLANKING SPANS

 Ludders and Scafjotds 101

Scaffolds over 25' in height must be securely member is fastened together using nonslip clamps or
guyed or tied to the structure or building with No. pipe fittings. Prior to each use, the clamps or fittings
12 double-wrapped wire. A guyline is a rope, chain, must be checked and tightened if necessary.
rod, or wire attached to equipment as a brace or
When used as free-standing units, the height of a
guide. See Figure 4-19. Guylines for scaffolds are
metal-framed scaffold must not exceed four times its
wire ropes V4" in diameter or larger. They are com-
minimum base dimension. For example, if the base
monly positioned at a 45° angle to the vertical. of a scaffold measures 4' x 8', the maximum height
Guylines may be anchored temporarily in the ground
is 16' (4' X 4 = 16'). Outriggers are sometimes used
by screw ground anchors or may be tied off securely
to increase the working height of a scaffold. Outrig-
to a structure. Where the height of the scaffold exceeds
ger beams must rest on a sound foundation or on
25', the scaffold must be secured at intervals no greater wood bearing blocks.
than 25'. vertically or horizontally.

/\
102 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

MOBILE SCAFFOLDS

MIDRAIL

TOEBOARD

-BASE DIMENSION LOCKABLE

AT LEAST { OF CASTERS -

HEIGHT DIMENSION

Figure 4-21. The minimum base dimension of a mobile

scaffoldmust equal half the scaffold height before moving.

All tools and materials must be removed or se-

cured before a mobile scaffold is moved. When mo-
bile scaffolds are used on concrete flooring, the
floor surface must be free from pits, holes, or ob-
structions that may create an unsafe condition. The Ballymore Compa
surface must also be within 3° of level. After the Figure 4-22. Ahydraulic scissor lift is a mobile
scaffold has been moved, the casters must be hydraulically-operated platform controlled by remote
locked to prevent movement while the scaffold is
switches attached at the platform.

being used.
A two-point suspension scaffold is a suspension
A hydraulic scissor lift is another type of mobile scaffold supported by two overhead wire ropes. The
scaffold. A hydraulic scissor lift is a mobile hydrau- overall width of two-point suspension scaffolds
lically-operated platform controlled by remote must be greater than 20" but not more than 36".
switches attached at the platform. The platform is See Figure 4-23.
generally 4' in its lowered position, with a maximum A wultiple-point suspension scaffold is a sus-

working height at about 20'. To offer a firm base, pension scaffold supported by four or more ropes.
hydraulic scissor lifts may be equipped with screw- Multiple-point suspension scaffolds must be capa-
type outriggers. See Figure 4-22. ble of sustaining a working load of 50 Ib/sq ft and
are used mainly for repair and maintenance pro-
jects. They can be raised or lowered by perma-
nently-installed, electrically-operated hoisting
equipment. Multiple-point suspension scaffolds
Suspension Scaffolds
must not be overloaded.

A suspension scaffold is a scaffold supported by over-

^Vj Only qualified and trained operators are to be
head wire ropes. Suspension scaffolds are also re-
authorized to use and operate mobile work plat-
ferred to as swinging scaffolds. Suspension forms. Platforms must be elevated only on a firm,
scaffolds use either the two-point or multiple-point level surface.
suspension design.
 Ladders and Scaffolds 103

SUSPENSION SCAFFOLDS

^ WIRE
MESH
APPROVED
HOISTS
-TOEBOARD
^GREATER THAN 20'
BUT NOT MORE THAN 36'

TWO-POINT SUSPENSION MULTIPLE-POINT SUSPENSION

Figure 4-23. A suspension scaffold is a scaffold supported by overhead wire ropes.

Suspension scaffolds have a platform supported lifeline is suspended from a substantial overhead struc-
near the ends by overhead wire ropes. The ropes are tural member other than the scaffold, and should ex-
attached to the platform by hangers or metal stirrups. tend to the ground. Each worker's harness is tied to
Wire, fiber, or synthetic rope used for suspension a lifeline by a lanyard, and to a fall prevention device
scaffolds must be capable of supporting at least six that will limit the free fall to no more than 6'.

times the maximum intended load. The hangers, U-

bolts, brackets, and other hardware used for con-
structing a two-point or multiple-point suspension ^ Each person on a two-point suspension scaffold
shall use an approved harness with a lanyard
scaffold must be capable of sustaining four times the
and shall he attached by means of a fall-arresting
maximum intended load.
device to an independent lifeline.

When power-driven hoisting equipment is used on

suspension scaffolds, the power-driven equipment
must have an emergency brake in addition to the nor-
mal operating brake. The emergency brake must op-
erate automatically when the normal speed of descent
is exceeded. The running end of the hoisting rope is

attached to the hoist drum. At least four turns of

rope must remain on the hoist drum at all times.

Suspension scaffold load testing is accomplished

by raising the scaffold about 1' off the ground and
placing a load thatis at least four times the normal

workload on the platform. After approximately five

minutes, check for cracked or splitting rope or sag-
ging platforms. Do not use the scaffold if any of Tractel Inc.. Griphoist® Division
these conditions exist.
Suspended scaffolding systems by Tractel Inc., contain tirak®powered
Lifelines and harnesses that can safely support a traction hoists that are efficient and have a simple and constant trac-
worker's weight must be provided for each worker. The tion principle that allows the hoist to be used in any orientation.
104 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Safety Nets Net lining mesh must normally be less than 1" and
constructed of twine equal to or greater than No. 18.
A safety net is a net made of rope or webbing for Installation of netting must have level border ropes
catching and protecting a falling worker. A safety and, when hung, no more than 3' of sag should be
net must be used anywhere a person is working 25' allowed at the center of the net.
or more above ground, water, machinery, or any other
When two or more nets are secured together to
solid surface when the worker is not otherwise pro-
form a larger net, lacing, drop-forged shackles, or
tected by a lifeline, harness, or scaffolding. See Fig-
safety hooks may be used, but must be less than 6"
ure 4-24. Safety nets must also be used when public
traffic or other workers are permitted underneath a
apart.A drop-forged shackle or safety hook is to be
used to attach nets to supporting structures, cables,
work area that is not otherwise protected from falling
or beams and must be spaced at intervals of no more
objects.
than 4". Border rope is to have a 5000 lb breaking
strength when new. The minimum diameter for ma-
nila border rope is -V4". The minimum diameter for
synthetic border rope is V2".

Safety Net Maintenance. Factors that affect net

safety include environmental contaminants, sunlight,
welding, mildew, abrasion, and impact loading. Con-
taminants from airborne chemicals create environ-
mental conditions that affect net strength. Even
though polypropylene and nylon are resistant to many
acids and alkalis, moderate and unknown degradation
can occur to rope used in these environmental con-
ditions. Manila rope, being organic, degrades rapidly
in a chemically-active environment.

Synthetic and natural fibers degrade in the pres-

ence of ultraviolet rays from sunlight or from arc
welding. When safety nets are used regularly out-
doors, an ultraviolet absorbing dye may be used for
outer-layer protection. Welding slag or sparks may
also harm safety nets because each is sufficient to
burn the net.

Mildew and abrasion damage is caused by im-

Figure 4-24. A safety net is a net made of rope or
proper storage and rough handling. Storing safety
webbing for catching and protecting a falling worker.
nets in a warm, moist location causes mildew growth
and a weakening of rope fibers. Dragging nets over
Safety Net Requirements. Safety net size is gener- rough or sharp surfaces abrades and degrades rope
ally 17' X 24', and may be coupled with another net fibers. Also, impact loading is a form of damage cre-
to form a larger net. Netting mesh size for bodily ated by the continuous shock of loads being dropped
fall protection is normally 6" x 6". Netting is con- into the net. Even the impact from net testing may
structed of Vs" No. 1 grade manila, V4" nylon, or degrade the net's integrity.

Vie" polypropylene rope. Mesh is the size of the open-

ings between the rope or twine of a net. Safety Net Testing. Nets must be impact load tested
to assure that there is sufficient strength or that there

In applications where workers or others are to be has been no loss of strength. Impact load tests are
protected from falling tools or other objects, a lining first done on a sample by the manufacturer. Each
of smaller mesh must be added to the fall protection safety net is certified by the manufacturer to with-

net. The sizeand strength of the net lining mesh must stand a 50' drop of a 350 lb bag of sand, 24" in
restrict tools and materials capable of causing injury. diameter. On-the-job testing is also required by the
 Ladders and Scaffolds 105

user immediately following installation or after a ma-

jor repair. Impact load testing must be done at six

month intervals if the net is in regular use. Testing

consists of dropping a 400 lb bag of sand, not more
than 30" (±2") in diameter, from a height of 25' above
the net into the center of the net.

SAFETY

Safe use of ladders and scaffolds includes the use of

fall-protection equipment. The three categories of
fall-protection equipment include ladder climber fall

protection, position protection, and scaffold worker

fall protection.

Ladder Climber Fall Protection

Ladder climbers should use a carrier for fall protec-

tion. A carrier is the track of a ladder safety system
consisting of a flexible cable or rigid rail secured to
the ladder or structure. See Figure 4-25. The carrier
is the track for the safety sleeve. A safety sleeve is

a moving element with a locking mechanism that is

connected between a carrier and the worker's har-
ness. The connecting line between the carrier and

the safety belt must be less than 9". Fall-arrest de-

vices utilize the worker's weight for activation. The
closer a worker is connected to the fall-arrest device,
the less distance traveled in a fall. Figure 4-25. A carrier is the track of a ladder safety
system consisting of a flexible cable or secured to
rigid rail
the ladder or structure.

Position Protection

Position protection supports a person in a working

position by wrapping a body strap around a post,
tree, or attachment to a structure. The weight and
angle of the individual secures the worker. A position
protection device holds an individual in position, but
does not prevent falling. Position protection is com-
monly used by electrical lineworkers, telephone line-
workers, tree climbers, and window washers. See
Figure 4-26.

(p^ Suspension scaffolds shall be operated only by

persons who have been instructed in the op-
eration, use, and inspection of the particular sus-
The Sinco Group, Inc.
pended scaffold to be operated. Employers shall in-
struct and supervise their employees in the safe use
Sinco personnel nets consist of strong, high tenacity nylon with a 3!&"
of all equipment provided. diagonal net design made in accordance with ANSI A10. 11-1989,
Safety Nets Used During Construction. Repair, and Demolition Operations.
106 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

lanyard at the person's back. A lanyard is a rope or

webbing device used to attach a worker's harness to
a lifeline. A rope grab is a device that clamps se-
curely to a rope. Rope grabs contain a ring to which
a lifeline can be attached. Rope grabs protect workers
from falls while allowing freedom of movement.

Fall-Arrest Sequence

When a fall-arrest device is used, the breaking of a

fall is preceded by a free fall and the taking up of
slack between the harness and the safety device. This
is followed by the distance of deceleration. Decel-
eration distance is generally 3'/2' to 4'. Always limit

the total fall to 6' or less. For this reason, a lanyard

must be kept high enough or short enough to limit

the free fall.

A person may also be protected against a fall by

tying off. Tying off is securely connecting a harness
directly or indirectly to an overhead anchor point.
Certain precautions must be made that lines and lan-
yards are not weakened by knotting or tying off to
The Siiico Group, Inc.
sharp or rough surfaces.
Figure 4-26. Position protection devices include harnesses
containing side D-rings that are used to attach a body strap
around a post, tree, or attachment to a building. Ladder Safety

Scaffold Worker Fall Protection Proper maintenance of a ladder is critical due to its
direct relationship to life safety. The following list

Scaffold worker fall protection may include items of precautions should be observed for proper safety
such as lifelines, harnesses, lanyards, and rope grabs. when using ladders.
The proper fall-protection equipment should be worn • Use ladders only for the purpose for which they
when working at heights greater than the minimum were designed.
safe distance from the ground. See Figure 4-27.
• Inspect ladders carefully when new and before
Lifelines are anchored above the work area, of-
each use.
fering a free-fall path, and must be strong enough to
support the force of a fall arrest. Vertical lifelines
• Use leg muscles, not back muscles, for lifting and

must never have more than one person attached per lowering ladders.

line and must be long enough to reach the ground • Stand ladders on a firm, level surface.
or landing below the work area. The lifeline must
• Face the ladder when ascending or descending.
then be terminated (tied up) to prevent the safety
sleeve from sliding off of its end. • Exercise extreme caution when using ladders near
electrical conductors or equipment. All ladders
The path of a fall must be visualized when an-
conduct electricity when wet.
choring a lifeline. Use an anchored system without
any obstructions to the fall.Obstacles below and in
• Ladders are intended for use by only one person
the fall path can be deadly. unless specifically designated otherwise.

• Never use a ladder as a substitute for scaffold

Harnesses, when used properly, protect internal
planks or for horizontal work.
body organs, the spine, and other bones in a fall.

Chest harnesses must not be worn for free-fall protec- • Always check for the proper angle of inclination
tion. Harnesses must fit snugly and be attached to the before climbing a ladder.
 Ladders and Scaffolds 107

FALL-PROTECTION EQUIPMENT

Miller Equipment

Figure 4-27. The appropriate fall-protection equipment should be worn when working at heights greater than the minimum
safe distance from the ground.

• Verify that all pawl locks on extension ladders are • Use the three-point climbing method when ascend-
securely hooked over rungs before climbing. ing or descending a ladder.

• Never place a ladder in front of a door unless ap-

• Always check for proper overlap of extension lad-
propriate precautions have been taken.
der sections before climbing.

• Keep all nuts, bolts, and fasteners tight. Lubricate

allmoving metal parts as required.

• Ensure that stepladders are fully open with spread- Only extra-heavy-duty (type lA) and heavy-
ers locked before climbing.
P:
Jacks.
duty (type
Medium-duty
I) ladders shall be used with ladder
(type II) and light-duty (type III)
• Do not stand on the top two rails of a stepladder ladders shall never be used with ladder jacks.
or on the top three rungs of an extension ladder.
 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Scaffold Safety Work must not be done on a scaffold during high

winds or storms.
OSHA regulations state that scaffolding may be Work must not be done on ice-covered or slippery
erected, moved, altered, or dismantled only under the scaffolds.
supervision of a competent person. The following
Scaffolds with a height-to-base ratio of more than
precautions should be observed because the lives of
4 : 1 must be restrained by the use of guylines.
workers depend on the construction of scaffolding.
Mobile scaffolds must be locked in position when
• Use only 2" nominal structural planking that is
in use.
free of knots for scaffold platforms.
All tools and materials must be secured or re-
• Platform end extensions must be cleated with a moved from the platform before a mobile scaffold
minimum of 6" extension and a maximum of 18". is moved.
• Always observe working load limits. Scaffolds and All personnel in close proximity must be advised
their components must be capable of supporting and aware of the movement of a mobile scaffold.
four times the maximum intended load.
Fall protection must be used on working heights
• Guardrails, midrails, and toeboards must be in- of more than 10'.
stalled on all open sides and ends of platforms
Safety nets for workers at any level over 25' must
more than 10' above the ground.
be used when the workers are not otherwise pro-
• Platform planks are to be laid with no openings tected.
more than 1" between adjacent planks.
Safety nets restricting falling objects must be used
• Overhead protection must be provided for persons when persons are permitted to be underneath a
on a scaffold exposed to overhead hazards. work area.

The Sinco Group, Inc.

Sinco personnel nets have been designed to withstand 350 lb dropped from a height of 50 ft. However, it is essential that nets be
created so a worker cannot fall more than 25'
 *BaStrSniSlJ»!

r
Hydraulic Principles

Hydraulics is the branch of science that deals with

the practical application of water or other liquids at
rest or in motion. Hydrostatics is the study of liquids
at rest and the forces exerted on them or by them.
Hydrodynamics is the study of the forces exerted on
a solid body by the motion or pressure of a fluid. A
liquid is a fluid that can flow readily and assume the
shape of its container. Fluid flow is the movement of
fluid caused by a difference in pressure between two
points. In a hydraulic system, fluid flow is produced
bv the action of a pump and is expressed as a meas-
urement of gallons per minute or liters per minute.

HYDRAULICS HYDROSTATICS

Hydraulics is the branch of science that deals with

the practical application of water or other liquids at
rest or in motion. The two major divisions of hy-
draulics are hydrostatics and hydrodynamics.
PISTON
FLUID AT REST
Hydrostatics
EQUAL PRESSURE
THROUGHOUT
Hydrostatics is the study of liquids at rest and the
SYSTEM
forces exerted on them or by them. Equilibrium is
the condition when all forces and torques are bal-
BRAKE SYSTEM AT REST
anced by equal and opposite forces and torques. Most
hydraulic systems apply hydrostatic principles. For
example, the fluid in an automobile's hydraulic brak-
ing system is at rest and the pressure throughout the
system is in equilibrium. See Figure 5-1. The brake
system is activated by applying pressure to the foot
pedal. The fluid in the system transmits the applied EQUAL PRESSURE
force from the foot pedal to the slave cylinder piston. THROUGHOUT
SYSTEM
The slave cylinder piston transmits the force to the
brake pad, which applies pressure to the brake drum. BRAKE SYSTEM ACTIVATED
The pressure of the fluid is equal in all parts of the
system, but higher than the pressure of the fluid when Figure 5-1. Hydrostatics is the study of liquids at rest and
the system is at rest. the forces exerted on them or by them.
 no INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

hollowing tree trunks and connecting them together.

The ancient Romans. Greeks, and Egyptians used

lead, copper, or bronze plumbing for conveying
water.About 500 B.C., Persian aqueducts using metal
plumbing were tunneled through mountains. Around
100 B.C., hydraulic machines, such as the water-lifting
machine and the Archimedes water-screw, were de-
veloped.
The water-lifting machine (water wheel) was a de-
vice equipped with paddles which raised water by
the force of current from a stream. The Archimedes
water-screw was another device used to raise water
\tlax Technologies.
from a stream or lake up to an irrigation ditch. The
Hydraulics provides the force required for tiie stamping and fabrication Archimedes water-screw consisted of a wood core
of today's products. with layers of pitch-covered wood strips attached to

form a spiral. See Figure 5-3. This assembly was

Hydrodynamics covered to create a spiral tube. With one end of the
tube lowered into the water, the complete assembly
Hydrodynamics is the study of the forces exerted on was rotated, allowing water to hydrostatically work
a solid body by the motion or pressure of a fluid.
its way up the screw.
For example, fluids are transferred through a non-posi- Devices applying hydrodynamic principles ap-
tive displacement pump by centrifugal force. A nonpo- peared around 1500 A.D., when the piston concept
sitive displacement pump is a pump that is not sealed
was used to pump water to the top of a 40' Roman
between its inlet and outlet. Centrifugal force is the aqueduct. The Ramelli quadruple suction pump used
outward force produced by a rotating object. See Fig-
a water wheel to drive a wooden peg gear mechanism.
ure 5-2. The fluid is forced to the discharge (outlet)
See Figure 5-4. The peg gear mechanism drove a
port by rotating impeller vanes. The output of the pump
worm gear that was connected to a rotating crank.
may be reduced or completely blocked if the pressure
The rotating crank was attached to a reciprocating
in the discharge circuit is increased because there is
piston (suction pump) that would raise water with
no positive displacement of fluid.
each rotation of the crank.

HYDRODYNAMICS ARCHIMEDES WATER-SCREW

DISCHARGE
(OUTLET)
PORT- WOOD CORE

NONPOSITIVE
DISPLACEMENT PUMP

Figure 5-2. Hydrodynamics is the study of the forces

exerted on a solid body by the motion or pressure of a fluid.

TO IRRIGATION
DITCH -

Hydraulic System History -STREAM

OR LAKE
Early hydraulic systems consisted of diverting streams
for village irrigation and water supply and digging Figure 5-3. The Archimedes water-screw hydrostatically
wells. In prehistoric Europe, plumbing was formed by raised water as the device was rotated.
 Hydraulic Principles 111

Figure 5-4. Devices applying hydrodynamic principles appeared around 1500 A.D., when the piston concept was used to
pump water to the top of a 40' Roman aqueduct.

LIQUID CHARACTERISTICS states that pressure at any one point in a static liquid

is the same in every direction and acts with equal

force on equal areas. Force is the energy that pro-
In hydraulics, the term "tluid" refers to gases as well
duces movement. Although this law and its potential
as liquids. A fluid is a substance that tends to flow
for technology were realized in the 17th century, it
or conform to the outline of its container (such as a
was not unul the 20th century that fluid power be-
liquid or a gas). Fluids yield easily to pressure. A
came a means of energy transmission.
liquid is a fluid that can flow readily and assume
Pressure is expressed as atmospheric, gauge, and ab-
the shape of its container. Fluids have no independent
solute. Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by
shape but do have a definite volume. Liquids do not
the weight of the atmosphere on the Earth's surface.
expand indefinitely and are only slightly compress-
The weight of the atmosphere, acting over a height of
ible. A gas is a fluid that has neither independent shape
several hundred thousand feet above the Earth's surface,
nor volume and tends to expand indefinitely. Oxygen,
varies slightly with weather conditions. The weight of
hydrogen, etc. are gases.
the atmosphere at sea level is 14.7 pounds per square
Liquids make convenient fluids for transmitting
inch absolute (psia). Atmospheric pressure is also ex-
force because they are not highly compressible like
pressed in inches of mercury absolute (in. Hg abs) and
gases. The term "fluid" is used in reference to a liquid

because liquids are specifically used in hydraulic sys-

is measured with a mercury barometer. A mercury ba-
rometer is an instrument that measures atmospheric
tems. Work produced in a hydraulic system is depend-
pressure using a column of mercury. See Figure 5-5.
ent on the pressure and tlow of the fluid in the system.

Mineral-base oil is the most widely used hy-

Pressure
draulic fluid. It has excellent lubricating prop-
erties, does not cause rusting, dissipates heat readily,
Pressure is the force per unit area. In 1653, French and can be cleaned easily by mechanical filtration
scientist Blaise Pascal realized that enclosed fluids and gravity separation.
under pressure follow a definite law. Pascal's law
112 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

PRESSURE EQUIVALENTS

,- ATMOSPHERIC
/ PRESSURE

^^ /
 Hydraidic Principles 113

For example, what is the absolute pressure in a value, the formula for finding the solution is shown.
system when a pressure gauge reads 100 psig? See Figure 5-7. For example, to find area, covering
A indicates that F is divided by P. To find pressure,
psia = psig + 14.7
covering P indicates F is divided by A. To find force,
psia = 100 + 14.7 covering F indicates P is multiplied by A.
psia - 114.7 psia

Pressure other than atmospheric pressure is con-

sidered to be artificial and is produced to transfer or

amplify force in hydraulic systems. This transferred

or amplified force is used to do work such as lifting

a car with a hydraulic jack, running a conveyor

with a hydraulic motor, or shaping steel into car
or truck components.

Area, force, and pressure are the basis of all hy-

10"
draulic systems. The force exerted by a liquid is

based on the size of the area on which the liquid

pressure is applied. In hydraulic systems, this area
usually refers to the face of a piston, which is circular
in shape. Area is always expressed in square units, AREA OF
mm. SQUARE =
such as sq in. or sq
100SQIN.
A circle with a diameter the same as a square has
less area. The area of a circle is exactly 78.54% of
AREA OF
the area of a square with the same measurement. See CIRCLE =
78.54 SQ IN.
Figure 5-6. The area of a circle is found by applying
the formula:

A = .7854 X D-
where

A = area (in sq in.)

.7854 = constant

D- = diameter squared
For example, what is the area of a circle with a

diameter of 3"?

A = .7854 X D-
A = .7854 X (3 X 3)

A - .7854 X 9

A = 7.069 sq in.

The area of a piston can be found if the force and

pressure applied to a cylinder are known. The applied
pressure on a piston can be found if the amount of
force and the piston area are known. Also, the force
produced by a piston can be found if the area and pres-
sure applied to a piston are known. Two of the values
must be known to find the unknown value.

The relationship between force, pressure, and area

can be recalled using a force, pressure, and area for-
mula pyramid. By covering the letter of the unknown
114 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

2. Find required pressure. Head Pressure. Head is the difference in the level
of a liquid (fluid) between two points. Head is ex-
pressed in feet. Head pressure is the pressure created

5000 by fluid stacked on top of itself. See Figure 5-8.

P =
12.566
P = 397.899 psi

ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE

5SW^

2LB(f'3t::^

PRESSURE /
GAUGES -<,

Figure 5-7. The force, pressure, or area of a piston can be

calculated if any two values are known.

Figure 5-8. Head pressure is tfie pressure created by fluid

stacked on top of itself.
Pressure and diameter must be known when calcu-
lating the required force of a cylinder. The area of a
In an open cylinder, the pressure of the fluid at
piston is calculated using the diameter of the piston
any depth in the cylinder is proportional to the height
and then the area is used to find the required force.
of the column of fluid. The pressure in a column of
fluid is determined using the column's height and
For example, how much force does 450 psi pro-
the fluid's weight, not the shape of the vessel. The
duce in a 4" D piston?
pressure at the same level in each vessel is identical
if the pressure surrounding the different-shaped ves-
1. Find area of piston face. sels is the same and the fluid in each vessel is the

A = .7854 X D' same. The pressure of the fluid at any level in a vessel

is based on the height of the fluid above that level

A = .7854 X (4 X 4)
and is the same at that level regardless of the shape
A = .7854 X 16 of the vessel. See Figure 5-9.
A = 12.566 sq in.

2. Find required force.

F = P xA Q:The head pressure any point a container

at in
is proportional
directly the density of the to
F = 450 X 12.566 fluid and the depth below the surface of the fluid.
F = 5654.7 lb
 Hydraulic Principles 115

Head is classified as static or dynamic. Static head

is the height of a fluid above a given point in a col-
umn at rest. Static head pressure is a force over an
area created by the weight of the fluid itself. Static

head pressure is potential energy. The pressure of

water per ft of static head is calculated by using .036
Ib/cu in. or 2.31' head of water for each psi. See
Figure 5-10.

Figure 5-9. The pressure of the fluid at any level in a

vessel is based on the height of the fluid above that
level and is the sanne at that level regardless of the
shape of the vessel.

The pressure at the base of a column of fluid is

calculated by multiplying the weight of the fluid by

its height. The weight of a fluid is obtained from a
Fluid Weights/Temperature Standards table. See Ap-
pendix. The pressure of a fluid in a cylinder is found
by applying the formula:

P = w X h
where
P - pressure at base (in psi)
vf = weight of fluid (in Ib/cu in. from Fluid
Weights/Temperature Standards table)
/; = height (in in.)

For example, what is the pressure at the base

of a 72" D cylindrical vessel that contains 96" of
water? Note: The weight of water (in Ib/cu in.)

equals .0361 at 39°F (from Fluid Weights/Tempera- DYNAMIC HEAD

ture Standards table).

Figure 5-10. Static head is the height of a fluid above a

P = w X h
given point in a column at rest. Dynamic head is thehead
P = .0361 X 96 of fluid in motion.

P = 3.466 psi

In a hydraulic system, head pressure is the energy

For example, a storage tank located on the second

pump. Atmos-
or pressure that supplies a hydraulic floor of a building contains 10' of water. The tank
pheric pressure and head pressure combine to feed feeds a pump 14' below on the first floor. The total

the suction (intake) line connecting a hydraulic pump static head from the surface of the water to the pump
to a reservoir. below is 24'. Therefore, the theoretical head pressure
116 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

is 10.397 psi (.0361 x 12" x 24' = 10.397 psi). Static The maximum height a fluid at a standard tem-

head pressure provides pressure to move a fluid when perature of 62°F can be lifted is determined by the
a port or valve is opened. barometric pressure. Temperature standards are es-
Dynamic head is the head of fluid in motion. Dy- tablished by agencies such as the American National
namic head represents the pressure necessary to force Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Or-
a fluid from a given point to a given height. Dynamic- ganization for Standardization (ISO) to create na-
head pressure is the pressure and velocity of a fluid tional and international uniformity. Temperature
produced by a liquid in motion. Dynamic head pres- standards for fluids are required due to the fluctuation
sure results when a valve is opened and fluid is al- of fluid volume at different temperatures.
lowed an open flow. Dynamic head pressure may be Static lift is which atmospheric pres-
the height to
used to direct an open flow of fluid. For example, sure causes a column of fluid to rise above the supply
dynamic head pressure was used in early prospecting to restore equilibrium. The weight of a column of
days to wash away the sides of mountains to retrieve fluid required to create equilibrium is equal to at-

gold. This was accomplished by piping water from mospheric pressure. For example, when an elevated
higher lakes and using dynamic head pressure to pro- pump is turned ON, the pump removes air from its

duce a high pressure and high velocity. plumbing, creating a partial vacuum. The fluid then
rises to a height that is determined by atmospheric
Lift Pressure. Lift is the height at which atmospheric
pressure. Atmospheric pressure essentially lifts the
pressure forces a fluid above the elevation of its sup-
fluid to a height of equilibrium, or the balance be-
ply source. See Figure 5-11. A pipe with one end in
tween the atmosphere's pressure and the water's
fluid and the other end open to the atmosphere is in
weight. See Figure 5-12.
equilibrium. Atmospheric pressure lifts (pushes) the
liquid in the pipe when a pump is placed on the end
of the pipe open to the atmosphere and a vacuum is
(_) The energy applied to a fluid by a pump goes
drawn. With respect to pump operation, lift is the ^ either into the production of usable pressure
height measured from the elevation of the supply or velocity in the fluid or into friction losses. h

source to the center of the pump's inlet port.

rial UN A

PUMP^ \
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE VS LIFT

-AIR
REMOVED
BY PUMP

ELEVATION OF
EQUILIBRIUM
SUPPLY SOURCE
 Hydraulic Principles 117

A pump removing water from a retention

fluid at rest.
pond to supply an overhead cooling tower is an ex-
ample of a static total column. The pump, which is
mounted above the pond, assists in lifting the water
up to its center (static lift), and at the same time
supports the column of water up to the cooling tower
(static head). The sum of a pump's static lift and
static head is the static total column.

TOTAL COLUMN

DYNAMIC LIFT

Figure 5-12. Static lift is the heiglit to which

atmospheric pressure causes a column of fluid to rise FLUID IN
MOTION-
above the supply to restore equilibrium. Dynamic lift is
the lift of fluid in motion.

Dynamic lift is the lift of fluid in motion. Dynamic

DYNAMIC
lift represents the pressure necessary to lift a fluid
TOTAL
from a given point to a given height. The dynamic COLUMN
lift and distance a fluid can be raised vary due to
pump imperfections and pipe friction. Therefore, the
limit of actual
A pump

Practical
practical static
pump

dynamic
lift
lift

lift
ranges to approximately 25'.
can force a fluid to greater heights depending
on the force exerted on the

is
fluid.

considerably less than

because of the friction within pip-
^^r^
Figure 5-13. Static or dynamic columns are determined
ing lengths, piping sizes, number of fittings such as from pressures created by a fluid at rest or in motion.
elbows or valves, and because of the fact that most
installations are higher than sea level. The practical
lift in a pump moving water generally falls in the

20' to 25' range. Dynamic total column is dynamic head plus dy-
namic Dynamic columns are determined from
lift.

Total column is the fluid head plus lift. Total col- pressures created by a fluid in motion. Dynamic total
umn may be dynamic. See Figure 5-13.
static or column is the total column of fluid in motion and
Static total column is static head plus static lift. Static represents the pressure from the total column plus
columns are determined from pressures created by a frictional resistance.
 118 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

the viscosity of the fluid. Fluid flow is based on the

volume and capacity of the system and the velocity

of the fluid in the system. Fluid flow also affects the
speed of a hydraulic system.
In a system with flowing fluid, pressure is caused
by total resistance to the fluid flow from a pump.
Pressure results only where there is resistance to
flow. Resistance to flow is comprised of friction
throughout the system and actuator loads. A pressure
change that occurs to a fluid due to its flow is gen-
erally expressed in psi.

Friction. Friction is generated throughout a hydraulic

Eaton Corporation system between the piping wall and the fluid, and
within the fluid as fluid molecules slide by one an-
Series 26 fixed displacement gear pumps from Eaton® produce fluid
other. The faster a fluid flows, the greater the friction.
flow in a hydraulic system from 6.4 gpm to 24. 1 gpm and operate at
a pressure of 3000 psi continuously Any becomes a resistance to fluid
friction generated
flow. Pressure must be increased to overcome the
friction. Each component in a hydraulic system offers

Flow resistance and reduction of available working pres-

sure. See Figure 5-14.
Fluid flow is the movement of fluid caused by a dif-

ference in pressure between two points. In a hydrau-

system, fluid flow produced by the action of
P;A
lic is I fluid vaporizes if an attempt is made to lift
a pump and is expressed as a measurement of gallons the fluid more than the distance atmospheric
per minute (gpm) or liters per minute (1pm). Fluid pressure is capable of raising it.

flow in a hydraulic system is affected by friction and

f- ELBOW LOSS
= 20 psi

Figure 5-14. Each component of a hydraulic system offers resistance and pressure loss.
 Hydraulic Principles 119

A fluid flows because of a difference in pres- Fluids that are thin and flow easily have a low vis-
sure. The pressure of a moving fluid is always cosity. For example, cold honey has a high viscosity
higher upstream. Pressure drop is the pressure dif- and water has a low viscosity.
ferential between upstream and downstream fluid
Viscosity is determined under laboratory condi-
flow caused by resistance. The pressure developed
tions by measuring the time required for a specific
in a hydraulic system
designed to be used as
is
amount of a fluid at a specific temperature to flow
hydraulic leverage. Pressure and fluid flow rate are
through a specific size orifice. Viscosity is measured
independent of each other, but both assist in the
in Saybolt Seconds Universal (SSU) using a Saybolt
output. Pressure provides the force and flow rate
viscometer. See Figure 5-16.
is used to provide speed. Flow rate is expressed
in gpm and is typically determined by the capacity A Saybolt viscometer is an instrument used to
of the pump. measure the viscosity of a fluid. Upon reaching the
proper temperature, a cork is pulled, allowing 60
Fluids follow the path of least resistance. For ex-
niL of test fluid to flow out of the cylinder while
ample, a hydraulic system consists of two equal-di-
being timed with a stopwatch. The measured time
ameter cylinders with a load of 500 lb on Cylinder
isthe SSU. The Society of Automotive Engineers
A and 200 lb on Cylinder B. Cylinder B moves to
(SAE) has established standard numbers for oil vis-
the end of its travel before Cylinder A begins to move
cosity readings.
because of the reduced resistance produced by the
lighter weight. See Figure 5-15. For example, an SAE 10 oil at 130°F placed in a
Saybolt viscometer takes between 90 sec and 120
sec to empty. An oil that is thicker (more viscous)

'K ^PRESSURE FROM

HYDRAULIC PUMP
and at the same temperature takes longer
the viscometer. This oil has a higher
such as SAE 30, which takes between 185 sec and
to
SAE number
empty

255 sec to empty the viscometer.

I /
{_) Hydraulic oil operating viscosity should be be-
tween 100 SSU and 300 SSU. Hydraulic oil
temperatures should not exceed 150° F for optimum
life of the oil.

SAYBOLT VISCOMETER
200 LB

CYLINDER B
ACTIVATES FIRST

CYLINDER B-, -TEMPERATURE

CONTROL
FLUID

Figure 5-15. Fluids follow the path of least resistance.

REPLACEABLE
ORIFICE -

Viscosity. Viscosit}' is the measurement of the resis-

tance of a fluid's molecules to move past each other.
Figure 5-16. A Saybolt viscometer is an instrument used
Fluids that flow with difficulty have a high viscosity. to measure the viscosity of a fluid.
120 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

The viscosity index is a scale used to show the 1. Find area of cylinder.
magnitude of viscosity changes in lubrication oils A = .7854 X D-
with changes in temperature. The viscosity index in-
where
dicates the relative change in SSU readings. Desir-
able oils are those that have a high viscosity index A = area (in sq units)

(relatively low SSU reading change). Oils with a low .7854 = constant
viscosity index register a large change in SSU read-
D' - diameter squared
ings as temperatures change. Oils with a high vis-
2. Find volume of cylinder.
cosity index change slightly as the temperature of
the fluid changes. V = Ax I

High-viscosity fluids lead to high internal resis- where

tance (friction). This results in high resistance to flow
V = volume (in cu units)
through hydraulic components, creating slow compo-
nent movement. High resistance increases power con- A = area (in sq units)

sumption, creating a considerable pressure drop / = length (in units)

throughout the system. Also, fluid temperatures

rise when friction is high. Increased fluid tempera-
tures can cause fluid breakdown and damage to
pumps and seals.

Fluid viscosity that is too low can be equally harm-

ful. Slippage and leaking may occur, producing an / OR h
increase in wear because of a reduced lubricating
fluid film between mechanical parts. Slippage is the
internal leaking of hydraulic fluid from a pump's out-
let to a pump's inlet. Slippage occurs between the DETERMINING AREA AND VOLUME
gear teeth and the housing and along the sides of the OF A CYLINDER
gears in a gear pump. A gear pump is a positive-dis- 1 . Find area of cylinder. 2, Find volume of cylinder.
placement pump containing intermeshing gears that
/*=.7854xD^ V= Axl
force the fluid from the pump. Displacement is the
volume of oil moved during each cycle of a pump. A= .7854 X (4x4) V= 12.566x24
A positive-displacement pump is a pump that delivers
A= .7854x16 V= 301.584 cu in.
a definite volume of fluid for each cycle of the pump
at any resistance encountered. Slippage is desirable A= 12.566 sq in.

in limited amounts to lubricate moving parts. How-

ever, as pressures increase beyond the pump's pres-
sure rating, slippage increases rapidly.
A difference exists between actual pump output and
absolute pump output (zero slippage) because slippage
indicates a decrease in pump output and fluid flow. Volu-
metric efficiency is the percentage of actual pump output
compared to the pump output if there were no slippage.
A typical positive-displacement pump in good condition DETERMINING AREA AND VOLUME
OF A RECTANGULAR SOLID
has a volumetric efficiency of approximately 85% be-
cause some slippage is required for pump lubrication. . Find area of 2. Find volume of
rectangular solid. rectangular solid.

Volume. Volume is the three-dimensional size of an

object measured in cubic units. See Figure 5-17. Re- /!= 12x10 V= 120x5
gardless of the shape of the figure, volume is expressed
A= 120sqin. V= 600 cu in.
in cubic units (cu in., cu ft, mm\ m\ etc.). The volume
of a figure is found by calculating the area of the figure
and multiplying the area by the length. The volume of Figure 5-17. Volume is the three-dimensional size of an
a cylinder is found by applying the procedure: object measured in cubic units.
 Hydraulic Principles 121

For example, what is the volume of a 4" D cylinder Fluid measurements can also be expressed in cubic

that is 24" long? units (cu in., cu ft, etc.) because fluids occupy three
dimensions. For example, one gallon of fluid equals
1. Find area of cylinder.
231 cu in.
A = .7854 X D-
The quantity of fluid required to fill a specific
A = .7854 X (4 X 4) volume is determined by calculating the volume and
A = .7854 X 16 dividing by 231. Capacity of a cylinder is found by
A = 12.566 sq in. applying the procedure:

2. Find volume of cylinder. 1 Find area of cylinder.

V = A X / A = .7854 X D-

V = 12.566 X 24 2. Find volume of cylinder.

V = 301.584 cu in. V = A X I

Note: The formula for finding the volume of a cyl- 3. Find capacity of cylinder.
inder may also be expressed as V = .7854 x D" x 1.

The volume of a rectangular solid is found by cal-

culating the area and multiplying by the height. The where

volume of a rectangular solid is found by applying
C = capacity (in gal.)
the procedure;
V = volume (in cu in.)
1. Find area of rectangular solid.
231 = constant (cu in. of fluid per gallon)
A = I X w
For example, what is the capacity of a 4" D cyl-
where
inder that has a 24" stroke?
A = area (in sq units)
1. Find area of cylinder.
/ - length (in units)

H' = width (in units)

A = .7854 X D-

2. Find \olume of rectangular solid. A = .7854 X (4 X 4)

V^ = .4 x h A = .7854 X 16

where A = 12.566 sq in.

V = volume (in cu units) 2. Find volume of cylinder.

A - area (in sq units) V = A X /

fi = height (in units) V = 12.566 X 24

For example, what is the volume of a 12" long. V = 301.584 cu in.

10" wide, and 5" high rectangular solid? 3. Find capacity of cylinder.
1 Find area of rectangular solid. V
C
A =: I X W 231

A = \2x 10 301.584
C =
A = 120 sq in.
231

2. Find volume of rectangular solid. C - 1.306 gal.

V ^ A X h Less hydraulic fluid is required to retract a piston

than is required to extend a piston. This is due to
V = 120 X 5
the piston rod taking up part of the cylinder volume
V = 600 cu in.
(reduced capacity). The volume that the piston rod
Capacity. Capacity is the ability to hold or contain occupies must be subtracted from the total volume
something. Capacity is expressed in cubic units and of the cylinder when determining the volume of fluid
is calculated from a container's volume. Fluids are that a cylinder displaces when retracting. See Figure

measured in ounces, pints, quarts, gallons, liters, etc. 5-18. The capacity of a cylinder when retracting is
based on the size of their containers. See Appendix. found by applying the procedure:
122 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

— ] -PIST

\
"- EXTEND PORT V, RETRACT PORT
(FLUID IN) (FLUID OUT)
AREA OF CYLINDER VOLUME OF CYLINDER
CAP END = 12.566 SQ IN. = 301.584 CU IN.

ROD EXTENDING

EXTEND PORT
(FLUID OUT) -

VOLUME OF CYLINDER WHEN

RETRACTING
ROD RETRACTING
RETRACT PORT
(FLUID

= 296,87
IN)

CU IN.
9 LaRFAC

Figure 5-18. Less fluid is required to retract a piston than to extend a piston due to ttie piston rod occupying a part of
the cylinder volume.

1. Find area of piston. 6. Find capacity of cylinder when retracting.

A,, = .7854 X D'-
Vcr
2. Find volume of cylinder.
C
231
Vc = A,, X h
For example, what is the capacity of a 4" D hy-
where
draulic cylinder when retracting with a 24" stroke
V, = volume of cylinder (in cu units)
and a Vj" piston rod?
Ap = area of piston (in sq units)

Ic - length of cylinder (in units) 1. Find area of piston.

3. Find area of rod. Ap = .7854 X D-

Ar = .7854 X D^
Ap = .7854 X (4 X 4)
4. Find volume of rod.
Vr = Ar X Ir
Ap - .7854 X 16

where Ap = 12.566 sq in.

Vr - volume of rod (in cu units) 2. Find volume of cylinder.

Ar = area of rod (in sq units)
V, ^ ApX i
Ir = length of rod (in units)
V, = 12.566 X 24
5. Find volume of cylinder when retracting.
V, = 301.584 cu in.

V,r = V, - Vr
3. Find area of rod.
where
Ar = .7854 X D'
V,r = volume of cylinder when retracting (in cu
units) Ar = .7854 X (.5 X .5)

V, = volume of cylinder (in cu units) Ar = .7854 X .25

Vr = volume of rod (in cu units) Ar - .1964 sq in.

 Hydraulic Principles 123

4. Find volume of rod. The velocity of a fluid particle is determined by

= A, X subtracting its initial position from its final position
Vr /,

and dividing by the value of the initial time sub-

V, = . 1 964 X 24
tracted from the final time. Velocity is found by ap-
V, = 4.714 cu in.
plying the formula:
5. Find volume of cylinder when retracting.

v., = V. - Vr

V,r = 301.584 - 4.714

where
V,r = 296.87 cu in.
\' = velocity (in ft/sec)
6. Find capacity of cylinder when retracting.
X2 - final position (in ft)

X] - initial position (in ft)

t: = final time (in sec)

296.87 = initial time (in sec)
/i
~ 231
For example, what is the velocity of a fluid par-
C = 1.285 gal.
ticle in a hydraulic system that is at point Xi at
Velocity. Velocity is the distance a fluid travels in a 9:33:54 AM, and after traveling 50' reaches point Xj
specified time. See Figure 5-19. Velocity generally at 9:34:30 AM?
means the change of position of a fluid particle dur-
ing a certain time interval. This may be represented
as distance in feet per second (ft/sec).

50-0
9:34:30-9:;
50
36
1.389 ft/sec

V^^)The velocity of the hydraulic fluid in a system

should not exceed recommended values be-
cause turbulent conditions result with loss of pres-
sure and excessive heating.

PARTICLE L PATH OF
LIQUID
PARTICLE

^,
Figure 5-19. Velocity Is the distance a fluid travels in a
specified time.

Velocity is measured as a vector. A vector is a

quantity that has a magnitude and direction. A vector
is commonly represented by a line segment whose
length represents its magnitude and whose orienta- Exercise caution around swinging arms and booms because anything
tion represents its direction. that is supported by fluid pressure may fall if a hose breaks.
124 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

The velocity of a fluid varies from one moment flow rate remains constant. The velocity increases
to another as its speed or direction of flow changes. four times to maintain a constant rate of flow if a

Acceleration is an increase in speed. Acceleration of pipe diameter is changed to one-half of its original
a fluid is determined as its change in velocity per size. Velocity of a tluid in a pipe is found by applying
unit of time. the formula:

The symbol delta (A) is generally used to indicate

a change. Acceleration is given in units of ft/sec- Ax I,

because velocity is measured

in ft/sec and time is
231
measured in sec. Acceleration, like velocity, is con-
where
stantly changing within a hydraulic system. Pipes of
various diameters, elbows, valves, and other compo- I' = velocity (in ft/sec)

nents all affect the velocity and acceleration of the /; = length of pipe (in ft)
fluid within a hydraulic system. Acceleration of a
A = cross-sectional area of pipe (in sq in.)
fluid is found by applying the formula:
I] = length of pipe (in in.)
Av
231 = constant (cu in. of fluid per gallon)

where
Q = flow rate (in gpm)
60 = constant (sec in min)
a = acceleration (in ft/sec-)
1

Ai' = average velocity during A; (in ft/sec)

At = time interval elapsed in traveled distance FLUID FLOW

(in sec)
For example, what is the acceleration between
measuring points when the fluid flow within a hy-
draulic system has an initial velocity of 15 ft/sec and
changes to 30 ft/sec in 8 sec?

a = —
Av
At

30-15

15

a = 1.875 ft/sec^
Flow is the movement of a fluid. Flow rate is the
volume of fluid flow. A fluid in motion is always
flowing, but its rate of flow may change. Fluid ve-
locitydepends on the rate of flow in gallons per
minute (gpm) and the cross-sectional area of a pipe
or component.
The velocity of a fluid increases at any restriction
in a pipe orcomponent if the flow rate remains the
same in the system. Common restrictions include
valves, elbows, pipes, reducers, etc. Also, the velocity
of a fluid decreases as the cross-sectional area of a
pipe or component increases. See Figure 5-20.

The law of conservation of matter states that the

mass or volumetric flow rate of an incompressible
fluid through a pipe is constant at every point in the
Figure 5-20. The velocity of a fluid increases at any
pipe. The velocity of a fluid must increase at any restriction in a pipe or component if the flow rate remains
restriction if there are no leaks in the system and the the same in the system.
 Hydraulic Principles 125

For example, what is the velocity of a fluid having a

flow rate of 5 gpm through a 12" section of 1" D pipe?

""
231
126 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

fulcrum than the resistance force or must have an

effort force equal to or greater than the resistance
force. The force required to overcome a resistance
force is calculated by applying the formula:

d\
where
F\ = effort force (in lb)
F2 = resistance force (in lb)
di = distance between effort force and fulcrum
(in ft)

d2 = distance between resistance force and fulcrum

(in ft)

For example, what is the effort force, placed 15'

from the fulcrum, required to lift a resistance force Figure 5-22. Pressure exerted on an enclosed fluid is

transmitted undiminished in every direction.

of 800 lb placed 1 V2' from the fulcrum?

„ F2 X dn

_ 70.686
15 ~
.4418
1200
F: = 5 X 159.99
15
F: = 800 lb
f = I
80 lb
Pascal's law states that pressure exerted on an en- Fluids are well suited for being transmitted

closed fluid is transmitted undiminished in every di- through pipes, hoses, and passages because of these

rection. This is demonstrated by a fluid-filled bottle.

force characteristics. This force is energy, which can

As the cork is pressed further into the bottle, the produce movement, work, or leverage when applied
pressure throughout the bottle increases until the in- to a hydraulic application. For example, intercon-
compressible fluid bursts the bottle. See Figure 5-22. nected hydraulic cylinders of different diameters pro-

The bottle bursts because the force applied to one duce hydraulic leverage in a typical car jack. See

area (the cork) is equal to the pressure multiplied by Figure 5-23.

the larger area (the body of the bottle). The resulting

The output pressure of two interconnected cylin-
force within a vessel is a product of the input force
ders is found by calculating the area of both cylin-
and the input pressure area divided by the output
ders, dividing the area of the output cylinder by the
pressure area. Resulting force within a vessel is found
area of the input cylinder, and multiplying the result
by applying the formula:
by the input force. Output pressure of two intercon-
F: = F, X nected cylinders is found by applying the procedure:
1. Find area of input piston.
where
A, = .7854 X Dr
F: = resulting force (in lb)
2. Find area of output piston.
F\ = input force (in lb)
A2 = .7854 X D:-
A2 - area of output pressure (in sq in.)
3. Find output piston force.
A[ = area of input pressure (in sq in.)

For example, what is the force placed on a bottle

with a cork area of .4418 sq in. (.7854 x .75 x .75
= .4418) and a bottle surface area of 70.686 sq in. For example, what is the force of a 3" D output
(3" D X 3.1416 x 7.5" h = 70.686 sq in.) when 5 lb piston interconnected to a WD input piston if a 50
is applied to the cork? lb force is applied by the input piston?
 Hydraulic Principles 111

1. Find area of input piston. sure and area of the input cylinder. Input force is

found by applying the procedure:

A, = .7854 X Dr
1 Find area of output piston.
Ai = .7854 X (.5 X .5)
A2 = .7854 X D2'
A, = .7854 X .25

A] - .196 sq in.
2. Find pressure in system.

2. Find area of output piston.

A: - .7854 X Dr
3. Find area of input piston.
A2 = .7854 X (3 X 3)
A, = .7854 X Dr
Ai = .7854 X 9
4. Find input force required.
Aj = 7.069 sq in.
Fi = P X A,
3. Find output piston force.
For example, what is the necessary input force on

a 3" D piston if a static load of 5000 lb being lifted

by a 10" piston stalls due to loss of input force?

1. Find area of output piston.

A: = .7854 x D.-
F: = 50 X 36.066

F: - 1803.3 lb A: = .7854 X (10 X 10)

A: = .7854 x 100
A2 = 78.54 sq in.

2. Find pressure in system.

5000
r _
78.54
P = 63.662 psi

3. Find area of input piston.

A, = .7854 x Dr
A, = .7854 x (3 X 3)

A, = .7854 X 9
A, = 7.069 sq in.

.196SQIN. 4. Find input force required.

'

BLEEDER VALVE - F, = P X A,
CHECK VALVE
F, = 63.662 X 7.069
F, = 450.027 lb
Figure 5-23.
Interconnected hydraulic cylinders of
different diameters produce hydraulic leverage In a typical
car jack.

At times, system pressure must be determined be- ENERGY AND WORK

fore calculating either the input force or the output
force. This may be required when determining the The mechanics of hydrostatics, where the flow of
input force required to produce a given output force fluid within an enclosed system isused to do work,
with given size cylinders. The required input force isbased on the theory of the conservation of energy.
is determined by calculating the area of the output Energy is a measure of the ability to do work. The
cylinder, calculating the pressure in the system, and theory of the conservation of energy states that the
determining the input force based on the system pres- total energy of a fluid at any point in a system is
128 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

equal to the total energy of the fluid at another point, energy is changed to static energy. Kinetic energy
unless work has been done by the fluid on some ex- can be changed into heat energy because of its move-
ternal component. ment (friction and pressure).
Total energy is a measure of a fluid's ability to Heat energy is the ability to do work (usually de-
do work. In hydrostatics, total energy is the sum of structive) using the heat stored or built
up in a fluid.
static energy, kinetic energy, heat energy, and pres- Heat energy cannot be harnessed or used in a hy-
sure energy. See Figure 5-24. draulic system. Once a portion of kinetic energy is

converted to heat energy, it is lost energy.

Pressure energy is the ability to do work by ap-

plying pressure to a fluid. Energy exists in various
forms and has the ability to change from one form
I PISTON

-CYLINDERS-
to another. Pressure

sure is
energy begins the
applied at the beginning of a system. Pressure
moment pres-

energy can be produced by manual force, such as a

foot brake or car jack, or by the use of a pump. A
pump, however, only creates fluid flow and does not
add to the pressure until there is a resistance to the
flow.
STATIC ENERGY -CLOSED VALVE
Pressure energy is introduced when resistance is

met by a hydraulic pump. The transmission of energy

throughout a hydraulic system begins at a pump mo-
-APPLIED PRESSURE
(PRESSURE ENERGY) tor as electrical energy and is converted by and at
the motor into mechanical energy. The motor's me-
chanical energy is transferred to the hydraulic pump,
which supplies kinetic energy to the system, which
is ultimately converted back to mechanical energy as

work. See Figure 5-25.

Efficiency
STATIC ENERGY

HIGH VELOCITY^ As energy is transmitted through a hydraulic system,

it is reduced by friction, heat, resistance, and slip-

Figure 5-24. In hydrostatics, totalenergy is the sum of static page. The degree to which energy is reduced is a
energy, kinetic energy, heat energy, and pressure energy. measure of a system's efficiency. Efficiency is a
measure of a component's or system's useful output
Static energy (potential energy) is the ability of a
energy compared to its input energy. Efficiency is

fluid to do work using the height and weight of expressed as a percentage. When new, the natural

the fluid above some reference point. Static energy slippage within a hydraulic pump reduces its effi-

is stored energy ready to be used. In a hydraulic

ciency by as much as 15%. Electric motors are typi-
system, static energy is transformed into kinetic en- cally 85% efficient. No electrical, hydraulic,

ergy when a valve is opened, allowing fluid to flow.

pneumatic, or mechanical system is 100% efficient.

This flow causes velocity, acceleration, and the abil- Total efficiency of more than one energy component
ity to do work. in a system is found by applying the formula:

Effr= Eff^ xEff^x ... X 100

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Any mov- where
ing object, such as a fluid in a hydraulic system, has
Effr = total efficiency (in %)
kinetic energy. As a fluid flows through a system
Eff[ = efficiency of component 1
and through a hydraulic motor, it is kinetic energy.
However, when the fluid enters a cylinder to do work, Eff2 = efficiency of component 2
flow and velocity decrease and the system's kinetic 100 = constant (to convert to percent)
 Hydraulic Principles 129

(electrical) (mechanical) (kinetic) (static^ (mechanical)

MOTOR PUMP ACTUATOR

- ENERGY IN ENERGY OUT

Figure 5-25. Energy changing within a hydrostatic system greatly reduces its overall efficiency

For example, what is the total efficiency of a sys- For example, how much power is required to move
tem power unit containing a motor listed as 85% ef- a 3000 lb force 9" in 8 sec?
ficient and a hydraulic pump listed as 90% efficient?

EjfT = Em X Eff2 X 100

EJfT = .85 X .90 X 100 •

3000x9
EffT = 76.5%

Energy that changes form from hydraulic to me-

chanical represents work. Work is the energy used
when a force is exerted over a distance. Work is ex- P = 3375 Ib-ft/sec

pressed in pound-feet (Ib-ft). Work is found by ap-

plying the formula:
25% and a 25% higher
W
where
^ F X d
^(J) Select a

quired to move
larger cylinder
system pressure than
the load
is mathematically re-
when determining cylinder
W = work (in Ib-ft) size and system pressure.
F= force (in lb)

d - distance (in ft)

For example, how much work is performed by a

forklift exerting a 3000 lb force over a vertical lift

distance of 9'?

W = F X d

W ^ 3000 X 9
W = 27,000 Ib-ft

Work may amount of

also be expressed by the
power required. Power is the rate or speed of doing
work. Power is found by applying the formula:

r_Fxd
t

where

P = power (in Ib-ft/time)

F = force (in lb)

d - distance (in ft or in.) Wildcat rough terrain hydraulic scissor lifts from Snorkel feature ar-
ticulating rear axles for better traction and are available with 4-wheel
t = time (in sec, min, or hr) drive that provides gradeability up to 40%.
130 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Horsepower

Mechanical energy is often expressed in horsepower

(HP). One horsepower is the amount of energy re-

quired to lift 33,000 lb r in 1 min. One horsepower

equals 550 ft lb/sec. See Figure 5-26. Mechanical
horsepower is found by applying the formula:

/ 33,000 LB \

Figure 5-26. One horsepower is the amount of energy

required to lift 33,000 lb
1
' in 1 min.

Fxd
HP
550xr
where
HP - horsepower
F= force (in lb)

d = distance (in ft)

550 = constant
t = time (in sec)

For example, what is the horsepower required to

ift 3000 lb 9' in 8 sec?

 Hydraulic Principles 131

Torque is measured at a distance from tiie motor

shaft center. The farther a force from the shaft's
is

center, the greater its torque. Torque is normally

measured in Ib-in. and is equal to the product of its

force (lb) times the distance from the shaft's center.

Torque is found by applying the formula:

T = F X d
where
T = torque (in Ib-in.)

F- force (in lb)

d = distance from the shaft center (in in.)

For example, what is the torque required to over-

come a 75 lb force connected 3" from the motor

shaft's center?

T= F X d

7 = 75 X 3

T = 225 Ib-in.

A motor with a large shaft or pulley would have

to apply a greater torque. For example, if the distance

between the shaft center and point of force is 5", the

torque required is 375 Ib-in. (75 x 5 = 375 Ib-in.).

Torque applied by a hydraulic motor can also be Torque requirements on many machine processes vary with the type
of material being machined.
calculated by replacing force and distance with pres-
sure (in psi) and hydraulic motor displacement per
revolution, divided by 2n. The torque developed by The torque a hydraulic motor develops depends
a hydraulic motor is found by applying the formula: on its applied pressure and displacement. In most
cases, if the available delivered torque is not enough,
the pressure is increased and in some cases, depend-
271 ing on the motor type, the displacement can be in-

where creased. Either of these may be necessary to start a

hydraulic motor and overcome breakaway, starting,
T = torque (in Ib-in.)
and running torque.
P ~ pressure (in psi)

d - motor displacement (in cu in.)

Breakaway torque is the initial energy required
71 = constant (3.1416) to get a nonmoving load to turn. Starting torque
For example, what is the available torque delivered is the energy required to start a load turning after

by a hydraulic motor with a displacement of 2.146 it has been broken away from a standstill. Running
cu in. per revolution and an applied pressure of torque is the energy that a motor develops to keep
500 psi? a load turning.

^ PXf/
Changing displacement may allow for greater
breakaway or starting torque, but it also has an ad-
500x2.146 verse effect on the system's speed and operating pres-
sure. An increase in displacement decreases the
2x3.1416
motor's speed and decreases the operating pressure.
'»'7-^
T - Decreasing displacement increases the speed of the
6.283 motor and also increases the effect on operating pres-
T = 170.778 Ib-in. sure. See Figure 5-28.
132 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

E !•
x'^ai
 Practical Hydraulics
Hydraulic circuits consist of controlling the move-
ment of a contained liquid. Hydraulic diagrams ex-
plain, demonstrate, or clarify the relationship or
functions between hydraulic components. Any hy-
draulic circuit must contain hydraulic fluid, a reser-
voir, piping, a pump, and actuators. The
valves,
hydraulic circuit application, complexity, and power
requirements dictate the type and number of compo-
nents used. Every energy source must be identified,
understood, and disabled prior to working on a hy-
draulic system. Always follow the equipment manu-
facturer's recommendations when servicing hydraulic
equipment and circuits.
Atlas Technologies, Inc.

HYDRAULIC CIRCUITRY grams generally use single lines to show the elements
of a circuit. The components are shown using simple
outlines to indicate their relative position and appear-
Hydraulics is the branch of science that deals with
ance in a circuit.
the practical application of water or other liquids at
rest or in motion. A liquid is a fluid that can flow
readily and assume the shape of its container. Hy- PICTORIAL DIAGRAMS
draulic circuits consist of controlling the iriovement
of a contained fluid (liquid). A circuit is a closed
path through which hydraulic fluid flows or may
flow. Basic hydraulic circuits include the storing of INTERNAL FUNCTION
NOT SHOWN
hydraulic fluid, a method of controlling its flow, and
devices that transfer force. Practical hydraulics deals
with the operation and repair of hydraulic circuits.

Hydraulic Diagrams

A hydraulic diagram is the layout, plan, or sketch

of a hydraulic circuit and is designed to explain, dem-
onstrate, or clarify the relationship or functions between
hydraulic components. The three basic hydraulic dia-
grams are pictorial, cutaway, and graphic.

Pictorial. A pictorial diagram is a diagram that uses

Figure 6-1. A pictorial diagram is a diagram that uses
drawings or pictures to show the relationship of each drawings or pictures to show the relationship of each
component in a circuit. See Figure 6-1. Pictorial dia- component in a circuit.
134 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Pictorial diagrams show the component's purpose • Green - Intake flow to pump or drain line flow.
within a circuit but do not provide the internal func- Intake flow is the fluid flow from the reservoir,
tion or specific information about the components. through the filters, to the pump.
For example, an outline of a directional control valve
• Blue - Exhaust or return flow to the reservoir. Ex-
may be illustrated in a pictorial diagram, but its type
haust flow is the fluid flow from the actuator, back
is not defined.
through the valve, to the reservoir.
Cutaway. A cutaway diagram is a diagram showing
• White - Inactive fluid (reservoir fluid).
the internal details of components and the path of fluid

flow. See Figure 6-2. Cutaway diagrams provide more A disadvantage of a cutaway diagram is that a
detail than pictorial diagrams. Cutaway diagrams con- considerable amount of space is required to show a
sist of double-line drawings of the circuit components system consisting of more than the minimum basic
showing their operation and internal positions. A cut- components. Also, cutaway diagrams do not indicate
away diagram provides an excellent understanding of some elements such as type or direction of rotation
simple circuits. Cutaway diagrams may be color-coded of a pump or motor.
to show direction of flow or pressure of the fluid in

the piping. Cutaway diagram color coding is:

Graphic. A graphic diagram is a diagram that uses
• Red - Fluid flowing at system operating pressure simple line shapes (symbols) with interconnecting
or highest working pressure. System operating lines to represent the function of each component in

pressure is the pressure of a fluid after the pump a circuit. See Figure 6-3. Graphic diagrams are used
until the flow is reduced, metered, or returned to when designing and troubleshooting fluid power cir-

the reservoir. cuits because the connecting lines and symbols are used
to explain how a circuit works. A symbol is a graphic
• Yellow - Controlled flow by a metering device or
element which indicates a particular device, etc.
lowest working pressure. Controlled flow is the
Graphic symbols simplify the explanation of a circuit
fluid flow after a flow control device has reduced
and can be used by individuals that speak different
the flow rate of the fluid.
languages because a person does not have to speak
• Orange - Intermediate pressure that is lower than a particular language to understand them. This promotes
system operating pressure. a universal understanding of fluid power systems.

CUTAWAY DIAGRAMS
DOUBLE-LINE DRAWING
OF ELEMENTS
-CHECK VALVE

COLOR CODE
System operating or
tiighest working pressure

Controlled flow by
metering device or
lowest worl<ing pressure

Intermediate pressure
(stiades used to indicate
different pressure levels)

-RESERVOIR

Figure 6-2. A cutaw/ay diagram Is a diagram showing the internal details of components and the path of fluid flow.
 Practical HxdrauUcs 135

GRAPHIC DIAGRAMS
SYMBOLS USED TO
SHOW COMPONENT
FUNCTION

Hydraulic circuits are used in the automobile repair industry to safely

Figure 6-3. A graphic diagram is a diagram that uses
raise an automobile to any convenient working height for repair
symbols with interconnecting lines to represent the
function of each component in a circuit.

Graphic symbols present considerable information

The American National Standards Institute
(ANSI), in collaboration with the American Society
in a small space and may contain information about
the flow of fluid. See Figure 6-4. For example, the
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), has adopted a
simplified symbol for a check valve shows a ball
standard regarding symbols for fluid power diagrams.
being held against a seat, indicating the direction of
ANSI/ASME Y32.10-1967. Graphic Symbols for Fluid
Power Diagrams. See Appendix. This standard illus- flow through that part of the line. Also, some symbols
closely resemble the actual component. For example,
trates the basic fluid power symbols and describes the

principles on which the symbols are based.

the symbol for a cylinder is similar to a cutaway
view of a cylinder, and a pressure gauge looks much
Graphic symbols show flow paths, connections, like the face of a gauge with its indicating needle.
and functions of components. They are not used to
indicate the rate of tlow or to offer pressure settings. Components and their parts are represented by
These must be added to the graphic diagram. Also, shapes such as circles, triangles, squares, or rectan-
graphic diagrams do not give the actual position of gles. Circles generally represent a component that is

a component in the system. The components are gen- round, such as a gauge. Circles also represent rotary
erally positioned to show the flow of the system and devices, such as pumps or motors. Triangles gener-
how each component is related to the others. Little ally represent direction of fluid flow. Triangles that
written explanation is required because standard sym- are completely shaded represent liquid flow within
bols and lines are used. For example, hydraulic cir- a hydraulic system. Triangles that are unshaded rep-
cuit graphic diagrams use four different lines, with resent gas flow within a pneumatic system. Triangles
each representing a working pipe. The four lines are are used to distinguish between pumps and motors.
solid, dashed, dotted, and center lines. A solid line For example, a pump (circle) having an unshaded
represents a main pipe, outline, shaft, or conductor. triangle pointing out is an air compressor. A circle
This pipe is essentially the working pipe. A dashed with a solid triangle pointing in the direction of sys-
line represents pilot piping for controlling a compo- tem fluid flow is a hydraulic motor. Squares or rec-
nent's function. A dotted line represents exhaust or tangles generally represent valves and may be
drain piping. A center line shows the outline of an grouped together to show multiple internal functions
enclosure. of a valve such as that of a directional control valve.
136 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

GRAPHIC SYMBOLS

LINES CIRCLES

MAIN LINE (SOLID)

PRESSURE PUMP FLOW CHECK

GAUGE METER VALVE
PILOT LINE (DASHED)

TRIANGLES
DRAIN LINE (DOTTED)
S ^—^ HYDRAULIC ^—
FLOW
POINTING
"^
ENCLOSURE LINE (CENTER) DIRECTION AIR MOTOR BIDIRECTIONAL
OF FLOW COMPRESSOR MOTOR

SQUARES OR RECTANGLES

ADJUSTABLE
SPRING PRESSURE
FLOW
CONTROL
DIRECTIONAL
VALVE
^
SINGLE-ACTING
CYLINDER
DOUBLE-ACTING
CYLINDER

-JJaa-
PRESSURE
SWITCH
PRESSURE-
REDUCING VALVE PRESSURE-RELIEF VALVE

Figure 6-4. Graphic symbols present considerable information in a small space and may contain information about the
flow of fluid.

Arrows are used in graphic diagrams to indicate piston that is activated by line or pilot pressure. An
an adjustable or variable component or to show shaft example of pressure compensation is that of a pres-
rotation on the near side of the shaft. A component sure-relief valve where the arrow (piston) within the
that may be adjusted or varied is represented by an symbol does not line up with the circuit lines until
arrow passing through the symbol at approximately enough pressure from a pilot line allows the internal
a 45° angle. For example, an angled arrow passing arrow to overcome spring pressure and align the in-
through four zig-zag lines indicates adjustable spring ternal passage with the circuit lines.
pressure. An angled arrow passing through a circle
represents an adjustable pump or motor. An arrow Oil-soaked clothes must be removed immediately
/^^
sym-
parallel to the short side of a symbol, within the ^—^ because they are toxic and can also catch on fire
bol, indicates that thecomponent is pressure-com- from a match, cigarette, sparks, or any open flame.
pensated. The arrow within the symbol is actually a
 Practical Hydraulics 137

HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT COMPONENTS • Sufficient viscosity to resist leakage. Leakage re-

sults in loss of pump efficiency, loss of pressure,
and generated heat.
Hydraulic components are used in a wide range of
combinations for different applications. The circuit • Resist oxidation, thereby preventing the reactions
application, complexity, and power requirements dic- of oil products to form gum, varnish, and sludge.
tate the type and number of components used. Any Oxidation is the combining of oxygen with ele-

hydraulic circuit must contain six essential elements: ments in oil which break down the basic oil com-
hydraulic fluid to transmit force and motion, a res- position.

ervoir (tank) to store the fluid, piping to transport • Resist or depress foaming caused by turbulence,
the fluid through the circuit, a pump to move the agitation, or splashing. Foaming is excessive air
fluid, valves to control the pressure and direction of in hydraulic fluid.
the fluid, and actuators to convert hydraulic force
• Resist rust, corrosion, and pitting caused by the
into mechanical force. See Figure 6-5.
chemical (usually acid) union of iron or steel with
oxygen. Pitting is localized corrosion that has the
Fluid appearance of cavities (pits).

Hydraulic fluid, the major component of a hydraulic • Remain relatively stable over a broad temperature

circuit, transmits force that is used to do work, con- range.

ducts heat away from metal surfaces, and lubricates These characteristics of hydraulic fluids are de-
moving parts. Hydraulic fluid (normally petroleum veloped by special compounding of refined oil and
oil) by itself is not sufficient to effectively perform various additives. A large number of compounded
these functions. Also, the quality and content of pe- fluids are available due to thewide variety of ma-
troleum oil before and after refining is not consistent. terials used in hydraulic systems, such as seals,
Hydraulic fluids must have the following charac- rings, or flexible hoses. Care must be taken to ensure
teristics to be effective: that proper fluids are used with compatible compo-
• Lubricate by offering a substantial film of fluid nents. Use only the compounded fluids specified by
even when subjected to high heat. the manufacturer.

HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT COMPONEHTS.

MECHANICAL ^'i

^iSE PRESSURE
RETURN

Figure 6-5. Hydraulic circuits require six elements to draw fluid into the system (vacuum), build operating pressures to do
work, and return the fluid back to storage.
138 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Additives. An additive is a chemical compound taminants of a hydraulic system. Scale-like varnish

added to a fluid to change its properties. Additives results when these resins touch hot metal compo-
protect the fluid in addition to protecting compo- nents. Filter-clogging sludge is formed as these par-
nents. Fluids are protected so they are free of de- ticles drop off. Formed and baked resins in a system
structive chemicals, resistant to foaming, and, in create an acid condition in the fluid. This acid attacks
some cases, fire-resistant. Additives are also included and dissolves the metal it contacts.
to speed demulsification and stabilize viscosity. De-
Corrosion is an acidic condition which dissolves
mulsification is the act of separating water and oil
and washes away metal, leaving metal marked with
quickly. Emulsification is the act of mixing oil and
pits. The acid condition of hydraulic fluid may be
water. In most hydraulic systems, water is damaging
checked with the use of litmus paper. Litmus paper
and must be rapidly separated from the fluid.
is a color-changing, acid-sensitive paper that is im-
Viscosity is the measure of the resistance of a
pregnated with lichens. Lichens are fungi normally
fluid's molecules to move past each other. The vis-
seen as a growth on tree trunks or rocks. Lichens
cosity of the fluid must match the specific applica-
turn from blue to a reddish color when submerged
tion. Fluids without the proper viscosity cannot
in acidic oil.
transmit power satisfactorily. Heavy fluids do not
flow properly and cause a slow, sluggish operation. The presence of moisture and oxygen causes iron
Light fluids create leakage around components and to rust.Rust is a form of oxidation in which metal
do not lubricate properly. oxides are chemically combined with water to form
a reddish-brown scale on metal. Ferrous metals in-
A fluid's resistance to foaming is increased by
crease in size and weight when rust occurs. Ferrous
adding anti-foaming additives. Fluids allowed foam to
metals decrease in size and weight when oxidation
from air entering the system cause spongy component
occurs. Ferrous metals are metals containing iron.
movements and higher-than-normal temperatures.
The prevention of rust depends on an oil's ability to
Fire-resistant fluids are sometimes required in en-
form a film on metal surfaces, which prevents the
vironments where flash point, fire point, or auto-ig-
metal from coming in contact with air or water.
nition exist. Flash point is the temperature at which
oil gives off enough gas vapor to ignite briefly when
touched with a flame. Fire point is the temperature at Strainers and Filters. Generally, contaminants enter
which oil ignites when touched with a flame. Auto-ig- a hydraulic system from the air surrounding the sys-
nition is the temperature at which oil ignites by itself. tem and must be filtered or strained before and during
system operation. A strainer is a fine metal screen
Oxidation. Oxidation is the combining of oxygen that blocks contaminant particles. A filter is a device
with elements in the oil which break down the basic containing a porous substance through which a fluid
oil composition. Oxidation greatly reduces the serv- can pass but particulate matter cannot.
ice life of a hydraulic fluid because oxygen readily
The major maintenance function of any hydraulic
combines with the hydrogen and carbon that make
fluid is keeping the fluid clean. Particle buildup in-
up the oil. The oxidation processes create resins,
terferes with lubrication by blocking flow or by rub-
which are then converted to varnish and gum and
bing or scraping against moving parts. Particle
settle out as sludge. This harmful process also pro-
buildup also interferes with the cooling process by
duces an acidic and highly corrosive fluid. Sludge
making heat transfer difficult. As heated fluid returns
and varnishes are considered contaminants and are by-
to the reservoir, the heat is normally given up to the
products of an already-destroyed oil. The oil must then
walls and baffles. Particle buildup on the walls and
be changed and flushed. A major additive to hydraulic
baffles acts as an insulator, preventing cooling.
fluids is one that prevents oxidation of the fluid.

Oxidation begins when the hydraulic fluid reaches Strainers are made of fine mesh wire screening
high temperatures while in the presence of air. The elements wrapped around a metal frame. Strainers
higher the temperature, the greater the oxidation. are used because screening is not as fine as a filter
Oxidation rates double for approximately each 20°F and offers less resistance to fluid flow. Most strainers
increase in temperature. Boiling burnt hydraulic oils can be cleaned periodically, while filters, made of
separates certain resins from the fluid. These resins porous materials, absorb particles from flowing fluids
create varnish and acid, which are two corrosive con- and must be replaced.
 cal Hxdniidks 139

Strainer screens are rated in mesh and filters are Strainers remove particles with a straight flow
rated in microns. Mesh is the number of horizontal and path through one layer of material. Materials used
vertical threads per square inch. A micron (n) is a unit for strainers are generally cloth thread, metallic
of length equal to one millionth of a meter (.000039"). thread, or perforated metal. The threads are laid in

Most strainers remove particles above 100 mesh, while equal amounts vertically and horizontally with the
filters remove particles above 3^. See Figure 6-6. Filter amount of threads being counted per square inch.
performance is based on the amount of particulate mat- For example, a 200 mesh strainer has 200 vertical
ter that can be removed from the fluid. threads and 200 horizontal threads per square inch.

RELATIVE MICRON PARTICLE SIZES

PARTICLE
REMOVED BY
STRAINER

A
i>(i4i(^jjjjalj^-'
PARTICLE
REMOVED BY
FILTER Flow Ez\ Filters, Inc.

MAGNIFICATION 500 TIMES

RELATIVE SIZES

ltfMJiflJMl^!> Sffl i ^
140 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Certain mesh sizes produce certain pore (opening) A pressure filter is a very fine filter placed after
sizes because of tiie accurate control of the strainer a pump for protection of the system components.
manufacturing process. A 200 mesh strainer has a Pressure filters between the pump and
are placed
pore size of 14\x. Strainer mesh is given an absolute components or between individual components in a
rating because the pore size is accurately controlled. circuit. Pressure filters placed between components

An absolute rating is an indication of the largest have the advantage of filtering out particles intro-

opening in a strainer element. Therefore, 74|i is the duced upstream by a deteriorating component.
largest particle that can pass through a 200 mesh Some pressure filters are capable of handling bidi-
strainer. The higher the mesh number, the smaller rectional flow. Bidirectional flow filters may be used
the opening. between a directional control valve and the actuator

Ideally, a filter should be placed in the hydraulic Pressure filters can filter out very fine particles be-

line before every component. This is not economical, cause system pressure is used to push the fluid
so filters of various types and ratings are placed stra- through the minute openings.
Particles can be

tegically in a system to offer the best and most eco- pushed through the element or the element may col-
nomical results. Three basic locations for filters used lapse or tear if a filter becomes contaminated and
in a hydraulic circuit are the suction strainer, pressure is not equipped with a bypass. Pressure filters range

filter, and return-line filter. See Figure 6-7. from 5n to 40^.

A suction strainer is a coarse filter attached to a A return-line filter is a filter positioned in the
pump inlet. A suction strainer is used to protect a circuit just before the reservoir. Return-line filters
pump from particle contamination. A suction strainer filter fluids before the fluid is returned to the res-
is placed inside of the reservoir, before the pump. ervoir and do not operate under pressure. These
This protects the pump from reservoir contaminants fluids may be finely filtered using normal oper-
and makes the pump easily serviceable. Poor main- ating back pressure. Poor maintenance increases
tenance of the suction strainer starves the pump and back pressure and adversely affects circuit compo-
prevents the lubrication of the pump, which causes nents. Also, return-line filters deliver clean fluid
it to generate high temperatures and contaminates. to a dirty reservoir if the reservoir is not properly
Suction strainers range from 25|i to 235|I. maintained.

Figure 6-7. Suction, pressure, and return-line filters are the three basic locations for filters found in a hydraulic circuit.
 Practical Hydraulics 141

Some filters are designed to allow fluids to bypass

RESERVOIRS
the filter when a difference in specific pressure is

sensed. In this case, a relief or bypass valve allows

full fluid flow across the filter if proper filter main-
RETURN LINE
tenance is not performed and pressures increase
above normal. In some units, indicators are designed RESERVOIR SYMBOL

into the filters to show their condition. Filter-clog-

ging conditions may be indicated by dial indicator
movement, a light or buzzer, or an equipment OFF
button. Regardless of the hydraulic filter or fluid
used, lack of a proper maintenance program rapidly
destroys hydraulic equipment.

-STRAINER
(J) Always cap or plug open lines or connectors
\ // when installing or removing components to re- DRAIN PLUG
duce the possibility of contaminants entering a system.
I

Reservoirs
Figure 6-8. A reservoir is a container for storing fluid in a
hydraulic system.
A reservoir is a container for storing fluid in a hy-
draulic system. The primary purpose of a reservoir
is to provide a storage space for the fluid required
by the system. The reservoir capacity should nor-
mally be two to three times the volume of fluid
pumped through the system in one minute. In addi-
tion to fluid storage, a reservoir also prevents fluid
contamination, helps with fluid/air separation, and
maintains safe fluid temperatures.

Reservoirs are constructed with a dished bottom

to allow for drainage, a fluid level gauge, a breather
cap, baffle plate(s). and return, drain, and suction lines.
Reservoirs may also be equipped with a strainer to pre-
vent fluid contamination, clean-out covers or remov-
able tops to allow cleaning the reservoir, and a drain
plug at the lowest point to allow changing fluid or
draining accumulated moisture. See Figure 6-8.

A reservoir is normally equipped with a breather

cap to allow atmospheric pressure to push the fluid
up to the pump. Also, the fluid level is constantly
rising and falling when the circuit is operating. A
breather cap roughly filters the dirt-laden air, which
enters and exits the reservoir as the circuit actuator
is filled and exhausted. Breather caps become
plugged and cause improper pump operation if they
are not cleaned regularly. Breather caps are not DoALL Company
used and the reservoirs are pressurized when res-
The C-305 Series power saws from DoALL Company contain 2 HP
ervoirs are used in applications in unclean or cor-
hydraulic pumps and 10 gal. fluid reservoirs to operate the hydraulic
rosive environments. vise cylinders.
142 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Baffle plates block the returning fluid from going

HEAT EXCHANGERS
directly to the suction line. The baffle plates are
placed between the return and suction line ports in

the reservoir to help settle the flow of fluid and allow

contaminants or moisture to drop out and air bubbles
to rise to the top. Additionally, baffle plates are used
as heat exchangers to help reduce the temperature of
the returning fluid.
To dissipate heat, reservoirs are narrow and deep
as opposed to short and wide. This offers a large
exterior surface to contact ambient air for cooling. WARM HYDRAULIC
FLUID OUT n WARM HYDRAULIC
For best operation, reservoir fluids should not exceed \ FLUID OUT
TUBE-^
160°F-180°F. Generally, reservoirs dissipate about -BLOWER \ .-. \ WARM WATER
70% of the heat generated within the system with \ OUT-x
^T** TUBES ^ f
the remaining 30% being radiated from the compo-
nents or plumbing. The amount of heat dissipated
also depends on the temperature difference between
the reservoir surface and ambient air. Hydraulic
equipment installed too close to furnaces or ovens
may reach or surpass critical temperature levels. -SHEET METAL
FINS
Heat Exchangers. A heat exchanger is a device -HOT HYDRAULIC
FLUID IN
which transfers heat through a conducting wall from
one fluid to another. Heat produced in an operating AIR-COOLED WATER-COOLED
circuit is radiated away by the reservoir baffle plate
and into the air surrounding the circuit components.
Figure 6-9. Heat exchangers help to lower the
This heat transfer is generally sufficient for a hy-
temperature of hydraulic fluids when other methods are
draulic circuit. However, a reservoir may not be ca- not sufficient.
pable of dissipating enough of the heat produced. In
such cases, heat exchangers are placed in the hydrau-
lic lines to remove excess and damaging heat. Heat Piping
exchangers are either air-cooled or water-cooled de-
vices. See Figure 6-9. Hoses, pipes, and tubing are the basic piping devices
used to connect components and to conduct fluid in

Air-cooled heat exchangers (coolers) operate by a hydraulic system. Hydraulic circuit piping must be
pumping the hot circuit fluid through tubes attached leakproof and strong enough to withstand required
to sheet metal fins. Cooling of the hot fluid is ac- temperatures, vibrations, and pressures. Proper ma-
complished through the use of a blower, which blows terials and procedures must be used to prevent excess
air over the tube and fins. Air-cooled heat exchangers restriction, turbulence, leakage, or dangerous situ-

are similar to automobile radiators. Water-cooled heat ations.

exchangers operate by pumping hot circuit fluid
through a shell and over tubes containing circulated
Hoses. A hose is a flexible tube for carrying fluids
cool water. The circulating water carries away un-
under pressure. Hoses are fabricated in layers for use
wanted heat from the circuit fluid. This type of heat
in high-pressure or extra-high-pressure hydraulic
exchanger may be reversed to warm circuit fluids.
circuits. High-pressure hoses are capable of with-
By circulating warm water through the tubes, circuit
standing pressures up to 5000 psi. Hoses generally
fluid within the shell can be heated.
consist of an inner layer of soft synthetic rubber
that is compatible with hydraulic fluids, two or
more layers of multiple wire braid reinforcement,
O'An
) estimated 300 million gallons of used
disposed of improperly each Used year.
oil

oil is
are
a a layer of cotton braid, and a rubber cover. Extra-
toxic substance, and must be disposed of properly. high-pressure hoses contain four or more wire braid
layers. See Figure 6-10.
 Practical Hydraulic

MULTIPLE WIRE BRAID

REINFORCEMENT

HOSE INSTALLATION

The Gates Rubber Company

CORRECT
Hydraulic hoses should be enclosed in protective sleeves when subject
to rubbing and should be installed with a bending radius of greater
than six times the inside diameter

INCORRECT
Hoses are installed to avoid twists and sharp
bends. The bending radius of flexible hose must be
greater than six times the inside diameter. Protective
sleeves must encase any hose that is subject to rub-
bing. Hoses must not be excessively long or ex-
cessively short. Hoses that are excessively long
CORRECT have more internal resistance. Hoses tend to de-

t AVOID SHARP BENDS

INCORRECT
crease in length when pressurized, so a hose which
is

fail
excessively short, without any bend or flex, will
prematurely.

Pipes. A pipe is a hollow cylinder of metal or other

material of substantial wall thickness. Pipe wall
thickness is normally thick enough that the pipe
may be threaded. Originally, pipe was manufac-
tured with one wall thickness and its size was the
actual inside diameter. This changed due to an
increase in the strength requirements of pipe. Wall
thicknesses were increased, which reduced the in-
side diameter (ID) of the pipe, leaving the outside
diameter (OD) unchanged.

Pipe is designated according to its nominal size

CORRECT INCORRECT and wall thickness. Presently, the nominal pipe size
indicates the thread size for connections. A standard

Figure 6-10. Hoses are fabricated in layers for use in

Vj" pipe has an ID of .622" and is classified as
high-pressure hydraulic circuits. Schedule 40 pipe. An extra-heavy V2" pipe is clas-

sified as Schedule 80 pipe with an ID of .546". A

double-extra-heavy pipe has an ID of .252" (approxi-
() Proper tools and skill are required when in-

^ stalling reusable hose fittings. Always follow mately Schedule 160). The actual inside diameter
varies with piping, but the actual outside diameter
fitting manufacturer's instructions when installing
specific fittings. remains constant for any given size pipe. See Figure
6-11. See Appendix.
144 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

is usually too thin for threading. Carbon steel tubing

offer distinct advantages over pipes when used in hy-
draulic circuits. One minor disadvantage is that tub-

^ ing is more expensive than

tubing include:
• Tubing requires fewer connections than pipe be-
pipes. Advantages of

cause they can be bent. Tubing also absorb vibra-

tions better than pipe because of their flexibility.

• Tubing connections make every joint a union, per-

mitting faster assembly and disassembly without
the need for joint compounds or tape. A union is

a fitting used to connect or disconnect two tubes

SCHEDULE 80-
that cannot be turned.
SCHEDULE40^
• Tubing is lighter in weight than pipe
and has a
smoother inner surface, which produces less fric-
^.546"^ -^ ^.252
tion and less pressure loss.

Hydraulic tubing is connected using fittings. Tub-

ing fittings may be flared or flareless fittings.

EXTRA- DOUBLE- Flared Fittings. A flared fitting is a fitting that is

STANDARD HEAVY EXTRA-HEAVY
connected to tubing whose end is spread outward.
The body of the fitting is screwed tightly against the
Figure 6-11. Pipe is designated according to its nominal flared end of the tubing. Proper flaring provides a
size and wall thickness.
firm, leakproof connection. See Figure 6-12.

Pipe is generally used for permanent installations.

This is because pipe threads are tapered, and once a
FLARED FITTINGS
connection is broken, it must be tightened further to
reseal. Each time a pipe is retightened, its length is

changed. In some cases, replacing a pipe with a

slightly longer pipe may be required.
Proper installation procedures ensure the perma-
nency of pipe fittings. Two-thirds of the threaded area
should be covered with a pipe joint compound, such
as Teflon® tape or paste. This is applied to the middle
portion of the male thread to prevent any compound
from entering and contaminating the system. Over-
tightening threads may cause premature leaking or
undue stress.

Hydraulic lines and fittings should be made of

steel, with the exception of flexible hoses. Galva-
nized pipe must not be used due to the possibility
of metal flaking. Also, the zinc used for galvanizing
reacts adversely with certain hydraulic fluid addi-
tives. Copper tubing should not be used because it
iror^'""'
P— i
CENTERLINE
iMr I
reacts to hydraulic fluids. In addition to its reaction
'4:—j—J:^^"^— TUBING ^4. J?
to the fluids, copper tends to harden and crack under
the heat and vibrations of hydraulic circuits. MAXIMUM MINIMUM
FLARE FLARE
Tubing. A tube is a thin-walled, seamless or seamed,
hollow cylinder. Tubing is soldered, welded, or Figure 6-12. A flared fitting is a fitting that is connected to
formed for compression because their wall thickness tubing whose end is spread outward.
 Praclical Hydraulics 145

Flared fittings generally consist of a body, sleeve, The nut is rotated with a wrench until a determined
and nut. A seal is made when the flared tubing is number of flats on the body have been passed. The
pressed against the angular seat of the body by the number of flats passed is based on the size of the
sleeve. The angles of the body, sleeve, and flared fitting. For example, a size 8, Vj" flared fitting should
tubing ensure a good seal when the tubing, which is be rotated 2 flats after fingertight. This fitting may
the softest of the three pieces, is pressed into the also be tightened to 200 Ib-in. - 300 Ib-in. using a
body. The standard flare angle for hydraulic tubing torque wrench.
fittings is 37° from the centerline. The flare ex-
tends to cover the total angular surface of the
sleeve, but not beyond the sleeve's outside diame-
ter. The and positively between
flare seats firmly
the sleeve and the body when tubing is flared prop-
erly and tubing nuts are tightened securely. Flares
that are too short do not provide enough mating area
to prevent leaks, and flares that are too long hang
up during assembly. Clean, square tubing cuts are
achieved with a tube cutter. Hacksaws produce rough
cuts which generally are not square.

Flared tubing connections may also have a flare

angle of 45°. A 45° flare angle is used for low-pres-

sure applications such as pneumatic, refrigeration, or
The Gates Rubber Company
automotive applications, and is not to be used for
high-pressure hydraulic circuits. After hand-tightening, a wrench is used to properly torque hose fittings.

Incorrect flares may appear to assemble satisfac-

torily and may even pass initial pressure tests. They
are not, however, reliable for continuous service. All
tubing flares must conform to the sleeve and body
FLARED JOINT TIGHTENING
used to join tubing sections.
WITNESS MARKS
MARKED WITH
Flared Joint Tightening. A positive seal is vital to FELT PEN

prevent fluid loss, keep out contamination, and main-

tain hydraulic circuit pressure. A positive seal does
not allow the slightest amount of fluid to pass and
is normally compressed between two rigid parts. A FLARED JOINT
nonpositive seal allows a certain amount of leakage,
FLARED JOINT TIGHTENING SPECIFICATIONS]
which provides a lubricating film between surfaces.
An example of a nonpositive seal isa piston and an
0-ring moving within a cylinder.

Tightening a flared fitting is a positive seal and

is accomplished by using the proper torque. Under-
tightening or overtightening a flared fitting nut is

avoided by using a torque wrench with proper torque

settings or by manually turning the fitting nut while
observing witness marks applied to the sealing nut
and body. See Figure 6-13.

Witness marks may be used when a torque wrench

is not available. The joint is assembled with the nut
bottomed out and tightened to fingertight. A line is
marked, using a felt marker, lengthwise on a flat on
the body and onto the corresponding flat of the nut.
146 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Tubing should never be assembled in a straight line. Impact Flaring Method. The impact flaring method
Bending tubing for assembly reduces vibration strains is a basic flaring method in which a flaring tool is

and compensates for thermal expansion. A gradual bend inserted into the tubing end and hammered into the
is preferred over elbow fittings because elbow fittings tubing until the tubing end is spread (flared) as re-
have sharp turns with high resistance to flow. Tubing quired. Flaring tool kits consist of a split female die,
must be bent with the correct radius and without kinks, a tubing clamp, and a variety of different-sized flar-

wrinkles, or flattened bends. The bending radius should ing tools. See Figure 6-15.
be greater than four times the tubing ID. Tubing must
also be properly supported to minimize the stresses of
vibration. See Figure 6-14.
IMPACT FLARING METHOD

TUBING INSTALLATION

SPLIT Cl)
FEMALE
DIE-.

(T) INSERT SPLIT FEMALE DIE INTO TUBING CLAMP

(2) INSERT TUBING

(3) TIGHTEN TUBING CLAMP

(4) HAMMER FLARING TOOL WHILE HOLDING TUBING

DISASSEMBLE PARTS

INCORRECT Figure 6-15. Tfie impact flaring metfiod uses a flaring tool
which is inserted into the tubing end and hammered into the
tubing until the tubing end is spread (flared) as required.

A tubing is flared using the impact method by

applying the procedure:

1. Insert the split female die into the tubing clamp

and slide it to the end, enabling the die to be
spread open.

2. Insert the tubing into the appropriate die hole with

the tubing end approximately '732" above the top

surface of the die.

Figure 6-14. Bending tubing for assembly reduces 3. Place the tubing clamp directly over the tubing
vibration strains and compensates for tliermal expansion. end and tighten.
 Practical HvcJraulics 147

4. Hold the tubing with one hand while hammering (rpm). Pressure is produced by resistance against
the flaring tool. This hand takes up the concussion fluid flow. Flow is the output of a positive-displace-
from the blows and is used to feel the thud of ment pump and is expressed in gpm. Flow is pro-
the flaring tool when bottomed out. portional to the prime mover's rpm. For example, a

5. Disassemble the parts and check the flare when system designed for a pump output of 50 gpm at

the bottomed out thud of the flare tool is felt. Re- 1700 rpm should remain at 1700 rpm. A change of

insert the tube V?:" above the die surface and repeat
rpm greatly affects the pump output. At 1600 rpm
the pump's output may be as low as 40 gpm, while
Steps 3 and 4 if a wider flare is required.
at 1800 rpm the pump's output may be as high as
Flareless Fittings. A flareless (compression) fitting 60 gpm. The flow rate (gpm) dictates the actuator
is a fitting that seals and grips by manual adjustable speed. Changing speed could cause cavitation and
deformation. Flareless fittings are designed for may be damaging. Most pumps should be sized for
thicker wall tubes that are not suitable for flaring. a greater output than what is actually required for
Flareless flttings create a seal with a ferrule. A fer- the circuit output devices.
rule is a metal sleeve used for joining one piece of Positive displacement pumps used in hydraulic cir-
tube to another. The ferrule cuts into and compresses cuits are generally gear. vane, or piston pumps. Hy-
the tube when the nut is tightened onto the body.
draulic pumps must be constructed to high-quality
The nut is tightened a full turn after the completed
standards, used properly, and maintained using a
assembly is fingertight. See Figure 6-16.
scheduled maintenance program because pump effi-

ciency is directly related to pump cleanliness.

FLARELESS (COMPRESSION) FITTINGS

(^^ Personal injury may result if hose assemblies
^-^ are not periodically checked for damage or re-
placed with properly rated assemblies.

Figure 6-16. A flareless (compression) fitting uses a

ferrule which cuts Into and compresses the tube when the
nut Is tightened onto the body.

Pumps

A pump is a mechanical device that causes fluid to

flow. Hydraulic pumps do not create energy, they
convert the energy of a prime mover into hydraulic
energy. A prime mover is an electric motor or engine
that supplies rotational force at a constant speed.
Generally, pumps used in hydraulic circuits are posi-
tive-displacement pumps. Positive displacement is

the moving of a fixed amount of a substance with

each cycle. Displacement of hydraulic pumps is ex-
pressed in cu in. of oil discharged per revolution. Boeing Commercial Airplane Group

Pumps are rated by the manufacturer with a pres- Many aircraft contain hydraulic systems for tt)e control of flaps, sta-
sure and fluid output rating in revolutions per minute bilizers, landing gear, and brakes.
148 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Gear Pumps. A gear pump is a pump consisting of the teeth rotate, the fluid is moved between each
two meshing gears enclosed in a close-fitting hous- tooth from the inlet side of the pump to the outlet
ing. One gear is driven by the prime mover. Gear side. The oil between the teeth is displaced and
pumps are the most widely used hydraulic pumps forced through the outlet port as the teeth of the ro-
because of their simple design and ease of repair. tating gears mesh on the outlet side of the pump.
See Figure 6-17. The gears used in a gear pump are generally spur
gears. A spur gear is a gear that has straight teeth
GEAR PUMPS that are parallel to the shaft axes.For quieter opera-
tion and increased performance, helical or herring-
DRIVEN GEAR
(GEAR DRIVEN bone gears are used at greater expense. A helical gear
BY DRIVE GEAR) is a gear with teeth that are cut at an angle to its

axis of rotation. A herringbone gear is a double heli-

cal gear that contains a right- and left-handed helix.
Vane Pumps. A vane pump is a pump that contains
vanes in an offset rotor. Vane pumps produce fluid
flow as the rotor and vanes rotate. See Figure 6-18.
As the rotor rotates, a vacuum is produced at the

inlet port allowing atmospheric pressure to push the

AREA OF
DRIVE GEAR POSITIVE fluid and fill the voids between the vanes. Centrifugal
(GEAR DRIVEN BY DISPLACEMENT
PRIME MOVER) force, springs, and/or pressureunder the vanes hold
them firmly against a cam ring to form a positive
GEARS seal between the tip of the vanes and the cam ring.

VANE PUMPS

HERRINGBONE

SPUR
TEETH
PARALLEL » jeETH
^ FORM HELIX
™^AXES

Figure 6-17. A gear pump contains two gears withir

housing that are rotated to produce fluid flow.

Gear pumps develop fluid flow by carrying oil be-

tween the teeth of the two closely meshed gears and
their housing. The housing includes an inlet port and
an outlet port. The fluid in the reservoir is constantly
pushed by atmospheric pressure. A vacuum is created
at the inlet port as the gears begin rotating. The vac-
uum allows the fluid to be pushed into the spaces
Figure 6-18. A vane pump contains vanes In the slots of a
between the gear teeth by atmospheric pressure. As produce fluid flow as the rotor rotates.
rotor that
 Practical Hydraulics 149

A cam ring is a metal ring that provides an area

for fluid flow and a surface against which the vanes
BALANCED-VANE PUMPS
ride. The fluid enters and is discharged from the
pump through a port plate. A port plate is a device
that contains ports that connect the pump's internal
inlet and discharge areas to the pump housing inlet

and outlet ports. The inlet port of the port plate is

connected to the inlet port of the pump housing. The

outlet port of the port plate is connected to the outlet

port of the pump housing.

As the rotor continues to rotate and fluid is carried
forward, the vanes begin to retract as the volume of
the void produced between the off-centered rotor and
the cam ring is reduced. The fluid is forced out of
the port plate outlet port at increased pressure. Vane
pumps remain efficient throughout their use due to the
movement of the vanes, which compensates for wear.
Vane pumps are classified as unbalanced or bal-
anced. An unbalanced vane pump has one set of in-

ternal ports. The rotor is off-center from the cam

ring and each vane creates a pumping action once
in each revolution. Unbalance is developed by the
low inlet pressure on one side of the rotor and the
high discharge pressure on the other side of the rotor.

A balanced-vane pump is a vane pump that has two

sets of internal ports and contains an elliptical cam
ring. See Figure 6-19. In a balanced-vane pump, the
rotor is centered inside the cam ring. The vanes create
a pumping action twice in one revolution because the
two inlet and two outlet ports on the port plate are
1 80° apart. Both inlet ports are connected together and
both outlet ports are connected together so each leads
to one respective port in the pump housing. The pump
remains balanced because the high discharge pressures
are applied to both sides of the rotor.
The volume of a vane pump is determined by how
far the rotor and cam ring are
Changing the offset.

offset between the rotor and cam ring changes the

volume of fluid supplied by the pump. The offset is
changed by moving the cam ring to reduce or in-
crease the size of the area between the cam ring and
the rotor. Displacement control is performed by the
turn of an external hand wheel or by a pressure com-
pensator. A pressure compensator is a displacement
control that alters displacement in response to pres-
sure changes in a system.

(hH) Relieve all hydraulic pressure before working

^^ on pressurized hydraulic lines or components
by cycling the control levers before disconnecting
the parts of the system.
150 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

At full compensation, the displacement of a pump angle position. The pistons do not reciprocate if the
is zero plus minor internal leakage. All pressure-com- swash plate is not at an angle. The pistons recipro-
pensated pumps require the case oil to be drained when cate, drawing oil from the inlet port and discharging
fully compensated because of the internal leakage. The it at the outlet port, if the swash plate is at an angle.

fluid left in the pump during zero displacement con- The displacement varies according to the angle of
tinues to rise in temperature if there is no fluid flow. the swash plate.

Piston Pumps. A piston pump is a pump in which

Cavitation. Cavitation is the process in which mi-
fluid flow is produced by reciprocating pistons. A croscopic gas bubbles expand in a vacuum and sud-
piston pump consists of a cylinder barrel, pistons
denly implode when entering a pressurized area.
with shoes, valve plate, and swash plate. See Figure
Implosion is an inward bursting. Cavitation occurs
6-21. The pistons are connected to the swash plate
when the inlet port of a pump is restricted. An indi-
by shoes. As the cylinder barrel rotates, the pistons
cation of pump cavitation is a high shrieking sound
slide over the valve plate. The valve plate contains
or a sound similar to loose marbles or ball bearings
two crescent-shaped ports. One port is connected to
in the pump. Cavitation is normally created when
the inlet port of the pump and the other is connected
the suction line is damaged, plugged, or collapsed.
to the outlet port. The pistons reciprocate, drawing
Cavitation may also be caused by an increase in pump
oil from the crescent-shaped inlet port due to the
rpm, requiring more fluid than the system piping al-
angle of the swash plate. At mid-rotation, the pistons
lows, fluids with an increased viscosity due to lower
are completely extended and filled with fluid. As the
ambient temperatures, and an increase in the viscos-
cylinder barrel continues to rotate, the cylinders be-
ity of a fluid in a system when the system has a long
gin to retract and force the fluid out of the crescent-
suction line.
shaped outlet port.
As the pump pulls against a fluid that does not
flow, a greater vacuum is created. Any microscopic
PISTON PUMPS air or gas within the fluid expands. Expanded bub-
bles on the inlet side collapse rapidly on the outlet
side of the pump. The small but tremendous im-
plosions can cause great damage to pump parts.
Theoretically, an air bubble exposed to 5000 psi
system cavitation may create an implosion pressure
of 75,000 psi and travel at a speed of 600 fps to

4000 fps. See Figure 6-22.

CAVITATION

Figure 6-21. The pumping action of a piston pump is

caused by reciprocating pistons within the cylinder barrel
as the swash plate rotates.

Piston pumps are used when variable displace-

ment is required. Variable displacement allows the
control of fluid from a no-flow condition up to full
flow. Regulating flow is accomplished by adjusting

the swash plate from a no-angle position to a full-

 Pnictkcd Hxdnudics 151

Pseudocavitation is artificial cavitation caused by Pressure Control. Pressure control in a hydraulic

air being allowed into the pump suction line. Pseudo- circuit concerned with maintaining or reducing
is

cavitation is caused by low reservoir fluid, contami- (regulating) system pressure to operate a circuit.
nated fluid, or leaking pump suction lines. Pressure control valves include pressure-relief, se-
Pseudocavitation is indicated by an unchanged or quence, and pressure-reducing valves.
lower pump intake vacuum.
Hydraulic circuit pressure is maintained by the use
of a pressure-relief valve. A pressure-relief valve is
Valves a valve that sets a maximum operating pressure level
for a circuit to protect the circuit from overpressure.
A valve is a device that controls the pressure, direc- Pressure-relief valves are normally closed valves that

tion, or rate of fluid flow. Hydraulic circuit compo- require higher-than-spring pressure to open. In a
nents, including valves, are equipped with one or pressure-relief valve, pressure on a ball or poppet

more external openings (ports), which allow the flow overcomes spring pressure, allowing fluid to flow.
of fluid to and from the device. Each external port The inlet (primary) port is connected to circuit pres-
is a primary or secondary port. A primary port is sure and the discharge (secondary) port is connected

the source or inlet port. A primary port may be la- to the reservoir. Ball or poppet movement is control-
beled with a P for primary or pressure. A secondary led by a predetermined pressure level. The pressure
port is an external passage that allows fluid flow to level, or spring pressure, is usually varied by screw
other components. Secondary ports may be labeled adjustment. See Figure 6-23.
A, B, or T. A- and B-labeled ports are ports that lead
to other pressure components. A T- (tank) labeled Hydraulic valves may be direct-acting or pi-
port is a port that leads to the reservoir. Basic hy- lot-operated. A direct-acting valve is a valve that
draulic valves operate by moving elements that open is activated or directly moved by fluid pressure from
or block fluid passages that are connected to other the primary port. For example, in a pressure-relief
components. Hydraulic circuit valves are grouped by valve, the spool or poppet is directly activated by
their function. Hydraulic circuit valves may be pres- an increase in circuit or upstream pressure. See
sure, directional, or flow control valves. Figure 6-24.

PRESSURE-RELIEF VALVES

Kl
ADJUSTABLE
PRESSURE-RELIEF
VALVE SYMBOL
 152 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

VALVE ACTUATION METHODS

DIRECT-ACTING PILOT-OPERATED

Figure 6-24. Hydraulic valves may be direct-acting (actuated by fluid pressure from the primary port) or pilot-operated
(actuated by fluid in the line that is otherwise sent back to the reservoir).

another component or may be passages that are ma-

chined within a component.
Pilot-operated pressure-relief valves are used as
circuit pressure overload protection and are also used
for circuit operating pressure regulation. In a pilot-
operated pressure-relief valve, pilot pressure is sensed
through a control orifice by the pilot poppet. As circuit
pressure builds, the pilot poppet opens, allowing the
fluid to flow to the reservoir. This reduces the pressure
of the outlet side of the main poppet, causing it to open
and allowing greater fluid flow to the reservoir.

A pressure-relief valve that is normally closed can

be situated between two linear actuators (cylinders) and
used as a sequence valve. A sequence valve is a pres-
sure-operated valve that diverts flow to a secondary
Directional control valves manufactured by Continental Hydraulics are actuator while holding pressure on the primary actuator
available with up to 5 actuators (solenoid, air, cam, oil, and lever) at a predetermined minimum value after the primary
and 12 spool options for use witli pressures up to 4600 psi.
actuator completes its travel. A sequence is the order
of a series of operations or movements.

A pilot-operated valve is a valve that is actuated A clamp and stamp circuit is an example of a cir-
by fluid in the line that is otherwise sent back to the cuit in which a sequence valve can be used to control
reservoir. Pilot operation is controlling the function the sequence of circuit operations. A sequence valve
of a valve using system pressure or pressure supplied is positioned in the circuit just ahead of the stamp
by an external (pilot) source. A pilot line is a passage cylinder. The pressure setting does not allow the main
used to carry fluid to control a valve. A pilot line is poppet to shift, preventing the primary port and sec-
not used to power an actuator. Pilot lines may be ondary port from being connected until the set pres-

externally plumbed to transfer the flow of fluid from sure has been reached. See Figure 6-25.
 Praclical Hydraulics 153

SEQUENCE CIRCUITS

-STAMP CYLINDER
(SECONDARY
MAIN POPPET OPENS ACTUATOR)
ALLOWING FLUID FLOW
TO STAMP CYLINDER
AFTER ADJUSTING SCREW j:
PRESSURE REACHED

CHECK VALVE ALLOWS REGULATED

FLOW THROUGH PRESSURE-RELIEF
VALVE IN ONE DIRECTION AND
FULL FLOW IN REVERSE DIRECTION

^CLAMP CYLINDER
EXTENDS FIRST

PRESSURE IN SYSTEM
BUILDS TO ADJUSTING
SCREW PRESSURE
^J -CLAMP CYLINDER
(PRIMARY ACTUATOR)

Figure 6-25. A sequence circuit diverts tlow to a secondary actuator while holding pressure on the primary actuator
predetermined minimum value after the primary actuator completes its travel.

Fluid flow to the clamp cylinder extends the clamp moved off its normal position, reducing or blocking
cylinder while the stamp cylinder does not move. working pressure when higher-than-system pressure
Pressure in the circuit continues to build after the is reached. Excess fluid flow is diverted to the res-

clamp cylinder is fully extended. The sequence valve ervoir through the drain port. Only enough flow is

main poppet opens, allowing fluid tlow to the stamp passed to the outlet to maintain the preset pressure.
cylinder when the adjusting screw pressure is A light flow is sent to the reservoir through the drain
reached. This allows a part to be clamped and port if the valve closes completely. This prevents
stamped in the correct sequence. pressure from building up in the circuit. Pressure lev-
els are maintained by a pressure adjusting screw.
System pressure set by pressure-relief valves may
not always be sufficient to operate multiple actuators. measured by
Pressure intensity is a pressure gauge
A pressure-reducing valve is used where each actua- when adjustments are made to pressure-control com-
tor or circuit may require a lower pressure than the ponents. A pressure gauge is a device that measures
circuit's operating pressure. A pressure-reducing the intensity of a force applied to a fluid. Pressure
valve is a valve that limits the maximum pressure at gauges are required for adjusting control valves to
its outlet, regardless of the inlet pressure. Pressure- within proper or required values, determining the
reducing valves are normally open and may be di- forces exerted by a cylinder, or determining the
rect-acting or pilot-operated. Pressure-reducing torque produced by a hydraulic motor.
valves, which sense pressure from their secondary
port, are normally direct-acting. However, pressure
in another part of a circuit can be sensed and pilot ^{b) In the U.S., the Comprehensive Environmental
pressure used to operate a pressure-reducing valve Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of
by means of an external pilot line. See Figure 6-26. 1980 holds any party creating or contributing to a
hazardous waste site financially responsible for
Pressure-reducing valves operate by pressure be- clean-up costs.
ing sensed at their secondary port. The spool is
154 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

PRESSURE-REDUCING VALVES PRESSURE GAUGES

Flow Ezy Filters, Inc.

PRESSURE GAUGE

FULL FLOW •-BOURDON TUBE

STRAIGHTENS
FROM PRESSURE
Figure Pressure-reducing valves are used to
6-26.
regulate pressure in one leg of a circuit, or individual
component pressure.

Many gauges used for measuring high pressure use

a Bourdon tube. A Bourdon tube is a hollow metal
tube made of brass or similar material. A Bourdon
tube is oval or elliptical in its cross-sectional area
BOURDON TUBE OPERATION
and is bent in the shape of the letter C. One end of
the Bourdon tube is fixed to a frame where the fluid POINTER GEAR BOURDON
TUBE
enters. The other end is closed and free to move. As
SCALE - ^SPRING
fluid pressure inside the tube changes, the elliptical
cross section changes, and the free end of the Bour-
don tube tends to straighten. This actuates a linkage
which moves the pointer
to a pointer gear, to indicate

the pressure on a scale. See Figure 6-27.

Directional Control. A directional control valve is

a valve whose primary function is to direct or prevent

flow through selected passages. A directional control
valve allows fluid to be directed to actuators and
other system components at the appropriate time and
valve port. Directional control valves include check,
2-way, 3- way, and 4-way valves.

(^S\ Bourdon tube pressure gauges can be damaged by

^-^ pressure surges in the hydraulic system. To limit
the damage, bourdon tube gauges may be oU filled. Figure 6-27. Pressure gauges use a Bourdon tube to
measure pressures.
 Practical Hxdnmlics 155

A check valve is a valve that allows flow in only A way is a route that fluid can take through a
one direction. Check valves are normally closed valve. For example, a check valve is referred to as
and may be direct-acting or pilot-operated. A di- a one-way valve because fluid flow is routed in only
rect-acting check valve consists of a valve body, one direction. Ways may connect more than one port.
spring, and ball or poppet. The valve body contains
A two-way directional control valve is a valve
an inlet (primary) and outlet (secondary) port.
that has two main ports that allow or stop the
The spring holds the ball or poppet in one posi-
flow of fluid. Two-way valves are used as shutoff,
tion. The ball or poppet blocks fluid flow when
check, and quick-exhaust valves. A three-way di-
held against the seat or allows fluid flow when
rectional control valve is a valve that has three
pushed off its seat as the inlet pressure rises high
main ports that allow or stop fluid flow or ex-
enough to overcome the spring pressure. The
haust. Three-way valves are used to control sin-
spring and fluid pressure forces the ball or poppet
gle-acting cylinders, fill-and-drain tanks, and
to seat, preventing fluid flow if fluid attempts to
nonreversible fluid power motors. A four-way di-
flow in the reverse direction. See Figure 6-28.
rectional control valve is a valve that has four
The flow through check valve in both direc-
a main ports change fluid flow from one port
that
tions may be accomplished with the use of pilot to another. Four-way valves are used to control
operation. The external pilot supply may be hy- the direction of double-acting cylinders and re-
draulic or pneumatic. Pilot-operated check valves versible fluid motors.
operate normally as a check valve. Pilot pressure
Two-way, 3-way, and 4-way directional control
is needed at the pilot poppet when reverse fluid

flow is required. The check valve poppet is un-

valves are constructed similarly with some minor
changes. The basic parts of a directional control
seated, allowing reverse flow when sufficient pi-
valve are the body and the internal spool. The body
lot pressure is produced at the pilot port. The
has a series of holes (ports) that are usually labeled
pilot poppet and the main poppet control the flow
A, B, P, and T. Ports labeled A and B are passage
of fluid.
ports to and from an actuator. Ports labeled P are
Directional control valves are described by their pump or pressure ports. Ports labeled T are tank
number of ways and spool positions. The movement ports. There are many different flow paths used to
of the spool determines which way the fluid tlows. connect these ports. See Figure 6-29.

CHECK VALVES

BALL POPPET PILOT-OPERATED

Figure 6-28. Check valves are normally closed and allow fluid flow in one direction.
156 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES

FLUID OUT
(TO LOAD) - STANDARD PORT MARKINGS
: OUTLET TO/FROM ACTUATOR
= OUTLET TO/FROM ACTUATOR
= PRESSURE
T,-— PUMP FLUID IN
:TANK
TWO-POSITION ^

2-WAY, TWO-POSITION

POSITION — FLUID FROM LOAD

BLOCKS FLUID,
BUT ALLOWS .r
FLUID FLOW
TO TANK

FLUID BLOCKED ^^— FLUID OUT (TO TANK) THREE-POSITION

3-WAY, TWO-POSITION

,- OUTPUT 2
OUTPUT 1
^ALL PORTS BLOCKED
POSITION ALLOWS
FLUID TO FLOW
TO OUTPUT
OUTPUT 2 IS
1
)i
Vl
. n— 1 POSITION ALLOWS
FLUID FLOW TO
CONNECTED
TO TANK — JUL A OUTPUT 2. OUTPUT
1 IS CONNECTED
TO TANK
^- FLUID OUT
(TO TANK)
3-WAY, TWO-POSITION
4-WAY, THREE-POSITION

Figure 6-29. Directional control valve symbols describe fluid ways and spool position.

The spool must be in a specific position within the same time, fluid is discharged from the rod end
the valve body to allow a specific flow direction. of the cylinder through Port B, passing through the
A position is the specific location of a spool within spool and out Port T to the reservoir.
a valve which determines the direction of fluid flow
through the valve. Most directional control valves
Fluid flows from Port P to Port B when the spool
are either 2-way, 3-way, or 4-way valves and may
is shifted right. This allows fluid to flow to the rod
have two or three positions. Symbols are used to
end of the cylinder, forcing the piston to retract. At
show the various valves. The symbols indicate each
the same time, fluid is discharged from the cap end
valve position as an envelope or one square. Arrows
of the cylinder through Port A. through the spool,
are used to show fluid flow and indicate the number
and out Port T to the reservoir. The 4-way, two-po-
of ways in a valve. When the spool in the valve
sition valve has a total of four passageways and two
shifts, another envelope shows the change in fluid
positions for the spool.
flow.

A 4-way, two-position directional control valve is Spools in a directional control valve have high
used to control the fluid flow in a typical extend and and low areas. Low areas allow fluid flow. High areas
retract circuit. In this circuit, the spool directs flow (lands) block fluid flow. Spool lands vary according
from Port P to Port A when it is shifted left. See to valve design and function. Some lands are wide,
Figure 6-30. This allows fluid to flow to the cap end some narrow. Some spools have two lands, while oth-
of the cylinder, forcing the piston rod to extend. At ers have four.
 Practical Hydraulics 157

one tandem design, the center of the spool is drilled

EXTEND/RETRACT CIRCUITS
out, allowing a connection between ports P and T
through the core of the spool.
SPOOL SHIFTED TO LEFT
An example of a tandem center directional control
4-WAY, TWO-POSITION valve is that of a forklift operation. When the forks
DIRECTIONAL CONTROL
are lifted off the floor and lifting stops, the forks
VALVE
remain in position until the valve is directed to raise
or lower the forks. Fluid flows through the spool's
core from port P to port T while the forks are im-
mobile and the hand lever is in the center position.
This allows fluid to return to the reservoir without
loading the pump. See Figure 6-31.

The spool can be held in the center position by hy-

CYLINDER ROD
PISTON EXTENDING draulic pressure or springs. Spring centering is the most
common. Three position valves are normally centered
by equal spring pressure located at both ends.
Directional control valves must have a means to
change the position of the valve spool. A valve ac-
tuator is a device that changes the position of a valve
spool. Valve actuators may be manual, mechanical,
pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrical. Manual valve ac-
tuators include levers, pushbuttons, or foot pedals. Me-
chanical valve actuators include cams depressing a
plunger connected to the spool. Pneumatic or hydraulic
valve actuators include air or oil pilot operation. A
common means of positioning spools is electrically
CYLINDER ROD with the use of a solenoid. Each method of valve ac-
RETRACTING
tuation is shown by a symbol for the easy identification
of the valve actuation method. See Figure 6-32.
Figure 6-30. A 4-way, two-position directional control
valve is used to control the fluid flow in a typical extend

and retract circuit.

Spool fit is very precise. The clearance between

a spool and valve body ranges from 8|J.- I0\i. Al-
though this clearance allows for oil leakage (used
for sealing and lubrication), the spool land would
prohibit even a red blood cell from passing between
ports. For this reason, most spools are not inter-
changeable and must be handled with care.

Three-position directional control valves have a

center position. The actuator motion is controlled by
the left or right positions of the valve spool. The
center position satisfies the circuit's requirements.
Many different valve spool center configurations are
available.The most common is the tandem center
configuration. The tandem center configuration
blocks ports A and B and connects ports P and T The Gates Rubber Company

This allows the actuator to remain in its last placed

A backhoe uses extend and retract circuits to operate the boom,
position with the pump flow returning to the reservoir
budget, crowd, and stabilizing cylinders. The cylinders are double-act-
without going through the pressure-relief valve. In ing to give full force in both directions.
158 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

TANDEM CENTER VALVES

UNDER 100 PSI

Figure 6-31. The spool in a 4-way, three-position, tandem center directional control valve allows fluid to return to the
reservoir when the valve is in the center position.

VALVE ACTUATORS

C
SPRING
t^
DETENT
El
SOLENOID
PI
MANUAL
^ FLUID POWER
/ VALVE

OIL PILOT AIR PILOT

 Praclkal Hydraulics 159

becomes a resistor and increases fluid pressure up- A globe valve is an infinite-position valve that has
stream from the valve. The increase in pressure opens a disk that is raised or lowered over a port through
the pressure-relief valves to allow excess fluid to re- which fluid flows. Globe valves do not have a straight
turn to the reservoir and reduced flow continues to through path for fluid flow. Fluid flow makes two 90°
a branch circuit or actuator. In some cases, the excess turns when flowing through the valve. The opening
lluid is used in another circuit rather than being sent between the seat and disk is controlled to meter or
to the reservoir. Controlling the flow of fluid in a throttle the fluid flow from zero to full flow. Metering
circuit is accomplished by using an orifice or needle is regulating the amount or rate of fluid flow. Throttling
valves. See Figure 6-34. is permitting the passing of a regulated flow. The flow
is regulated in one direction only because of the two
A restrictive check valve is a check valve with a
90° turns in the globe valve's flow path. The flow di-
specific size hole drilled through its center. Factory
rection through a globe valve is generally indicated
preset orifices are sized to control a flow rate at a
by an arrow on the side of the valve's housing.
specific inlet pressure. Fluid flow increases if the
pressure increases at any factory preset orifice.
A needle valve is an infinite-position valve that has
A i>iite valve is a two-position valve that has an a narrow tapered stem (needle) positioned in line with

internal gate that slides over the opening through a tapered hole or orifice. An orifice is a precisely-sized
which fluid flows. Gate valves are generally used for hole through which fluid flows. The size of the orifice
full flow or no flow operation and are not designed controls the flow rate by creating a pressure drop. The
for restricting fluid flow. Fluid flows in a straight remaining pump flow, which is not passed through the
path through the valve, which offers very little pres- orifice, is either dumped to the reservoir or used in

sure drop in the circuit when fully open. Vibration another circuit. Needle valves offer precise flow control
and wear occur when a gate valve is used in a par- because of their cone-shaped needle and seat and the
tially open position. Any restricting of flow by a gate fine threaded adjusting stem. The fine threaded adjusting
valve should be of very coarse metering. stem offers a very gradual change in orifice size.

PILOT OPERATION

Rm

Figure 6-33. Many directional control valves are actuated through the use of a piggyback pilot operation.
160 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

actuator lowers the pressure differential and reduces

FLOW CONTROL VALVES the flow through the valve. This reduces the speed
of the actuator. To increase the actuator speed, the
POPPET
A C flow control valve
the actuator can
is

become too
partially opened.
great if
The speed of
the load on the
ORIFICE

SEAT-
mm\
T
actuator

A
is reduced. This scenario can be corrected
by using a pressure compensated flow control valve.
pressure compensated flow control valve is a
needle valve that makes allowances for pressure
RESTRICTIVE CHECK VALVE changes before or after the orifice through the use
of a spring and spool. The needle valve's adjustment
knob provides a controlled orifice, but any change
in pressure is compensated for by the spool. Stable
flow occurs when the spool has created a restriction
equivalent to the balance of inlet and outlet pressure
forces assisted by the spring and controlled orifice.
See Figure 6-35.

PRESSURE COMPENSATED
FLOW CONTROL VALVES
-GATE SEAT-
GATE (ON/OFF) GLOBE (ON/OFF) REGULATED
FLOW-
CONTROLLED

Figure 6-34. A restrictive check valve or needle valve may

be used to control the flow of fluid in a hydraulic circuit. Figure 6-35. A pressure compensated flow control valve
isused to provide constant actuator speed with varying
loads.

Flow control valves are available with built-in

check valves for applications that require metered Flow controls in a hydraulic circuit are normally

flow in only one direction. In one direction, the check used to control actuator speeds. The three basic methods

valve directs fluid flow through the needle valve. of actuator flow control include meter-in (metering the

Fluid passes freely through the check valve when the

flow at the actuator inlet), meter-out (metering the flow

flow is reversed. An arrow on the side of the nee- at the actuator discharge), and bleed-off (metering a

dle/check valve combination indicates the direction portion of the inlet flow to the reservoir.

of controlled flow. The greater the pressure differen-

tial across a needle valve, the greater the flow rate
through the valve. Thus, any change in pressure be- Be
fore or after a flow control valve affects the flow
^^ Hydraulic oil becomes hot during use. care-
fill not to burn hands on hot hydraulic oil. Always
through the valve, resulting in a change in actuator let a system cool before beginning service procedures.
speed. For example, an increase in the load on an
 Pruclical Hxdraulics 161

Metering the flow at the actuator inlet controls

the amount of fluid going into the actuator. This pro-
HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
vides a very accurate and constant movement of the
actuator when the load resistance is continually pre-
sent, for example, when a load is required to move
at a controlled speed or a vertical load is being lifted.

Metering the flow at the actuator's discharge prevents

a jerky movement when the load is not constant. The

use of either inlet or discharge flow controls requires
a check valve to allow full return flow.

Metering a portion of the inlet flow is sometimes

called bleed-off flow control and is not as accurate
as the discharge flow control method. Bleed-off flow
control is accomplished by placing a tee in the ac-
tuator's inlet plumbing.The flow control valve is in-
stalled at the tee between the supply line to the
actuator and the reservoir. The advantage of this
method is that less work is being done by the pump
and pressure-relief valve due to the excess tluids be-
SINGLE-ACTING |

ing metered back to the reservoir. The disadvantage

is that the metered or set orifice flow is to the res-
ervoir, which offers the same problem as inlet me-
tering when the load is not constant.

Actuators

A hydraulic actuator is a device that converts hy-

draulic energy into mechanical energy. Hydraulic ac-
tuators include cylinders and motors.

Cylinders. A hydraulic cylinder is a device that converts

hydraulic energy into straight-line (linear) mechanical

energy. A basic hydraulic cylinder consists of a cyl-
inder body, piston, piston rod, and seals. The end
through which the rod protrudes is the rod end and
the opposite end is the cap end. Fluid ports are lo-
cated in the rod and cap ends. As the cylinder rod
reciprocates, the rod is supported by a steady bearing
which also holds the rod seal and wiper seal in place.

See Figure 6-36.

Cylinders are classified as single- or double-acting.

A single-acting cylinder is a cylinder in which fluid pres-

sure moves the piston in only one direction. A small rod

end port allows atmopheric air in and out of the rod end
of the cylinder. The piston and piston rod extend as hy-
draulic fluid is pumped into the cap end port. The piston
rod retracts when fluid in the cap end of the cylinder is

released to the reservoir. The rod in a single-acting cyl-

inder retracts either by gravity, spring, or some other
mechanical force. An example of a single-acting cylinder
is that of most lifting cylinders on a forklift.
162 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

to the reservoir when fluid is pumped into the rod

end port. Double-acting cylinders include tandem,
duplex, and double rod cylinders. The cylinder
used in an application is based on the requirements
of the application.
Seals, an integral part of a cylinder, create posi-
tive contact across the piston and the rod, allowing
for maximum pressure and preventing leakage.
Seals must be well-lubricated, contaminate-free,
and without any nicks or damage to provide maxi-
mum contact. They should be used on smooth, true,
and unmarred surfaces.
Seals may be static or dynamic. A static seal
is a seal used as a gasket to seal nonmoving parts.
Static seals are used where there is contact be-
tween two parts but no motion, such as between
stationary items taken apart and reassembled. A
dynamic seal is a seal used between moving parts
that prevents leakage or contamination. For ex-
ample, dynamic seals are used on pistons and pis-
ton rods to allow the piston and rod to slide
inside the cylinder. Seals may be positive or non-
positive. A positive seal does not
is a seal that
allow the slightest amount of fluid to pass. A non-
positive seal is a seal that allows a minute
amount of fluid through to provide lubrication
between surfaces. Seals include quad-ring, lip.
compression, and packing seals. See Figure 6-37.
O-rings are the most commonly used seal in me-
chanical assemblies. In hydraulics, however, the
pressures reached in a system cause an 0-ring to
extrude. O-rings are only used in hydraulics for
special static applications. Quad-rings are similar
to O-rings. A quad-ring is a molded synthetic rub-
ber seal having a basically square cross-sectional
shape. Quad-rings look like they are made of four Figure 6-37. Seals are used to create a positive
contact between moving parts to provide pressure and
O-rings. During use and under pressure, quad-rings
prevent leakage.
offer a dynamic seal by being pressed (forced)
against one side of their groove. This pressure
forces the seal outward and against the sealing sur-
A lip seal is a seal that is made of a resilient
face. Increased pressure on quad-rings results in
material that has a sealing edge formed into a
greater sealing forces.
lip. Lip seals are made of leather, rubber, or syn-
Quad-rings require a back-up ring for pressures thetic material. Lip seals use the fluid's pressure
over 1500 psi because of the disfiguration of the on its lip to form a seal. As pressures increase,
seal under pressure. The back-up ring prevents the the seal tries to expand at the lip, creating a
resilient rubber of the quad-ring from being ex- tighter seal. Lip seals are made in various shapes
truded out of the groove. Quad-rings have twice for various pressure duties. Lip seals are dynamic
the sealing power with greater resistance to rolling, seals used for sealing rotating or reciprocating
twisting, or extruding. Resilience is the capability shafts, pistons, cylinder rod ends, and pump
of a material to regain its original shape after being shafts. Typical lip seals are the V-ring, U-ring,
bent, stretched, or compressed. and flange seal.
 Practical Hxdraulics 163

A V-ring seal is a lip seal shaped like the letter to thepacking to protect the moving parts. Packing
V. V-ring seals are dynamic seals used in severe op- must be adjusted frequently to compensate for wear.
erating condition applications. V-ring seal material
includes impregnated and treated leather, rubber, and
asbestos. The advantages of V-ring seals are that dis- ^b) Never try to locate a leak by running a hand
similar seals of different materials may
com- be used in
^-^ over the suspected area. Always use a piece of

bination to provide the best pressure, wear, and cardboard. Escaping fluid under pressure can pene-

friction characteristics for an application.

trate the skin and cause serious injury. If any fluid
is injected into the skin, it must be surgically re-
A U-ring seal is a lip seal shaped like the letter
moved within a few hours or gangrene may result.
U. U-ring seals are dynamic seals used in recipro-
cating and rotating applications. System pressure in-
creases the sealing force on the lips of the seal. Motors. A hydraulic motor is a device that converts
U-ring seal material includes impregnated and treated hydraulic energy into rotary mechanical energy. Hy-
leather, rubber, and other elastic compounds. draulic motors are often referred to as rotary actua-
Flange seals are generally used as cylinder rod tors. Hydraulic motor construction is similar to the
seals instead of piston seals. Flange seal materials construction of hydraulic pumps. Hydraulic motors
include impregnated and treated leather, rubber, and include gear, vane, and piston models. The trans-
other elastic compounds. formation of hydraulic energy to rotary mechanical
Compression seals are static seals commonly re- energy is a reversal of the pumping function. See
ferred to as gaskets. A gasket is a seal used between Figure 6-38.
machined parts or around pipe joints to prevent the
escape of fluids. A gasketed joint is sealed by the

molding of the gasket material into the imperfections HYDRAULIC MOTORS

of the mating surfaces of the joint. Gasket material
may be rubber, leather, synthetic, or metal. Metal is

used by itself or in combination with other softer

materials. For example, in some cases, a sheet of
brass or copper may be soft enough to form a proper
seal when sandwiched between two harder metals.

Packing is a bulk deformable material or one or

more mating deformable elements reshaped by manu-
ally adjustable compression. Packing is used where

some form of motion occurs between rigid members

of an assembly. Packing must only be deformed
enough to allow or throttle leakage between the mov-
ing and stationary parts. This leakage becomes a lu-
bricant and coolant for the packing. On large
applications, the leakage rate may be as high as 10
drops per minute. On small or light applications, one
drop per minute is sufficient.

PAll
clean
seals should he handled and installed
environment. Always lubricate seals be-
in a

fore installation with a compatible lubricant for the

seal material.
DIRECTIONAL
CONTROL
VALVE

Packing must be pliable enough to provide a radial

sealwhen axially compressed. Packing material is MOTOR CIRCUIT
made of braided, woven, or twisted cotton or flax. Figure 6-38. A hydraulic motor is a device that converts
Solid lubricants, such as graphite or mica, are added hydraulic energy into rotary mechanical energy.
164 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Rotary mechanical energy is produced in a gear cycling before shutdown occurs. Accumulators may
motor when fluid at high pressure is forced against be spring-loaded, weight-loaded, or hydro-pneu-
the teeth of the upper and lower gears, causing them matic. See Figure 6-39.
to rotate. Similarly, fluid at high pressure forced
Warning: All accumulators are extremely danger-
against the vanes of a hydraulic vane motor causes
ous when their energy is uncontrolled. For this rea-
the shaft to rotate. The difference between a vane
son, all accumulator energy must be released or
pump and a motor is that the vanes in a motor need
blocked before performing repairs.
to be extended by spring action. The vanes are gen-
erally extended by fluid pressure after motor torque
A spring-loaded accumulator is an accumulator
is developed.
that applies force to a fluid by means of a spring.
Spring-loaded accumulators consist of a cylinder
Accumulators body, piston, and spring. The piston rides between
the spring and the hydraulic fluid inside the cylinder
An accumulator is a container in which fluid is stored body. Circuit pressure and the compression rate of
under pressure. Accumulators store hydraulic fluid the spring determine the amount of stored energy. In
under pressure (potential energy) until it is needed. many cases, a mechanical stop at the spring area is

Accumulators also maintain circuit pressure, develop used to prevent excessive pressure from overcom-
circuit flow, and absorb circuit shock. Accumulators pressing and damaging the spring. Most spring-
may also maintain circuit pressure in an emergency loaded accumulators are adjustable, allowing for
if a pump fails. This allows a circuit to complete varied amounts of stored fluid pressure.

ACCUMULATORS

HYDRAULIC LINE

SPRING-LOADED WEIGHT- LOADED GAS CHARGED

ACCUMULATOR

ACCUMULATOR CIRCUIT

Figure 6-39. Accumulators store hydraulic fluids under pressure for use at a later time.
 Pmctiral Hxdraulics 165

A weight-loaded accumulator is an accumulator Accumulators are precharged while empty of hy-

that applies force to a fluid by means of heavy draulic fluid. Precharge pressure is the pressure of
weights. The weights are generally iron or concrete the compressed gas in an accumulator prior to the
and offer a constant pressure throughout the piston admission of hydraulic fluid. The higher the pre-
stroke. A weight-loaded accumulator may cause exces- charge pressure, the less fluid the accumulator can
sive pressure surges in a system when the accumulator hold. Precharge pressures vary with each application.
is quickly discharged and suddenly stopped because Typically, an application consists of the circuit pres-
of the constant pressure of the heavy weights. sure range and the volume of fluid required in that
range. Precharge pressures should never be less than
A
gas charged accumulator is an accumulator that
'/3 of the maximum circuit pressure.
uses compressed gas over hydraulic fluid to store en-
ergy. Dry nitrogen is used as the gas in hydro-pneu-
matic accumulators because air-oil vapors are
explosive. Gas charged accumulators are divided into
categories according to the method used to separate
the gas from the fluid. The methods include piston,
diaphragm, and bladder.

A piston gas charged accumulator is an accumu-

lator with a floating piston acting as a barrier be-
tween the gas and fluid. Gas occupies the volume of
space above the piston and is pressurized as system
fluid enters and occupies the space below the piston.
The gas pressure equals the system pressure when
the accumulator is pressurized.

A diaphragm gas charged accumulator is an ac-

Atlas Technologies, Inc.
cumulator with a flexible diaphragm separating the
gas and fluid. Diaphragm gas charged accumulators
Hydraulic presses used in manufacturing stamping plants contain ac-
are generally small and lightweight with capacities cumulators for ttie storage of pressurized fiydraulic fluid and to absorb
up to 1 gal. They are constructed of two steel hemi- circuit shock.
spheres bolted together with a flexible, dish-shaped,
rubber diaphragm clamped between them. The top half
of the sphere is pressurized (precharged) with gas. Fluid HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT MAINTENANCE
supplied by system pressure is applied to the bottom
hemisphere, compressing the gas. The gas acts as a Special precautions must be followed when servicing
spring against the diaphragm as fluid pressures equal- powered equipment. Every energy source must be
ize the pressure in each hemisphere. identified, understood, and disabled prior to working
on a machine. All energy is categorized as kinetic
A bladder gas charged accumulator is an accu-
or potential. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
mulator consisting of a seamless steel shell, a rubber
For example, a saw blade or grinding wheel in op-
bladder (bag) with a gas valve, and a poppet valve.
eration is kinetic energy. Potential energy is stored
The steel shell is cylindrical in shape and rounded
energy a body has due to its position, chemical state,
at both ends. A large opening at the bottom of the
or condition. For example, hydraulic accumulators,
shell is used to insert the bladder. A small opening
raised loads, or equipment counterweights are poten-
at the top of the shell is used for the bladder's gas
tial energy.
valve. The one-piece, pear-shaped bladder is molded
of synthetic rubber It includes a molded gas valve, Controlling an energy source that is potentially
which is fastened to the inside upper end of the steel dangerous is accomplished by using an energy-isolat-
shell by a locknut. The bottom end of the shell is ing device. An energy-isolating device is a device that
equipped with a poppet valve at the discharge port. prevents the transmission or release of energy. An en-
This valve closes off the port when the accumulator ergy source may be electrical, mechanical, hydraulic,
is fully discharged, preventing the bladder from be- pneumatic, chemical, nuclear, thermal, or other en-
ing squeezed into the discharge port opening. ergy source that could cause injury to personnel.
166 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Warning: The heat and pressures of hydraulic cir- • Adhere to a preventive maintenance program for
cuits can cause severe burns and injury. fluid, filters, and strainers.

Energy-isolating devices include manually-oper- • Use only clean equipment to prevent contamina-
ated electrical circuit breakers, disconnect switches, tion when replacing or changing hydraulic fluid.
slip blinds, line valves, blocks, and similar devices that
• Clean and cover fluid containers and store in a
indicate the position of a device. Pushbuttons, selector
clean, dry area when a maintenance project is
switches, and other circuit control devices are not en-
complete.
ergy-isolating devices. The four basic steps to control-
ling hazardous energy in a hydraulic system are: • Replace packing or seals before obvious replace-

1. Prepare to completely disable the system through

ment is necessary.

identification of all energy sources. • Maintain clean hydraulic equipment. Keep dust
2. Isolate the equipment by turning OFF all switches and dirt buildup down by removing fluids from
(including main disconnects), closing all neces- equipment surfaces.
sary valves, and disconnecting, capping, or block-
ing auxiliary energy sources such as fluid product
lines, steam lines, or pneumatic lines. Fluid Maintenance

3. Apply lockout/tagout/blockout devices to energy-

Always follow the equipment manufacturer's recom-
isolating devices.
mendations when servicing hydraulic equipment and
4. Verify that all necessary energy sources are iso-
circuits. Contaminants such as dirt, sand, scale, and
lated and locked. This is accomplished by at-
other foreign materials are often found in new cir-
tempting machine startup. All area personnel must cuits when installed. These contaminants must be
be warned of the startup attempt and cleared to flushed from the circuit after an initial break-in pe-
safety. Return switches and controls to their OFF riod. Also, check the manufacturer's recommenda-
position after verification has been satisfied. whether cylinders should be extended
tions as to
In many hydraulic circuit repair operations, the during a fluid change.
machinery requires testing and must be energized be-
Remove the fluid according to the equipment
fore other work is performed. This can be safely ac-
manufacturer's recommendations. Disconnect any
complished by using five basic steps:
hoses that need draining. Remove as much fluid from
1. Remove personnel to safety. the circuit as possible. Any leftover contaminants
2. Remove tools and materials from the machinery. could cause early equipment failure. Shift levers to

3. Remove necessary energy-isolation devices and release trapped fluids. Clean all fitting surfaces with

re-energize machine functions following complete a dry, lint-free cloth before reassembling. Clean all

safety procedures. exterior surfaces with a cleaning solvent after plug-

ging any breather or dipstick holes to prevent the
4. Perform test or tryout.
introduction of contaminants to the interior of the
5. Return all energy sources to isolation, including reservoir. Replace or clean any filters or breathers
the purging of necessary systems. Replace locks before refilling the reservoir. Run the equipment at
and tags as required idle for a few minutes to warm the system upon com-
Cleanliness is the key to successful troubleshoot- pletion of fluid change. Operate the actuators until
ing and repair of hydraulic circuits. Steps that must foaming stops, then add fluid to the full level. Finally,

be taken to maintain a clean system include: check for leaks.

 neumatic Principles
Pneumatics is the branch of science that deals with
the transmission of energy using a gas. Pneumatic
systems are based on fluid (gas) theory, which states
that a fluid can flow, has no defmite shape, and is
susceptible to an increase in volume with an increase
in temperature. The physical characteristics of gases
are affected by pressure, volume, and temperature.
Useful pneumatic pressure is produced by compress-

ing atmospheric air and pushing it into a tank for

later use. Contaminants of a compressed air system
includes particulates, oil, and water. Contaminants
must be removed to prevent damage to a compressed
air system.

Humphrey Products Company

PNEUMATICS use non-sparking pneumatic drills and saws because

of the flammability of oxygen, a widely used gas.
Pneumatics is the branch of science that deals with Also, car washes use air motors instead of electric

the transmission of energy using a gas. A pneumatic motors for rotating scrub brushes to prevent electrical

system a combination of components shorts due to the high water content within the work-
is that controls
energy through the use of a pressurized gas within ing area.

an enclosed circuit. A pneumatic system uses gas,

such as air or dry nitrogen, for power. Pneumatic
systems use compressed (pressurized) air or other gas BELLOWS
to transmit or control power.

Pneumatic System History

One of the earliest forms of pneumatics was the bel-

lows. A bellows is a device that draws air in through
a flapper valve when expanded and expels the air
through a nozzle when contracted. A bellows consists
of two wooden handles and a flexible leather cover.
It was used to start or increase the heat of a fire
through the use of compressed air. See Figure 7-1.

Today, pneumatic systems are used in the enter-

tainment industry to operate air motors for ski lift
drives and air cylinders for moving concert back-
drops. In the medical field, doctors and dentists
 168 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

The manufacturing industry, however, is the larg-

STATES OF MATTER
est user ofpneumatic systems. Pneumatic systems in
manufacturing include the use of air motors to move
conveyors, rotate assembly fixtures, act as vibrators
for parts feeding, rotate fluid mixing or agitating
shafts, etc. Air cylinders are used to clamp and hold
parts for machining or assembly, close or open OXYGEN
PROTON -
ATOM
safety guards, operate cutting blades, inject ink in
a printer, etc.
HYDROGEN WATER
ATOM MOLECULE
Pneumatic systems have replaced many hydraulic
systems because pneumatic systems are cleaner.
Pneumatic logic systems have been used for elec-
^^.^-^ LOOSE
tronic circuit replacement because overheating is sel- \jr/ MOLECULES
dom problem in pneumatic circuits. In addition,
a
pneumatic circuits are not likely to cause an explo-
sion in hazardous environments. Pneumatic systems
6^^CPO o
are based on fluid (gas) theory, which states that a
)0 o
fluid can flow, has no definite shape, and is sus- o
ceptible to an increase in volume with an increase LIQUID
in temperature. Unlike molecules of a solid or liquid, (WATER)
air molecules are not freely attracted to each other
and are easily compressible.

(^

GAS CHARACTERISTICS ^ gas"

(water vapor)
^ 9=^

All substances are made up of atoms. An atom is the Figure 7-2. The closeness of the molecules that make up
smallest building block of matter that cannot be di- a substance determines whether the substance is a solid,
liquid, or gas.
vided into smaller units without changing its basic
character. Atoms combine
form molecules. For ex-
to
ample, an oxygen molecule (O2) is made up of two Although gas molecules are far apart, they can
atoms of oxygen. Water (H2O) is made up of two be pushed closer together, allowing gas to be com-
atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. pressed. Also, because gas molecules are always
moving, they are constantly bumping each other
Molecules are always in motion, and this motion
and the walls of the container they occupy. This
creates heat. Without molecular motion, there is no
motion allows gas to expand to fill the volume and
heat. Heating a substance is the same as increasing
shape of its container. A balloon remains inflated
the motion of its molecules. Increasing the motion
because of the constant impact of gas molecules
of molecules sends them farther apart, thus creating
thermal expansion. Thermal expansion is the dimen-
striking the balloon wall. When a gas is contained,
any force applied to that gas is transmitted equally
sional change of a substance due to a change in tem-
throughout its container.
perature. For example, a metal bar expands when heat
increases its molecular motion, causing its molecules

to move farther apart. Cooling a substance slows mo-

Pressure
lecular motion and decreases the distance between
molecules.
Pressure is the force per unit area. Pressure increases
Some molecules have a strong attraction to each as gas molecules are forced closer together through
other and are known as solids. Others have an attraction compression. Airis a mixture of gases that has weight

to each other but require some freedom. These are and creates a pressure on Earth's surface through
known as liquids. Molecules that move quickly and compression. The pressure exerted on Earth's surface
freely are known as gases. See Figure 7-2. varies with altitude, temperature, and humidity.
 Principles 169

The force acting on a unit area is generally a unit

of weight. For example, the weight of the air mole-
cules that make up the atmosphere is measured from
a 1 sq in. column and is referred to as atmospheric
pressure. Atmasplicric pressure is the torce e.xerted
by the weight of the atmosphere on Earth's surface.
.Atmospheric pressure at sea level is equal to about
14.7 pounds per square inch (psi). At higher altitudes,
there is atmosphere exerts less weight
less air, so the

on each square inch of Earth's surface. Atmospheric

pressure decreases at higher altitudes. The pressure
(weight) of air in Denver. Colorado, (5280' above
sea level) is 12.2 psi and the pressure of air on top
of Mt. Everest (29,002' above sea level i is approxi-
mately 5 psi. See Figure 7-3.

PRESSURE
FROM EARTHS ATMOSPHERIC
ATMOSPHERE PRESSURE

4 i i

\
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
170 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

A pressure gauge reads psig at normal atmos- absolute. The difference between gauge pressure and
pheric pressure. For example, a simple plunger pres- absolute pressure is the pressure of the atmosphere
sure gauge used to check tire pressures indicates at sea level at standard conditions (14.7 psia).
when not being used even though its plunger has 14.7
psi on both sides (at sea level). When a pressure of
30 lb is indicated when checking an inflated tire with [^ Industrial pneumatic systems are designed to
a pressure gauge, the actual pressure within the tire / operate with minimal frictional resistance and
is equal to 44.7 psia (gauge pressure reading plus working pressures of around 90 psi.

atmospheric pressure). Gauge pressure shows the nu-

merical value of the difference between atmospheric
pressure and absolute pressure. See Figure 7-4. Volume

BAROMETER
INCHES OF
MERCURY ABSOLUTE
(IN. Hg. ABS.)
 Principles 171

Gas Laws volume. For calculating purposes, pressures must be

absolute values or converted from gauge pressure to

The physical characteristics of gases are affected by absolute pressure at sea level. Final pressure is de-
pressure, volume, and temperature. The relationships termined by applying the formula:
between each property are established as gas law
equations. Gas laws are the relationships between
the volume, pressure, and temperature of a gas. Gas where
laws are used to determine the change in volume, P2 = final pressure (in psia)
pressure, or temperature of a gas. The behavior of a P\ = initial pressure (in psia)
gas is affected by the characteristics of the gas and Vi = initial volume (in cubic units)
the interactionbetween these characteristics. Gas V2 = final volume (in cubic units)
law equations assume the gas to be under perfect For example, what is the final pressure of 60 cu
(ideal) conditions. ft of air at 20 psia when compressed to 30 cu ft?

Boyle's Law. Boyle's law concerned with the com-

is
V2
pression of gas. Boyle's law states that the volume
of a given quantity of gas varies inversely with the
20x60
pressure as long as the temperature remains constant. 30
Two vessels or cylinders of the same size may contain 1200
P, ~
^-
air of different pressures because air is compressible.
30
When the volume of a gas is reduced by one half,
Pi = 40 psia = 25.3 psi

the pressure of the gas doubles. When air is forced

to occupy a smaller volume its pressure increases.
See Fiaure 7-6.

BOYLE'S LAW

Pt^=
I, — EXTERNAL
FORCE Clippard Instrument Laboratory, Inc.

A cylinder rod retracts when a gas (air) at an increased pressure fills

K, = 30 CU FT ^
the volume in the cylinder around the piston rod.

when the initial and final

In addition, pressures
.-^ t: COMPRESSED GAS
are known along with the initial volume, the final
volume may be determined by multiplying the initial
pressure by the initial volume and dividing by the
Figure 7-6. The volume of a given quantity of gas varies final pressure. Final volume is determined by apply-
inversely with the pressure as long as the temperature
ing the formula:
remains constant.
P\XV]
Boyle's law is used when temperature changes are
not a factor, such as in determining the consumption
where
of air by an air cylinder or determining the vol-
V2 = final volume (in cubic units)
ume/pressure capacity of a vessel. The final pressure
Pi = initial pressure (in psia)
is determined by multiplying the initial pressure by
V] = initial volume (in cubic units)
the initial volume of the gas and dividing by the final
P2 - final pressure (in psia)
172 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

For example, what is the final volume of 60 cu ft

FAHRENHEIT/RANKINE
of air at 20 psia when compressed to 40 psia?
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION

20x60
40

^- ~ 40
V2 = 30 cu ft

I
In a pneumatic system, energy is stored and
distributed in a potential stale (compressed air).
Useful work results from a pneumatic system when
the compressed air is allowed to convert its potential
energy into kinetic energy.

Charles' Law. Boyle's law remains practical as long

as temperatures do not change. However, tempera-
tures increase when air is compressed. Charles' law ABSOLUTE
-0°R -460°F
states that the volume of a given mass of gas is di- ZERO
rectly proportional to its absolute temperature pro-
vided the pressure remains constant. Absolute i
temperature is the temperature on a scale that begins
RANKINE FAHRENHEIT
with absolute zero. Absolute zero is the temperature SCALE SCALE
at which substances possess no heat.
The absolute temperature scale was first deter- Figure 7-7. Absolute temperature (°R) is always 460°
mined in 1872 by William Rankine, and is referred in degrees Fahrenheit (°F).
greater than the temperature

to as the Rankine scale (°R or °abs). Molecules are

still in motion at 0°F. However, molecules do not According to Charles' law, if the temperature of
move at A
comparison of Rankine and Fahren-
0°R. a gas is increased, the volume increases proportion-
heit scales shows that the temperature in degrees ately as long as the pressure does not change. See

Rankine is always 460° greater than the temperature Figure 7-8. Variations of the Charles' law equation
in degrees Fahrenheit. See Figure 7-7. are used to determine a change in volume or tem-
perature. Final volume is found by multiplying initial
Degrees Fahrenheit is converted to degrees Rank-
volume by the final temperature and dividing by the
ine by adding 460° to the Fahrenheit temperature.
initial temperature. Final volume is found by apply-
Degrees Fahrenheit is converted to degrees Rankine
ing the formula:
by applying the formula:

°R = 460 + °F
where
°R - degrees Rankine where

460 = constant V: = final volume (in cubic units)

°F = degrees Fahrenheit V| = initial volume (in cubic units)

For example, what is the Rankine equivalent of T2 = final temperature (in °R)

96°F? T] = initial temperature (in °R)

°R = 460 -I- °F
For example, what is the final volume of a gas
°R = 460 + 96 that occupies 40 cu ft at 60°F when the temperature

°R = 556°R is increased to 90°F?

 Pneumatic Principles 173

CHARLES' LAW

l/,

PRESSURE REMAINS
CONSTANT-
= 40CUFT ^
"
LI-"'''"""'"
-z-V^

PRESSURE REMAINS
CONSTANT

H
-

: JL-^2 = 550°R

HEAT ADDED
-u
Figure 7-8. The volume of a given mass of gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature provided the
pressure remains constant.

1. Convert initial temperature to °R.

°R = 460 + °F
°R = 460 + 60
°R = 520°R

2. Convert final temperature to °R.

°R = 460 + °F
°R = 460 + 90
°R = 550°R
3. Calculate final volume.

„ Vi X Ti
 174 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Combined Gas Law. The relationship between pres-

sure, volume, and temperature is best determined
when Boyle's, Charles", and Gay-Lussac's laws are
combined. The combined gas law covers all the vari-
ables regarding the relationships between the pres-
sure, volume, and temperature of a gas. Final pressure
is found by applying the formula:

7-, V2

where
P: = final pressure (in psia)

Pi = initial pressure (in psia)

V, = initial volume (in cubic units)

7"i = initial temperature (in °R)

P; = final temperature (in °R)

V: = final volume (in cubic units)

For example, what is the final pressure in a 40 cu

Automated industrial systems use pneumatics lor applications such
as pneumatic wrenciies, air clamps, ejection molding machines, and in. cylinder containing air at 100 psig and 100°F
automatic gates and doors. when compressed to 20 cu in. while heated to 150°F?

For example, what is the final pressure in a 50 cu 1. Convert initial gauge pressure to absolute pressure.

ft vessel holding air at 120 psig at 75°F if the tem- psia = 14.7-1- psig
perature is increased to 110°F'? psia =14.7+100
psia = 1 14.7 psia
1. Convert initial pressure to absolute pressure.
2. Convert initial temperature to °R.
psiu = 14.7 + psig
°R = 460 + °F
psia = 14.7 + 120
°R = 460 + 150
psia = 134.7 psia
°R = 610°R
2. Convert initial temperature to °R.
3. Convert final temperature to °R.
°R = 460 + °F
°R = 460 + °F
°R = 460 + 75
°R = 460 + 150
°R = 535°R
°R = 610°R
3. Convert final temperature to °R.
4. Calculate final pressure.
°R = 460 + °F
Pi X V, T^
°R = 460 + 110 ''=
r, "v;
°R = 570°R
4. Calculate final pressure.

P ^^L^ r,

134.7x570
535
76,779
-
535
P2 = 143.512 psia
 Pneumalk- Principles 175

P|X V, Ti
r, P2

where
V': = final volume (in cubic units)

P\ = initial pressure (in psia)

V| - initial volume (in cubic units)

7": = initial temperature (in °R)

7: = final temperature (in °R)

Pi = final pressure (in psia)

For example, what is volume of air if 40

the final
cu ft of air at 12 psia is compressed to 42 psia and
the compressor suction temperature is 60°F and the
discharge temperature is 180°F?

1. Convert initial temperature to °R.

°R = 460 + °F
°R = 460 + 60
"R = 520°R

2. Convert final temperature to °R.

°R = 460 + °F
°R = 460 + 180

°R = 640°R
3. Calculate final volume.

12x40 640
Vl
176 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

pression is calculated by dividing the absolute dis-

charge pressure by the absolute inlet pressure. Ratio
COMPRESSION
of compression is found by applying the formula:

^-^
where
Re - ratio of compression
P: = final pressure (in psia)

P] = initial pressure (in psia)

For example, what is the ratio of compression if

1^^ EXTERNAL
a compressor inlet pressure is 1.5 psi vacuum and T FORCE
the discharge pressure is 40 psig?
1. Convert final pressure to absolute.
COLLISION OF
MOLECULES
psia = 14.7 + psig INCREASED -

psia = 14.7 + 40
psia - 54.7 psia COMPRESSED GAS
2. Convert initial pressure to absolute. Figure 7-10. Compressing gas molecules increases the
psia = 14.7 + psig collisions of the molecules, thus increasing their temperature.

psia = 14.7 - 1.5

psia = 13.2 psia Heat generated during compression is controlled
3. Calculate ratio of compression. by limiting the pressure of the compressed air or by
cooling. Lowering the suction temperature increases
^-^ the standard volume of air processed and decreases
the discharge temperature if the ratio of compression
_ 54.7
^' - 13.2 value and inlet pressure remain the same.

R, = 4.14
Multistage Compression
Air temperature increases as a piston extends and
the air molecules are forced closer together (com- Air must be compressed in two or more steps (stages)
pressed). This happens because as the compressor for a reciprocating compressor to obtain pressures
forces gas molecules closer together, it also increases over 100 psi. A reciprocating compressor is a device
the collisions of the molecules, thus increasing their that compresses gas by means of a piston(s) that

temperature. See Figure 7-10. The temperature in- moves back and forth in a cylinder. In multistage
crease is based on the inlet temperature and the ratio compression, the air moves from one pumping cham-
of compression. Increasing the ratio of compression ber to another with each chamber receiving and dis-
increases the temperature of the discharged air. charging a higher pressure. See Figure 7-11.
Multistage compression is required when the ratio
The amount of energy required compress a to
quantity of air to a given pressure depends on the
of compression is greater than 6. When a compressing
unit is required to have a total ratio of compression
rate that heat is dissipated. Higher compression tem-
of 18, compression is usually accomplished in three
peratures require greater amounts of energy (horse-
stages. For example, the upper limit of a two-stage
power) to accomplish the same task as those having
compressor at sea level with each stage at a ratio of
lower temperatures. Greater horsepower is required
compression of 4 is 220.5 psi.
to meet output demands if discharge temperatures are
excessive. The inlet air temperature or ratio of com-
pression may be reduced to reduce the need for
(dp) Compressed air shall not be used for cleaning
greater horsepower and to reduce the discharge tem- purposes except where reduced to less than 30
perature. The ratio of compression can be decreased psi and then only with effective chip guarding and
by reducing the discharge pressure, increasing the personal protective equipment.
inlet pressure, or both.
 Pneumatic Principles 177

MULTISTAGE COMPRESSION INTERCOOLING

INLET -10PSIA
DISCHARGE TO TO HIGH
PRESSURE INLET
INTERCOOLER -,
-INTERCOOLER/ CYLINDER
FIRST SECOND
f- STAGE
COMPRESSOR
STAGE
COMPRESSOR
30 PSIA -90 PSIA
190°F 220°F
DISCHARGE DISCHARGE
INTERCOOLER
AFTERCOOLER
^ 90 PSIA

w
'-F

PRESSURE
FIRST
STAGE
(LOW- um SECOND
STAGE
AIR TO RECEIVER

CYLINDER)
(HIGH-
PRESSURE
CYLINDER)

Figure 7-11. In multistage compression, the air moves

from one pumping chamber to another with each chamber
receiving and discharging a higher pressure. Figure 7-12. Intercooling removes a portion of the heat
of compression as air is fed from one compression
stage to another.
Compression Intercooling

Heat generated in a cylinder due to compression of AIR TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE

a reciprocating compressor is removed by lubrica-
CONTENT
tion, conduction through the cylinder walls, and in-

tercooling. Intercooling is the process of removing

Atmospheric air contains water in some form or an-
a portion of the heat of compression as the air is
other. The water may be solid (snow or ice crystals),
fed from one compression stage to another. Inter-
visible (clouds or fog), or invisible (water vapor).
cooling is generally performed by a tube and shell
Invisible vapor makes up most of the moisture in
heat exchanger (intercooler). An intercooler is a
atmospheric air. Humidity is the amount of moisture
piped connection between the discharge of one com-
in the air. Humidity comes from water that has evapo-
pression stage and the inlet of the next compression
rated into the air.
stage. A tube and shell intercooler uses cool water
Water in a pneumatic system is a natural occur-
to dissipate heat. See Figure 7-12.
rence because the air that a compressor takes in con-
tains significant amounts of water from the
Intercooling is used to reduce the temperature of
atmosphere. It takes 7.8 cu ft of atmospheric air to
the compressed air and reduce the volume of the air
produce I.O cu ft of compressed air at 100 psig. This
before it reaches the next stage. Also, for every 5°F
means that after compression there is 7.8 times more
absorbed at the intercooler, approximately 1% of
moisture in the compressed air as compared to the
horsepower is saved. Without intercooling, multi-
atmospheric air.
stage compression does not allow an overall reduc-
Air generally contains less moisture than it is ca-
tion in discharge temperature.
pable of holding. However, as the moisture level in
air rises to its maximum, the air becomes saturated.
Saturated air air that holds as much moisture as
0'In a
I
gas, molecules are continuously moving. A is

capable of holding. The amount of moisture

^ gas with increased temperature has faster mov- it is

is capable of holding is also greatly affected by the

air

ing molecules than a gas thai is cooL The amount of

molecule collisions determine the temperature of the gas. temperature of the air. The higher the air temperature,

the greater the amount of moisture it is able to hold.

 178 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Parker Hannifin - Pneumatic Division North America

An FRL conditions air before it enters components to remove contami-

nants, control pressure changes, and provide constant oil-air mixture.

At standard pressure and temperature, the weight

of 1 cu ft of air equals .076 lb. An average room
(12' X 13' X 8' = 1248 cu ft) contains 94.848 lb of
air (1248 cu ft x .076 lb = 94.848 lb).

Air at dew point (saturation) and at a temperature

of 80°F is capable of holding about .022 lb of mois-
ture per pound of dry air. The air in an average room
( 1248 cu ft) at saturation is capable of holding 2.086
lb of water vapor (94.848 lb x .022 lb = 2.086 lb).

Moisture in the air is more commonly expressed in

grains. See Figure 7-13. There are 150 grains (gr)

of moisture per pound of saturated air at 80°F. There-

fore, an average room (1248 cu ft) contains 14,227.2
2r of moisture (150 "r x 94.848 lb = 14,227.2 er).

SATURATED AIR MOISTURE HOLDING

PROPERTIES
 Pneumatic Principles 179

MOISTURE HELD BY AIR*

180 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS
 Pneumatic Principles 181

INTAKE REFRIGERANT PARTICULATE SEPARATOR COALESCING DESSICANT GENERAL

FILTER DRYER FILTER FILTER DRYER PURPOSE
FILTER

OILS
WATER

PRIMARY REMOVAL • SECONDARY REMOVAL

Figure 7-16. Filtering components must be of the right type and placed properly in the system to maximize filtering functions.

Coalescing filters are ideal filters for removing oil

and water from a system. Fine liquid droplets are

COALESCING FILTERS
continuously trapped in the element. The droplets
grow in size and emerge on the outside surface of INLET
the element to flow to the filter drain. Coalescing
PORT
elements function at their original efficiency even
when saturated and continue functioning well until
restricted by particulates. When coalescing filters be-
come plugged, they must be discarded and replaced.
See Figure 7-17.
Even with excellent pre-filtering, some solids
make their way to the coalescing element, shortening
its life. With proper maintenance, coalescing filter
element lifeshould be approximately 2000 operating
hours. Oil not removed by a coalescing filter and
allowed to continue downstream enters actuators to
become a gummy, sticky resistance producing early
actuator failure.
The temperature of ambient air must be considered
when placing equipment that conditions compressed
air. Coalescing filters are most effective when placed
in the coolest location of the system.

Figure 7-17. A coalescing filter is a device that removes

Dryers. Pneumatic technology is used extensively in submicron solids and vapors of oil or water by uniting very
automatic processing equipment. Automatic process- small droplets into larger droplets.
ing equipment such as instrumentation, measuring
devices, controllers, etc. are some of the devices used
in automatic production operations. Instrumentation To be dependable and effective, most automatic
is the area of industry that deals with the measurement, processing equipment depends on clean, dry air. Gen-
evaluation, and control of process variables. A process eral purpose and coalescing filters are not completely
variable is any characteristic that changes its value dur- effective in removing all water vapor because of the
ing any operation within the process. Process variables ability of water to change form at different tempera-
include temperature, pressure, flow, force, etc. tures. In many cases, proper installation and place-
182 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

ment of coalescing filters offers sufficient protection. A refrigerant dryer is a device designed to lower

However, a dryer is used when water vapor may con- the temperature of the compressed air to 35°F. The cool-
taminate a sensitive device. ing provided by a refrigeration system causes the water
A dryer is a device that dries air through cooling in the air to condense by lowering the relative humidity
and condensing. Dryers leave air dry enough for ap- and the dew point of the air. The condensed liquids
plications such as instrumentation, air logic, etc. Dry are drained automatically. Generally, the cold dry air
air is air free of water vapor or oil droplets. Water flows through a heat exchanger to precool the incoming
vapor is not always visible. Most water vapor drop- air. See Figure 7-19.
lets are in the .5^1 - 2|i range, and the smallest size
droplet visible about Dryers remove water
is 15|I.
REFRIGERANT DRYERS
vapor from the air using desiccants or refrigeration.
A desiccant dryer is used to remove invisible water 100°F
MOIST AIR IN -,
vapor when maximum drying is required. A desiccant
dryer is a device that removes water vapor by ad-
sorption. Adsorption is the adhesion of a gas or liquid
to the surface of a porous material.
removes water vapor using material such as
A desiccant dryer
silica
J
gel or alumina. Adsorption offers the capability of
removing 99.9% of the water vapor in the air. The
desiccant material adsorbs water and becomes satu-
rated and ineffective. For this reason, two cylinders
may be interconnected to allow for the heating,
evaporation, and regeneration of used desiccant. See
Figure 7-18. While one side is drying compressed
air, the other is being reactivated by use of an em-
bedded heating coil or dry air being passed through
the desiccant. The desiccant used as drying material
can also adsorb any oil present in the system, leaving
the dryer contaminated and ineffective.

DESICCANT DRYERS Figure 7-19. A refrigerant dryer is a device designed to

lower the temperature of the compressed air to 35°F using
a refrigeration system.

Dryers are normally placed in the coolest down-

V stream location to lessen the energy required to lower
the air temperature and condense the moisture in the
To prevent contamination, dryers must be used for
air.

water removal only. Oil that is not removed upstream

from the dryer builds up on the dryer tube walls. The

oil buildup acts as an insulator, which reduces the dryer
capacity. Dessicant dryers are most effective when
placed after coalescing filters and closest to the point

of air use. The air entering a dessicant dryer should

have a maximum temperature of 100°F.

/^^ Always consult the manufacturer before using

^""^
any product for nonindustrial applications,
with fluids other than those specified, or for life-

Figure 7-18. A desiccant dryer is a device that removes support systems not within published specifications.
water vapor by adsorption.
 A pneumatic system transmits and controls energy
through the use of a pressurized gas within an en-
closed circuit. A pneumatic system consists of a com-
pressor, receiver, pressure switch, piping, checlt valve,
receiver safety valve, pressure gauge, and pneumatic
circuit. A pneumatic circuit is a combination of air-
operated components that are connected to perform
worli. Pneumatic circuit components include check
valves, filters, lubricators, pressure valves, directional
control valves, flow control valves, and actuators.
Pneumatic logic elements are miniature air valves
used as switching devices to provide decision making
signals in a pneumatic circuit.

ARO Fluid Products Div., Ingersoll-Rand

O^ ^€^

PNEUMATIC CIRCUITRY • High reliability due to fewer moving parts

• Electrical shock and spark-free controls, enabling

A pneumatic system is a system that transmits and use in wet or explosive locations
controls energy through the use of a pressurized gas
• Pneumatic logic components can be used in place
within an enclosed circuit. Pneumatic systems com-
of electrical switches, relays, resistors, and timers
press, store, and provide clean and safe air for a pneu-
matic circuit. A pneumatic circuit is a combination
Graphic Diagrams
of air-operated components that are connected to per-
form work. The use of pneumatic circuits on indus-
Pneumatic system and circuit understanding is clari-
trialassembly lines has increased greatly since the
fied by using graphic diagrams. A graphic diagram
development of mass production. Pneumatic circuits
is a drawing that uses simple line shapes (symbols)
are being used today where hydraulic circuits were
with interconnecting lines to represent the function
used in pneumatic circuits offer
the past because
A symbol
of each component in a system or circuit.
benefits over hydraulic circuits. Pneumatic circuit
is a graphic element which indicates a particular de-
benefits include:
To simplify a graphic diagram, each device
vice, etc.

• Easy air storage and use in remote locations be- or component is given a symbol in place of a full
cause air is compressible drawing or picture. The path along the connecting
lines from any one of the symbols (components) to
• Provides potential energy without the use of elec- any other component can be traced to determine the
tricity system or circuit operation. See Figure 8-1.
• Cleaner than hydraulic circuits

• Economical because initial costs are relatively low /p^ Pneumatic system hose fittings must be tightened
^-^ securely because a whipping hose can damage
forequipment and spare parts
equipment and cause injury to personnel.
• Overheating is generally not a problem
184 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

GRAPHIC DIAGRAMS

PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
ACTUATOR
(CYLINDER) -

LUBRICATOR

DIRECTIONAL
CONTROL
VALVE

PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT

Figure 8-1. A graphic diagram uses symbols and interconnecting lines represent the function of each component in a
system or circuit.

The graphic diagram of a pneumatic system begins Complex circuit graphic diagrams may show origi-

at the atmospheric air input into the system. This is nation and direction of air flow by the use of an
normally at a filter symbol that is located
or breather arrow or an "S" (supply). The piping connecting the
upstream from the compressor. The diagram shows components in a pneumatic graphic diagram is traced
all components used to compress and store air for to determine the circuit operation. For example, the
use in a pneumatic circuit. The components include circuit piping is traced beginning at the supply, through
the breather, compressor, safety relief valve, after- the pilot-operated 4-way valve, and on to the actuator.
cooler, separator, pressure switch, receiver, and man- This reveals that pressure is being applied to the rod
ual shut-off valve. A pneumatic system ends at the end port of the actuator. See Figure 8-2.
shut-off valve downstream from the receiver.
The solenoid must be activated to shift the 3-way
The graphic diagram of a pneumatic circuit shows valve to allow pilot air to shift the 4-way valve to
the circuit components beginning with the compressor, allow pressure to flow to the cap end of the actuator.
which indicates the circuit's beginning and direction The actuator piston extends when the 4-way valve is

of air flow. The compressor symbol is followed by a shifted by Both valves return to their
pilot pressure.

filter, a regulator, a lubricator, a directional control original position by spring pressure when power is
valve, and an actuator (cylinder). removed from the solenoid.
 Practical Pnei

Air Compressors

An air compressor is a device that takes air from

the atmosphere and compresses it to increase its pres-
sure. Compressing air for storage is accomplished
\N ROD END PORT - using a positive displacement compressor, which in-
creases the air's pressure by reducing its volume in
a confined space. A positive displacement compres-
sor is a compressor that compresses a fixed quantity
of air with each cycle. Compressors generally have
\N fixed operating speeds and constant pumping rates.

"i -5:.
Positive displacement compressors include piston,
helical screw, and vane compressors.
>-3-WAY VALVE
-SOLENOID

Figure 8-2. The piping connecting the components in a () Compressor air intake filters must be kept clean
pneumatic graphic diagram is traced to determine the '/ because a dirty intake filter decreases a com-
circuit operation.
pressor's efficiency and performance.

PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
Piston Compressors. A piston compressor is a

A pneumatic system consists of a compressor com-

to compressor in which air is compressed by recipro-
press air, a receiver (tank) to store the compressed cating pistons. To reciprocate is to move forward
air, a pressure switch to shut down the compressor and backward alternately. Piston compressors, also
when the preset pressure has been met or to activate referred to as reciprocating compressors, may be sin-

unloaders. piping to transfer air within the system, gle-stage or multistage. A single-stage compressor
a check valve to prevent compressed air from backing is a compressor that uses one piston to compress air

into the compressor, a receiver safety valve to prevent in a single stroke before it is discharged. A multi-
dangerous overpressure, a pressure gauge to observe stage compressor is a compressor that uses two or
system pressure, and a circuit to perform the work three cylinders, each with a progressively smaller di-

required. See Figure 8-3. ameter, to produce progressively higher pressures.

PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

PRESSURE
RECEIVER GAUGE
SAFETY
VALVE

COMPRESSOR POWER SUPPLY

Figure 8-3. A basic pneumatic system consists of a compressor, receiver, pressure switch, piping, check valve, receiver
safety valve, pressure gauge, and a circuit to perform the work required.
186 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Piston compressors consist of a crankcase, cyl- rotated. An eccentric surface is a surface that has

inder(s), crankshaft, connecting rod(s), piston(s), a different center than the center of the crankshaft.

piston rings, and an inlet and outlet valve. See Fig- A section of a crankshaft that centers on a different
ure 8-4. The reciprocating motion of the piston fills axis than the shaft is said to be eccentric or to
the cylinder and compresses the air with each al- have runout. The crankshaft is connected to the pis-

ternation. Pistons are generally driven in a recip- ton by the connecting rod. A connecting rod is the
rocating motion by a crankshaft. A crankshaft is a rod that connects the crankshaft to the piston. A
shaft that has one or more eccentric surfaces that crankshaft may be driven by a motor, a gasoline
produce a reciprocating motion when the shaft is engine, or another prime mover.

PISTON COMPRESSORS

CYLINDER HEAD
INLET VALVE OUTLET VALVE

PRESSURE
'
INCREASE

CRANKCASE ^
-CRANKSHAFT

czl
SUCTION STROKE COMPRESSION STROKE

SMALL CYLINDER
(HIGH-PRESSURE SIDE)
INTERCOOLER -.-,

-RECIPROCATING
MOTION

LARGE CYLINDER
(LOW-PRESSURE
SIDE)

CRANKSHAFT
CENTER OF SHAFT
RUNOUT
STAGING

Figure 8-4. Air is compressed as a reciprocating piston draws air in on one stroke and pushes it out under pressure on its

alternating stroke.
 Practical Pneumatics 187

As the crankshaft rotates, the piston reciprocates rpm and 12.000 rpm. At these relatively high speeds,
within the cylinder. An increasing volume is pro- the rotors turn freely with a carefully controlled
duced in the cylinder as the crankshaft pulls the pis- clearance between the rotors and the housing. The
ton downward. At the end of the stroke, the cylinder clearance is protected by a light film of oil. Lubri-
is filled with air and the intake valve closes. The cation is not a major factor and screw life is long
piston compresses the air as it moves upward. The because there is no contact between the meshed ro-
discharge (outlet) valve opens to force the air to the tors.Dry screw mechanisms are used in applications
next stage or to a receiver when the air pressure where oil-free air is required, such as instrumenta-
reaches a high pressure. tion, paint spraying, clean rooms, etc.

Staging is required to move compressed air to

higher pressures. Staging is the process of dividing HELICAL SCREW COMPRESSORS

the total pressure among two cylinders by feeding
the outlet from the first large (low-pressure) cylinder
into the inlet of a second small (high-pressure) cyl-
inder. The air compressed by the first cylinder is

boosted to a higher pressure. A connecting inter-

cooler is required between each stage to increase
compressor efficiency and to lower the air tempera-
ture at the outlet of the first stage.

Helical Screw Compressors. A helical screw com-

pressor is a compressor that contains meshing screw-
like helical rotors that compress air as they turn. The
meshing rotors (screws) draw air in at one end of a

close-fitting chamber. The air is forced along the ro-

tors as they rotate. The air trapped between the rotors
is compressed as the size of the cavities between the
rotors is progressively reduced. Air flow is positive
and continuous because the air is constantly being
drawn in and forced axially along the rotors. See MALE
Figure 8-5. ROTOR
Helical screw compressors contain one, two, or
three rotors. Two-rotor helical screw compressors are
the most common in industry. A two-rotor helical
screw compressor contains one male and one female
Figure 8-5. Air is compressed in a helical screw
rotor, which generally have four and six lobes, re- compressor as the size of the cavities betvi^een the rotors
spectively. A lobe is the screw helix of a rotor. In is progressively reduced.
the operation of a two-rotor helical screw compres-
sor, air entering the chamber is compressed as the Oil-flooded compressing mechanisms compress
lobes of the male rotor mesh with the lobes of the air with the lobes of the rotors contacting each other.
female rotor. This pushes the trapped air along the The male rotor is driven by the prime mover and
rotors and compresses it. Air is progressively com- meshes with and drives the female rotor. This driving
pressed until the lobes pass the outlet port, discharg- motion causes surface contact between the rotors,
ing the compressed air.
which must be well-lubricated. Lubrication is accom-
Helical screw compressors may have dry or oil- plished by injecting oil through internal passages to
tlooded compressing mechanisms. Dry screw com- the rotors and rotor end bearings. See Figure 8-6.
pressing mechanisms compress air without the lobes The oil bath lubricates the rotors, seals the rotor
of the rotors contacting each other as they rotate. clearances for high-compression efficiency, and ab-
The constant and close separation is accomplished sorbs the heat of compression. This results in low
by both rotors being rotated by a set of timing gears outlet air temperature. The oil is separated from the
that are driven by the prime mover. Prime movers compressed air, filtered, cooled, and returned to the
normally rotate the rotors at speeds between 3000 compressor for reuse.
 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

OIL-FLOODED COMPRESSING MECHANISM

Figure 8-6. Oil-flooded compressing mechanisms require oil injected through internal passages to the rotors and rotor
end bearings.

creases, pushing the vanes into their slots in the rotor.

The decreasing volume compresses the air and forces
it out of the outlet port. Compressor vanes are nor-

mally made of high-temperature metal and are

spring-loaded to ensure outward sliding and contact
with the housing. See Figure 8-7. Vane compressors
may be either single-stage (up to 50 psi) or two-stage
(50 psi to 125 psi).

Cast Manufacturing Company

^^S
Rotary vane compressors from Cast Manufacturing Company are avail-
able in oilless or lubricated models and are used in packaging, food
processing equipment, and air bearings.

Vane Compressors. A vane compressor is a posi-

tive-displacement compressor that has multiple vanes
located in an offset rotor. The vanes form a seal as
they are forced against the cam ring. The offset of
the rotor in the cam ring produces different distances
between the rotor and cam ring at different points
inside the compressor. As the rotor rotates, its offset
position allows the vanes to slide out and draw air

from the inlet port. As the rotor continues to rotate,

the volume between the vanes and the cam ring de-
 Pnwtwul Pneumatics 189

Pressure Control Safety Relief Valves

The compressor in a pneumatic system must be Pressure developed by a compressor is designed to

able to maintain the required (set) level of pressure be regulated by the system's pressure control system.
at all times. Extensive damage occurs to the receiver, However, in emergencies such as the failure of the
motor, or compressor if the compressor is allowed pressure control system, pressure may build to a dan-
to continue compressing air beyond the system's gerous level. To relieve unsafe overpressure, safety
high-pressure limit. relief valves are placed at the compressor and re-
A pressure compensator is used to avoid damage ceiver. A safety relief valve is a device that prevents
to a system using a vane compressor. A pressure com- excessive pressure from building up by venting air
pensator is a displacement control that alters dis- to the atmosphere.
placement in response to pressure changes in a Safety relief valves operate as normally-closed
system. A pressure-compensated vane compressor valves with spring-loaded poppets. The poppet is
consists of a pressure ring, a pressure-adjustment moved off its seat when the force of the air on the
spring, and a thrust block. As the pressure builds poppet becomes greater than the spring force. The
within the compressor to the set level, the pressure undesirably high air pressure is exhausted through
ring is forced to a center position, where compres- the valve vent port. See Figure 8-9.
sion ceases. The pressure
by a pressure level is set
Safety relief valves are designed strictly for safety
compensator adjustment screw, which adjusts the
and are not intended for frequent operation. However,
spring force required to center the pressure ring.
safety valves do require periodic maintenance. Main-
A pressure switch or unloading valve is used to
tenance of safety valves consists of verifying that
prevent damage to a piston or helical screw com-
the valve can move freely. On most valves, this is
pressor. See Figure 8-8.
done by moving the test lever or by pulling a ring
A pressure switch is a device that senses a high-
to unseat the poppet. The valve vent port normally
or low-pressure condition and relays an electrical
remains clean from the air's exhausting velocity if
signal to turn the compressor motor ON or OFF.
regular testing begins when the valve is new. How-
The motor is shut OFF when the receiver pressure
ever, a dirty and untested valve may leak after being
reaches its preset maximum. The motor does not
tested for the first time if it is allowed to sit and
restart until the preset minimum pressure is
accumulate dust, dirt, and oil.
reached. Pressure switch operation works well in
applications involving intermittent air demand or
low air consumption.
Excessive stopping and starting of a compressor mo- {) The oil a compressor is not the same
used in
tor overheats and burns up the motor. Generally, a com- oil used pneumatic valves. If air
to lubricate

pressor motor should not be cycled ON and OFF more is allowed compressor oil vapor to a valve,
to carry

than three times per hour. A system with an unloader the valve could varnish, causing it to stick. Oil sup-

must be used if the air consumption is high enough to

plied by a lubricator is transported by gravity and
the working air to various points in a system.
create excessive stopping and starting.
An unloading valve is a device that senses a high-
pressure condition and removes the compression en-
ergy. An unloading valve is placed in the compressor Pneumatic System Piping
system to allow the motor to continue to run even
after the high-pressure setting has been reached. Re- Piping in a pneumatic system begins at the compres-
leasing the compression energy is accomplished by sor and runs to each component so energy can be
closing the compressor's inlet valve to prevent flow- transmitted by use of the compressed air. As the air
through the compression chamber, holding the inlet is used throughout the system, it is returned (ex-
valve open. Each unloading valve is operated by pilot hausted) to the atmosphere. For this reason, pneu-
pressure from the receiver to a piston within the un- matic system piping does not return to the beginning
loading valve and allows the prime mover to remain stage (compressor) like hydraulic system piping.
operational without building pressure. Unloading Pneumatic system piping must be installed to mini-
valves are used in applications where the air demand mize pressure loss and air leaks and to provide liquid
is high, constant, or both. drainage.
190 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

'^'l^-^--"!'!'''''"^-

PRESSURE-
ADJUSTMENT SPRING
COMPRESSOR SYMBOL

PRESSURE
COMPENSATOR
ADJUSTMENT SCREW

PRESSURE-COMPENSATED VANE COMPRESSOR

j=^r~~~-- ADJUSTING
/ 1 SCREW
I 1,,- COVER

">. P<K

PILOT-OPERATED
UNLOADING VALVE
COVER SYMBOL

-INLET

PRESSURE SWITCH

-COMPRESSOR
-MOTOR

PRESSURE SWITCH APPLICATION UNLOADING VALVE APPLICATION

Figure 8-8. Continuous compressor pressure buildup is regulated by a pressure compensator, pressure switch, or
unloading valve.
 Practical Pneumatics 191

For example, what is the pressure drop in a pneu-

SAFETY RELIEF VAL matic system having a working pressure of 100 psi,
an air flow rate of 50 scfm, and containing 100' of
1" Schedule 40 pipe, one 1" gate valve, three 1" 90°
elbows, and one 1" 50ji filter?

1. Calculate pressure drop for 1" pipe.

Note: C value for 1" pipe = 1.66 (from Pipe Pres-
sure Loss Constants table)

CQ- 14.7
AP .^

1000 ^ 14.7+

1. 66 X SO- 14.7
AP
1000 14.7-HOO
1.66x2500 14.7
Figure 8-9. Safety relief valves operate when system
AP
1000 114.7
pressure builds fiigfi enoughi to overcome spring pressure,
wfiich pushes a poppet off of its seat.
AP ^^^x P8
1000
Pressure Loss. Pressure loss in a pneumatic system AP = 4.15 x .128
is a result of the resistance created within the system AP = .531 psi
and circuit components, the work load demands, and
2. Calculate pressure drop for 1" gate valve.
the size and length of pipe and pipe fittings. Pressure
Note: C value for 1" gate valve = .018 (from Pipe
loss is also created during system operation by mov-
Fitting Pressure Loss Constants table)
ing controls such as valves. Pressure loss occurs only
CQ- ^ 14.7
while air is moving through the piping. The maxi- AP ""
1000 14.7-hP
mum pressure drop in a system should be less than
10% over the system operating pressure. Pressure loss
.018x50- 14.7
AP
figures are taken from Pressure Loss Constants tables 14.7-HOO
when determining total system pressure loss resulting .018) 2500 14.7
._

from friction through lengths of pipe, pipe fittings, and AP = ""

1000 114.7
other components such as valves. Pressure Loss Con-
stants tables are also used to determine if the system AP -^x
1000
P8
has the required capacity. See Appendix.
AP = .045 x .128
Calculating the total pressure drop in a pneumatic AP = .006 psi
system from piping, fittings, and other components
3. Calculate pressure drop for three 90° 1" elbows.
is determined by calculating the individual pressure
drops in each pipe, and component and adding
fitting,
Note: C value for one 90° 1" elbow = .043 (from
Pipe Fitting Pressure Loss Constants table). Total
these values together. The individual pressure drops
in pipe, fittings, and components are calculated from pressure drop for three 90° elbows = .129 (.043 x 3

the flow rate, pressure, and constant based on the

component. Pressure loss in a component is
192 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

4. Calculate pressure drop for a 1" 50|i filter. minute (scfm). The annual cost savings from repair-

Note: C value for a 1" 50|i filter = .20 (from Filter ing this hole, based on $.25/1000 scfm, is $210.24

Pressure Loss Constants table) ( 1 .60 X 60 X 24 X 365 = 840,960 cu ft per year. [840,960

CQ'- ^ 14.7 ^ 1000] X .25 = $210.24). See Figure 8-10.

^p
1000 14.7+

.20x50- 14.7 PNEUMATIC SYSTEM AIR LOSS*

AP ^ 14.7+100
1000

.20x2500 14.7
1000 14.7

^^x
1000
P
.5 X .128

.064 psi

5. Find total system pressure drop by adding each pres-

sure drop from piping and components.

AP = .531 + .006 + .041 + .064

AP = .642 psi

Selecting slightly oversized pipe adds a safety

margin and allows for additional demands on a sys-
tem. Also, to ensure that an adequate supply of air
is available, pressure loss may be calculated when
the purchase of additional equipment is anticipated.
 Pnictkat Pneumatics 193

cause it resists abrasion and heat damage. Nylon or

LIQUID DRAINAGE
plastic tubing is normally used for circuits because
it is easy to work with, can be cut to length with a
sharp knife and installed quickly and easily, and, in
most cases, can be used with operating pressures up
to 200 psi. Also, the cost of nylon or plastic tubing
is considerably less than the cost of copper tubing.

Check Valves

A check valve is a valve that allows flow in only one

direction. A check valve is used in a pneumatic system
to prevent the flow of stored compressed air in the
receiver from flowing back into the compressor.
DRAIN VALVE
A check valve consists of a body with a primary
(inlet) port and a secondary (outlet) port. A ball or
Figure 8-11. Headers must have the proper slope so that poppet is held against the inlet port by a spring. Air
moisture that condenses within the header flows to a pressure at the inlet port that is greater than the
moisture water leg and drain valve.
spring pressure moves the ball or poppet off of its

seat, thus allowing air flow. The ball or poppet is

Pipe Installation. A pneumatic system graphic dia- held against the inlet port by spring and air pressure
gram shows the layout of a pneumatic system piping if air attempts to flow in the opposite direction. See
system. The graphic diagram shows the main header Figure 8-13.
from the receiver and the feeder lines that supply
individual circuits. The graphic diagram also shows An example of a check valve application is a hand
the location of the various components used to con-
tire pump used to pump air into bicycle tires. Air is
dition (filter, regulate, lubricate, etc.) the air in the
free to flow through the hose and into the tire when
the handle is pushed down. The check valve prevents
individual circuits. Pneumatic system piping should
be installed in a two-way loop around a plant when- air from flowing out of the tire when the handle is
lifted to draw air into the cylinder.
ever possible. The two-way loop provides two paths
for air flow. This prevents significant pressure drop
in the circuits at the end of the main header. See
Figure 8-12.

Piping Materials. Standard piping is generally used

for pneumatic system main headers and feeder lines.
Pipe material and connections are normally deter-
mined by the working load. Generally, pipe over 6"
in diameter has welded joints, pipe between 3" and
6" has bolted flange connections, and pipe under 3"
is threaded. Rigid feeder lines should be connected
to the main header or feeder lines as close to the
point of use as possible.

A thread-lubricating material must be used to pre-

vent leaks when threaded connections are used.
Thread-lubricating material should be placed on the
male fitting only. The first two lead-in threads must
be left bare to allow for thread starting and to prevent
contamination from pipe dope or Teflon tape. Sa\l<>r-BeaU Manufacturing Company

Copper, nylon, or plastic tubing may be used to Air cotnpressors are used in water pumping station installations to
pipe individual circuits. Copper tubing is used be- supply compressed air for air tools, valve actuation, and air motors.
194 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

MAIN HEADER
M^MMMATIC SYSTEM SYMBOLS

COMPRESSOR-
circuits. To be effective, air conditioning devices
must be of the proper type and size and must be
installed and maintained correctly.

CHECK VALVES FILTER-SEPARATOR

WITH AUTOMATIC
DRAIN SYMBOL

5(i FELT FILTER

(POROUS
SUBSTANCE)

- END GASKET

Figure 8-14. A filter contains a porous substance through

which air can pass but particulate matter cannot.

Lubricators. A lubricator is a device that injects

-HOSE atomized oil into the air sent to pneumatic com-
ponents. Proper lubrication of moving components
CHECK VALVE APPLICATION
is generally accomplished by atomizing light oil

Figure 8-13. Check valves are used in a pneumatic into the air stream. Lubricators use an orifice to
system to allow air to flow in one direction.
create a pressure differential in the device. The
pressure differential creates a siphon effect on the
Filters. A filter is a device containing a porous sub-
feeder tube. The siphon effect draws the oil up to
stance through which a fluid can pass but particulate
the drip tube, where it is dripped into the air
matter cannot. See Figure 8-14. Ideally, filters, or a
stream. See Figure 8-15. Oil flow is metered by
combination of filters, should remove all solids and
an oil adjustment screw. The oil adjustment screw
liquids from the air. In many circuits, a particulate
controls the number of oil drops that are released
filter, which removes solid particles of 5^ and
to be atomized into the system air.
smaller, is placed just ahead of a coalescing filter.

The coalescing filter removes oil and moisture. A Oil flow must be regulated because under- or

screen filter should be placed before the particulate over-lubrication may be a problem. Depending on
filter if the air is extra dirty and the particulate filter the actuator requirements, begin by using 1 drop
requires frequent changing. Filters must be changed for every 10 cfm. This may be regulated up or down
or cleaned per manufacturer specifications. based on actuator requirements. Generally, a light-
grade oil is satisfactory for lubricator atomizing.
The grade of oil selected must atomize properly
for the correct lubrication of the components.

0-An I

intake filler acts as a silencer for air as

Lubricators should be placed downstream from
it rushes into a compressor. Filters are re-
the filter and should be as close as possible to the
quired in a pneumatic system because polluted air
components being lubricated. Lubricators should be
may also contain undesirable gases which, when
mixed with the moisture found in a pneumatic sys- placed no more than 10' from the lubricated com-
tem, could be corrosive. ponents because atomized oil begins to drop out of
the air beyond 10'.
196 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

stream pressure. A pressure regulator

; i^gu.c.^ always adjusts
BRICATORS to a liiihriiini). fre
balanced pressure (equilibrium), Pressure regu-
LARGE lators may be diaphragm or piston design. See Figure
FILL 8-16.
DRIP TUBE - PORT
OIL
ADJUSTMENT PRESSURE REGULATORS
SCREW

-OIL FILTER
STEM -- DIAPHRAGM
INLET PORT - - OUTLET PORT
-RESERVOIR
DISK- VALVE SEAT
METAL DISK SPRING
BOWL DIAPHRAGM
GUARD

Figure 8-15. A lubricator is a device that injects atomized

oil into the air sent to pneumatic components.

Controlling and Directing Air

Pneumatic circuit controls are valves designed to

control the pressure, direction, and flow of air -OUTLET PORT
through a circuit. Pneumatic circuit valves include
pressure regulators, directional control valves, and
flow control valves. Also, special valves are used as
switching devices to control time or sequence of
PISTON
events. Control valves are operated by system or cir-
cuit pressure or by the exhaust from another valve.
The operation of one valve from the exhaust of an-
Figure 8-16. Pressure regulators provide constant and
proper air pressure to pneumatic components.
other is a form of pilot operation.

Pressure Regulators, k pressure regulator is a valve A diaphragm pressure regulator uses a metallic
that restricts and/or blocks downstream air flow. Pres- (bronze) or nylon reinforced rubber diaphragm to
sure regulators (pressure-reducing valves) are used sense a pressure differential between a regulating
in a pneumatic circuit to provide a constant and spring and a disc spring. The regulating spring exerts
proper air pressure to pneumatic components. Pres- a force on the upper side of the diaphragm. The dia-
sure regulators generally control circuit pressures phragm is connected to the disc by a stem. An in-

from psi to 150 psi, depending on the circuit's crease in outlet pressure increases the upward force
maximum pressure and application. Pressure regula- on the diaphragm. This closes or reduces the flow
on the pressure differential between the
tors operate through the regulator passageway. A decrease in out-
downstream pressure, the regulating spring force, let pressure reduces the upward pressure on the bot-
and the upstream pressure. The upstream pressure tom of the diaphragm. This opens or increases the
and the regulating spring force equal the down- flow through the regulator passageway.
 Practical Pneumatics 197

Piston regulators use a piston to sense the pressure

differential between the valve's inlet and outlet pres-
VALVE WAYS
sures. The regulator body acts as a cylinder for the
piston. Pressure from the regulating spring forces the
STANDARD PORT MARKINGS
stem to open the valve seat and allow air flow. Down-
stream pressure is sensed through the orifice and is

applied to the bottom of the piston. This pressure

offsets the regulating spring and inlet air pressure to
maintain a constant outlet pressure. A decrease in
outlet pressure reduces the pressure through the ori-
fice and on the bottom of the piston. This increases
the spring pressure, opening the valve seat, allowing
increased air flow. An increase in outlet pressure in-
creases the pressure through the orifice and on the
bottom of the piston. This reduces the spring pressure,
closing the valve seat, allowing reduced air flow.

Directional Control Valves. Directional control

valves direct the flow of air to an actuator or another
valve in a pneumatic circuit. Most directional control
valves are 2-way, 3-way, or 4-way valves. A way is

a flow path through a valve. Two-way valves have

two main ports for air flow. Three-way valves have
three main ports for air flow. Four-way valves have
four main ports (possibly five) for air flow. See
Figure 8-17.
Directional control valves are placed in different
positions to start, stop, or change the direction of
fluid flow. A position is the specific location of a
spool within a valve which determines the direction
of fluid flow through the valve. A 2-position valve
can be placed in two positions and a 3-position valve
can be placed in three positions.

A 3-way, 2-position, solenoid-operated, spring-re-

turn directional control valve may be used to activate
a single-acting cylinder. The valve directs air to the
cap end of the cylinder when the solenoid is ener-
gized. De-activating the solenoid causes the spring
to shift the valve spool, exhausting the air in the
cylinder to the atmosphere. See Figure 8-18.
A 3-way, 3-position, manually-operated, spring-
centered directional control valve may be used to
control a single-acting cylinder. The left position ex-
tends the cylinder and right position retracts the cyl-
inder. The center position allows the cylinder to be
stopped and held in any position between fully ex-
tended and fully retracted.

(yA constant air leak at the vent hole of a piston

^ regulator is an indication of damaged or worn
piston seals that require replacement.
198 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

VALVE POSITIONS

DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE

K •^
PICTORIAL DRAWING SYMBOL PICTORIAL DRAWING

2-POSITION VALVE

SOLENOID SINGLE-ACTING
OPERATOR CYLINDER

w v^
SUPPLY
V3.,

2-POSITION VALVE APPLICATION

W.
^ ^SUPPLY
^SPRING CENTERING-'
AJw
/

3-POSITION VALVE APPLICATION

Figure 8-18. Directional control valves are placed in different positions to start, stop, or change the direction of fluid flow.

Directional control valves may be operated elec- function is the open center supply design. In the open
trically, mechanically, manually, or by pilot operation center supply design, the neutral ports from the sup-
and may be normally open or normally closed. Nor- ply to the outputs are open. This allows the supply
mally open valves allow flow between the inlet and pressure to hold the outputs in their actuated posi-
outlet ports when the valve operator is not energized. tions. In the open center exhaust design, the neutral
Normally closed valves require the valve operator to ports from the outputs are to the exhausts and are
open a path between the inlet and outlet ports. open, allowing the cylinder ports to exhaust while
blocking the inlet port. See Figure 8-19.
Most directional control valves are 2- or 3-position
valves. Two-position valves have two positions in Pneumatic circuits using 4-way directional control

which the spool can be placed. These positions are valves are the most common in industry. A 4-way,
referred to as the extreme positions. Three-position 2-position, hand-lever operated, spring-return direc-

valves have a center (neutral) position in addition to tional control valve may be used to activate a dou-
the two extreme positions. The neutral position is ble-acting cylinder in both directions. In this circuit,
generally the deactivated position, where the internal the hand-lever operator fully extends or retracts the

spool is normally centered by spring action on both piston rod depending on the position of the operator.

ends of the spool. See Figure 8-20.

The neutral position produces various functions A 4-way, 3-position, hand-lever operated, spring-
based on the design of the valve spool. For example, centered directional control valve may be used with
one neutral function has all ports blocked. This func- a double-acting cylinder for infinite positioning. As
tion, known as the closed center supply, allows for the hand lever is operated, the piston rod extends or
infinite positioning of a cylinder. In this case, the retracts. The piston remains in its present location
cylinder remains in its last actuated position when whenever the lever is released and the springs center
the operator is first activated and deactivated because the valve spool. This use is similar to positioning
the air is not allowed to exhaust. Another neutral forks on a forklift.
 Practical Pneumatics 199

VALVE CENTER POSITIONS

CLOSED CENTER OPEN CENTER OPEN CENTER

SUPPLY SUPPLY EXHAUST

Figure 8-19. Center positions of directional control valves are designed to exhaust, block, or allow inlet or exhaust air to
another component.
travel to

FOUR-WAY VALVE APPLICATIONS

^ 4-WAY,
2-POSITION
VALVE
PISTON
ROD-

DOUBLE-ACTING
CYLINDER

EXTEND/RETRACT CONTROL INFINITE POSITIONING CONTROL

Figure 8-20. Pneumatic circuits using 4-way, 5 ported directional control valves are commonly used in industry to control
the operation of double-acting cylinders.

Directional control valves may be controlled elec- valves, solenoids may directly move the spool of the
trically by a solenoid. A solenoid is a device that main valve (solenoid-operated) or move the spool of
converts electrical energy into a linear, mechanical a pilot valve (pilot-operated). In a 3-way solenoid-
force. The mechanical force in a solenoid is created operated valve, an electrical signal to the solenoid
by a magnetic field that is set up by the flow of pushes the solenoid rod, which shifts the main valve
electric current through a coil of wire. In pneumatic spool. This controls the flow of air to the outlet ports
circuits, solenoids are used to allow or prevent of the main valve. In a 3-way. solenoid-controlled,
(open/close) air flow in 2-way valves or control the pilot-operated valve, an electrical signal to the sole-
3-way valves. See Figure 8-21.
position of the spool in noid pushes the solenoid rod. which shifts the spool
In 2-way valves, solenoids are used to control the of a pilot valve attached to the main valve. The move-
operation of a plunger to open or close ports. This ment of the pilot valve spool allows air flow to shift
produces a flow or no flow condition. In 3-way the spool of the main valve.
200 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

SOLENOID VALVES

SOLENOID COIL
ENERGIZED

ARMATURE-^
DIRECTION
OF FORCE DIRECTION
ON PLUNGER OF FORCE
ON PLUNGER
AIR GAP
FRAME

DE-ENERGIZED
2-WAY OPEN/CLOSE CONTROL

-SOLENOID COIL
DIRECTION / DE-ENERGIZED
OF FORCE / ,^ OUTLETS
ON SPOOL

DE-ENERGIZED
3-WAY SOLENOID-OPERATED

DIRECTION OF
4-^i FORCE ON SPOOL

SOLENOID COIL
ENERGIZED
OUTLETS

ENERGIZED DE-ENERGIZED
3-WAY SOLENOID-CONTROLLED, PILOT-OPERATED

Figure 8-21. Solenoids are used to electrically open or close valves or to shift the spool within a valve to control air flow.

Flow Control Valves. A flow control valve is a valve Cylinder piston movement or motor speed is con-
whose primary function is to regulate the rate of fluid trolled precisely and smoothly if the air flow is regu-
flow. Flow control valves, sometimes referred to as lated at the exhaust rather than at the inlet.

needle valves, are normally used for metering air Regulating exhaust air is used on cylinders under
flow to control motor speed, cylinder piston speed, light or no load where the volume of air supplied is

or valve spool shifting speed (for timing). See Fig- less than the amount required to rapidly and smoothly
ure 8-22. move the piston. Heavy loads may be regulated at
 Practical Pneumatics 201

the inlet or outlet port as long as rapid speed is not

required. Also, a flow control valve can be coupled
with a check valve to give regulated flow in one di-

rection and full flow in the reverse direction.

Actuators

An actuator transforms fluid energy into linear or

rotary mechanical force. An air cylinder produces lin-
ear mechanical force. An air motor produces rotary
mechanical force.

Air Cylinders. An (;//• cylinder is a device that con-

verts compressed air energy into linear mechanical
energy. Pneumatic cylinders operate by air pressure and
flow acting on a piston. Work performed is a product
of the area of the cylinder bore and the air pressure.

Cylinders are classified as single-acting or dou-

ble-acting and are manufactured in a variety of di-
ameters, stroke lengths, and mounting arrangements.
A single-acting cylinder is a cylinder in which fluid
pressure moves the piston in only one direction. The
piston is returned by spring or gravity force. A dou- ha Manufacturing Company

ble-acting cylinder is a cylinder that requires fluid

Double-wall cylinders from Bimba use easy-to-assemble bolt-on mount-
flow for extending and retracting. The major parts
ing kits to convertone basic cylinder into various National Fluid Power
of a air cylinder are the cylinder body, ends, piston, Association (NFPA) mounting styles, such as front flange, side lugs,
piston rod, and seals. See Figure 8-23. pivot, end lugs, and clevis.

FLOW CONTROL VALVES

ADJUSTING
KNOB-

ADJUSTABLE,
NON-COMPENSATED
FLOW CONTROL
VALVE SYMBOL

-ORIFICE
MOTOR SPEED
FLOW CONTROL CONTROL

DIRECTIONAL
CONTROL VALVE -

^D-

CYLINDER PISTON VALVE SPOOL SHIFTING

SPEED CONTROL SPEED (TIMING) CONTROL

Figure 8-22. Flow control valves use a fine threaded adjusting screw to precisely meter the flow of air within a circuit.
202 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

moving parts and the closeness of their fit for the

AIR CYLINDERS best service life. O-rings should have a 10% com-
pression between the cylinder and piston groove
walls when installed. As pressure builds, the O-ring
becomes distorted in an attempt to completely fill

all voids at one end of its groove. This forced dis-

tortion becomes the seal under dynamic conditions.

CYLINDER SEALS

SINGLE-ACTING, SPRING RETURN

DOUBLE-ACTING Figure 8-24. Seals are used in cylinders to prevent

leakage between moving parts (dynamic seals) or prevent
leakage between two immovable parts (static seal).
Figure 8-23. Air cylinders are actuators that are operated
by the force of compressed air in one (single-acting) or Pressure that becomes excessive may distort the
two (double-acting) directions. O-ring enough to squeeze it out of its groove and
into any void between the piston and cylinder wall.
Air cylinders use various seals to prevent air pres-
This may be prevented by using a backup ring be-
sure loss and to protect the internal cylinder parts
tween the O-ring and the wall of the piston groove.
from outside contaminants. A seal is a device that
A backup ring supports the O-ring's distortion and
creates positive contact between cylinder components
must be installed on the side of the O-ring receiving
to contain pressure and prevent leakage. Seals may
the least pressure. Backup rings must be installed on
be static or dynamic. A static seal is a seal used as
both sides of the O-ring if the O-ring receives high
a gasket to seal nonmoving parts. They are used be-
pressure in both directions. See Figure 8-25.
tween two stationary parts that may be taken apart
High-pressure dynamic forces within a cylinder
and reassembled. A dynamic seal is a seal used be-
are best contained by using lip seals. A lip seal is a
tween moving parts that prevents leakage or contami-
seal that is made of a resilient material that has a
nation. Dynamic seals are used on pistons and piston
sealing edge formed into a lip. Lip seals are specifi-
rods to allow the piston and rod to slide inside the
cally designed for reciprocating motion and form a
cylinder. Seals include O-rings, lip seals, wipers, and
tighter seal as pressure increases. A lip seal uses the
packing. Seal material may be Teflon, nylon, leather,
air's pressure on its lip to form a seal. Lip seals in-
or rubber. See Figure 8-24.
clude V-ring and cup seals.
O-rings are the most commonly used seal in pneu-
matic applications. An O-ring is a molded synthetic '
Long-stroke cylinders used with high air pres-
rubber ring having a round cross section. O-rings are sure create great force and high piston and rod
used as static and dynamic seals and may be used bearing stresses and are susceptible to piston, bear-
in some high-pressure operations. O-rings used in dy- ing, rod, and body damage.
namic applications depend on the smoothness of the
 Practical Pneumatics 203

A wiper is a seal designed to prevent foreign abra-

BACKUP RINGS sive or corrosive material from entering a cylinder.
Wipers are designed with a lip to wipe the rod clean
of foreign materials with each stroke of the piston
rod. Wipers are normally installed with a slip fit into
a machined groove on the outermost portion of the
rod end. Wipers protect the end sealing material in
addition to removing contamination from the rod.
Wipers are made of metal or synthetic material and
are not designed to seal against pressure.

Packing is a bulk deformable material or one or

more mating deformable elements reshaped by manu-
ally adjustable compression. Packing seals the piston
rod to prevent air from escaping around the rod.
Packing uses various designs and materials to seal
in the cylinder pressure.

A piston cushioning device is a device within a

cylinder that provides a gradual deceleration of the
piston as it nears the end of its stroke. Piston cush-
ioning devices help to reduce the shock produced
Figure 8-25. Backup rings support 0-rings during
compression. when a piston reaches the end of its stroke. See Fig-
ure 8-27.

A V-rinii seal is a lip seal shaped like the letter

V. V-ring seals are dynamic seals used in high-pres-
PISTON CUSHIONING
sure and severe operating condition applications. A
cup seal is a lip seal whose lip forms the shape of FULL AIR FLOW PRODUCES
a cup. Cup seals are used specifically as a piston FAST PISTON TRAVEL
seal and may be used as a seal for single-acting cyl- STATIC SEAL r

inders. Two cup seals may be used back-to-back in

double-acting cylinders. See Figure 8-26.

FAST
PISTON TRAVEL

Figure 8-27. Piston cushioning devices are used at the

Figure 8-26. Lip seals are designed for reciprocating end of a piston stroke to prevent possible damage of the
motion and form a tighter seal as pressure increases. load or cylindercomponent by slowing piston movement.
204 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

A piston cushioning device consists of a plug-

shaped piston and a slightly larger bore on the inside
INTENSIFIERS
of the cylinder end. The piston cushioning device
may be sealless, have a V-ring or O-ring seal on the
plug, or have an O-ring set in a machined groove in
the rod end. The plug may be on one or both sides
of the piston, depending on whether the cylinder is OPERATING
PISTON AREA
cushioned at one or both ends. The cushioning device = 28.274 SQ IN.
operates by trapping a volume of air and compressing
it as the piston approaches the end of its stroke. The
air is trapped between the piston and the cylinder

end as the plug enters the bore. Needle valves in-

stalled in the cylinder end(s) are adjusted to allow
the trapped air to be metered through the port at the
desired rate. This adjustment determines the intensity 2" CYLINDER
of the piston cushioning.
CYLINDER
High-pressure punching machines or high-pres-
sure forming tools require increased actuator output
force. In most cases, increasing the supply pressure Figure 8-28. An intensifier converts low-pressure fluid
to the actuator is sufficient to increase the actuator power high-pressure fluid power by using the
into

output force. An intensifier may be added to a system difference areas of two pistons to increase output
in
pressure without an increase in input pressure.
if a pressure greater than the supply system pressure
is required. An intensifier (booster) is a device that
converts low-pressure fluid power into high-pressure For example, what is the outlet pressure pro-
fluid power. An intensifier uses the difference in the duced by a 6" D operating piston and a 2" D ram

areas of the two cylinders to increase output pressure operating at 100 psi? Note: the area of the 6" op-
without an increase in input pressure. Intensifiers erating piston = 28.274 sq in. and the area of the
normally consist of a large surface area piston (op- 2" ram = 3.142 sq in.

erating piston) connected to a small surface area pis-

Ac
ton (ram). The pressure exerted by an intensifier is Po XP,
determined by dividing the area of the operating pis-
IS.214
ton by the product of the area of the ram and the Po 100
3.142
system operating pressure. See Figure 8-28. Intensi-
fier pressure is found by applying the formula: Po = 8.999 X 100
Po = 899.9 psi
Po ^-'
where Air Motors. An air motor is an air-driven device
Po = outlet pressure (in psi) that converts fluid energy into rotary mechanical en-

Ac = area of operating piston (in sq in.) ergy. In many cases, air motors are selected over elec-
tric motors because air motors are two to four times
Ar = area of ram (in sq in.)
lighter than a direct replacement electric motor. Also,
Pi = inlet pressure (in psi)
air motors can stall for an indefinite period of time
without overheating or burning up. Air motors can
be reversed without any strain or shock and rarely
I r_y Intensifiers enable high force levels to be pro-
down suddenly maintained. Air motors nor-
break
/^ duced in a low-pressure pneumatic system. In-
if

mally wear slowly with a gradual reduction in power,

tensifiers are mounted close to the work cylinder so
allowing for scheduled maintenance. Disadvantages
high pressure is confined to the small part of the
circuit between the intensifier and the work cylinder. of air motors are that air motors are less efficient
A pressure relief in the high pressure portion of the than electric motors, air motors slow down as the
intensifier circuit helps prevent excessive pressures. work load increases, and supplying sufficient air for
operating an air motor may be a problem.
 The most popular air motor is the vane air motor.
A vane air motor is an air motor that contains a
rotor with vanes that are rotated by compressed air.
Vane air motors are simple in design, available in a
wide range of sizes, and are easily maintained. Most
vane air motors are connected
to a gear train because
the rotor and vanes rotate at a high speed. The gear
train develops greater output torque by reducing the
motor speed. Vane air motors are popular for pump
motors, portable tools, mixing motors, and air-oper-
ated hoists because they are able to produce different
speeds or torque from the same input pressure. Ro-
tary vane motors are available in sizes up to 10 HP
and capable of speeds of up to 15.000 rpm at oper-
ating pressures of 100 psi.
Vaneair motor design is similar to a vane com- Gast Manufacturing Company
pressor. Vane motors develop torque by the air pres- Air motors from Gast Manufacturing Company are available in lubri-
sure acting on the exposed surfaces of the vanes. The cated and oilless models for use in mixing equipment, conveyor drives,
vanes slide in and out of the rotor, which is connected pump drives, tioists, and wincties.

to the drive shaft. See Figure 8-29. As the rotor ro-

tates, the vanes follow the surface of the housing
PNEUMATIC LOGIC
due to centrifugal force. Good lubrication is required
because of the constant sliding of the vanes and hous-
Logic is the science of correct reasoning. Logic is
ing. Lubrication may be provided by an in-line lu-
used to describe electrical or pneumatic switching
bricator, which injects atomized oil into the air
(switching logic) because of the varied number of
stream. Recommended oil usage for a vane air motor
functions available. Pneumatic logic is referred to as
is one drop per minute for every 50 cfm to 75 cfm
a binary system. A binary system is a system that
of air flow. In many cases, air motor manufacturers
has two values such as pressure or no pressure. In
provide lubrication and flow rate charts.
pneumatic logic, ones and zeros each have the coded
meaning of pressure or no pressure. Binary functions
are logical functions that may be considered ON or
VANE AIR MOTORS OFF, normally open or normally closed (NO or NC),
or I or 0. In pneumatic logic terms, a 3-way direc-
tional control valve performs the same logical func-
tion as a light switch (ON or OFF).

UNIDIRECTIONAL
Signal, Decision, and Action
AIRMOTOR
SYMBOL
All pneumatic circuits are designed based on how
energy is used to perform work. The design should
ROTOR
CONNECTED TO include a method of signaling the elements in the
DRIVE SHAFT
circuit to start their function followed by the ele-
ments making their decisions in causing an action.
An element is a logic device that is capable of making
a or 1 output decision based on its input. Similar
switching devices, pneumatic logic ele-
to electrical
ments are the decision maker within the three basic
control divisions of signal, decision, and action.
A signal in pneumatic logic is a condition that

Figure 8-29. A vane air motor is an air motor that contains initiates a start or stop of fluid flow by opening or
a rotor with vanes that are rotated by compressed air. closing a valve. A signal component is a start/stop
 206 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

switch, relief valve, directional control valve, pres- generally results in the pilot operation of a directional
sure switch, flow switch, etc. All signals rely on an- control valve. In some circuits, pneumatic logic con-
other condition to occur. This condition may be trols operate a pneumatic/electric switch. The valve
manual, mechanical, or automatic. For example, a or switch is used to activate an actuator or become
manual condition occurs when a person operates a a signal in another circuit.
palm button or foot switch.
Pneumatic logic controls make their decision
A mechanical condition occurs when a limit valve
based on input signals received and relay the order
is mechanically operated. Limit valves are the most
for action. In many cases, the action that ultimately
common pneumatic logic control. A limit valve is a
occurs changes the original input signal. In other
mechanically-actuated 3-way valve that is used to
words, the completion of the final action can signal
either monitor motion or measure position of an ob-
a reversal of circuit operation. For example, when a
ject. Limit valves generally sense an object by the
cylinder receives the order to extend, there must also
use of a lever with a ball or roller at its tip. For
be an order to retract.
example, a container on a moving conveyor makes
contact with the switching mechanism of a limit
Pneumatic Logic Elements
valve, thereby sending a signal. A limit valve signal
is 1 or 0, where when the valve is actuated (pres-
1 is
A pneumatic logic element is a miniature air valve
sure), and is when the valve is released (no pres- used as a switching device to provide decision mak-
sure). An example of an automatic signal is that of
ing signals in a pneumatic circuit. A pneumatic logic
a flow control switch or pressure switch that auto- element accepts input signals, makes logical deci-
matically produces an input when tlow or pressure sions based on the input signals, and provides an out-
is detected or met. put signal. The output signal is used to power output
devices. Pneumatic logic elements are similar to elec-
trical relays in that they provide an output based on
any input information. Pneumatic logic elements are
static in nature and only require low air pressure for
operation (generally between 75 psi and 90 psi) be-
cause they have no continuous air flow. The air sup-
plied to logic elements should be filtered to remove
particulates and moisture, regulated, and unlubri-
cated. Particulate filtration should be 40n or less.

Pneumatic logic elements are approximately one

or two cubic inches in size and are considered mini-
ature pneumatic switches. Each element is attached
to a manifold, eliminating the need for plumbing be-
tween switches. A manifold is a device that contains
passageways that enable one input signal to be di-
vided into several output signals. Piping into the
Honewells MKKO SWITCH Div
manifold comes from components such as door
switches (for safety), palm switches (for activation),
A limit switcti, whicti may be a pneumatic or electric switch, is mechani-
cally operated by an object that presses against the limit switch lever
limit switches (for detecting product movement), etc.

Piping out of the manifold is sent to pilot-operated

directional control valves, which activate components
A decision is a judgment or conclusion reached
such as clamping cylinders, air motors, drills, etc.
or given. A decision is the selection of the action or
work to be accomplished based on an input. The de- The National Fluid Power Association (NFPA) has
cision process selects, sorts, and redirects the input designated symbols for pneumatic logic elements.
information to a directional control valve, which These symbols are NFPA's standardization and are used
causes an action to take place. An action is the work in diagramming pneumatic logic controls. These sym-
of an actuator or a pilot operator, which becomes the bols can be compared to similar electrical switching
input for another section of a control circuit. The logic, electrical relay logic, or hydraulic controls. See
action produced by a pneumatic logic control circuit Appendix.
 cal Pneumatics 207

Pneumatic logic elements were designed for op- as actuators. In this application, valve 1 receives sup-
eration sequencing, automated production, and con- ply air at its inlet. The outlet of valve 1 is connected
trolling certainmachine functions. Pneumatic logic to the inlet of valve 2. The outlet of valve 2 is con-
elements make the decisions as to the work and order nected to the inlet of the actuator. As the palm button
of work to be done. The output from a single element on valve 1 is pressed and held down, supply air is
or combination of elements can provide a decision sent to valve 2. As the palm button on valve 2 is

(pilot signal) required of a directional control valve pressed and held down, supply air is sent to the ac-

that determines the machine's action. The basic logic tuator for circuit operation. Activating either valve
elements used in pneumatic circuits include the AND, by itself does not send air pressure to the actuator.
OR, andNOT elements.
OR. An OR logic element is a logic element that
AND. An AND logic element is a logic element that
provides a logic level 1 if one or more inputs are at
provides a logic level I only if all inputs are at logic
logic level 1. An OR logic element has two or more
level 1. An AND logic element has two or more in-
inputs and one output. The output is 1 if any one or
puts and one output. The output supplies pressure
more input(s) are I. The output is if all inputs are
(ON or 1) its inputs have pressure. The
only if all of
0. See Figure 8-31.
output supplies no pressure (OFF or 0) if one or more
input has no pressure. See Figure 8-30.

In an AND logic element, the output is if both

inputs are and if only one input is 0. The output is

1 if both inputs are 1 . Output decisions based on various

inputs are shown using a truth table. A truth table is

a table that lists the output condition of a logic element

or combination of logic elements for every possible
input condition. On logic elements, the A and B ports
are the input ports, and the C port is the output port.

An example of AND logic use is a safety circuit

on a punch press. In this circuit, the operator is re-

quired to press two palm buttons (switches) to acti-

vate the press. The operator's left hand presses one
switch and the right hand is required to press the
other switch before the press activates. This safety
Humphrey Products Company

circuit keeps both hands out of a machine. An AND The Humphrey Serial Relay system features manifold-mounted plug-in
logic installation is similar to using two 3-way di- solenoid valves that can be changed rapidly for circuit modification
rectional control valves that use manual palm buttons and use a single power supply.

AND LOGIC ELEMENTS

PALM BUTTONS

AND LOGIC SYMBOL

AND TRUTH TABLE

INPUT AT B
DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE ALLOWS
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FLOW TO C
208 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

OR LOGIC ELEMENTS m m
- AIR SUPPLY 2-WAY VALVES
CONNECTED IN
P>-^ /

PARALLEL A
'^///////

,7^
OUTPUT C^
DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE input at a or b
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT allows flow to c
 PmclUal Pneiiinatks 209

Logic Element Combination

AND, OR, and NOT elements may be connected in

combination to form additional logic combinations.
An example of using an AND, OR, and NOT com-
bination in a circuit is a safety anti-tie down, two-
hand, palm button circuit. An anti-tie down circuit
requires both hands of a machine operator to activate
two palm buttons to operate a machine. See Figure
8-33.

LOGIC ELEMENT COMBINATION

,,;^ PALM BUTTONS ACTUATOR -

'^ f^ ^OR ELEMENT ^NOT

Atlas Technologies, Inc.

Two hand anti-tie down circuits are used for safety on industrial puncti
presses to prevent an operator's liands from being inside the press
when it operates.

The output of the AND element becomes 1 and

continues through NOT 2 to supply the output signal
if both palm button inputs become 1 simultaneously.
The pressure at the output of NOT 2 is also the input
Figure 8-33. AND, OR, and NOT logic elements may of NOT 1, preventing flow through NOT 1 after the
be combined in a safety anti-tie down, two-hand, palm timed period. If either palm button is held down with-
button circuit.
out the other, the flow of air through the timer after

The anti-tie down circuit uses a timer to prevent

its timed period continues through NOT 1 because
either palm button from being tied down and defeat- there is no pressure at its A port. The flow from
ing the safety feature. This circuit uses one OR, one
NOT 1 flows to the A port of NOT 2, holding NOT
2 closed and not allowing an output signal. To reac-
AND, two NOT, and a timing element (TIM.). This
combination consists of two inputs (palm buttons) tivate palm button operation, both palm buttons must
be released, allowing the elements to exhaust. This
and one output (pilot control to directional control
also prevents double-tripping of a machine.
valve). The machine palm buttons
activates if both
are pressed and held simultaneously. However, the
timer prevents an output if one pushbutton is pressed AND, OR. and NOT logic elements are the basic

before the other (normally more than of a sec-

logic elements. Other logic elements include NAND,
'/io
NOR, and flip-tlop elements. As elements are added
ond). The elements are arranged so that the output
to a circuit, the complexity of the total circuit increases.
signal is 1 only when both palm buttons are 1

(pressed). The output is as soon as either palm

button is released.The output remains until both
The NAND element is a combination of the NOT
palm buttons are released and pressed again. and AND elements. The NOR element is a combi-
nation of the NOT and OR elements. The nip-tlop
element is an element with two inputs and two out-
(_^/n actual industrial applications, pneumatic puts. When a signal is applied to one input of a flip-

f^ logic control systems often respond twice as flop, a corresponding output is turned ON and the
fast as electrical controls. other output is turned OFF. In a flip-flop, one output
is always ON and the other is OFF.
 210 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Memory and timer elements are also used to pro-

duce pneumatic logic. Memory elements are capable
of memorizing information for recall at a later time.
Memory decisions are the 1 and (ON and OFF,
pressure and no pressure) produced by other ele-
ments, except that once a decision is set, the decision
is retained until it is reset. Timer elements (differ-

entiators) are created by restricting the flow of the

input signal into a timing chamber (accumulator).
The time it takes to build enough pressure for an
output signal is the time delay.

Pneumatic logic elements may be combined to

form simple or complexcircuits. Pneumatic logic ele-

ments are being used more often as pneumatic cir-

cuits and are easier and safer to troubleshoot than
electronic circuits and are more dependable as long
Honeywell's MICRO SWITCH Division
as the supply air is clean, dry, and properly main-

Electric and pneumatic controls are often used in machines designed One drawback is that pneumatic logic
tained. circuits

for ttie manufacture of products. occupy more space than electronic circuits.
 9
Chapter
Lfubrication maintains a fluid fllm between solid sur-
faces to prevent their physical contact. Lubricants re-
duce friction, prevent wear, act as a coolant for
moving parts, act as a barrier under load pressure,
prevent adhesion or galling of materials, and prevent
corrosion. Lubricants are classified as gas, liquid,
semisolid, or solid. Lubricants must be distributed
within a mechanical apparatus so all parts requiring
lubrication receive the proper amount. Lubrication
programs should be established within an organiza-
tion to ensure that the criteria needed for dependable
operation are met.

LUBRICATION SOLID
PLATES -X

Lubrication is the process of maintaining a fluid film

between solid surfaces to prevent their physical con-
tact. A lubricant is a substance placed between two
solid surfaces to reduce their friction. Friction occurs
when an object in contact with another object tries to
move. For example, walking requires friction between
the feet and the floor in order to move. Stopping re-
quires even more friction. Walking and stopping are
more difficult if the friction is reduced by placing
wheels, such as rollerblades, under the feet.

In addition to reducing friction, a lubricant is

used to prevent wear, act as a coolant for moving

parts, act as a barrier under load pressure, prevent
adhesion or galling of materials, and prevent cor-
rosion. Machines and tools depend on lubrication
to ensure smooth and safe operation. Lubricants
are classified as gas, liquid, semisolid, or solid. In
many cases, a lubricant is a mixture of the different
classes. Fluid lubricants, which include gas, liquid,
and semisolid lubricants, must create a film be-
tween material surfaces to prevent contact with
each other. See Figure 9-1.
 212 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

is required to move a body from rest that is lubricated

to one that is not. However, once a lubricated body
is in motion, less force is required to keep it in mo-

tion than if it were unlubricated. Generally, a static

condition between two solid objects means neither
object is moving. However, a static condition relating
to coefficient of friction refers to the forces required
to start a solid object in motion. See Figure 9-2.

COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION

Dow Corning Corporation

Dow Corning'^ 1 122 chain and open gear lube is a synthetic grease used

for lubricating high-speed gears and chains and slow-moving bearings.

Coefficient of Friction

Lubrication generally involves coating surfaces with

a material (grease, oil, etc.) that has a lower coeffi-
cient of friction than the original surfaces. The co-
efficient of friction is the measure of the frictional
force between two surfaces in contact. It is the re-
lationship between the weight of an object and the
force required to move it. Coefficient of friction is

determined by applying the formula:

/=^
where
/= coefficient of friction

F= force at which sliding occurs (in lb)

A' = object weight (in lb)

For example, what is the coefficient of friction of
a 25 lb object resting on a horizontal surface that
requires 10 lb to move?
F
/= N

f=^
/- .40

Greater force is required to move a body from

rest (static condition) than the force required to keep
it in motion (kinetic condition). Even greater force
 Lubrication 213

Boundary lubrication occurs when molecules are

adsorbed on metal surfaces through an exchange of
electrons. This process occurs with metals that are
either lubricated or unlubricated. Unlubricated metals
are metals without the addition of a lubricant. How-
e\er, even metals that have been cleaned of all for-
eign material contain a degree of lubrication. This
lubrication is form of water vapor, adsorbed
in the

gases, or contaminants from handling. These lubri-

cants affect the material's coefficient of friction. See
Figure 9-3.

UNLUBRICATED METAL
CHARACTERISTICS
 214 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Liquid Lubricants Animal and vegetable oils contain fatty acids

which tend to form more fatty acids and gums as
A liquid luliricant is a lubricant that uses a liquid, they oxidize. Care must be taken to prevent an in-
such as oil, two surfaces. Liquid lubri-
to separate crease in the fluid's oxygen content. Also, these lu-
cants are the preferred lubricants because of their bricants must be replenished regularly because they
reliability, versatility, and flexibility. Besides reduc- break down.
ing friction, liquid lubricants are used for heat re-
moval (in combustion engines) or as a sealer (in Petroleum Fluids. A petroleum fluid is a fluid con-

hydraulic cylinders and pumps). Liquid lubricants in- sisting of hydrocarbons. A hydrocarbon is any sub-
clude animal/vegetable oils, petroleum fluids, and stance that composed mostly of hydrogen and
is

synthetic fluids. carbon. Petroleum is composed of 12% hydrogen and

85% carbon, with a small amount of other elements
Animal/Vegetable Oils. Until I860, animal and
such as oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, etc. Petroleum fluids
vegetable oils were the primary substances used for
make up approximately 90% of the total lubricants
lubrication. Fish oils, animal tallow, and sperm oil
used. Petroleum is not as susceptible to oxidation,
were, and in some cases, are still used for lubrication
bacteria, and the formation of acid and gummy resi-
because their fatty oils provide superior slipperiness
dues as animal or vegetable oils.
(oiliness) and smoothness. Animal and vegetable
oils are used mostly in the food industry. Food Petroleum is formed by an evolutionary process
grade lubricants are lubricants approved for use on that takes many millions of years. This process begins

food machinery. Food grade lubricants can contact with oil vapor given off into the atmosphere by
food being processed without being detrimental to plants. The oil vapor, sometimes seen as a blue haze
over heavily vegetated areas, settles or is washed to
human health.
Animal and vegetable fatty oils are applied to
the ground by rain or snow. The oil works its way
other lubricants to increase their load-carrying capa- deep into rock voids where it is concentrated and

bilities because of their great slipperiness. These lu-

processed under high temperatures and pressures. See

bricant compounds are used in automatic transmission

Figure 9-5.

fluids, industrial gear oils, and marine engine oils.

However, due to their organic origin, animal and

vegetable oils can support bacteria and require ster-
ilization. Also, germicides and antiseptic agents must
be added to reduce rusting and bad odors when used
in water-soluble lubricants such as cutting oils.

Figure 9-5. All animals and plants release hydrocarbons

that, when absorbed into the earth's surface, combine to
form pools of gas or crude oil.

(p^ Never pressurize, cut, weld, drill, grind, or ex-

^-^ pose empty lubricant containers to heat. Empty
lubricant containers retain residue and may explode
and cause injury or death. Do not attempt to clean
the residue because even a trace of remaining ma-
Synesstic synthetic lubricants from Exxon are used in refinery hot terial constitutes an explosive hazard.
liquid pumps to reduce pump failures.
 Lubricalion 215

The concentrated fluid body (crude oil) worics its Lubricant Additives. Additives are used to intensify
way back to the earth's surface through natural oil and improve certain characteristics of a base oil for
and gas seeps or through drilling. The earth's plants specific applications. Additives protect amachine
release approximately 175 million tons of hydrocar- from harm, maintain the integrity of the lubricant,
bons into the air each year. The evolution of the hy- and improve the physical properties of the lubri-
drocarbons into petroleum takes from approximately cant, such as odor or color control. Additives are
50 million to 500 million years. included by the manufacturer after performing con-
Crude oil is found in various physical forms rang- siderable tests.
ing from a light gas such as methane to a heavy tar. Additives include oxidation inhibitors (to provide
To maintain a consistent, stable, uniform, and reliable long bearing or gear life), rust inhibitors (to prevent
lubricating liquid, the crude oil is processed in steps rust), fatty materials (to improve film strength), pow-
of heating, distilling, and filtering. The final step of dered lead or graphite (to prevent galling), viscosity
processing a petroleum lubricant is the application index improvers (to ease machine movement in cold
of certain additives for individual and special appli- weather), and demulsifiers (to separate out water). A
cations. New compounds are being developed daily technician must understand the various choices and
to handle average consumer needs. Recent subma- characteristics of the different lubricants before
rine, subterranean, and outer space equipment appli- specifying a certain lubricant and must also under-
cations have added to the research and development stand the damage that can occur to a machine if its

process. See Figure 9-6. lubricant is arbitrarily changed.

CRUDE OIL PROCESSING

i
 216 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

UNI VIS Special oils from Exxon are widely used in aluminum cold
rolling applications because they were designed to minimize aluminum
staining during the annealing process.

Viscosity. Viscosity is the measurement of the resis-

tance of a fluid's molecules to move past each other.
The flow rate is the most important property of a
lubricant. Flow rate is directly proportional to the
viscosity of a fluid. In general, the viscosity of a
fluid is its thickness. For example, syrup is more vis-

cous (thicker) than water. Viscosity affects fluid flow

rate and frictional and thermal properties. Higher vis-

cosity fluids offer greater frictional resistance,

thereby increasing thermal activity.

Gear oil viscosity should be high enough to protect

tooth surfaces and low enough to offer a good heat

transfer. Generally, high-viscosity lubricants result in
greater film thickness. Low-viscosity lubricants offer
thin film thickness. Maintaining any separation be-
tween moving parts ensures equipment protection.
However, as loads increase or viscosities decrease
due to a rise in temperature, the protective layer can
be ruptured as a result of decreased shear strength.

Shear strength is a liquid's ability to remain as a

separator between solids in motion. It is the ability
of a material to withstand shear stress. Shear stress
is stress in which the material on one side of a surface
pushes on the tnaterial on the other side of the surface
with a force parallel to the surface. For example, a
lubricant is contained between a moving plate and a
stationary plate. The lubricant in contact with the
moving plate moves with, and has the same speed
as, the plate in motion. The lubricant in contact with
the stationary plate attempts to remain stationary. See
Figure 9-7. The influence of the moving plate to
move the lubricant is the same as the influence of
the stationary plate to stop the lubricant movement.
specified temperature, atmospheric pressure, and curs. This situation can cause premature wear during
time period. A high viscosity rating results from a startup when lubrication may be deficient.
small volume of oil flowing through the orifice Oil film thickness decreases with an increase in
caused by high resistance to flow. A low viscosity oil temperature and can be completely depleted in
rating results from a large volume of oil flowing high operating temperatures. Oil specified for an ap-
through the orifice caused by low resistance to flow.
plication should flow at low temperatures but still
The higher the viscosity rating number, the thicker
protect the engine at high ambient and/or operating
the oil. For example, a 40 weight oil is thicker than temperatures. Oil manufacturer's recommendations
a 10 weight oil. The viscosity rating number assigned use standards provided by the Society of Automotive
to an oil does not change, but oil viscosity can change Engineers (SAE). the American Society for Testing
with temperature and ambient pressure.
and Materials (ASTM), and the American Petroleum
Institute (API). These organizations provide stand-
ards in both viscosity and additive packages for the
OIL GROUPS/APPLICATION majority of lubricants manufactured worldwide.

iroti|PA^ulomoiive Always follow the recommendations of the ma-

chine manufacturer or the recommendations of the
SAE 10W manufacturer when selecting an
oil oil for an appli-
SAE 20W
cation. In general, operating temperature, frequency
SAE 30
SAE 40 of stopping and starting, shock producing actions,
SAE 50 and any unusual conditions must be considered when
selecting a lubricant.
Group B: Gear Trains and Transmissions
Synthetic Fluids. A synthetic fluid is a lubricant,
General Purpose Oils having a petroleum base, which has improved heat,

Group C: Machine Tools chemical resistance, and other characteristics than

straight petroleum products. Synthetic lubricants are
SUS 75 higher priced than petroleum lubricants but have cer-
SUS 80 tain advantages over petroleum lubricants. One major
SUS 90 advantage synthetic
is that lubricant viscosity
SUS 140
changes less with temperature changes. Another ad-
SUS 250
vantage is that the oxidation rate of a synthetic lu-
Group D: IMarine Propulsions and bricant is more stable at higher temperatures.
Stationary Power Turbines
Synthetic lubricants evolved out of petroleum prod-
Turbine Oils uct shortcomings, such as a relatively low temperature
stability, high oxidation rate, and short shelf life. Many
Group E: Turbojet Engines of the additives designed for petroleum lubricant en-
Aviation Oil hancement are now used in synthetic lubricants.

The various synthetic lubricant compositions be-

Group F: Reciprocating Engines
have differently and have improved qualities over pe-
Aviation Oils troleum lubricants. However, some are not
compatible when mixed. A mixture of certain syn-
Figure 9-8. Commercial lubricating oil is categorized by thetic lubricants with petroleum lubricants, or one
six different groups with each group designed for a
synthetic composition with another, may cause rapid
specific application.
deterioration of seals or an increase in oxidation.
During oil changes, old lubricant should be replaced

During with the same type of lubricant.

startup, oil is cool and does not flow easily.
As the machine and oil warms, it flows more easily. In some cases, a recommended change may have
For this reason, most machine wear occurs during to be made. Great care must be taken when switching
when the cool
startups oil provides less lubrication. lubricants. During replacement of a petroleum prod-
Some oils may require a longer machine operating uct with a synthetic product, any residual amounts
time before proper oil flow to bearing surfaces oc- of petroleum product left in a machine may be
 218 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

enough to cause a chemical reaction and deteriorate Thickeners may consist of soaps from aluminum, so-
seal material. In most cases, a flushing Ouid is re- dium, lithium, or calcium. Complex soaps may be
quired. Consult both lubricant manufacturers for the used with other solids such as clay, graphite. Teflon,
correct replacement method. or lead. When thickeners are mixed, one thickener

Synthetic lubricants, due to their increased effi- is predominant, such as soap, and the other thickeners
ciency, high performance, and long life, will be used are included as an additive. Each grease base has its
in an increasing number of applications despite the own specific characteristics. For example, aluminum
initial cost savings of petroleum lubricants. In addi- soap offers clarity, calcium soap is water-resistant,

tion, if properly maintained, machine life can be ex- lithium soap allows high-temperature use, clay is

tended by using synthetic lubricants while petroleum used for extreme temperatures, and fiber is added to

supplies are decreasing. resist being thrown off.

Grease is classified by thickener grade. The Na-

tional Lubricating Grease (NLGI) has estab-
Institute
lished a series of nine consistency grades. The higher
the NLGI number, the stiffer the grease and the less
penetration it has. See Figure 9-9. Each group is de-
signed for a specific temperature range and purpose.
For example, grades NLGI 00 and can be used at

temperature as low as -30°F. Grades NLGI 1 and 2

are recommended for applications operating in the

temperature range of 0°F to 350°F Grades NLGI 00.

i---*v^^j5 0, and 1 are recommended for centralized lubrication
systems because of their relatively high flow charac-
teristics. The increasing NLGI grade corresponds to an

increase in the percentage of thickener. Grades 0, 1,

and 2 are the most widely used The more

in industry.

fluid grades, such as 000 and 00 are used where thick-

ened oil is desired, such as in gearboxes, where leakage
may occur when using oil lubricants.

Oil-Rile'^ Corporation

The new grease dispenser developed by Oil-Rite® Corporation uses

an air signal to pulse the meter, causing a predetermined amount of
grease to be ejected. The dispenser is available with single feed or
NLGI GREASE GRADES
multiple feed outlets. The grease injectors are precisely adjustable for
fluid outputs from cu in. to 012 cu in. per cycle.

Semisolid Lubricants

A semisolid lubricant is a lubricant that combines

low-viscosity oils with thickeners, such as soap or
other finely dispersed solids. A dispersed solid is a
solid that is finely ground in order to be spread. Dis-
persed solids such as soap, clay, lead, etc. must be
able to adsorb or trap lubricating oils. A grease is a
semisolid lubricant created by combining low-viscos-
ity oils with thickeners, such as soap or other finely
dispersed solids. The oil and thickeners in grease act
as a whole with only slight bleeding of the oil.

Semisolid lubricant base oils may consist of min-

eral oils, silicones, diesters, esters, or fluorocarbons.
Effects of Temperature

Grease consistency varies with a ciiange in tempera-

ture. Grease typically softens as temperatures in-
crease. As temperatures increase, greases become
soft enough to separate the oil from the thickener.
This is known as the grease dropping point. The
grease dropping point is the maximum temperature
a grease withstands before it softens enough to flow
through a laboratory testing orifice. In practical ap-
plications, as machine speeds or loads increase the
temperature of a grease, the oil within the grease is

generally lightened enough to run off or bleed away

from the grease's thickener, leaving behind a hard-
ened, dark-colored substance. The dropping point of
greases vary according to type. Some special greases
do not exhibit a dropping point. See Figure 9-10.

GREASE CHA^OM^SS,™
 220 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

lubricator where humidity is absent, such as aero- LUBRICANT APPLICATION

space applications. Graphite has a low coefficient of
friction and an ability for service in temperatures up
Lubricants must be distributed within a mechanical
to 500°C. Graphite may be used dry. mixed with oil
apparatus so all parts requiring lubrication receive
or grease, or as a solid block.
the proper amount. Except in sealed units where there
Molybdenum disulfide is a common substance that is a void of oxygen, lubricants require replenishment
is similar in appearance to graphite. Molybdenum di- or replacement through occasional topping or by
sulfide is found as an ore in molybdenite. Molybdenum means of a feed system.
disulfide does not require the presence of moisture.
This allows it to be used in dry atmospheres, high
Oil Application
in high temperatures. This makes mo-
vacuums, and
lybdenum disulfide perfect for aerospace applica- Oil must be replenished because oil. being a liquid,
tions. Molybdenum disulfide becomes a bonded does not cling to and remain on the sides of moving
film when used with the binder combination of parts. In addition, splashing or sloshing vaporizes the
ceramic and resin. Its film thickness is generally oil, thus reducing the amount of oil present for an
.001" or .002" and this thickness is typically its application. Oil lubrication may be applied to bearing
limitation for life. elements by submersion, wick, drip, or centralized
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a long-chain systems. See Figure 9-11.
polymer produced from ethylene, which is a coal by-
Submersion Systems. A submersion system is a lu-
product. A polymer is the result of a chemical re-
brication system in which the bearings are submerged
action in which two or more small molecules
below oil for lubrication. Oil submersion systems allow
combine to form larger molecules. PTFE is rein-
oil to be carried throughout load bearing surfaces. The
forced by being combined with other substances,
level of oil in most systems is critical to prevent churn-
such as glass fibers, rayon, or other synthetics. This
ing or drag when the level is too high or inadequate
offers outstanding strength capabilities with low wear
lubrication accompanied by high temperatures when the
and a low coefficient of friction. PTFE is used in
level is too low. Proper oil levels require that ball or
pharmaceutical and food plants as well as chemical
roller bearings be immersed halfway up the lowest ball
industries because it is non-toxic and has excellent
or roller, and gears be immersed to twice the tooth
chemical stability. PTFE is commonly used for non-
height. Where gears are designed in a vertical train,
stick surfaces of household cooking utensils.
the oil level should be just below the shaft of the lowest
gear. When oil transfer is inadequate using these meth-
ods, ring, chain, or splash devices may be added to
assist oil movement.

Wick Systems. A wick system is a lubrication system

that uses capillary action to convey oil to a bearing
surface. Capillary action is the action by which the
surface of a liquid is elevated on a material due to its

relative molecular attraction. This is seen in the raising

of a fuel through the wick in an oil lamp. In a wick
system, wicks or felt pads consisting of pores or spaces
allow oil to penetrate and spread from an oil source to
bearing surfaces. Oil feed rate is controlled by the
thickness of felt number of wick strands, or
pads,
the length of material immersed in the oil.

LPS Laboratories. Inc

(P^ In applications where repeated skin contact
^-^ with lubricants occurs, use protective skin
ThermaPlex Lo-Temp Bearing Grease from LPS Laboratories is ef- creams, such as silicone-base creams, applied to
-SS'F and is used in refrigeration equipment, mecfianical
fective to clean hands prior to contact.
bridges, automatic safety gates, and starter motors.
 Luhricarion 221

OIL APPLICATION SYSTEMS

BEARING IMMERSED ^ GEARS IMMERSED

Pnh
HALFWAY UP TO TWICE
LOWEST BALL TOOTH HEIGHT

CHAIN
SUBMERSION

SIGHT
FELT GLASS -
PAD
DRIP FEED

BEARING

WICK DRIP CENTRALIZED

Figure 9-1 . Lubricant delivery methods vary according to the design, speed, and accessibility of the machinery.

Drip Systems. A drip system is a gravity-flow lubri- high in cost, simplify lubrication processes. The in-
cation system that provides drop-by-drop lubrication itial cost is offset by longer running, dependable op-
from a manifold or manually-filled cup through a nee- erating equipment with more reliable lubrication
dle valve. The needle valve is adjusted for flow regula- periods and less possibility of contamination.
tion. A drip system offers flow regulation in addition to
a higher rate of liquid flow than that of wick systems.
Most drip systems are equipped with a sight glass for
(Ph) Empty lubricant drums should be completely
liquid level and dripping motion observation. ^^ drained, properly bunged, and promptly returned
to a drum reconditioner. All other empty lubricant
Centralized Systems. A centralized system is a lu- containers should be disposed of in an environmen-
brication system that contains permanently installed tally safe manner and in accordance with local, state,

plumbing, distribution valves, reservoir, and pump to and federal regulations for petroleum distillates.
provide lubrication. These systems, although initially
222 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Grease Application Motor Regreasing. Motors equipped with grease fit-

tings and drain plugs must be regreased using a low-

For proper operation, rolling elements must be thor- pressure grease gun. See Figure 9-13. Motors are
oughly coated with grease. However, they must also regreased by applying the procedure:
have the correct quantity of grease. Overgreasing
1. Wipe the grease fitting and drain plug on the mo-
leads to overheating, aerating, and churning of the
tor. Also wipe the grease gun nozzle and expel a
grease, resulting in early bearing failure. The total
small amount of grease from the gun to ensure
space available in a rolling element bearing should
that grease is uncontaminated.
contain no more than 50% grease lubricant.
The grease of all open, unsealed bearings must be 2. Remove the drain plug and clean any hardened
replenished because the oil from all unsealed greases material from the port.
eventually bleeds off from the thickeners. This leaves
the thickeners, having no value, to solidify and burn.
3. Add grease to the motor until new grease is ex-
pelled from the drain plug port.
Also, all greases eventually oxidize and corrode,
which is evident by their dark color and burnt oil
4. Run the motor without the drain plug for approxi-
smell. In sealed bearings, relubrication is not prac-
mately 10 minutes to expel excess grease.
tical. For this reason, bearing failure will occur over
time, especially when used in high-temperature ap- 5. Clean and replace the drain plug.
plications. Greases are applied by grease guns, grease
cups, or centralized systems. See Figure 9-12.

A grease gun is a small hand-operated device that Lubricant Contamination

pumps grease under pressure into bearings. A grease
cup is a receptacle used to apply grease to bearings. Lubricant contamination is the main cause of me-
The receptacle is packed with grease. The cap is ro- chanical system failure. Dirt and other abrasive ma-
tated to force the grease into bearings. A centralized terials that contaminate lubricant wear moving
system contains permanently installed plumbing, res- components and bearing surfaces as the equipment
ervoir, and air supply to provide the lubrication. The operates. Mechanical system lubricants must remain
air supply provides pressure above a diaphragm in free of damaging contaminants to ensure the useful
the reservoir. The pressure forces the grease below life of the drive system. A maintenance program

the diaphragm into a pipe which is routed to the de- should be used to provide a routine schedule for lu-
vices requiring lubrication. The grease used in a cen- bricant changes and/or filtering. Some mechanical
tralized system should be one grade softer than is systems use oil purifiers to clean and recycle lubri-
otherwise required. For example, a No. grease is cating oil while the equipment is operating. Oil pu-
used instead of the required No. 1 grease when used rifiers can reduce maintenance, lubrication, and
in a centralized system. disposal costs.

GREASE APPLICATION METHODS

PLUMBING
JMOIIMlj -T.

AIR IN GREASE OUT

PRESSURE-
APPLYING
GREASE SCREW CAP

GREASE GUN GREASE CUP CENTRALIZED SYSTEM

Figure 9-12. Applying grease may be accomplished through hand-operated pumping methods or by centralized systems
serving whole facilities.
 MOTOR REGREASING
WIPE GREASE FITTING,
DRAIN PLUG, AND ,-^ 3 jADD GREASE UNTIL
GREASE GUN NOZZLE (Y)^ GREASE IS EXPELLED
FROM DRAIN PLUG PORT

REGREASEABLE
HOUSING
--DRAIN PLUG

DRAIN PLUG PORT

CLEAN AND REPLACE ,_.

DRAIN PLUGl^S)-^
y^ "^^(2)rEMOVE DRAIN PLUG
^-^ AND CLEAN

Figure 9-13. Regreasing a motor may include purging the old grease from between the shaft and the housing.

Contamination of the lubricant can also reduce the Oil Analysis

effectiveness of the lubricant. Common contaminants
include dirt and water. Lubricant contaminated with Oil analysis is a predictive maintenance technique

dirt subjects moving components to a constant flow that detects and analyzes the presence of acids, dirt,
of abrasives. Water that mixes with the lubricant also fuel, and wear particles in lubricating oil to predict

reduces the effectiveness of the lubricant. The water equipment failure. Lubricating oil analysis is per-
causes bearing components to rust, increasing fric- formed on a scheduled basis. An oil sample is taken
tion and eventually causing bearing failure. Sources from a machine to determine the condition of the
of water can include condensation and environments lubricant and moving parts. Oil samples are com-
with high humidity. Periodic oil changes are neces- monly sent to a company specializing in lubricating
sary to remove water from the lubricant. Oil that is oil analysis. See Figure 9-14.
contaminated with water has a milky appearance. Equipment commonly used for oil analysis is a
spectrometer. A spectrometer is a device that vapor-
LUBRICATION PROGRAMS izes elements in the oil sample into light. The light
is separated into a spectrum and then converted into
A program should be established within
lubrication electrical signals, which are processed and displayed
an organization to ensure that the criteria needed for by a computer.
dependable operation are met. The lubrication pro-
gram should establish the parameters of each lubri- Data management software for lubricant analysis
cant used and include training of personnel in the
allows the user to be connected (via modem) directly

methods of application of each lubricant. The pro- to an analysis laboratory where oil samples are tested
gram should establish the scheduling and frequency and results are sent to the user providing a quick,

requirements needed by each machine. Finally,

comprehensive analysis and trending. The analysis
re-

corded results of equipment failure should be re-

commonly includes oil viscosity, particle count, wear
viewed frequently to determine possible faulty
particle concentration analysis, and wear particle
analysis. Analysis information allows the user to de-
lubrication or lubrication practices.
termine if wear is occurring, what component is af-
fected, what is causing the wear, and how far damage
(?5) Minimize exposure to petroleum and synthetic- has progressed.
^""^
base hydrocarbons because these liquids and
vapors pose potential human health risks that vary The lubricant condition rating is identified as nor-
from person to person. mal, marginal, or critical based on the results of the
sample, comparison with previous data, and the ma-
224 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

chine condition analyst's experience with the particu- concentrates on the size, frequency, shape, and com-
lar type of equipment. A normal condition rating in- position of the particles produced from worn parts.
dicates the lubricant is within expected levels and The equipment condition is assessed by monitoring
require no corrective action. A marginal condition wear particles in the lubricating oil. Normal wear
rating indicates that critical physical properties occurs as equipment parts are routinely in contact
and/or trace elements are outside expected levels with each other. An increase in the frequency and
and require minor maintenance action such as in- size of wear particles in the lubricating oil indicates

creased sampling frequency. A critical condition in- a worn part or predicts possible failure.
dicates that the majority of physical properties are
outside the expected levels. A lubricant and/or wear
For example, lubricating oil samples having con-
condition problem exists that requires definitive
sistent wear particle readings over a period of time
maintenance action.
provide a baseline measurement. An increase in wear
Wear Particle Analysis. Wear particle analysis is particles may indicate premature wearing of parts.
the study of wear particles present in the lubricating Large, sharp wear particles indicate parts sheared in
oil. While lubricating oil analysis focuses on the con- the equipment. Fractured wear particles indicate bro-
dition of the lubricating oil. wear particle analysis ken parts in the equipment.

PRBOICTI^imi
LUBRICANT CONDITION REPORT
MEKCUKY MACHIWE I'KOCESSES.
3462 LynwDud Avenue
EQUIPMENT AND Clnclnnau. OH 45201
LUBRICANT
INFORMATION
SAMPLE II : USE DnvEn f4- SAMPLE DATE: 07/15
: CI AGITATOR REC-DDATE; 07/16
GEARCA5E SPE ) REDUCEB REPORT DATE: 07/16
MANUFACTURER FALK l»l SAMPLE: 04,15
RECOMMENDATIONS LUBRICANT MOBIL M08ILGEAR 627 PREV SAMPLE 06.'15((
RESERVOIR CAP 66 Gallons 1246,04 L.tursj
LUBE TIME 1608 Hour!; MACHINE TIME: 52898 F

PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
^^^-'PHyS.CALPROPCRTIES

CUSTOMER
SUPPORT REPORT
IDENTIFICATION
CODES
[Bearings 10
Chapter

rSearings guide and position moving parts to reduce

friction, vibration, and temperature. Machine effi-

ciency and accuracy depends on proper bearing se-

lection, installation and handling, and maintenance
procedures. Bearings are classified as rolling-contact
or plain bearings. Rolling-contact bearings include
ball, roller, and needle bearings. Successful bearing
installation requires cleanliness, correct bearing se-
lection, mounting methods, tool use, and tolerance
specifications.

NTN Bearing Corporation of America

^fgl

BEARINGS Radial and axial loads occur when a combination

of the two loads are present. For example, the shaft
of a fan blade is supported horizontally (radial load)
A bearing is a machine part that supports another
and is pulled or pushed (axial load) by the fan blade.
part, such as a shaft, which rotates or slides in or
Bearings are classified as rolling-contact (anti-fric-
on it. A bearing guides and positions moving parts
tion) or plain bearings.
to reduce friction, vibration, and temperature. The
length of time a machine retains proper operating
efficiency and accuracy depends on proper bearing
selection, installation and handling, and mainte- Rolling-Contact Bearings
nance procedures. Bearings are available with
many special features, but all incorporate the same A rolling-contact (anti-friction) bearing is a bearing

basic functioning parts. composed of rolling elements between an outer and

inner ring. Rolling-contact bearings are referred to
as anti-friction bearings because they are designed
Bearings are designed to support radial, axial, and
to roll on a film of lubricant, which separates the
radialand axial loads. A radial load is a load in
metal components. All rolling-contact bearings are
which the applied force is perpendicular to the axis
given a life expectancy (fatigue life). Fatigue life is
of rotation. For example, a rotating shaft resting
the maximum useful life of a bearing. The fatigue
horizontally on, or being supported by, a bearing
life of a bearing is determined by expected speed,
surface at each end has a radial load due to the
temperature, lubrication, and load rate standards.
weight of the shaft itself. See Figure 10-1. In a ra-
These standards are recommended by the Anti-Fric-
dial load, the shaft should have negligible end-to-
tion Bearings Manufacturers Association (AFBMA).
end movement. An axial load is a load in which
the applied force is parallel to the axis of rotation. Standard bearings never wear out or reach their
For example, a rotating vertical shaft has an axial fatigue life. Average bearings normally exceed the
load due to the weight of the shaft itself life of the machine where they are installed. Bearing
226 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

failure is generally the result of a deviation from Early bearing failure due to a minor deviation from
bearing fatigue life standards. Properly maintained bearing fatigue life standards is regarded as bearing
bearings do not wear out. They are meant to even- service life. Service life is the length of service re-
tually, if run long enough, fail due to fatigue. Close ceived from a bearing. Service life is generally
examination of a failed bearing often provides evi- shorter than fatigue life. This is due to less-than-op-
dence to the cause of failure. For example, dark dis- timal operating conditions. For example, doubling the
colored metals indicate high temperatures, rusting speed of a bearing reduces its service life to one half
surfaces indicate high moisture and/or improper lu- its fatigue life. Doubling the load on a bearing re-
brication, and split or fractured rings indicate an im- duces its service life by 6 to 8 times.
proper fit or assembly.
Rolling-contact bearings include ball, roller, and
A
« needle bearings. hall bearing is an anti-friction

MMBsm
BEARING SURFACE
bearing that permits free motion between a moving
part and a fixed part by means of balls confined be-
tween inner and outer rings. A roller bearing is an
anti-friction bearing that has parallel or tapered steel
rollers confined between inner and outer rings. A nee-
dle hearing is an anti-friction roller-type bearing with
APPLIED FORCE long rollers of small diameter. See Figure 10-2.
PERPENDICULAR TO
AXIS OF ROTATION The rolling-contact bearing categories may be fur-
~- SHAFT ROTATION
ther divided into more specific designs or configu-
-
AXIS OF ROTATION
rations. For example, ball bearing races may be made
RADIAL LOAD deeper for supporting radial and axial loads or addi-
tional rolling elements (balls or rollers) may be in-
SHAFT ROTATION AXIS OF ROTATION stalled to support heavier loads.

Rolling-Contact Bearing Construction. Ball and

roller bearings are constructed of an outer ring (cup),
balls or rollers, and an inner ring (cone). The outer
ring is generally slid or pressed easily into a housing.
APPLIED FORCE
PARALLEL TO The inner ring is generally pressed on a shaft with
AXIS OF ROTATION a tighter fit than the outer ring. Ball bearing rings
are designed with a groove known as a race. A race
is the track on which the balls of a bearing move.

Needle bearings contain an outer ring (cup) and

rollers. The rollers are retained in a cage and bear
directly on the rotating shaft. Bearing precision and
cost is determined by the smoothness of the ground
surfaces (grade of finish) and the quality of toler-
ances. Better finishes produce less friction, lower
temperatures, smoother movements, and longer bear-
ing life, but usually cost more.

Additional bearing components include cages,

separators, seals, and snap rings. Cages are devices
used to hold the balls or rollers in place. Bearings
are designed as open for lubrication injection, or as
sealed which hold lubricant for the life of the bearing.
Seals are used to retain lubrication as well as prevent
RADIAL AND A)
contamination from dust, dirt, or other solids. Snap
Figure 10-1. Bearings are designed to support radial rings allow the bearing to be inserted into a housing
loads, axial loads, or radial and axial loads. and held at a certain depth.
 Bearings 227

ROLLING-CONTACT (ANTI-FRICTION) BEARINGS

ROLLER NEEDLE

Figure 10-2. Rolling-contact (anti-friction) bearings include ball, roller, and needle bearings.

Ball Bearings. Ball bearings are anti-friction bear- side of the outer race. This high-shouldered race, act-
ings that permit free motion between a moving part ing as a seat for the balls, provides high thrust load
and a fixed part by means of balls confined between capacities in one direction only.
inner and outer rings. Ball bearings are selected
based on the application of the bearing. Ball bearings
Bearings that are designed for thrust loads must
may be designed for light or heavy loads, radial or
be installed in only one direction to prevent the load
axial loads (or combination of each), or harsh or
from separating the bearing components. These bear-
clean environments.
ings have a face and back side for ease in identifying
General-use ball bearings are designed as single- the thrust direction. The back side receives the thrust
row radial, single-row angular-contact (axial), or and is marked with the bearing number, tolerance,
double-row radial or axial based on the direction of manufacturer, and. in some cases, the word "thrust".
applied force. See Figure 10-3.

A radial bearing is a rolling-contact bearing in

which the load is transmitted perpendicular to the
axis of shaft rotation. Single-row radial bearings have
a single row of balls and may be designed with or
without loading slots. A loading slot is a groove or
notch on the inside wall of each bearing ring to allow
insertion of balls. Bearings with loading slots are re-
ferred to as maximum capacity bearings due to the
ability to add the maximum number of balls. Apply-
ing axial (thrust) loads to maximum capacity bear-
ings causes rapid damage. A Conrad bearing is a
single-row ball bearing without a loading slot that
has deeper-than-normal races. Conrad bearings allow
for axial and radial loads. Installing Conrad bearings
in the wrong direction results in immediate damage.

An angular-contact bearing is a rolling-contact Emerson Power Transmh

bearing designed to carry both heavy axial (thrust)

Self aligning tapered roller bearings handle a combination of radial
loads and radial loads. The ability to provide axial
and tfirust loads and are used in a wide variety of applications sucti
(thrust) support is due to the high shoulder on one as chemical processing, sawmills, and pulp and paper mills.
228 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

BALL BEARINGS

OUTER RING OUTER -OUTER RING

(CUP) BACKSIDE RACE (CUP)
(RECEIVES THRUST) -~

-—LINE OF FORCE
PERPENDICULAR TO
AXIS OF SHAFT
ROTATION -LINES OF FORCE
AT ANGLE TO AXIS
OF SHAFT ROTATION

SINGLE-ROW SINGLE-ROW DOUBLE-ROW

RADIAL ANGULAR-CONTACT RADIAL OR AXIAL

Figure 10-3. General-use ball bearings are designed as single-row radial, single-row angular-contact (axial),
double-row radial or axial.

Double-row bearings, also known as duplex bear-

ANGULAR CONTACT BEARING USE
ings, are matched pairs of angular-contact bearings.
They are capable of heavy radial and thrust loads in 7?KJ^5^
both directions. Double-row bearings are designed as
matched sets and are identified based on their configu-
ration, such as back-to-back, face-to-face, etc. Never
use two single-row bearings
the use of double-row bearings. Pairing
when replacement
unmatched
requires
sin-
1-
gle-row bearings adversely affects shaft rotation.

Angular-contact bearings are always used in pairs,

sometimes at opposite ends of a spindle shaft. Com-

bined sets are installed back-to-back, face-to-face, or
BACK-TO-BACK FACE-TO-FACE
back-to-face. See Figure 10-4. Bearing numbers nor-
mally indicate that each set has been ground to mount LINE OF FORCE
as a pair. Mixing different manufacturer's bearings -FACE-TO-FACE
is not recommended because each angular-contact
ball bearing has a ground finish on the back and face.

Ball bearings are installed with one ring being a

press fit and the other a push fit. A press fit requires
the force of an arbor or hydraulic press to install the
ring.A push fit allows the ring to be slid into place ^ SHAFT
by hand. Generally, the press-fit ring is pressed onto SEPARATED FACE-TO-FACE
or into the rotating part, and the push-fit ring is in-

stalled onto or into the stationary component. Figure 10-4. Angular-contact bearings are used in sets.
 Bearini^s 229

Both inner and outer rings may be press fit where

large bearings encounter high speeds or high loads.
Under normal load conditions, ball bearings gener-

ally have .00025" interference per inch of shaft when

the inner race is press fit. Interference fit is fit in

which the internal member is larger than the external

member so that there is always an actual mterference
of metal. Less interference is required when the outer
race is press fit.

Roller Bearings. Roller bearings are anti-friction

bearings that have cylinder-shaped or tapered steel
rollers confined between an outer ring (cup) and an
inner ring (cone). See Figure 10-5. Roller bearings
are designed for loads and applications similar to
those of ball bearings. Roller bearings are designed
for heavy radial and axial loads. Cylindrical rollers are

used for radial loads and tapered rollers are used for
radial and axial loads. Roller hearings are precision
devices and must be kept clean and handled with care.

ROLLER BEARINGS
230 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

PLAIN BEARINGS
GRAPHITE INSERTS FOR
HIGH TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS
BABBITT COATING FOR REQUIRING LUBRICATION
HIGH PRODUCTION
APPLICATIONS —

THRUST SUPPORT Pacific Bearing Company

Figure 10-6. Plain bearings provide sliding contact between mating surfaces.

Plain Bearing Materials. Special materials, or com- cated even though they are used in confined locations
binations of materials, must be selected for plain or where supplying lubricant is difficult.

bearings because of the momentary metal-to-metal Nylon and Teflon bearings are designed for light
contact that occurs during shaft stopping and start- loads because these materials readily deform under
ing. Plain bearing material must be corrosion- and heavy loads. However, they are ideally suited for
fatigue-resistant, able to handle running loads and chemical or high-temperature applications and re-
thermal activity, and compatible with other mate- quire no lubrication. Carbon-graphite bearings are
rials used.
designed to operate in temperatures exceeding

Tin-base and lead-base babbitt metals are the best 700°F and withstand 300 psi of load force without
a lubricant. Carbon-graphite bearings are ideally
metals for plain bearing loads. Babbitt metals are al-

loys of soft metals such as copper, tin, and lead, and suited for oven applications. Metal bearings with

a hard material such as antimony. Copper-leads, machined grooves containing graphite inserts may
bronze, and aluminum base metals are used for plain be used with high temperature applications requir-
bearings requiring increased load-carrying capacities. ing lubrication.

Babbitt metals are used in a thin layer over a steel Bearing hardness must also be considered in ad-
support for heavy commercial applications, such as dition to operating conditions. Normal wear and scor-
armature bearings used in hand drills. ing must take place on the less costly bearing surface,
not on the surface of the shaft or journal. For this
The various metals used for plain bearings are cho- to occur, plain bearings must be at least 100 Brinell
sen because of their ability to perform under specific points softer than the shaft or journal. A Brinell hard-
conditions. Copper-lead bearings are designed for ness test measures the hardness of a metal or alloy
their ability to withstand high temperatures and by hydraulically pressing a hardened steel ball into
high loads, such as engine connecting rod bearings. the metal to be tested and then measuring the area
Porous bronze bearings become self-lubricating of indentation. The Brinell hardness number is found
when impregnated with oil. These bearings are ca- by measuring the diameter of the indentation and
pable of absorbing oil equal to 30% of their total finding the corresponding hardness number on a cali-
volume. Porous bronze bearings must be relubri- brated chart.
 Bearings 231

BEARING REMOVAL other contaminants. For example, the rolling ele-

ments and races of high precision aircraft bearings

Proper tools and maintenance procedures are required

can be contaminated the moment they are touched

when working with precision elements such as bear-

by bare hands. The acid from the skin surface is

ings. A clean working environment prevents dust.

enough to begin corrosion of the metallic surfaces.

dirt, or other solids from contaminating the bearing,

shaft, or housing. Bearing removal is more difficult than bearing in-

stallation. A firm, solid contact must be made for

Many bearing failures are due to contaminants that
bearing removal. Bearings should always be removed
have worked their way into or around a bearing be-
from a shaft with even pressure against the ring.
fore it has been placed in operation. Internal abrasive
The removing pressure should be applied to the
particles permanently indent balls, rollers, and race-
inner ring when the bearing is press fit on a shaft.
ways. This alters the shape of the surface and begins
The removing pressure should be applied to the
bearing erosion. Bearing tolerances are such that a
outer ring when the bearing is press fit in a hous-
solid particle of a few thousands of an inch (.003")
ing. Bearings are removed from shafts or housings
lodged between the housing and the outer ring can
using bearing pullers, gear pullers, arbor presses,
distort raceways enough to reduce critical clearances.
or manual impact. These methods enable easy bear-
Work benches, tools, clothing, wiping cloths, and ing removal and reduce the damage to the bearing.
hands must be clean and free from dust, dirt, and See Figure 10-7.

BEARING REMOVAL

GEAR PULLER ARBOR PRESS MANUAL IMPACT

Figure 10-7. To prevent bearing damage, bearing removal forces should be applied to the back side of the ring that
pressed in place.
 232 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

to examine a damaged bearing to determine the cause

of failure. This information is useful in taking cor-
rective action to prevent recurring failure. Examining
a damaged bearing is most reliable when damage or
wear is at an early stage.
Analyzing a bearing to determine the cause of fail-
ure is sometimes difficult due to the stages of prob-
lems and symptoms. For example, a bearing may have
a dark discolored appearance of failure due to high
temperatures. However, this bearing may have gone
through a series of other failures first, such as spall-
ing or fretting corrosion.
Conditions providing clues when analyzing bear-
ing failure include spalling, false Brinell damage, ex-
cessive temperature damage, fretting corrosion,
misalignment wear, thrust damage, or electrical pit-

ting and tluting.

Spalling. Spalling is the flaking away of metal pieces

due Metal fatigue is the fracturing
to metal fatigue.
i>J Sl'\ Crixin.
of worked metal due to normal operating conditions
Hydraulically powered bearing pullers from Power Team are available
with pumps that develop pressures up to 10,000 psi for effortless
or overload situations. A ball or roller that is under
bearing removal. a load and rolls over a bearing race momentarily dis-
torts the metal of the ball or roller and race. This
to prevent damage
Extreme caution must he taken distortion or flexing occurs 4 million times in a 40
to any bearing Most damage during removal
part. hour week if the bearing is rotating at 1700 rpm.
goes unnoticed. Also, mark each part as to its location Eventually, millions of microscopic fractures form
when disassembling a bearing housing assembly so and the bearing begins to spall. See Figure 10-8.
each part can be reassembled the way it was origi-
nally positioned.
The use of a hammer and chisel to pry a bearing
off of its shaft usually results in damage and con-
tamination. Discard any bearing that was difficult to
remove. Bearing damage is possible if the wrong
puller or removal method is used. Check for designs
intended to hold a bearing in place, such as snap
rings, set screws, or pins before applying force for
bearing removal. Wear eye protection when using any
device that applies force, such as pullers, presses,
vises, or hammers. Never strike a bearing directly
with a hammer because these are both hardened met-
als that can shatter when struck together.

Bearing Failure Investigation

Bearing service life, which is normally shorter than

fatigue may be shortened
life, for many reasons. For
example, the load may be too heavy, alignment may
be poor, installation procedures may have been im-
proper, or the environment around the machinery may The Timken Company
be excessively dirty. Whatever the reason for a bear-
ing failure, each bearing provides a indication as to Figure 10-8. Spalling is the flaking away of metal pieces
the cause of its damage. In many cases, it is possible due to metal fatigue.
 Bearings 233

Even though there are conditions of advanced de- Excessive Temperature Damage. As the tempera-
struction that produce little evidence to the initial ture of steel increases, it discolors, turning from sil-

problem, there are also conditions where clues may ver to blue to black. In addition, the hardness of steel
be Used to correct an ongoing problem. For example, decreases with an increase in temperature. Bearings
in a bearing failure due to spalling, the flaked metal atexcessive temperatures deform more than normal
created excess friction, overheated the lubricant, which creates greater resistance and friction.
broke down the lubricant to an acidic condition, and Another sign that bearings have overheated is the
burned up the bearing. Little evidence is given to presence of solid or caked lubricant. The darkened,
determine the cause of the failure because the bearing brittle grease has gone through the stages of being
was totally destroyed. Total destruction of the bearing heated to its dropping point, allowing the thickener
and machine downtime could have been prevented if to be baked and burned. The dropping point of grease
the bearingwas analyzed at the spalling stage. A de- is the temperature at which the oil in the grease sepa-

termination would still be needed to establish rates from the thickener and runs out, leaving just
whether the flaking was due to overload or if the the thickener. This condition is created due to poor
bearing had reached its life expectancy. alignment, contaminated lubricant, overloading, or
high speeds. See Figure 10-10.
False Brinell Damage. False Brinel! damai^e is bear-
ing damage caused by forces passing from one ring to
the other through the balls or rollers. False Brinell dam- EXCESSIVE TEMPERATURE DAMAGE
age occurs on poorly installed bearings and bearings
such as motor bearings or wheel bearings that sit on
shelves that vibrate or are roughly transported over dis-
tances without rotation. False Brinell damage is also
caused by pressure applied to the ring that has a loose

fit during bearing removal. The vibration and hammer-

ing on a non-rotating bearing causes marks or inden-
tations on the race that are spaced exactly the same
distance apart as the balls or rollers. See Figure 10-9.

FALSE BRINELL DAMAGE

-INNER RING

The Timken Company

Figure 10-10. Excessive temperature damage is the

result of melted and deformed bearing metal.

Fretting Corrosion. Fretting corrosion is the rusty

appearance that results when two metals in contact
are vibrated, rubbing loose minute metal particles
that become oxidized. In many cases, fretting is a
normal condition that appears as the discoloration
on the outer surface of the outer ring between the
outer ring and the housing. This happens as moisture
from the air settles between the two contacting and
The Timken Company
unprotected metal surfaces.

Figure 10-9. False Brinell damage Is the indentations on

the inner and outer ring races caused by the balls or Fretting corrosion becomes harmful when the oxi-
rollers during rough handling or improper removal. dation breaks down supporting wall surfaces, creat-
234 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

ing looseness. Fretting corrosion is also harmful as Tlirust Damage. Thrust damage is bearing damage
its oxidation particles (oxides) mix with and break due to axial force. Thrust damage on ball bearings
down the bearing lubricant. See Figure 10-11. appears as marks on the shoulder or upper portion
of the inner and outer race and will be anywhere
from a slight discoloration to heavy galling. Gall-
FRETTING CORROSION ing (adhesive wear) is a bonding, shearing, and
tearing away of material from two contacting, slid-
ing metals. The amount of galling is proportional
to the applied load forces. Thrust damage on plain
bearings appears as heavy wear at the bearing ends.
See Figure 10-13.

THRUST DAMAGE

NTN Bearing Corporation of America

Figure 10-11. Fretting corrosion is the rusty appearance

that results when two metals in contact are vibrated,
rubbing loose minute metal particles that become oxidized.

Misalignment Wear. Bearing surfaces that are mis-

aligned appear as worn surfaces on one side or op-
posing sides of a bearing. Rollers in roller bearings
can leave wear marks on one side of the bearing inner
race. The roller may also show high and low trails

on the inside of the outer race. Misalignment wear

may also appear as lack of fretting on two sides of
the outer surface of the outer ring. See Figure 10-12.

MISALIGNMENT WEAR
LITTLE OR NO WEAR

Figure 10-13. Thrust damage in ball bearings appears

as marks on the shoulder or upper portion of the inner
and outer races or as heavy wear at the bearing ends of
plain bearings.

Electrical Pitting and Fluting. Electrical current

WEAR ON ONE SIDE OF RING passing through a machine can be harmful to humans,
other electrical components, and machine bearings.
The Tiniken Company Current may pass through machine parts without
Figure 10-12. Bearing surfaces that are misaligned
harm to humans. This happens as current passes from
appear as worn surfaces on one side or opposing sides of its introduction, such as static electricity created by
a bearing. the manufacturing process, electrical system feed-
back, or welding currents, to a grounded connection.

(yy\ Contact local lubricant suppliers for lubricant

When it passes through bearings, the current can etch
— recommendations. Failure to maintain proper or pit bearing surfaces. Mild electrical currents may
lubrication of a bearing can result in equipment fail- not etch the metal, but can create high enough tem-
ure, creating a risk of serious bodily harm. peratures as current transfers through the bearing to
burn and break down lubricants.
 Bearings 235

Welding current damage is observed as short pitted Warning: Never ground a machine by connecting
lines on balls or rollers that were stationary when a wire from the machine to a gas or oil pipe.
the current was present. See Figure 10-14. The race Fluting is observed in roller bearings that were
has corresponding damage, but this is not normally rotating while welding currents passed through them.
observed unless the bearing is destroyed. Electrical Fluting is the elongated and rounded grooves or
feedback created by certain forces throughout plant tracks left by the etching of each roller on the rings
electrical usage, faulty wiring, and static electricity of an improperly grounded roller bearing during
can be prevented from flowing through a machine if welding. In roller bearings, tluting is caused by elec-
extra grounding is provided. Extra grounding of a trical arcing and pitting the length of each roller in
machine can be as simple as running a wire from the bearing. Damage from welding can be prevented
the machine to a pneumatic or water line. by attaching the welding ground clamp in a location
where no bearings are between the ground and the weld.

ELECTRICAL PITTING AND FLUTING

The Timken Company

Bearings are inspected after ttiey are cleaned and dried by removing
one roller to enable the inner race. cage, and rollers to be examined
for damage.

PARTS PREPARATION

After all bearing parts have been dismantled, they

should be cleaned and spread out on a clean surface
for inspection. Cleaning is accomplished by dipping
or washing the housing, shaft, bearing, spacers, and
other parts in a clean, nonflammable cleaning sol-
vent. Remove all traces of dirt, grease, oil, rust, or
any other foreign matter. Dry all parts with a lint-free
cloth.

Caution should be taken when using part cleaning

solutions. Seals, 0-rings, and other soft materials
may deteriorate due to incompatibility. Check the
cleaning solution label or contact the supplier before
FLUTED BEARING
use. If in doubt, a lightweight, warm mineral oil is

The Timken Company a good cleaning and flushing fluid. Care should be
Figure 10-14. Welding on a machine that is not grounded taken to clean housing and shaft bearing seats, cor-
properly can permanently damage the machine bearings. ners, and keyways.
 236 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Bearings may be blown dry using clean, dry com- BEARING INSTALLATION
pressed air. Do not allow the air pressure to spin the
bearings because this scratches the surfaces and the
bearings may fly apart. Wipe all clean and dry parts Successful bearing installation requires cleanliness,
with a lightweight oil and wrap or cover them to correct bearing selection, mounting methods, tool

protect from dust and dirt. Inspect all parts carefully use, and tolerance specifications. Proper bearing as-

for nicks, burrs, or corrosion on shaft seats, shoul- sembly is required for proper bearing performance,

ders, or faces. Closely inspect bearing components durability, and reliability.

for indication of abnormality or obvious defects.

Caution: More bearings are destroyed, damaged,
Check both inner and outer races for cracks and the
and abused during the installation stage than from
balls or rollers for wear or breaks.
malfunction during their life expectancy. Often, me-
Remove nicks, corrosion, rust, and scuffs on shaft chanics handle bearings as though it is impossible
or housing surfaces that may make assembly unsat- to damage them by force, dirt, or misalignment.

isfactory. Check that corners and bearing seats are Within a few short seconds, carelessness can destroy
square and that all diameters are round, in tolerance, the protective measures of any bearing.

and without runout. Replace any worn spacers, shafts,

bearings, or housings. Check the housing shoulder
to ensure that it is square enough to clear the bear-
ing corner. Proper Bearing Selection

Once lightly oiled, inspection of a bearing is ac-

complished by holding the inner ring while rotating Bearings are often selected without the use of manu-
the outer ring. This inspection may show uneven tol- facturer's specifications. Certain factors other than

erances, particle contamination, or chipped elements. dimensions must be observed when a replacement
Replace any bearing when there is doubt about the bearing is chosen by comparison of a removed bear-
condition of the bearing. ing instead of from an equipment manual or parts
book. Factors to be considered include the exact re-

placement part number, the type and position of any

seal, the direction of force and positioning of a re-
quired high shoulder, and whether a retaining ring
is required. Early failure is possible if a replaced
bearing, even though it is dimensionally correct,
lacks any other requirement. The factors in bearing
selection include the load type and orientation of the
bearing being replaced. Close attention must also be
paid to any special features of a removed bearing,
such as special seal configurations, spherical OD's,
non-circular bores, etc.

All types of bearings, especially rolling-contact

bearings, are available in many design variations
and vary greatly in internal design. Always ensure
that a bearing is a direct replacement for the one
required by the manufacturer when replacing the
bearing. Check the equipment manual for the
proper bearing number. A previous bearing replace-
ment may have been incorrect. Bearing numbers
on the box should be checked before opening the
box and bearings in the box should be checked to
SPM Iiistruiiienl, Inc. ensure the number on the bearing corresponds to
the number on the box. Duplex mounted bearings
Bearings must be handled and installed with care to prevent damage
because a greater number of bearings are damaged during installation must not be mismatched and must be from the same
than during use. manufacturer.
 Know and identify angular contact bearings and When reinstalling bearings, insert the lightly oiled
their position within an assembly. For example, re- shaft in the bearing and line up the marks made at

placing a Conrad bearing with a general-purpose disassembly. Start the new or used bearing assembly
bearing may produce rapid deterioration of the bear- by hand. If pipe is used as an installation tool, press

ing. This is because the Conrad bearing may be used the bearing onto the shaft by placing the pipe only
for axial support and general-purpose bearings can- on the press-fit ring. This pipe must be the proper
not provide axial support. diameter, clean, and have both ends cut square. See
Figure 10-15. Bearings that can be mounted in either

direction should be mounted with the part number fac-

ing out for ease of future identification.

Bearing Mounting
Bearings must be mounted so their inner and outer
Bearing mounting procedures have a great effect on race is not distorted, their rolling elements do not
performance, durability, and reliability. Precautions become bound, and each machine part remains in

should be taken to allow a bearing to perform without its proper relationship. This accomplished by is

excessive temperature rise, noise from misalignment proper mounting alignment (trueness) of machined
or vibration, and shaft movements. During installa- parts, using proper machine tolerances (internal

tion, force must be applied uniformly on the face or clearances), and allowing for additional tolerances
ring that is to be press fit. Any method that presses due to thermal movement.
the bearing on squarely without damage may be used.
Press fits may be accomplished by using a piece of
tubing, steel plate, and hammer; an arbor press; or
C"Damage
I

ing
can easily occur internally
removal or installation force
to
is
a bear-
passed
if
a hydraulic ram. Wood should not be used if there from one bearing ring to the other through the ball
is any possibility of contaminating a bearing with or roller set.

wood splinters or fibers.

BEARING MOUNTING

PIPE TOUCHES
OUTER RING ONLY
(OUTER RING
-PIPE TOUCHES PRESS FIT)
INNER RING ONLY
(INNER RING
PRESS FIT)

OUTER

m w -OUTER
RING

Figure 10-15. Pressure applied when mounting must be applied squarely to the ring being pressed.
 238 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Bearings are mounted with the rotating ring

pressed on a shaft or in a housing. The non-rotating
ring is pushed or slid on a shaft or in a housing and
may be held in place by a snap ring. Generally, the
rotating element of a machine is the shaft with the
inner ring pressed on to the shaft. However, if the
outer part of the machine is the rotating element,
the outer ring is press fit. The exception to this
rule is with the use of heavy-duty cylindrical roller
bearings where the extra loads require that both
rings be press fit. The press fit ring is then clamped
to prevent axial movement. The inner ring of a
A'T'A' Bearing Corporation of America
bearing mounted on a shaft is generally held in
Uneven wear between a bearing inner ring, outer ring, and rollers is place by a locknut, clamp plate, or castle-nut and
an indication of poor bearing mounting. cotter pin. See Figure 10-16.

ROLLING-CONTACT (ANTI-FRICTION) BEARING MOUNTING

LOCKNUT CLAMP PLATE

WASHER -

COTTER PIN

CASTLE-NUT --

HOUSING

RADIAL THRUST
CASTLE-NUT AND COTTER PIN

Figure 10-16. Bearing mounting requires the rotating ring to be mounted securely using locknuts, clamp plates, or
castle-nuts and cotter pins.
 Bearmi;s 239

Precision Class Bearings. Precision class bearings

require quality mounting and control of shaft, hous-
ing, and bearing deflection. Deviations of more than
.0005" in precision class assemblies can cause sig-
nificant vibration. For example, deviations of guided
missile bearing applications must be limited to less
than .00002". Precision class bearings are generally
marked with their high points of runout. Outer rings
may be marked with a "V" on each ring and each
ring should be aligned with the other. Check for the
bearing manufacturer's runout marking. Inner race
runout may be identified by a dot, a copper dot, or
some other mark at the high point. After identifying
the high point on the shaft, place the bearing runout

mark 180° from the shaft high point.

Bearing Mounting Using Temperature. During

bearing installation, it may be necessary to increase
the inner ring diameter by heating the bearing. Re-
gardless of bearing size, increasing the diameter with
heat is the simplest way to mount a bearing that must
be press fit on a shaft. Prelubricated bearings must not
be heated for installation. Heating bearings may be ac-
complished using a light bulb, an oven, clean hot oil

that has a high flash point, a hot plate, or induction

heat. The light bulb, oven, and induction heating meth-
ods are most reliable because their temperature is

easy to control. The hot oil method is less reliable

because the oil temperature is harder to control and
the oil is difficult to keep clean. The light bulb heat-
ing method is the best and most economical. This
method uses a light bulb placed in the bore of a bearing
to provide heat to increase the diameter of the bearing.
The temperature is controlled by the length of time the
bulb is placed in the bearing. This method works well
because the inner ring is the only component to be
brought to high heat, allowing handling and assembly
using the outer ring. See Figure 10-17.
 240 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

• Never strike the bearing with a wooden mallet or Rolling-contact bearings must be firmly mounted
wooden block. so end play and shaft expansion and contraction due
to thermal activity is minimized. End play is the total
• Never apply pressure on the outer ring if the inner
amount of axial movement of a shaft. To work prop-
ring is press fit and never apply pressure on the
erly, all bearings require axial and radial operating
inner ring if the outer ring is press fit.
clearance, but are not intended to move or flex under
• Be careful not to abuse, strike, force, press on. load. Tapered roller bearings are adjusted to a speci-
scratch, or nick bearing seals or shields. fied end play or end lateral movement with the use
of a dial indicator. Bearing movement is erratic,
Understanding Bearing Function. No universal
noisy, and damaging if end play is excessive. See
bearing exists that can do all of the functions and ap-
Figure 10-18.
plications required in industry. In many cases, a review
of the machine function and its bearing requirements In some cases, zero clearance or preloading of ta-
may indicate if proper bearings are being used. pered roller bearings is necessary. Preloading is an
initial pressure placed on a bearing when axial load
Provisions made for thermal expansion within a
enough overcome
forces are expected to be great to
machine are generally published by the machine
preload force, thereby resulting in proper clearances.
manufacturer and are listed as space tolerances between
Preloading is accomplished by the use of shims or
housing, bearing components, and shaft. Greater space
adjustable nut settings. If preloading is too tight, lu-
tolerances are allowed for plain bearings than for roll-
brication is squeezed out, metal-to-metal contact oc-
ing-contact bearings because plain bearings are more
curs, and the increase in temperature damages the
susceptible to damage from higher temperatures. movement
bearing. If preloading is too loose, bearing
is sloppy and damaging. In some cases, preloading
is measured with a torque wrench to determine the
force required to rotate the bearing assembly. Proper
bearing adjustment specifications are generally pro-
vided by equipment manufacturers.

INCREASED SPACE BETWEEN

BEARING RINGS INCREASES
ROLLER CLEARANCE

TAPERED
ROLLER ^INCREASED ROLLER
BEARINGS CLEARANCE ALLOWS
REQUIRED SHAFT
MOVEMENT

TOTAL MOVEMENT
CHECKED WITH
DIAL INDICATOR

-SHIMS INCREASE
SPACE BETWEEN
BEARING RINGS
Cone Mouiiler Company

Proper bearing installation is required for maximum bearing life. Heat-

ing a bearing before Installation expands ttte inner race, allowing easy Figure 10-18. Tapered roller bearings are adjusted to a
bearing mounting on a stiaft. specified end play with the use of a dial indicator.
 Beahiif>s 241

TAPERED ROLLER BEARING ADJUSTMENT METHODS

^ BEARINGS

-SHAFT

THREADED CUP FOLLOWER RING SPACERS (SHIMS)

LOCK WASHER - NUT AFTER ASSEMBLY

NUT AND LOCK WASHER DOUBLE-NUTS CASTLE-NUT AND COTTER PIN

Figure 10-19. Tapered roller bearings are adjusted using a threaded cup follower, nng spacers (shims), nut and lock
washer, double-nuts, or castle-nut and cotter pin.

Tapered Roller Bearing Adjustment. Tapered roller require back-to-back, face-to-face, or tandem ar-
bearings are generally arranged in pairs for opposed rangement. Ring spacer (shim) assemblies are gen-
mounting. This ensures that thrust force in either di- erally used where a non-adjustable (NA) application
rection is taken by one of the bearings. Careful con- existsand the ring spacer thickness is determined by
trol of the clearance between bearing faces is the equipment manufacturer. Ring spacers are placed
required to prevent excessive shaft movement. Ad- beneath end-cap assemblies to provide adjustment
justments are accomplished using methods such as a between the tapered roller bearing and the machined
threaded cup follower, ring spacers (shims), nut and face of the end cap. In most cases, clearance is in-
lock washer, double-nuts, or castle-nut and cotter pin. creased as ring spacers are added, and clearance is

See Figure 10-19. decreased as ring spacers are removed.

A threaded cup follower is a tapered bearing gap Nut and lock washer adjustment is made using a
adjusting device that is used to adjust shaft endplay keyed washer, keyed shaft, and a nut with a group
by controlling the amount of clearance between the of notches on the outside diameter. The more notches
bearings. A threaded cup follower is a dish-shaped designed into the nut, the finer the assembly may be
cap that has a threaded OD and a machined face. adjusted. Upon final adjustment, a tab on the washer
This adjusting device is screwed into a housing until is bent over the corresponding notch on the nut. This
its machined face makes contact with the bearing cup assembly is held firm by a tab on the washer engaged
(outer ring). The threaded cup follower is then in the shaft keyway.
screwed in until the proper shaft end play is achieved.
Once proper adjustment has been met. a locking
The double-nut method of adjusting the running

screw clearance of a tapered bearing assembly is accom-

is secured to prevent cup follower movement.
plished using a keyed shaft, two notched nuts, and
Special attention must be given to the arrangement a keyed washer. With the bearing assembled onto the
of axial/radial bearing pairs. Assembly design may shaft and into the housing, the first nut is screwed
242 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

in until proper bearing clearance has been estab- common due to bearings being packed with grease,

lished. The keyed washer is then slid onto the shaft which produces excess friction. Generally, turning a
and the second nut tightened against the washer and machine OFF to cool down before restarting resolves
the first nut. Care must be taken when tightening the the high temperature. Run-in temperatures should de-
second nut that the first nut does not turn, losing the crease to within recommended ranges. Any machine
clearance. After the second nut has been tightened, with temperatures that continue to run high should
a tab is bent over both nuts, locking them in place. be corrected before proceeding. Continued high tem-
peratures are generally a sign of tight fit, misalign-
Similar to the nut and lock washer assembly, a
inent, or improper assembly. After a machine is
castle-nut and cotter pin uses a notched (slotted) nut
placed back in operation, record motor amperage
for adjustment. Upon final adjustment, a castle-nut
readings and bearing temperature for proactive and
slot is aligned with a hole through the shaft, and a
predictive maintenance procedures.
cotter pin is inserted to hold the assembly firm.

Tapered Bore Bearings. A tapered bore bearing is

a bearing whose bore varies in diameter from the
TAPERED BORE BEARINGS
face to the back of the bearing. Tapered bore bear-
ings are used directly on tapered shafts or on
straight shafts using tapered sleeves. Tapered
sleeves (split adapter sleeves) allow firm mounting
of tapered bore ball and roller bearings. The inter-
nal clearance between the shaft and the bearing is
reduced as a locknut is tightened, forcing the bearing
onto the tapered sleeve. A tabbed washer is bent
over a flat on a locknut to hold the assembly firm.
Tapered bore bearings using a removable sleeve
must always be firm against the shaft shoulder. See
Figure 10-20.

I M/^of^ bearing housings half full of grease be-

I ^ cause too much grease causes excessive churn-
ing and extremely high temperatures.

MACHINE RUN-IN

A machine run-in check should be made after bearing

assembly is complete. A run-in check starts with a
hand check of the torque of the shaft.
THREADED
Warning: Ensure power is locked out when manu- TAPERED
ally rotating a shaft. Unusually high torques normally SLEEVE
indicate a problem with a tight fit, misalignment, or
improper assembly of machine parts. Listen carefully
for clicks, squeals, or thumps and investigate. Restore
machine power and listen for unusual noises. High
noise levels may indicate excessive loading or cocked
or damaged bearings. Correct the problem before
continuing.

Final checks are accomplished by measuring ma- Figure 10-20. Tapered bore bearings are used directly on
chine temperatures. High initial temperatures are tapered shafts or on straight shafts using tapered sleeves.
 FlexibleBeirorrives
Chapter
r lexible which resilient
belt drives are systems in
flexible belts are used to drive one or more shafts.
Belts used for power transmission in flexible belt
drives include V-belts, double V-belts, and timing
belts. V-belts that are not aligned properly are de-
stroyed prematurely due to excessive side wear, bro-
ken or stretched tension members, or rolling over in
the pulley. The main concerns when working with
flexible belt drives are the safety of the technician
working on the machine, co-workers working in the
area of the machine, and the machine itself.

FLEXIBLE BELT DRIVES ber. V-belts are generally classified as standard or

high-capacity. Standard V-belts are designated as A,
B, C, D, or E. High-capacity V-belts are designated
A flexible belt drive is a system in which a resilient
flexible belt is used to drive one or more shafts. Flex- as 3V, 5V, or 8V. The letter or number designation
ible belt drives offer convenient power transmission
also indicates the cross-sectional dimension and

between two or more shafts on a machine. A machine thickness of the belt. See Figure 11-1.

is a group of mechanical devices that transfer force,

V-belts run in a pulley (sheave) with a V-shaped
motion, or energy input at one device into a force, groove. V-belts transmit power through the wedging
motion, or energy output at another device. Belts action of the tapered sides of the belt in the pulley
used for power transmission in flexible belt drives groove. The wedging action results in an increased
include V-belts, double V-belts, and timing belts. coefficient of friction. See Figure 11-2. V-belts do
not normally contact the bottom of the pulley. A pul-

V-belts ley or belt that has worn enough so that the belt
touches the bottom of the pulley should be replaced.

A V-helt is an endless power transmission belt with The belt becomes shiny and slips and burns if allowed
a trapezoidal cross section. V-belts are made of to bottom out. More than one belt may be used if

molded fabric and rubber for body and bending action. additional power transmission is required. However,

V-belts contain fiber or steel cord reinforcement (ten- each belt must be of the same type and size.

sion members) as their major pulling strength material.

The tension member is the load-carrying element of a V-belt Sizes. V-belt replacement, whether for pre-

belt which prevents stretching. V-belts become thin- ventive maintenance or equipment breakdown, starts

ner and weaker as tension members break. with proper identification and sizing of the belt being
replaced. The technician can prevent many premature
V-belts are resilient, quiet, and able to absorb belt failures by selecting the proper belt, belt size,
many shocks because they are made of cloth and rub- and installation procedure.
244 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

V-BELT CLASSIFICATIONS

^IrlfJ.-
STANDARD BELTS

BELT PITCH
LINE (TENSION
MEMBER)

HIGH-CAPACITY BELTS

Figure 11-1. Standard V-belts are designated as A, B, C, D, or E and high-capacity V-belts are designated as 3V, 5V, or 8V.

V-BELT 1^
PULLEY
 Flexible Belt Drives 245

range. A number is added or subtracted from 50 for

RECOMMENDED BELT SET
each Vio" over or under the nominal length. For ex-
LENGTH VARIATIONS
ample, a BX60 55 belt is a -V^f notched belt. 60"
long, manufactured -Vio" longer than the nominal
length. See Figure 1 1-3.

^m:
INDICATES -^
LONGER THAN
NOMINAL LENGTH ->

INDICATES
BELT

-INDICATES
NOMINAL LENGTH

Figure 11-3. Standard V-belt sizes are identified by

letter/number combinations.

Even though a belt may be classified as being the

same nominal length, code numbers indicate that
belts can vary greatly between actual and nominal
length. Code numbers must match or be within a
matching number range when more than one belt
is used as a set. In general, sets should be made

of belts with the same code range numbers. See

Figure 11-4. For example, if a set of three belts
are 300" long and one belt reads D300 50, the
other two belts must be the same or within a
range of Vio" of the first belt. These belts may read
anywhere from D300 48 to D300 52.

V-belts are selected based on the pulley shape,

pulley size, and the outside circumference around the
pulleys. The easiest method of determining a belt
size is to locate the belt letter/number code stamped
on the top surface of the belt. A belt and sheave
groove gauge may be used to determine the proper
belt cross section if the number is not legible. A belt
and sheave groove gauge is a gauge that has a male
form to determine the size of a pulley and a female
form to determine the size of a belt. A set of gauges,
generally on a chain or ring, consists of various belt
and pulley sizes.
 246 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

RECOMMENDED MINIMUM PULLEY

DIAMETERS*

Figure 11-5. Belt length is calculated using the distance

between pulley centers and the pulley diameters.

For example, what is the bell length for two pul-

leys 5" and 10" in diameter that are 30" apart at their
centers?
(D - d )-
.51x(D + d) +
4xC
(10-5)^
30+ 1.57x(10 + 5) +
4x30
L = 60+ 1.57;

L = 60 + 23.55+^
L = 83. 55+. 208

L - 83.758"
V-belt Forces. V-belt forces are constantly changing
as a belt bends around a pulley. Tension forces de-
velop at the top of the belt and compressive forces
build at the bottom of the belt. The amount of tension
depends on the belt construction and the pulley di-

ameter. Pulley diameters that are too small greatly

reduce the life of the belt. Recommended minimum
pulley diameters are used to reduce bearing loads
and provide the longest possible belt life. For exam-
ple, the minimum diameter for a pulley used on a
system containing a 5 HP drive motor operating at

1750 rpm is 3.0". See Figure 11-6.

The Gales Rubber Company

Abnormal wear on the bottom surface of a belt is caused by a belt

too small for the pulleys or by worn or dirty pulleys.
 FIc.xihIe Bel! Driv

STANDARD V-BELT PULLEY GROOVE DIMENSIONS

248 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

V-BELT PULLEYS

TAPERED BORE

Figure 11-8. V-belt pulleys may be fixed bore or tapered

bore pulleys.

RECOMMENDED TAPERED BORE HUB

TORQUE VALUES
 Flexible Belt Drives 249

alignment is a condition where two shafts are parallel

but at different angles with the horizontal plane. An- (^C\ An excessive number of belts or belts that are
^-^ too large can severely stress motor or driven
gular misalignment is corrected using a level placed
on top of the pulley parallel with the pulley shafts. This can happen when load requirements are
shaft. An-
reduced on a drive, hut the belts are not redesigned
gular misalignment must not exceed '/2°
accordingly. This can also happen when a drive is
greatly overdesigned and forces created from belt
PULLEY MISALIGNMENT tensioning are too great for the shafts.

OFFSET WITHIN :^ PER FOOT

OF DRIVE CENTER DISTANCE V-belt Tensioning. Proper alignment and tension of
V-belts produces long and trouble-free belt operation.
DRIVE CENTER
DISTANCE Excessive tension produces excessive strain on belts,
bearings, and shafts, causing premature wear. Too lit-
-DRIVE
SHAFT DRIVEN tle tension causes belt slippage. Belt slippage causes
SHAFT -^
excessive heat and premature belt and pulley wear.
The best tension for a V-belt is the lowest tension
-DRIVE DRIVEN at which the belt does not slip under peak loads. Do
PULLEY PULLEY not use belt dressing as a remedy for pulley wear or
belt slippage. Two methods used for tensioning a belt
OFFSET include the visual adjustment and belt deflection
methods. See Figure 11-12.

PULLEYS SHOULD TWO PULLEYS

TOUCH AT ARE NOT
FOUR POINTS PARALLEL
V-BELT TENSIONING METHODS

TOO LOOSE
SLIGHT BOW

VISUAL ADJUSTMENT
NONPARALLEL
DEFLECTION (h)

ANGULAR

Figure 11-11. Pulley misalignment is corrected by placing BELT DEFLECTION

a straightedge across the pulleys and adjusting the
position of the equipment so the pulleys touch the Figure 11-12. Belt tensioning methods include the visual
straightedge at four points. adjustment and belt deflection methods.
 250 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

For example, what is the proper belt deflection of

an assembly using a 10" pulley and a 5" pulley having
a span length of 36"?

h = Lx Vm"
h = 36 X .0156

/; = .562"

New V-belts seat rapidly during the first few hours.

Check and retension new belts following the first 24
hr and 72 hr of operation. During retensioning, de-
termine the deflection height from the normal posi-
tion by using a straightedge or stretched string across
The Gates Rubber Company the pulley tops. Belt tension tools are also available.
Belt tension tools allow for faster, simpler, and more
Alignment is chect<ed visually after pulleys are Installed by placing
accurate tension checks.
straightedge along the outside face of both pulleys.

The visual adjustment method is a belt tension Double V-belts

method in which the tension is adjusted by observing
the slight sag at the slack side of the belt.The visual A double V-belt is a belt designed to transmit power
adjustment method is used to roughly adjust belt ten- from the top and bottom of the belt. Power must be
sion. The belt is placed on the pulleys without forcing able to be transmitted in the usual and reverse bend
the belt over the pulley flange. Never force or pry a position. Double V-belts are used where the pulleys
belt over the pulley flange. Apply tension to the in a system are required to rotate in opposite direc-
belt by increasing the drive center distance until tions. An example of a double V-belt system is that
the belt is snug. Run the machine for approximately of the serpentine belt drive used in the automotive
5 min to seat the belt. Apply load to the belt and industry. See Figure 11-13.
observe the slack side of the belt. A slight sag is
Double V-belts. like standard V-belts. are identi-
normal. A squeal or slip indicates that the belt is
fied by a letter-number combination, where the letter
too loose.
designates width and the number identifies nominal
The belt deflection method is a belt tension method length. Like standard V-belts, double V-belts are rated
in which the tension is adjusted by measuring the as A. B, C, or D belts, but due to their double sides
deflection of the belt. The belt is installed and tension are designated as AA. BB. CC. or DD belts. For ex-
is applied by increasing the drive center distance. ample, a double V-belt identified as DD180 has a
The span length (L) between the pulley centers and I '4" width and a 180" length.
the deflection height (h) is measured. Proper deflec-
Double V-belt tensioning is determined by the
tion height is '/64" per inch of span length. A per-
belt's width, speed in feet per minute (fpm), and the
pendicular force at the midpoint of the span length diameter of the pulley used. The tension is measured
is applied to measure for proper tension. Proper de-
on the tight side of the drive system because every
flection height is found by applying the formula: belt drive has a slack or loose side and a tight side.

h = Lx 1/64" Basic recommended tensioning for double V-belts

where
may be taken from double V-belt tension tables. See
Appendix.
/; = deflection height (in in.)

L = span length (in in.)

V(,4" = constant (.0156") Timing Belts

A timing (synchronous) belt is a belt designed for

positive transmission and synchronization between
(Hh) Timing belts do not generally require run-in
^^ and retension because of their positive engage- the drive shaft and the driven shaft. Timing belts con-
ment characteristics. sist of tension members, neoprene backing and teeth,

and nylon facing. See Figure 11-14.

 Flexible Bell Drives 251

DOUBLE V-BELTS

DOUBLE V-BELT

Figure 11-13. Double V-belts are designed with tension members the center, which allow the belt to flex in both
directions.

sprockets were used previously. This because tim-

TIMING BELTS is

ing belts are quieter than chain drives, require no

lubrication, are able to operate efficiently in drive
ranges up to 600 HP. and run at speeds over 10,000
fpm. Similar to gear drive operation, timing belts enter
and leave pulleys in a smooth rolling motion with very
low friction. Timing belts are identified by tooth profile,
pitch length, circular pitch, and nominal width.

The four timing belt tooth profiles are the trapezoi-

PITCH DIAMETER dal, double trapezoidal, curvilinear, and modified cur-

vilinear. See Figure 11-15. A trapezoidal belt is a
OUTSIDE DIAMETER
timing belt containing trapezoidal-shaped teeth. Trape-
zoidal belts are the most common timing belt used in
industrial applications. A double trapezoidal belt is a
timing belt containing two trapezoidal-shaped sets of
teeth. Double trapezoidal belts are designed for serpen-
tine drive applications where shaft rotations must run
Figure 11-14. Timing belts are constructed of neoprene in opposite directions. A cun'ilinear belt is a timing
rubber for flexibility, tension members for strength, and
belt containing circular-shaped teeth. Curvilinear belts
nylon facing to offer low coefficient of friction.
were designed to provide increased capacity over a
trapezoidal belt. A modified curvilinear belt is a tim-
Timing belts and their matching pulleys (sprockets) ing belt containing modified circular-shaped teeth.
are toothed for force driving similar to chain drives. Modified curvilinear belts were designed to maxi-
Many equipment manufacturers are replacing timing mize load life capacities while optimizing materials
belts in power transmission systems where chains and and tooth shape.
 252 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

TIMING BELT TOOTH PROFILES TIMING BELT CROSS SECTIONS

••••••

.080 "
(2/25")
PITCH MINI-EXTRA LIGHT (MXL)
r
DOUBLE TRAPEZOIDAL
.200" (1/5")
PITCH EXTRA LIGHT (XL)

^ I" k-
MODIFIED CURVILINEAR .375" (3/8")
PITCH LIGHT (L)

Figure 11-15. The four timing belt tooth profiles are the
trapezoidal, double trapezoidal, curvilinear, and
modified curvilinear.
-CROSS
Belt pitch length is the total length of the timing cnn"/-i/o"\ / SECTION
.500 (1/2 ) / DESIGNATION
belt measured at the belt pitch line. Circular pitch is PITCH HEAVY (H) (PITCH)
the distance from the center of one tooth on a timing
belt to the center of the next tooth measured along the
belt pitch line. Belt circular pitch is directly related to
the cross section of the belt. The six basic cross sections

of timing belts are mini-extra light (MXL), extra light

.875" (7/8")
(XL), light (L), heavy (H), extra heavy (XH). and dou-
(XXH). See Figure
PITCH EXTRA HEAVY (XH)
ble extra heavy 11-16.

1.250" (1-1/4")
PITCH DOUBLE EXTRA HEAVY (XXH)

Figure 11-16. Trapezoidal timing belts are classified by

theirstandard length, cross section designation, and
circular pitch.

Timing belt pitch lengths and widths are identified

by standard numbers. Identifying a timing belt in-

cludes pitch length, section, and width designations

(nominal width times 100). The nominal pulley width
is the maximum standard belt width the pulley accom-
modates. For example, an XL section belt with a pitch
length of 8.000 and a standard width of 0.38 is specified
as an 80 XL038 synchronous belt. Belt pitch lengths,
Feiiner Drives
number of teeth, length tolerances, and size designa-
Product transfer lines use timing belts to synchronize rollers for the
tions may be taken from American National Standards
efficient transfer of product. Institute (ANSI) tables. See Appendix.
 Flexible Bell Drives 253

VARIABLE-SPEED BELT DRIVES crease the pulley center-to-center distance, which de-
creases the belt tension. The decreased belt tension

A variable-speed belt drive is a mechanism that

allows the spring to force the flanges together, which

transmits motion from one shaft to another and forces the belt to ride higher in the pulley groove. Speed
al-

lows the speed of the shafts to be varied. Variable- control is accomplished by the belt riding high or low
speed belt drives use wide V-belts and spring-loaded in the pulley groove. Most variable-speed belt drives

adjustable cone-faced pulleys. Variable-speed belt require the drive to be running for adjustment of the

drives operate by adjusting the pulley width, which pulley width.

changes the pulley pitch diameter. This increases or Variable-speed belt drive horsepower ratings range
decreases the shaft speed without changing the drive from fractional to over 100 HP and are available in
mechanism (motor) speed. See Figure 11-17. speed ratios of 1.15 : 1 to over 9:1. Variable-speed
Variable-speed belt drives are used where speed drives are categorized as stationary-control or mo-
variations can be obtained using conventional V- tion-control drives. Stationary-control drives require
belts. V-belts used for variable-speed drives are gen- the drive to be stopped in order to manually adjust
erally thin, wide, rigid, and are capable of operating the pulley width. This adjustment usually requires

in adjustable pulley assemblies. drive component disassembly. Motion-control drives

are distinguished by one or two movable flanges. The
stationary flange is fixed to a central sleeve in drives
Changing Speeds where only one flange moves during adjustment. The
movable flange maintains pressure on the belt by a
Changing the speed of a belt and pulley is accom- spring. See Figure 11-18.
plished using an adjustable (sliding) motor base. The
motor base is adjusted to increase the pulley center-
to-center distance, which increases the belt tension. (K\ The correct belt tension is the least amount of
The increased belt tension forces the flanges apart, ^^ tension that enables the belt to run without slip-
which forces the belt to ride lower in the pulley ping when a full load is applied.
groove. The motor base may also be adjusted to de-

VARIABLE-SPEED BELT DRIVES

.-SET SCREW

LOW SHAFT SPEED HIGH SHAFT SPEED

Figure 11-17. In a variable-speed belt drive, if the width of the pulley is increased, the pitch diameter is decreased, thus
increasing the speed of the shaft.
 254 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

MOTION-CONTROL DRIVES Calculating Pulley Speed and Size

A change in pulley size may be required for an in-

crease or decrease in pulley output speed. In addition,
CENTRAL
the diameter of destroyed or missing pulleys must
SLEEVE
be determined for proper replacement. Pulley size is

determined using calculations based on the speed and

size of the driven or drive pulley.

The speed or diameter of a driven or drive pulley

may be determined by using the appropriate formula.
The fourth value (speed or size) can be determined
by using the correct formula for calculating speed
or diameter when the other three factors (speed and
size) are known. Any one value may be determined
by rearranging the formula when the other three val-
ues are known. Driven pulley speed is based on the
diameter and speed of the drive pulley and the di-
ameter of the driven pulley. See Figure 11-19.

Figure 11-18. In a variable-speed drive, a layer of

lubricantmust be maintained for separation of parts and
prevention of fretting corrosion due to the higfi forces
applied on the central sleeve by the movable flange.

In motion-control drives where two flanges move,

both flanges ride on a central sleeve. Each flange is

backed up by a spring that exerts equal force on the

belt. Extreme caution is required when attempting to
disassemble any variable-speed drive assembly due
to spring compression of the pulleys.

Never wear neckties, loose sleeves, or lab coats

around belt drives. Figure 11-19. The speed or diameter of a driven or drive
pulley may be determined by solving for any one value
wfien the other three are known.

Drive pulley speed and diameter is denoted by a

subscript m („,). Driven pulley speed and diameter is

denoted by a subscript d (j). Driven pulley speed is

found by applying the formula:

PD,„ X Nn.
Nd
PDd
where
N.i = driven pulley speed (in rpm)
PD,„ = drive pulley diameter (in in.)

N,„ = drive pulley speed (in rpm)

PDj = driven pulley diameter (in in.)
The Gates Rubber Company

For example, what is the speed of an 8" driven

Change all belts on a multiple belt drive even when only one belt
pulley if the diameter of the drive pulley is 12" and
requires replacement. New belts that are run with old belts carry more
of the load, which shortens belt life. its speed is 150 rpm?
 Flexible Bell Drives 255

PD,„ X N„. Calculating drive pulley diameter is based on

Mj
PDj knowing the speed of the drive pulley and the speed
and diameter of the driven pulley. Drive pulley di-
12x 150
ameter is found by applying the formula:

1800 PDj X A',,

Na = PD,„
N,„

Nd - 225 rpm For example, what is the diameter of a drive pulley

rotating at 150 rpm if the diameter of the driven pul-
Calculating driven pulley diameter is based on
ley is 8" and its speed is 225 rpm?
knowing the speed of the driven pulley and the di-
ameter and speed of the drive pulley. Driven pulley
diameter is found by applying the formula:
PD,„ = —
PDjxNd^- -

PD,„ X A^„,
8x225
PD, PD,„ =
150
1800
For example, what is the diameter of a driven pul- PD„.
150
ley rotating at 225 rpm if the diameter of the drive
pulley is 12" and its speed is 150 rpm? PD,„ = 12"

PD,„ X /V„,
PDj =
N.
150 FLEXIBLE BELT DRIVE SAFETY
225
1800
PDj = The main concerns when working with flexible belt
drives, or any machine, are the safety of the techni-
PDj = 8" cian working on the machine, co-workers working
Calculating drive pulley speed is based on know- in the area of the machine, and the machine itself.

ing the diameters of the drive and driven pulleys and Unsafe acts may jeopardize the health and welfare
the driven pulley speed. Drive pulley speed is found of those around the machine but can also damage or
by applying the formula: destroy the equipment that supports the technicians'
employment. Safe work habits related to working on
PDj X Nd
N,„ any mechanism in motion requires wearing proper
PD,„
clothing, maintaining a clean environment, and re-
For example, what is the speed of a 12" drive pul- moving and locking out any energy supply.
ley if the diameter of the driven pulley is 8" and its

speed is 225 rpm?

PDj X Nj Proper Clothing

A^^ =
PD„
Loose or bulky clothes, loose sleeves, and untucked
8x225
A^^ shirts can cause serious injury while working on
flexible belt drives and rotating machinery. Lab
coats, neckties, loose belts, and loose long hair
should never be worn when working around drive
N„, = 150 rpm systems.

A technician is properly dressed for safety when

wearing safety glasses for eye protection, safety
I
V-^A rapid drop in belt tension normally occurs
toe shoes for protecting the toes against dropped
I
^ during the run-in period. Tension new drives
heavy objects, and gloves to avoid being cut by
with a '/2 greater deflection force than the maximum
sharp or nicked pulley edges. A technician must
recommended force. Check tension frequently dur-
recognize any condition that may do harm and
ing the first day of operation.
dress accordingly.
 256 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Clean Environment of placing a tag on a power source that warns others

not to restore energy. Blackout is the process of plac-
Access to and around machinery must be safe. Floors ing a solid object in the path of a power source to
must be free of oil. clutter, or obstructions. Good prevent accidental energy flow.
footing and balance is necessary while working on
any machinery. Also, clean environments make it

possible for technicians to devote full attention to

the assigned task while not being obstructed by
irrelevant objects.

The Gates Rubber Company

Never pry belts off their drives. Belt tension is adjusted by moving
the motor and lightening the motor mount to the correct torque. Per-
sonal injury or machine damage may result if the pry bar slips.

Removing and Locking Out Energy Supplies

Any person involved in the service or repair of drive

systems shall be responsible for placing the equip-
ment inoperable. Assurance must be made that any
energy source that has been placed inoperable cannot
be inadvertently made operable by any other person.
Figure 11-20. Controlling energy sources include lockout,
On January 2. 1990, OSHA 29 CFR 1910.147,
tagout,and blockout procedures.
Control Hazardous Energy Sources (Lock-
of
out/Tagout) became effective. This standard provides Mechanical lockout is required of any machine
rules designed to protect industrial workers who op- that is operated by any energy source other than elec-
erate, service,and repair power equipment and ma- Machines that are activated by compressed
tricity.

chinery. Controlling energy sources include lockout, air or steam have valves that control movement.
tagout, and blockout procedures. Failure to place These valves need to be locked out and the system
equipment energy sources inoperable before working may also need to be bled to release any back pressure.
on them is a major cause of serious injury and death.
Additionally, coiled springs, spring-loaded de-
See Figure 11-20.
vices, or suspended loads may need to be released
Placing energy sources in a position of total safety so that their stored energy will not result in inadver-
may require either lockout, tagout, or blockout of tent movement. Chain or clamp-off large fan blades
equipment or possibly all three. Lockout is the proc- or turbines while changing belts or aligning. Any gust
ess of preventing the flow of energy from a power of wind or air flow may turn the blades enough to
source to a piece of equipment. Tagout is the process injure a worker.
 Mec 121
JVlechanical drives transmit power from one point
to another. Mechanical drives use gears for the con-
version of energy or the transmission of power. Gears
may be spur, helical, rack, herringbone, bevel, miter,
worm, or hypoid gears. Gear drives are designed for
high speed, low speed, high thrust or radial loads,
changing the angle of power, or compactness. Gear
drives lose some of their efficiency to friction, but
typically remain as high as 95% efficient.

^/ W-llurodrive. Inc.

-.^^

MECHANICAL DRIVES one friction disc may be fabricated of fiberglass

strands embedded in an epoxy base and the other
The law of conservation of energy
friction disc may be fabricated from mild steel or
states that energy
brass. Belt drives or friction discs lose most of their
can be neither created nor destroyed, but it can be
efficiency through slippage. Gear drives lose some
converted from one form to another by appropriate
of their efficiency to friction, but typically remain
mechanical means. Mechanical is pertaining to or
concerned with machinery or tools. A mechanical
as high as 95% efficient. See Figure 12-1. Energy
and efficiency is the principle of work where work
drive is a system by which power is transmitted from
input equals useful work output plus work done
one point to another. A gear is a toothed machine
against friction.
element used to transmit motion between rotating
shafts. Gears are used in mechanical drives for the
conversion of energy or the transmission of power.
Transformation of Energy
In addition to transmitting power, gears convert en-
ergy through changing shaft directions, reducing or
A gear or gear drive the rotational mechanism
is
increasing speed, and changing output torque.
within a machine. A
machine is any device by
which the magnitude or method of application of
Gear-driven mechanical drives are also used to
a force is changed in order to achieve work. The
transmit positive mechanical energy. Gear-driven me-
force applied by a rotational mechanism is meas-
chanical drives are often chosen over belt drives be-
ured as its torque.
cause the efficiency of a gear drive is greater than
that of a belt drive or friction disc. A friction disc Torque. Torque is the twisting (rotational) force of
is a device that transmits power through contact be- a shaft. Torque is the amount of force at a distance
tween two discs or plates. One disc or plate consists from the center of a shaft required to achieve work.
of a high frictional material, while the other disc or Torque is produced when turning something, such as
plate is fabricated from a soft metal. For example, removing a bottle cap or turning a doorknob. Torque
258 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

is equal to force times the distance from the point

of rotation to the point the force is applied. Torque
is found by applying the formula:
T = F X D
where
T = torque (in Ib-ft)

F - force (in lb)

D = distance (in in. or ft)

For example, what is the torque developed if a

60 lb force is applied at the end of a 2' lever arm?

T = F X D
T = 60 X 2

T = 120 Ib-ft

MACHINE ELEMENT EFFICIENCY

 Mechanical Drives 259

Horsepower is used to measure the energy pro-

duced by an electric motor while doing work. Horse-
power required to overcome a load is found by
applying the formula:

Txriw,
"'^-
5252
For example, what is the horsepower required to

turn a winch containing drum at 5 rpm if a a 10"

1500 lb load is placed on the winch? Note: The
torque at the drum equals 625 Ib-ft (5 x 1500 -:-

= 625 Ib-ft).
T X rpm
HP =
5252
625x5
HP
5252
3125
HP
5252
HP .595 HP
Gear Speed. A gear train is a combination of two
or more gears in mesh used to transmit motion be-
tween two rotating shafts. A drive gear is any gear
that turns or drives another gear. A driven gear is

any gear that is driven by another gear. For example,

on a two-gear machine, one gear is the drive gear
and the other gear is the driven gear. On a three-gear
machine, two gears are drive gears (first and second)
and two gears are driven gears (second and last). The
second gear is the driven gear when referenced to
the first gear and is the drive gear when referenced
to the third gear. The speeds of the drive and driven
gears are inversely proportional to the number of
teeth on each gear. For example, a gear with a large
number of teeth rotates at a slow speed and a gear
with a small number of teeth rotates at a fast speed.
Although some gear drives are designed to deliver
an increase in speed (rpm) over the input (drive) gear,
the majority of gear drives are designed to produce
a speed reduction. In gear transmission, the speed of
the driven gear depends on the speed of the drive
gear and the number of teeth of the drive and driven
gears. See Figure 12-3. The speed of a driven gear
is found by applying the formula:
7", x/V,
Nz
T.

where
A': = speed of driven gear (in rpm)
T\ = number of teeth on drive gear
A^i = speed of drive gear (in rpm)
Tz = number of teeth on driven gear
260 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

For example, what is the number of teeth on a

driven gear required to produce 25 rpm if the drive
gear having 40 teeth rotates at 75 rpm?

_ 7-|X/V,

40 X 75
 Mechanical Drives 261

Two idler gears may be placed between the drive compound gear train is based on the number of teeth
and driven gears when opposite rotation between the of the drive gears multiplied by the speed of the first

drive and driven gears is required. This configuration drive gear divided by the number of teeth of the
of the gear train, barring extra losses from friction, driven gears. The output speed of a compound gear
provides opposite rotations without affecting speed. train is found by applying the formula:

A'4
7":X74
() Gear drives that are shut down for longer than
f one week should be run at least 10 min each where
week to keep the gears coated with oil and help pre- A'4 = speed of output gear (in rpm)
vent rusting due to moisture condensation. T\ = number of teeth on first drive gear
r? = number of teeth on second drive gear
A'l = speed of first drive gear (in rpm)
Compound Gear Trains
T2 = number of teeth on first driven gear
7*4 = number of teeth on output gear
A compound is two or more sets of gears
gear train
where two gears are keyed and rotate on one common For example, what is the output speed of a 20
shaft. Compound gear trains produce higher speeds
tooth output gear in a compound gear train in which
in less space than gear trains using simple gearing. gear 1 (first drive gear) contains 50 teeth and rotates
See Figure 12-5. at 25 rpm, gear 2 (first driven gear) contains 25 teeth

and rotates at 50 rpm, and gear 3 (second drive gear)

In a four-gear compound gear train, gear 1 is the
contains 75 teeth and rotates at 50 rpm?
first drive gear. Gear 1 which is the
drives gear 2,
first driven gear. Gear 2 is same shaft
keyed to the r, X r, X A'l
A'4
as gear 3. which is the second drive gear. Gear 2
and gear 3 are different sizes and contain a different
number of teeth, but rotate at the same speed. Gear
25x20
3 drives gear 4, which is the second driven and output
gear. Drive and driven gear determination is required
A^4 = ^^^'
when calculating compound gear train output speed. 500
The formula for calculating the output speed of a A'4 = 187.5 rpm

COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN -OUTPUT SPEED DETERMINATION

GEAR 3
(SECOND DRIVE GEAR)
75 TEETH, 50 RPM
--GEAR1
(FIRST DRIVE GEAR)
50 TEETH. 25 RPM

GEARS 2 AND 3 KEYED

AND ROTATE ON ONE
COMMON SHAFT

Figure 12-5. Compound gear trains produce higher speeds in less space than gear trains using simple gearing.
262 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

In compound gear trains, the number of teeth on r, X 74 X yVi

the output gear is based on the number of teeth on 7:,xA'5

the first and second drive gears and the speed of the
30 X 35 X 300
first drive gear divided by the number of teeth of the
first driven gear and the speed of the output gear.
50x100
See Figure 12-6. The number of teeth on the output 315,000
gear in a compound gear train is found by applying 5000
the formula: 7, = 63 teeth

r, X 74 X M
r, X M GEAR FORM AND TERMINOLOGY
where
Tf. = number of teeth on output gear
To transmit power smoothly from one gear to another,
Ti = number of teeth on first drive gear
a special tooth form is used to allow sliding without
Ta = number of teeth on second drive gear damage or jerky motion. A moth form is the shape
A'l = speed of first drive gear (in rpm) or geometric form of a tooth in a gear when seen as
its side profile. For example, the tooth form of a
7"i = number of teeth on first driven gear
rack gear consists of three flat surfaces. The tooth
M = speed of output gear (in rpm)
form of a spur gear has a flat surface and two curved
For example, how many teeth does an output gear (involute) surfaces. Rack teeth are gear teeth used to
rotating at 100 rpm have if connected to 5 gears in produce linear motion. Smooth power transmission
a compound gear train where gear (first drive gear) 1 is accomplished using an involute tooth form. An in-

contains 30 teeth and rotates at 300 rpm, gear 2 (idler volute form is a tooth form that is curled or curved.
gear) has 20 teeth, gear 3 (first driven gear) and gear This tooth form is used for gear teeth to provide a
4 (second drive gear) have the same shaft and contain uniform motion and straight line of action. See Figure
50 and 35 teeth respectively? 12-7.

COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN -OUTPUT TEETH DETERMINATION

GEAR1
(FIRST DRIVE GEAR)
30 TEETH. 300 RPM -

— GEAR 4
(SECOND DRIVE GEAR)
35 TEETH, 180 RPM

-GEAR 3
(FIRST DRIVEN GEAR)
50 TEETH, 180 RPM

Figure 1 2-6. The idler gear is disregarded when determining the number of teeth or speed calculation in a compound gear train.
 Mechanical Drives 263

INVOLUTE TOOTH FORM DP

where
DP = diametral pitch
T = number of teeth

D = pitch diameter (in in.)

This formula may be rearranged to find any one

lue when the other two are known.

GEAR TERMINOLOGY
TOOTH PROFILE (INVOLUTE)
CURVED GEAR TEETH
PROVIDE SMOOTH ,- PITCH CIRCLE
MOTION BETWEEN
GEARS

Figure 12-7. The involute tooth form on a gear allows

smooth and uniform motion between gears.

BASE DIAMETER
-LINEOF ACTION
The involute form is a basic profile for gear teeth (OPERATIONAL
PITCH CIRCLE
and is used on most gears. The involute form and PITCH POINT)

gear tooth terminology are defined and standardized

Figure 12-8. Gear terminology is standardized by ANSI
by ANSI and the American Gear Manufacturers As-
and AGMA.
sociation (AGMA). See Figure 12-8.

For example, what is the diametral pitch of a gear

Certain terms are used when fabricating, specify-
that has 30 teeth with a pitch diameter of 6"?
ing, or defining a gear's function. Gear terminology
includes pitch circle, pinion, diametral pitch, circular
pitch, base diameter, clearance, working depth, and
face width. Pitch circle is the circle that contains the
operational pitch point. An operational pitch point
is the tangent point of two pitch circles at which
DP = 5
gears operate. A pinion is the smaller gear of a pair
of gears, especially when engaging rack teeth. Dia- Base diameter is the diameter from which the in-

metral pitch is the ratio of the number of teeth in a volute portion of a tooth profile is generated. Clear-
gear to the diameter of the gear's pitch circle. Cir- ance is between the top of a tooth
the radial distance
cular pitch is the distance from a point on a gear and the bottom of the mating tooth space when fully
tooth to the corresponding point on the next gear mated. Clearance is directly related to a gear's work-
tooth, measured along the pitch circle. The diametral ing depth. Working depth is the depth of engagement
pitch of a gear may be found if the pitch diameter of two gears. Clearance is required because gears
and number of teeth are known. Diametral pitch is bind without clearance. Clearance is the gap between
found by applying the formula: the base diameter of one gear and the top of the
 264 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

mating tooth. Proper clearance is generally accom- of the pitch circle. Determining the proper amount
plished when backlash measurements are met. of backlash is based on the diametral pitch. A chart

The face width is the length of the teeth in an may be used to determine backlash tolerances when
axial plane. This is generally the width of any spur the diametral pitch is known. See Figure 12-9.

gear. However, the length or face width of angled

some-
gears, such as helix or spiral angled gears, are
what longer because the measurement made along
is
RECOMMENDED GEAR BACKLASH
the cone distance of these gears.

Cone Drive Operations Inc. /Subsidiary of Textron Inc.

Cone Drive manufactures worm gear drives wilti a double-enveloping

design in wtiicti ttie worm and gear wrap around each ottier Ttiis
provides high shock resistance, low backlash, and increased load car-
rying capacity as more tooth area are in contact and more teeth are
in mesh than other worm gear designs.

BACKLASH

Backlash is the play between mating gear teeth.

Backlash allows for any errors in tooth profile, gear
mounting, or shaft or gear runout. Backlash pre-
vents gears from making contact on both sides of
the teeth, causing seizing and failure, and allows
for lubrication.
 Mechanical Drives 265

GEAR BACKLASH MEASUREMENT

THICKNESS GAUGE
SLID INTO SPACE
BETWEEN MESHING TEETH

GEARS
ROTATED
DIAL ONCE
INDICATOR

DIAL INDICATOR THICKNESS GAUGE LEAD WIRE

Figure 12-10. Backlash between two gears in mesh is measured using a dial indicator, thickness gauge, or lead wire.

GEARS Helical

A helical gear is a gear v\ ith teeth that are cut at an

Gear drives are designed for high speed, low speed. angle to its axis of rotation. The steeper the angle,
high thrust or radial loads, changing the angle of the quieter the gear. Side movement (thrust) is de-
power, or compactness. The transmission of power, veloped when a helical gear is used. Thrust energy
torque, or angle is accomplished by the use of spur. caused by the tooth load must be supported by thrust
helical, rack, herringbone, be\el. miter, worm, or hy- bearings. The direction and amount of thrust depends
poid gears. See Figure 12-11. on gear rotation and the direction of the helix. Helical
gear drive angles may be anywhere from 0° to 90°.

Helical gears are quieter and smoother running

Spur than spur gears because pressure is transferred gradu-
ally and uniformly as successive teeth are meshed.
A ,v/)((/- gear is a gear that has straight teeth that are Also, power is more widely distributed because it is

parallel to the shaft axes. Spur gears are the most placed on several teeth in mesh. The increased area
commonly used gear and were originally designed of distribution allows for finer tooth sizes and equal-
for internal clock works. Spur gears are included in ized tooth wear.

most mechanical drives and large industrial machin-

ery. Spur gears are used to transmit power from one

parallel shaft to another shaft where there is no end Rack

thrust or axial displacement.

A rack gear is a gear with teeth spaced along a

Spur gears are excellent transmission gears due straight line. Rack gears are used with pinion gears
to their ability to slide and mesh from one gear size (spur gears) to convert rotary motion to linear motion
into another to change speeds. Spur gears of different or linear motion to rotary motion depending on which
diameters and numbers of teeth are interchangeable gear is the drive gear and which gear is the driven
as long as they are of the same pitch. Spur gears gear. Unlike the pinion gear, rack gear teeth do not
are rougher running and noisier than other gears have to be involute because the rack gear does not
and usually run at slower speeds to reduce \ ibra- rotate. Rack and pinion gears may be either spur or
tion and noise. helical in tooth form.
266 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

,_^ , STRAIGHT TEETH

USi^i / CUT PARALLEL TO
AXIS OF ROTATION

Emerson Power Transmissi

SPUR

CONE
TAPERED SHAPED
TEETH

Martin Sprocket & Gear Inc.

MITER

-WORM
(LOW HELIX)
-CURVED
NON-SYMMETRICAL
_-»iU TEETH

Cone Dnve Operations Inc./

Engelhardt Gear Co.
Subsidiary of Textron Inc. Engelhardt Gear Co.
HERRINGBONE WORM HYPOID

Figure 12-11. The gear used in a mechanical drive is determined by the required gear speed, load placed on the gear,
angular requirements, and space constraints.

Herringbone by one half pitch. Herringbone gears are often used

for connecting steam turbines to electrical generators,
A herringbone gear is a double helical gear that con- pumps, propeller shafts, etc. because they are able
tains a right- and left-hand helix. End thrust is to run at high speeds.
avoided by the teeth being at opposite angles. Her-
ringbone gears are used in parallel shaft transmission,

especially where smooth, high speeds are required. P The operating temperature of a gear drive
the temperature of the oil inside the gear case.
is

Smooth transmission is possible due to the gradual Under normal conditions, the maximum operating
overlapping mesh of the teeth and is made even temperature should not exceed 180°F.
smoother when the right- and left-hand helix is offset
 Mechan'ual Drives 267

Bevel mechanical advantage, and transmit power at a sig-

nificant reduction in velocity. Fine-pitch gears are
A bevel gear is a gear that connects shafts at an used to transmit motion rather than power. For this
angle in the same plane. The involute tooth form is reason, tooth strength is seldom an important factor
used on bevel gears when a drive requires large ratios with fine-pitch worm gears.
using high torque, high speed, and non-parallel
shafts. Bevel gears are cone-shaped with teeth that
are tapered. The tapered teeth allow uniform clear-
ance along the length of the teeth even though the
gears are meshed on an angle. Mounting of bevel
gears should be rigid enough to allow only a maxi-
mum separation of .006". Proper meshing and back-
lash of bevel gears is accomplished using shims to
position each gear axially.

Extra power transmission and noise reduction is

possible on bevel gears by using spiral tooth bevel

gears. The tooth spiral allows the teeth to engage
with one another gradually. The continuous pitch line
contact of spiral bevel gears makes it possible to ob-
tain superior performance with high speeds and silent
operations.

Miter
Emerson Power Transmission
A miter gear is a gear used at right angles to transmit
Bevel or miter gears are used in right-angle gearboxes to change the
horsepower between two intersecting shafts at a 1 : I
angle of power for use in applications where space is limited.
ratio.Only miter gears with the same pitch, pressure
angle, and number of teeth can be operated together.
However, more than two initer gears may be used in
Multiple threads are added to the worm when ad-
sets, such as in automotive differentials. Similar to
ditional power is required from a coarse-pitch worm
bevel gears, miter gears should also have thrust bear-
gear. More threads added to the worm produce
greater tooth contact, thereby allowing increased
ings to absorb axial thrust.
power. Adding more teeth reduces the input/output
ratio. The number of helical threads on a worm can

Worm be as high as seven. The ratio of a worm gear is

found by applying the formula:
A worm is a shank having at least one complete tooth
around the pitch surface.
gears consisting of a worm
A worm gear is a set of
(drive gear) and a wheel
-^
where
(driven gear) that are used extensively as a speed
reducer. The worm is of such a low helix angle that R = input/output ratio

it cannot be reversed. The driven gear cannot drive T = number of teeth on worm wheel
the worm because the gearing automatically locks Tw = number of threads on worm
itself against backward motion. Also, because of the
For example, what is the input/output ratio of a
low helix angle, a proportionate increase in torque
50 tooth speed reducer with a 3 thread worm?
is offered between the drive and driven gears.

Worm gears may be coarse-pitch or fine-pitch.

Coarse-pitch worm gears are the most commonly
used worm gears. Coarse-pitch worm gears are pri-
marily used in industrial applications because they
can transmit power efficiently, provide considerable R = 16.667
268 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Worm gears are unique in that wear does not de- Gear Wear Identification
stroy the tooth form. The worm continues to Iceep a
proper form even through wear. Unlike other gears, Proper identification of gear wear and its causes can
worm gears tend to wear in rather than wear out. prevent many hours of equipment downtime. Identi-
Due to the sliding motion on the worm's helix, high fication is also a useful indicator for upgrading a

heat is generated and must be kept to a minimum preventive maintenance program. For example, lubri-
through proper lubrication. cation may need to be changed if a gear is scuffing.
In addition, lubricant may require more frequent
changing if there are signs of abrasive wear. Early

Hypoid recognition and correction of gear wear may also pre-

vent extensive equipment damage.

A hypoid gear is a spiral bevel gear with curved, The American Gear Manufacturers Association has
non-symmetrical teeth that are used to connect shafts compiled gear wear identification standards as a
at right angles. The hypoid gear has the tooth angle guide to provide a common language on gear wear
of a helical gear, the base angle of a bevel gear, and and to provide a means to document gear appearance
the straight tooth of a rack gear. The hypoid gear as gears wear or fail. Gear wear may be abrasive
is related to the worm gear due to the extreme pres- wear, corrosive wear, electrical pitting, rolling and
sure angle of the pinion. Hypoid gears, used widely scuffing, or fatigue wear.
in automotive differentials, provide greater sliding
Abrasive Wear. Abrasion is the removal or displace-
angles than spiral bevel gears for smoother and qui-
ment of material due to the pressure of hard particles.
eter operation.
Abrasive wear is wear caused by small, hard parti-
cles. Abrasive wear is caused by particle-contami-

nated oil, where particles of metal, sand, scale, or

other abrading material grind and scratch gear teeth
GEAR WEAR as they make contact. The scratches appear as parallel
furrows oriented in the direction of sliding. See Fig-
The sliding and meshing of gear teeth under load ure 12-12.
causes gear failure due to wear. Gear manufacturers
design certain parts of a gear train to wear out or
break sooner than others. This is done because some
gears are physically easier to replace than others or
ABRASIVE WEAR
one gear may be cheaper than another in a set. For
example, worm gears are made of hardened steel
while their matching worm wheels are made of
bronze. At times, cast iron or nonmetallic gears are SHARP
placed in a train of steel gears to wear out
WEAR
first.
STEPS

Hunting Teeth

A hunting tooth is a tooth added to mesh with every

tooth on the mating gear to produce even tooth wear.
Hunting tooth choice is based on gear train ratio and
the teeth per gear. For example, a pair of gears in a
3 : 1 have 60 and 20 teeth. In this case,
ratio set Figure 12-12. Abrasive wear is identified by sharp wear
wear is uneven because every 3 rotations of the pin- steps from the original surfaces, gouges in the direction of
sliding, and tooth tips with sharp edges.
ion (20 teeth) produces one rotation of the driven
gear (60 teeth). However, gears with 61 and 20 teeth
(3.05 : 1 ratio) produce evenly distributed wear.
Hunting teeth ratios should be used when gears in a Abrasive material may enter a gear housing due
pair or train are subject to uneven or cyclic loads to a harsh environment or may have been left in the
such as in indexing or crankshaft use. gear housing as residual casting scale when the com-
 Mechanical Drives 269

ponent was manufactured. Abrasive wear corrective • Use an extreme-pressure lubricant if a system is

action includes: overloaded and the load cannot be reduced nor

the system upgraded.
• Drain and flush residual oil.

• Check to see if the wrong grade of lubricant is

• Scrape, flush, and wipe the internal surfaces of
being used. Contact the machine manufacturer or
the gear housing.
an oil company representative for proper lubricant
• Clean out and flush any oil passages. specifications.
• Refill the housing with a light flushing grade oil
• Check the frequency of oil changes. It may be
and run without load for approximately 10 min. necessary to increase the oil change frequency.
• Clean breathers and replace seals and filters if sus-
Electrical Pitting. Electrical pitting is an electric
pected contamination was from the environment. arc discharge across the film of oil between mating
• Drain the flushing oil and refill with correct oil. gear teeth. The temperatures produced are high
enough to locally melt gear tooth surfaces. Damage
Corrosive Wear. Corrosion is the action or process
from electrical pitting may be caused by improperly
of eating or wearing away gradually by chemical ac-
grounded electrical connections, high static charges,
tion. Corrosive wear is wear resulting from metal being
or improper welding connections. Electrical pitting
attacked by acid. Acid is usually formed when the oil
is identified by many small craters surrounded by
temperature becomes high enough to boil and separate
burned or fused metal. See Figure 12-14.
acid-forming resins from the High temperatures
oil.

may be the result of an overloaded system, the wrong

lubricant, or old lubricant that has broken down.
ELECTRICAL PITTING
Corrosive wear may be identified by a
initially

stained or rusty appearance. More advanced corrosive

wear is identified by rust-colored deposits along with
extensive acid-etched pits. See Figure 12-13.

Figure 12-14. Electrical pitting appears as small craters

surrounded by burned or fused metal.

Electric current on gears may break down lubricant

if the current is not high enough to etch metal but is

Figure 12-13. Corrosive wear is identified by rust-colored high enough to locally bum and break down lubricants.
deposits along with acid-etched pits.
Electrical pitting corrective action includes:

Corrosion attacks the entire gear, but wear is great-

• Place a ground clamp on the same side of a gear
est on working surfaces because the build-up of cor-
rosion itself becomes a partial insulator to the box when welding.
non-working surfaces. Corrosive wear corrective ac- • Run grounding straps from a machine to rigid elec-
tion includes: trical or pneumatic piping to reduce static elec-

• Reduce the load if the system is overloaded. tricity created by manufacturing processes.

• Upgrade the system if the system is overloaded • Check the electrical system for proper installation
and the load cannot be reduced. and grounding.
 270 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Improper adjustments include radial/axial mis-

alignment, improper end play, out of tolerance back-
lash, and manufacturer's defect. In gear teeth that do
not mesh correctly due to misalignment, the gear
wears at high points and removes metal until a mating
profile is established. In cases such as manufacturer's
defect, once a mating profile has been established, wear
lightens or ceases. However, all other misalignments,
if not corrected, continue to wear to gear destruction.

Fatigue Wear. Fatigue wear is gear wear created by

repeated stresses below the tensile strength of the
material. Fatigue may be identified as cracks or frac-
tures, k fatigue crack is a crack in a gear that occurs
due to bending, mechanical stress, thermal stress, or
material flaws. A fatigue fracture is a breaking or

Gear wear and machine downtime is minimized by ensuring the ma- tearing of gear teeth. Fatigue cracks usually culmi-
chine is not overloaded, the proper lubricant is used, and the lubricant nate in a fracture when the fatigue crack grows to a
Is changed at the correct frequency.
point where the remaining tooth section can no longer
support the load. Fatigue wear begins at the first mo-
Rolling and Scuffing. Rolling is the deforming of ment a gear is used. Fatigue wear is repeated minute
metal on the active portion of gear teeth caused by deformations under normal stress (normally unseen
high contact stresses. Rolling is a displacement of and immeasurable) that eventually produce cracks or
surface materials that forms grooves along the pitch See Figure 12-16.
fractures.
line and burrs on the tips of drive gear teeth. Scuffing
is the severe adhesion that causes the transfer of met-
alfrom one tooth surface to another due to welding
and tearing. Scuffing generally occurs in localized
patches due to the surface area of meshed teeth being
mismatched or misaligned. Rolling and scuffing is
created when gear teeth do not mesh properly and
is progressive, meaning that wear continues and
worsens until total damage has occurred. See Figure
12-15.

ROLLING AND SCUFFING

-^SCUFFING
Figure 12-16. Fatigue wear is repeated minute
deformations under normal stress that eventually produce
cracks or fractures.

Sufficient alternating stresses (vibrations) produce

rapid fatigue fracture in industrial gear trains. Other
destructive noises, vibrations, overloading, and grind-
ing of gears and gear surfaces must be identified early
to be effectively corrected. Proper installation pro-
cedures, effective lubrication techniques, and regular
Figure 12-15. Rolling and scuffing
created is when gear
teeth do not mesh properly and continues until total periodic inspections with service can produce a suc-
damage has occurred. cessful, profit-oriented mechanical installation.
 13
Chapter

JVlore than 80% of all rotary equipment failures are

related to vibration. Vibration characteristics include
cycle, displacement, frequency, phase, velocity, and
acceleration. Vibration characteristics are used to de-
termine machine misalignment, unbalance, mechani-
bearing wear, or gear defect.
cal looseness, resonance,
A successful vibration monitoring program compares
initial vibration readings with present vibration read-
ings to see if an increase in readings is developing.

SPM Instrument, Inc.

VffiRATION result of shaft misalignment, 30% to 40% of dam-

aging vibrations are the result of equipment unbal-

Vibration is a continuous periodic change in displace-

ance, and 20% are the result of resonance. Resonance
ment with respect to a fixed reference. All objects
is the magnification of vibration and its noise by 20%

on earth are constantly experiencing vibration. A vi-

or more. Resonance is often coupled with vibration

bration is a force that starts from a neutral position, from other sources. Less common vibration sources

travels a displaced distance to a positive upper limit include bent shafts, loose parts, oil whirl, and defec-
tive bearings.
(peak), reverses its direction to return to neutral, trav-
els a displaced distance to a positive lower limit Industrial motors are rugged and able to handle

(peak), and returns to neutral. See Figure 13-1. heavy or continuous loads. For this reason, motors
are manufactured with larger rotor shafts, which re-
More than 80% of all rotary equipment failures
quire larger bearings even though the rotors remain
are related to vibration. Vibration can break down
lightweight. The combination of lightweight rotors
the resiliency of seals and increase bearing and
and large bearings should lengthen bearing service
equipment temperatures. Vibration in one location
life considerably. In reality, previously allowable
may react with and add to vibration from another
misalignment causes vibration that prematurely
location. This vibration may be magnified, resulting
wears shaft seals, contaminates bearings, and short-
in equipment damage.
ens bearing life to less than ten years.
Vibration also significantly reduces the expected
life of bearing and rotating shaft seals. With recent
motor designs, the effects of vibration become more Vibration limits can be determined by compari-
criticalbecause bearing and bearing fit tolerances son to standards developed by engineering
have decreased, motor speeds have increased, and standards organizations, manufacturer associations,

motor support frames have become lighter. or governmental bodies such as the American Petro-
leum Institute,American Gear Manufacturers Asso-
An estimate of vibration problems shows that 50% ciation, or American National Standards Institute.
to 60% of damaging machinery vibrations are the
272 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

COUPLINGS-' ALIGNED AXES

VIBRATION MOVEMENT ALIGNED
-BUILDING
PUMP SHAFT AXIS -
MOTOR SHAFT AXIS
MOTOR ^
,.- PUMP

MISALIGNED AXES

FOUNDATION MISALIGNED
EARTH
VIBRATION TRAVEL Figure 13-2. Properly aligned rotating shafts reduce
vibration and add many years of service to pump/motor
Figure 13-1. Vibration is a continuous periodic change seals and bearings.
a displacement with respect to a fixed reference.

Many vibrations are unbearable for human com-

Alignment is the location (within tolerance) of one
fort. These include loud noises and the shaking of
axis of a coupled machine shaft relative to another.
buildings or vehicles. The magnitude of vibrations
Misalignment is the condition where the axes of two
felt by humans is extremely small. The most dam-
machine shafts are not aligned within tolerances. aging effect of vibration, especially in the case of
Properly aligned rotating shafts reduce vibration and
machinery, occurs in ranges outside of human per-
add many years of service to pump/motor seals and
ception. These vibrations can produce fatigue failure
bearings. See Figure 13-2.
in machine and structural elements, increase general

wear of parts, and develop vibration through building

Vibration Effects foundations that are great enough to cause destruc-
tion or annoyance in another location.
Understanding vibration effects and establishing a
testing, data collection,and analysis program goes
beyond preventive maintenance and is a major tool Machinery Vibration
in predictive maintenance programs. A complete vi-
bration analysis program is one of the more complex Machines vibrate even when in the best operating
and expensive predictive techniques. The cost of so- condition. This vibration and noise is generally due
phisticated electronic instruments able to collect, to minor defects or matching parts that are out of
analyze, and store data is added to the cost of training tolerance, such as clearances in bearings. Machinery
personnel to interpret the data. However, the invest- vibration is a complex combination of signals created
ment of total company commitment, power, and re- by a variety of internal vibration sources. Monitoring
sources can provide a considerable payback through these signals is only the detection part of a mainte-
reduced equipment costs and less frequent machine nance program. A complete maintenance vibration
downtime. program requires technicians to have a basic knowl-
 Vibration 273

edge of how machines work, their common problems thesame each time a condition-monitoring measure-
and how to repair them, the ability to recognize and ment is taken.
pinpoint mechanical problems early and accurately,
and the ability to understand and use applied tech-
Vibration Cycle
nology diagnostics in determining a specific problem,
its severity, and the machine part being affected.
Vibration, when measured, is referred to by its cycle
The combined vibration and noise from every ma- or amplitude. A vibration cycle is the complete move-
chine is different. The component producing the vi- ment from beginning to end of a vibration. Vibration
bration can be identified when certain vibration amplitude is the extent of vibration movement meas-
signals are separated from the others.The measure- ured from a starting point to an extreme point. Am-
ments are monitored, recorded, and compared to pre- plitude may be measured as peak or peak-to-peak.
vious measurements. The sign of developing Peak is the absolute value from a zero point (neutral)
mechanical problems may be determined when the to the maximum travel on a waveform. Peak-to-peak
vibration or noise readings continue to rise. is the absolute value from the maximum positive
travel to the maximum negative travel on a waveform.
A waveform is a graphic presentation of an amplitude
as a function of time. The waveform shows a spec-
VIBRATION CHARACTERISTICS trum of a vibration. A spectrum is a representative
combination of the amplitude (total movement) and
Characteristics offered in vibration analysis become frequency (time span) of a waveform. Vibration cy-
the clues toward describing and detecting unwanted cles continue as long as the object is disturbed. See
motions in a machine. They are the symptoms used Figure 13-3.
in determining any significant variation and reflect
the true mechanical condition of a machine. Vibration
characteristics such as cycle, displacement, fre-

quency, phase, velocity, and acceleration define the WAVEFORM SPECTRUM

dynamic properties of machine misalignment, unbal-
ance, mechanical looseness, resonance, bearing wear,
or gear defect.

Vibration characteristics become valuable in de-

termining machine condition because an unwanted

vibration is caused by either a change in direction

or amount. The resulting characteristic is determined

by the manner in which its forces are generated, with
each cause of vibration having its own peculiar char-
acteristic. For example, misalignment vibration is

generally characterized by a 2x running speed vibra-

tion frequency with high axial levels. Unbalance is

usually characterized by a sinusoidal frequency of

Ix running speed with an increase in amplitude with
Figure 13-3. A waveform shows the frequency and
an increase in speed. Gear or bearing problems may amplitude of a vibration.
be characterized as having a vibration frequency
equal to the number of teeth on a gear or balls in a
bearing multiplied by their rotational frequency.
Displacement
Most vibration characteristics do not stand alone.
When there is a change in one, there is generally a Displacement is the measurement of the distance
corresponding change in Changing the rota-
another. (amplitude) an object is vibrating. Peak-to-peak dis-
tional frequency of a machine also changes the dis- placement is the distance from the upper limit to the
placement, phase, and velocity characteristics of the lower limit of a vibration. Peak-to-peak displacement
machine. For this reason, all running parameters such is measured to determine the severity of a vibration.
as load, pressure, speed, etc. must be, within reason. Peak-to-peak displacement is expressed in mils.
274 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

where mil equals one-thousandth of an inch (.001").

1

See Figure 13-4. Displacement damage is similar to

bending or flexing a twig. Increasing the amount of

flex (displacement) increases its likeliness to snap.

DISPLACEMENT
 Vibration IIS

Phase readings are most commonly used

MACHINE GEAR VIBRATION in deter-
mining rotor unbalance where a rotor may be out of
te.ooocPM balance in one direction at shaft end and out of bal-
,,.— ANALYZER ance in the other direction at the opposite shaft end.
TRANSDUCER
^15 TOOTH GEAR Unbalance vibration has an order of Ix speed and
(GEAR 1) may be equal rotor unbalance, opposing forces rotor
unbalance, or coupling unbalance.
28 TOOTH GEAR
(GEAR 4)

Equal rotor unbalance is the unbalance of

weighted force across one side of a rotor or armature.
Equal rotor unbalance produces a measurable vibra-
tion in only one direction. Opposing forces rotor un-
balance is the unbalance of weighted forces on
opposing ends and sides of a rotor or armature. Op-
40 TOOTH GEAR posing forces rotor unbalance produces a measurable
(GEAR 3)
vibration in two directions.

Coupling unbalance is an unequal radial weight

Figure 13-5. Vibration due to gear problems generally distribution where the mass and coupling geometric
occurs at a frequency equal to the meshing of gear teeth.
lines do not coincide. Coupling unbalance is an un-
balance that occurs in different radial planes at op-
Phase
posite ends of a machine, similar to opposing forces

Phase is the position of a vibrating part at a given rotor unbalance. See Figure 13-7. The problem is nor-
moment with reference to another vibrating part at mally due to unbalance when the frequency of vi-

a fixed reference point. Phase readings are expressed bration is equal to the rotation of a shaft or an order

in degrees from 0° to 360°, with one complete vi- of Ix speed. Unbalance always gives a radial reading
of Ix speed.
bration cycle equaling 360°. Phase readings are a
convenient method of comparing one vibration to an-
other on a machine. Note: The end opposite the shaft I Use permanently-installed transducers and
is the front of the motor. When viewed from the front, /whichmote measuring terminals for applications
'

forward rotation is clockwise and reverse rotation

counterclockwise. See Figure 13-6.
is the bearings cannot be reached directly.

J
READING AT POINT A
(12:00 POSITION)

BENT MOTOR SHAFT

AXIS OF ROTATION
(CLOCKWISE)

Figure 13-6. Phase readings between two signals of identical frequencies are helpful in determining unbalance or bent
motor shafts.
276 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

velocity does not rely on the machine speed be-

UNBALANCED VIBRATIONS is

cause it is proportional to the energy content of the

vibration. Velocity damage occurs from the repeated
forceful cycles of flexing or fatigue.

Vibration Acceleration
COUPLING
SUPPORT Vibration acceleration is the increasing of vibration
ROTOR -'
movement speed. It is the time rate of change of

EQUAL ROTOR UNBALANCE velocity. See Figure 13-8. The rate of acceleration
reaches its maximum value as an object goes beyond

its maximum limits of displacement. The peak value

of acceleration is measured in units of g peak, where

1 g is equal to 386 inches per second squared (1 g

= 386 One g is also the international standard
ips-).

of acceleration produced by the force of gravity at

the earth's surface and is used to indicate the force
an object is subjected to when accelerated. Accelera-
ROTOR
tion parameters are useful, especially with high fre-
EXTRA WEIGHT
quencies, because accelerated forces at high
frequency are extreme forces that ultimately cause a
OPPOSING FORCES ROTOR UNBALANCE
bearing to fail or lubricants to break down.

VIBRATION ACCELERATION

PEAK ACCELERATION

ROTOR -

COUPLING UNBALANCE

Figure 13-7. Unbalance forces have an order of 1 x speed

and vary according to phase.

Figure 13-8. Vibration acceleration is the increasing of

movement speed.
vibration
Vibration Velocity

Vibration velocity is the rate of change of displace-

ment of a vibrating object. The amplitude of a vi- Oil Whirl
bration is measured as the maximum value of its

distance moved in relation to the time of movement. Oil whirl is the buildup and resistance of a lubricant
Vibration velocity is measured in inches per second in a rolling-contact bearing that is rotating at exces-
peak The value recorded is its maximum
(in. /sec). sive speeds. Oil whirl has a frequency of less than
value (peak velocity) when traveling through the neu- one-half the speed (rpm). Oil whirl occurs when a
tral position. shaft is turning so fast that it attempts to roll over
the lubricant rather than squeeze it out of the way.
Velocity is an excellent indicator of damage be- Oil whirl vibration may have a frequency rate of less
cause it is proportional to the extent of component than 4500 cpm while the shaft is rotating at 8600
damage and not the speed of the machine. The reason rpm. See Figure 13-9.
 al of most industrial facility equipment. Accelera-
lon parameters are useful in the higher frequency
SHAFT anges between 18,000 cpm and 600,000 cpm.
ROLLING-
CONTACT
BEARING— ^^

VIBRATING
FORCES VIBRATION MKASUREMENT METHODS
/
BEARING
HOUSING The internal mechanical coniiilion of a machine is
determined by the vibration measurement method.
Vibration measurement methods are developed by
choosing the vibration transducer (pickup), the

Figure 13-9. A shaft vibrates at less than 1x speed when proper placement of the transducer for the measure-
itis turning so fast that it tries to roll over its lubricant. ment to be taken, and analysis of the measurement

\ ihratioii Sc\irit>

Displacement, velocity, and acceleration are all direct

measures of the severity of machine vibration. In

most cases, taking only one of the three measure-

ments is required to sufficiently describe inachine vi-
bration condition. Although displacement, velocity,
and acceleration are directly related, the measure-
ment taken is generally detennined by the frequency
(cpm) of the vibration. See Figure 13-10.

AREA OF AREA OF
GREATEST HIGHEST
DISPLACEMENT ACCELERATION

The hand-held instruments manufactured by SPM Instrument. Inc. are

used for comprehensive machine condition monitoring.

DISPLACEMENT
WAVEFORM Vibration Transducers
VELOCITY
ACCELERATION Vibration measurement takes the variety of internal
vibrations and their complex signals and converts
them into readings through the use of a vibration
Figure 13-10. The phases of displacement, velocity, and
acceleration are always 90 apart from each other.
transducer and an analyzer. A transducer is a device
that converts a physical quantity into another quan-
tity, such as an electrical signal or a graphic display.
Displacement is difficult to determine at high fre- A vibration analyzer is a meter that pinpoints a spe-
quencies, but is a good choice am-
for determining cific machine problem by identifying its unique vi-

plitudes of low-speed equipment. Displacement is bration or noise characteristics. Various analyzers are
best suited for frequencies between cpm and 60,000 I available for gathering the required data. Each can
cpm. Velocity amplitudes are mostly used because transform complex signals into an understandable
the velocity range of 600 cpm to 60,000 cpm is typi- display useful for diagnosis. Analyzers can range
278 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

from simple walk-around vibration meters to the out or change over a period of time. Velocity
more sophisticated tracking analyzers having a per- transducers give reliable results in a hand-held device
manent link between transducer and analyzer which at frequency rates of 600 cpm to 60,000 cpm (10 Hz
provides 24 hr inspection, detection, and protection. to 1000 Hz).

Transducers are similar to a microphone in that a

physical movement, such as sound, is converted into Accelerometer Transducers. An accelerometer

an electrical signal. The choice of transducer is gen- transducer is a device constructed of quartz crystal
erally determined by the frequency of the vibration. material that produces electric current when com-
The correct transducer must be selected to obtain a pressed. Quartz crystals are strongly piezoelectric,
signal that represents a vibration accurately. Vibra- becoming polarized with a negative charge on one
tion transducers include velocity, accelerometer, and end and a positive charge on the other when subjected
displacement transducers. See Figure 13-11. Vibra- to pressure. Piezoelectric is the production of elec-
tion severity charts are used to determine if the read- tricity by applying pressure to a crystal. Forces on
ings refer to a smooth or rough condition. See piezoelectric crystals produce a voltage output pro-
Appendix. portional to vibration accelerations producing a dis-
play in gravitational (g) forces. See Figure 13-13.
Velocity Transducers. A velocity transducer is an
electromechanical device that is constructed of a coil
Accelerometer transducers are becoming more
of wire supported by light springs. Velocity
popular than velocity transducers because they can
transducers are the most common transducer used be-
operate at frequencies between 120 cpm and 600,000
cause they operate in the frequency range of most
cpm (2 Hz to 10.000 Hz), have no moving parts, and
industrial applications. The coil surrounds a perma- are more rugged than velocity transducers. They are
nent magnet that moves following the motion of vi- not greatly affected by stray magnetic fields, which
bration. The cut of magnetic tlux between the coil makes them useful around AC motors.
and the magnet creates a voltage in the coil. This
voltage, expressed in millivolts per inch per second,
is the output to the analyzer. See Figure 13-12. Volt-
(j Modern electronic accelerometer transducers
age output is movement (vi-
proportional to relative s include protection circuits which prevent elec-
bration). The movement, the higher the
faster the tronic damage due to use beyond specified range or
voltage output. Internal moving parts of a velocity accidental dropping.
transducer require recalibration because they wear

VIBRATION TRANSDUCERS

TRANSDUCER
(PROBE)

LOCK NUT
MACHINE BODY ^

SHAFT-

HEX NUT
CONNECTOR

VELOCITY ACCELEROMETER DISPLACEMENT

Figure 13-11. Transducers are similar to a microphone in that a physical movement, such as sound, is converted into an
electrical signal.
 -HIGH AMPLITUDE READING
AT A FREQUENCY OF
APPROXIMATELY 1560 RPM
(26 Hz X 60 = 1560 RPM)

1
280 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Figure 13-14. Displacement transducers are sent an electrical current to set up eddy currents the probe tip. Eddy
current voltages sent back to the meter as an output voltage vary according to the gap distance.

An oscillator is a device that generates a radio

frequency (RF) field that, when sent to the transducer
tip, creates eddy currents. An eddy current is an elec-
tric current that is generated and dissipated in a con-
ductive material in the presence of an electromagnetic
field. As the shaft vibrates relative to the transducer,
energy changes modulate the oscillator voltage. An
amplifier receives the feedback signal and amplifies
the output signal to a meter, analyzer, or monitor.
See Figure 13-15.

Transducer Selection

Selecting the proper transducer (velocity, accelerome-

ter, or displacement) is determined by the design of
the machine being monitored and the severity of the FREQUENCY (Hz)
vibration. Velocity transducers detect vibration from de-
fective components, loose parts, and rolling-contact Figure 13-15. Displacement transducers produce an
bearings in the low-frequency range. Accelerometer amplitude that represents the total peak-to-peak
displacement of a vibrating shaft.
transducers are helpful in detecting high-frequency de-
fects in bearings, gears, or fan or turbine blades. These
measurements are also helpful in detecting structural
movements. Displacement transducers are used where i) When mounting transducers with cables, se-
dynamic stresses are found or where clearance within
f cure the cables to the vibrating structure to
motors, gear boxes, or any mechanism using fluid film minimize cable or connector fatigue failures and loss
bearings can be measured. Displacement transducers of data.
may also be used to measure machine unbalance.
Transducer Placement

Vibration may occur in any direction. Transducers

must be placed in a position to directly receive a
vibration. Transducers must also be placed at the ex-
act same location on a machine to ensure accurate
readings. The three major directions vibration travels
within a machine are horizontally (radial), vertically
(radial), or axially.
Horizontal measurements are taken with
transducers placed in the horizontal plane (X axis)
with the axis of rotation. Vertical measurements are SPM Instrument, Inc.

taken with transducers placed in the vertical plane (Y

The early detection of bearing damage reduces the risk of breal<downs
axis) with the axis of rotation. Axial measurements are
and enables maintenance personnel to plan the replacement and re-
taken with transducers placed at the centerline (A axis)
duce the required downtime.
with the axis of rotation. See Figure 13-16.
Transducer placement depends on the direction of
the vibration to be detected. Radial in the vertical
plane (Y axis) is generally chosen over radial in the BASIC VIBRATION ANALYSIS
horizontal plane (X axis) or axial if only one meas-
urement is chosen. This is because most vibration is To analyze individual component condition, a vibra-
heightened by gravitational pull and also because it tion signature is read from an analyzer. A vibration
is normally easier to probe from the top. A complete signature is a set of vibration readings resulting from
measurement uses all three positions. Transducers tolerances and movement within a new machine. Ma-
used to measure radial vibration must be attached chine wear may then be plotted through the use of
within 3" of the bearing. its vibration signature. Periodic analysis begins after
a signature is established. The vibration signature of
a machine in good operating condition provides a

^(j Transducers should be placed on or as near

as possible to bearings because vibration forces
are transmitted through the bearings.
baseline measurement against which future measure-
ments may be compared. A change in the vibration

signature of a machine indicates the beginning of a

defect.

Figure 13-16. Transducers used to measure radial vibration must be placed within 3" of bearings for transducer
measurements and analyzer displays
to be representative of machine condition.
 282 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Analysis of vibration signals allows the specific available consisting of a programmable data collector
nature of problems to be found and an assessment and its analysis software. Any analysis system re-
for repair to be made while the machine is operating. quires the use of a computer.
A steady, continuous vibration signature change en-
Analyzers include Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
ables a technician to project machine condition and
or dynamic signal analyzers (DSAs). A Fast Fourier
allow scheduled machine repairs in advance of ma-
Transform analyzer is a microprocessor capable of
chine failure.
displaying the FFT of an input signal. An FFT is a
Limits must be set to provide a basis for deter-
calculation method for converting a time waveform
mining the condition of a machine. These limits must
into a series of frequency vs. amplitude components.
be close enough to normal values to allow corrective
A dynamic signal analyzer is an analyzer that uses
action before operating conditions begin to cause
digital signal processing and the FFT to display a
damage. Original limits are normally recommended dynamic vibration signal as a series of frequency
limits supplied by charts or the equipment manufac-
components. The DSA is an analyzer that uses both
turer. As data is developed or when necessary limits
amplitude and frequency for display and has the ca-
have been reached often, the limits should be ad-
pability to display both low frequencies and high fre-
justed and refined to more realistic values.
quencies on the same screen using a logarithmic
Limits must also be set according to the load. Ra- scale. A logarithmic scale is an amplitude or fre-
dial loads wear gradually and continually until fail- quency displayed in powers of ten.
ure. This gradual wear is detected as a displacement
change. Early corrective action is possible even
though a radial position change due to bearing wear
Reading Amplitudes
may not produce an increase in vibration amplitudes.
Thrust loads generally fail without much notice,
A three-step vibration detection and analysis process
where the only detectable movement prior to total is required before the characteristics presented by an
failure is in the loss of lubrication space and some analyzer showing unbalance, defective bearings or
metal compression (about 2 mils). For this reason, gears, etc. are placed into a maintenance record. See
limits must be set closer to the original limits for Figure 13-17. The three steps are: conversion of vi-
axial forces than for radial forces. brations to electrical signals, reduction of electrical
signals into component form, and identification of in-
dividual defect frequencies from component signals.

Converting vibration into an electrical signal is

performed by the transducer. However, to achieve an

accurate account of vibration condition, the correct

transducer must be selected, located, and installed.
An important consideration for transducer selection
is the amplitude of the vibration parameters and the
machine speed. Transducer selection is made regard-
ing displacement, velocity, or acceleration.

Reducing the electrical signals into component

form is best accomplished with a display using a con-
version between the linear amplitude spectra and the
logarithmic amplitude spectra. Linear amplitude
The Vibrameter VIB-10 from SPM Instrument. Inc. is a liand-hetd in- spectra are amplitude signals displayed in equal in-
strument used for periodic measurements to detect unbalance, mis- crements. Logarithmic amplitude spectra are ampli-
alignment, and otfier mechanical faults in rotating machines.
tude signals displayed in powers of 10. Signals
viewed in linear spectra are summed together, making
A basic vibration analysis system consists of a a waveform next to impossible to read. Reducing the
signal pickup (transducer), signal recording device, many electrical signals into component form is ac-
signal analyzer, analysis software, and a computer complished by switching the linear spectra to the

for data storage. Relatively inexpensive units are logarithmic spectra. See Figure 13-18.
 TRANSDUCER

3) IDENTIFICATION OF
'
INDIVIDUAL DEFECT FREOUENCIES

Figure 13-17. A three-step vibration detection and analysis process is required before tlie characteristics presented by an
analyzer are placed into a maintenance record.

Linear spectra, although easier to read, may not machine offers a unique set of component signals
show the value of a high scale and give an indication because the vibration measured is a response to a

to the value of small signals. Logarithmic spectra defect force, not the force itself. Amplitudes may be
allow all frequencies to be visible by compressing read as peak-to-peak, zero-to-peak, or root mean
the large signal amplitudes and expanding the small square (rms). See Figure 13-19.
ones. Most analyzers have the ability to shift between
Root mean square (rms) is the square root of the
the linear and logarithmic amplitude scales. This
sum of a set of squared instantaneous values. Rms
offers the choice of viewing the amplitude of a
averages and smooths a signal containing high peaks,
single component on linear spectra or viewing
making the output more representative of unbal-
logarithmic spectra for a full range of vibration
ance or misalignment problems. An rms vibration
data.
signal produces a time-averaged amplitude propor-
Identifying individual defect frequencies from domain waveform.
tional to the area within a time
component signals is the key to a good analysis. Each The extent of vibration mav be read in either the
284 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

time domain or the frequency domain. Rms amplitude greatest sensitivity required for defect detection of
of a true peak value may be determined by mul- bearings or gears. Rms velocity characteristics are
tiplying .707 by the peak value. For example, the used when component levels vary significantly, such
rms value of a true peak of 3 is equal to 2.121 as with unbalance or misalignment. Vibration (noise)

(3 X .707 = 2.121). When a true peak value is re- levels that vary greatly, such as in misalignment, are

quired, as in the case of measuring shaft vibration, not statistically accurate with one measurement.
a total rms peak-to-peak sine wave is multiplied by More than one measurement is required to obtain ac-
1.414. For example, when a shaft vibration using curate results.
an rms peak-to-peak signal shows a 4 mil waveform,
the true peak-to-peak shaft displacement is equal to
5.656 mil (4 mil x 1.414 = 5.656 mil). The true
AMPLITUDES
peak value is one half of 5.656 mil or 2.828 mil
(5.656 mil ^ 2 = 2.828 mil). Dynamic signal ana-
lyzers perform rms averaging digitally on succes-
sive vibration spectra.

RMS = .707 X TRUE PEAK

- INDIVIDUAL COMPONENT MEASUREMENT

Figure 13-19. Smoothing a mix of many amplitudes and

frequencies is accomplished by rms averaging.

Time Domain. Tinw domain is the amplitude as a

function of time. Time domain signals are signals
LINEAR AMPLITUDE SPECTRA that appear as cycles where each cycle or wave occurs
in a certain time period (generally in milliseconds).
Time domain is displayed as amplitude versus time,
with amplitude on the vertical axis and time on the
horizontal axis.

The time domain is useful when a single source

vibration, such as rotor unbalance or component
looseness, displayed. Although the time domain
'^r**^BS is is

used when a single vibration source is suspected,

most machine vibration is a complex mix of many

vibration frequencies, where each vibration re-

quires an individual The overall
identification.
LOGARITHMIC AMPLITUDE SPECTRA peak-to-peak vibration (displacement) of a machine
is the sum (total) of the various individual vibrations
Figure 13-18. Logarithmic spectra allow the viewing of
of the machine.
large and small signal amplitudes that are not normally
visible on the same display.

For example, a gear transmission may have 2 mils

Each amplitude value is used in a comprehensive of vibration occurring at 2x speed because of loose-
vibration analysis and monitoring program because ness, 2 mils of vibration occurring at Ix speed be-
assessment of vibration severity is based on frequen- cause of unbalance, and 1 mil of vibration at a high
cies. Peak-to-peak is used as a shaft vibration analy- frequency due to bearing displacement. The total vi-

sis based on displacement characteristics. Peak is brating energy amplitude is approximately 5 mils
used with acceleration characteristics offering the peak-to-peak. See Figure 13-20.
m^.mi^il^^y:^-.
TIME DOMAIN

1x SPEED

[^
286 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

FREQUENCY DOMAIN

^^^
 Vilmilion 287

VIBRATION MONITORING PROGRAMS vibration ciiecks and recording machinery mainte-

nance history and vibration checks.

The key to establishing a successful vibration moni-

toring program is to understand that the only objec-
tive for taking and recording readings is to compare
previous readings with present readings and to sec
if an increase in readings is developing. Mechanical
trouble is generally the reason why machine vibration
increases.

To maintain consistency, every effort should be

made to take readings under the same conditions.
For example, consecutive readings should be taken
as a machine is under a load if the first readings
were taken while the machine was under a load (dur-
ing production).

Vibration monitoring programs may be short-term

or long-term. A short-term program includes perma-
nently installing sensors on critical equipment such
as turbines or high-speed rollers to give an alarm at
the first sign of trouble. A long-term monitoring pro-
gram includes manually monitoring critical areas of
plant equipment to provide information on gradual
or impending problems. Regardless of the program
used, there must be recognized trends and alarms to
issue appropriate warnings.

Technicians should be able to accurately identify

specific gears within a failing gearbox, interpret
resonance problems creating damage to bearings,
shafts,and couplings, and identify improper bear-
ing installation and shaft alignment. Skilled per-
sonnel are able to diagnose unbalance, angular
misalignment, eccentric gears, or defects to inner
or outer bearing races. Vibration characteristics
charts are beneficial towards pinpointing a specific
component defect. See Appendix.
Diagnosing machinery problems can be complex,
requiring extensive training and experience. How-
ever, smaller scale programs may be instituted and
should be used only as a progressive development
towards a complete vibration monitoring program.
Developmental stages consist of personnel training,
machinery layout, machinery compo-
facility layout,

nent layout, and establishing files and data retrieval

systems. Forms are also required for generating ma-
chine component specifications such as motor sizes,
types, dimensions, speed, and coupled devices such
as pumps, gearboxes, belt drives, etc. This includes
specifications such as the type of gear, number of
teeth, etc. Other forms include those for scheduling
288 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

LOCATION —-^
EQUIPMENT
TYPE—^___
INDIVIDUAL
MAKING
CHECKS '

CHECK
INTERVAL —
"^___

DATE—

TEST ,

EQUIPMENT /
USED-'

CHECK
MADE--^ ^

CHECK POINT //
(TRANSDUCER --=^-^^
xj^^l^
LOCATION)

PERIODIC
CHECKS-^
X
 W!?i5Hra?9
p
Alignment
Chapter
JVlore than 50% of vibration problems are caused
by misaligned machinery. Vibration from misaligned
shafts has a direct impact on the operating costs of
a facility. Misaligned shafts require more power, cre-
ate premature seal damage, and cause excessive forces
on bearings. This leads to early bearing, seal, or cou-
pling failure. Alignment specifications must be much
more accurate now than in the past because operating
speeds have increased, material weights have been re-
duced, and bearing tolerances have increased. Various
methods, such as dial indicator fixtures and electronic
and laser measuring devices, have been developed to
achieve running condition accuracy.
Ludeca Inc., representative of PRUEFTECHNIK AG.

MISALIGNMENT Poor condition of equipment, such as worn bear-

ings, bent shafts, stripped mounting bolts, bad gear
Alignment is the location (within tolerance) of one teeth, or insufficient foundations or base plates, can
axis of a coupled machine shaft relative to that of create enough vibration to render any alignment ef-

another. Misalignment is the condition where the cen- fort useless. Once vibration starts, rapid wear of other

terlines of two machine shafts are not aligned within components begins.
tolerances. Properly aligned rotating shafts reduce vi- Misalignment exists when two shafts are not
bration and add many years of service to equipment aligned within specific tolerances. Misalignment may
seals and bearings. Misalignment of a coupling by .004" be offset or angular. Offset misalignment is a condi-
can shorten its life by 50%. See Figure 14-1. tion where two shafts are parallel but are not on the
same axis. Angular misalignment is a condition
where one shaft is at an angle to the other shaft.
Shaft misalignment is usually a combination of offset
and angular misalignment. See Figure 14-2.

Offset and angular misalignment may be in the

vertical or horizontal planes or both. Misalignment
may be in the vertical offset, horizontal offset, ver-
tical angularity, or horizontal angularity. Most mis-
alignments are a combination of each. Many offsets
in alignment are caused by improper machine foun-
dations, weak supports, forces received from machine
003 004 005 00( piping, soft foot, or thermal expansion. Soft foot is

a when one or more feet of a

condition that occurs
MISALIGNMENT (in in)
machine do not make complete contact with its base.
Figure 14-1. Misalignment
Thermal expansion is the dimensional change in a
of a coupling by .004" can
shortenits life by 50%. substance due to a change in temperature.
290 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

MISALIGNMENT ALIGNMENT SEQUENCE

/-TWO SHAFTS PARALLEL Vibration is now recognized as detrimental and in-

SHAFT , // BUT NOT ON SAME AXIS dustry is making many moves toward correction. Fun-
CENTERLINE
damental steps to reducing vibration include purchasing
quality equipment, setting up good preventive mainte-
nance procedures, and maintaining proper equipment
-E alignment techniques and tolerances.
izii-
The objective of proper alignment is to perfectly
couple two shafts under operating conditions so all

forces that cause damaging vibration between the two

shafts and their bearings are removed. The objective
is to align the shafts, not the couplings. Aligning the
couplings may result in misaligned shafts with
ONE SHAFT AT aligned but irregularly-shaped couplings.
ANGLE TO
OTHER SHAFT Each component that directly or indirectly affects
the proper alignment ofmachinery must be identified
and considered before actual alignment begins. Con-
siderations for good alignment include:

• Proper preparation of foundations, foundation base

plates, and machinery

• Proper machinery anchoring

• Proper machinery movement during alignment

• Soft foot

• Proper use of alignment methods or procedures

EQUIPMENT PREPARATION

Machinery to be aligned that is connected electrically

must be locked out first. Before working on the
equipment, challenge the electrical functions by test-
ing the start switch. Challenging is the process of
OFFSET AND ANGULAR pressing the start switch of a machine to determine
if the machine starts when it is not supposed to start.

Figure 14-2. Misalignment may be offset or angular, but is On completion of the lockout challenge, place all
generally a combination of the two. switches in OFF position. Also, any product pumps
to be aligned must be blocked out to prevent product
flow in the piping. See Figure 14-3.
Rotating machines are generally connected by
couplings. A coupling is a device that connects the
ends of rotating shafts. A flexible coupling is a cou- Machine Foundation and Base Plates
pling with a resilient center, such as rubber or oil,

that flexes under temporary torque or misalignment Aligning any equipment begins with the foundation
due to thermal expansion. Flexible couplings can al- and base plate to which the equipment is anchored.
low enough vibration to cause excessive wear to seals A foundation is an underlying base or support. A
and bearings. Where flexible couplings are used, base plate is a rigid steel support for firmly coupling
shaft alignment should be as accurate as it would be and aligning two or more rotating devices. Founda-
if solid couplings are used. tions must be level and strong enough to provide sup-
port without movement. Base plates must be rigid
enough to firmly support the equipment without
stress and be securely anchored to the foundation.

FIRM, LEVEL _!
FOUNDATION -

T-

Figure 14-3. Lockout all electrical energy and blockout all

mechanical energy before beginning alignment.

Originally, equipment base plates were made of

thick cast iron that was strong enough to support the
equipment in all operating conditions. The mounting
surfaces were machined level. Currently, many equip-
ment base plates are only sheet metal or plate metal INCORRECT
welded or bolted to angle iron or I-beams. Flexing
base plates must not be used. Good alignment is
Figure 14-4. A clean, firm, and level base plate and
foundation is required for proper alignment to ensure
wasted when a flexing base plate is used. See Figure minimal flexing between machines.
14-4.

The feet on machines such as motors, gearboxes,

pumps, etc.. must be checked for cracks, breaks, rust,
corrosion, or paint. This equipment should be bolted
to a base plate, not anchored to concrete. The con-
tacting surfaces between the motor, pump, gearbox,
etc., and the base plate must be smooth, flat, and
free of paint, rust, or foreign materials. Inspect all
areas for burrs, rust, cracks, breaks, or any other dam-
age. Finally, inspect the couplings, shafts, and bear-
ings for damage, contamination, or inaccurate sizes.

ANCHORING MACHINERY

Each element related to anchoring machinery has a

direct effect on the alignment forces of the equip-
Fluke Corporation
ment. Machine anchoring must consider piping and
plumbing and the condition of anchoring compo- Ensure power to a motor is locked out and flow in piping is blocked
nents such as bolts and washers. out to prevent the devices from rotating during the alignment procedure.
292 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

screws, nuts, etc.). Adverse anchoring includes bolt-

() Flexible plumbing connections are
used on ro- bound machines, bolts or bolt holes not of the proper
^ machine piping to reduce stress caused
fating
size to allow for sufficient movement, and improper
by thermal expansion due to hot fluid processes.
washers that create a dowel effect. Improper use,
^
type, or fit of the anchoring bolts can make alignment
of any machine impossible. See Figure 14-6.
Piping Strain

Pipe and conduit connections, if improperly installed, Bolt Bound. Boll bound is the prevention of the hori-
can produce enough force to affect machine align- zontal movement of a machine due to the contacting
ment. Thermal expansion created by the temperature of the machine anchor bolts to the sides of the ma-
of liquids and reaction forces from piped products chine anchor holes. Bolt bound bolts prevent hori-
can produce enough force to affect machine align- zontal movement of a machine in any needed
ment. To ensure that any transmission of an outside horizontal direction. Work is not wasted or dupli-
force does not affect the proper alignment of ma- cated if this condition is checked before any align-
chines, machines should initially be aligned unat- ment checks begin. many cases, bolt bound
In
tached from any piping if possible. Therefore, all conditions may be checked using a straightedge
plumbing must be properly aligned and have its own placed along the machine shafts to determine if
permanent support even when unattached. In some enough horizontal movement is available for proper
cases, flexible plumbing connections are necessary alignment.
to separate stresses and vibrations between pump/mo-
Loosening all anchoring bolts and shifting both
tor and product lines. See Figure \4-5.
machines to align the base plate mounting holes usu-
ally works if it is detected that sufficient movement
is not available at shimmed. The
the machine to be
anchoring bolts must be turned down or the machine
mounting holes enlarged if repositioning both ma-
chines does not work.

Anchoring bolts may be turned down without de-

creasing the tensile strength as long as the cut does
not go beyond the root diameter (bottom portion) of
the threads. Also, mounting holes may be enlarged,
but this usually leads to the dowel effect. In some
FLEXIBLE cases, a combination of undercutting the bolt and en-
PLUMBING larging the holes may be necessary.
CONNECTIONS

Dowel Effect. Dowel effect is a condition that exists

when the bolt hole of a machine is so large that the
bolt head forces the washer into the hole opening
FOUNDATION on an angle. Angled washers force the bolt to the
center of the hole, making any horizontal movement
impossible. Dowel effect is corrected by using ma-
Figure 14-5. Pump piping must be independently
supported to prevent angular forces from working against chined washers 2 to 3 times thicker than the original
bearing and alignment tolerances. washer. This prevents any deformation of the washer
by bolt forces.

Anchoring
(_J Always use the correct torque on an anchoring
Anchoring is any means of fastening a mechanism
^ bolt to prevent excessive bolt stretch and reduce
securely to a base or foundation. Firm but adjustable the possibility of distorting the base plate or machine
anchoring of mechanisms on a base plate is accom- frame.
plished using the proper mechanical fasteners (bolts.
 Alignment 293

ANCHORING CHARACTERISTICS

BASE PLATES LESS THAN '

TIMES BOLT DIAMETER

MUST BE ANCHORED
USING A LOCK WASHER,
WASHER, AND NUT
PROPER ANCHORING

ANCHOR ANCHOR BOLT

BOLT GAP-.
NO ROOM
TO MOVE WASHER -

EXCESS BOLT BODY

ANCHOR
WEAK SUPPORT bOLT
FORCES WASHER INTO
HOLE DISALLOWING
SIDE MOVEMENT

BASE
PLATE

BOLT BOTTOMS OUT DOWEL EFFECT

Figure 14-6. Improper bolt diameter, excessive bolt body or length, and weak washers can make alignment ot any
machine impossible.

Proper Bolt Installation. A base plate that is drilled times the bolt diameter. Always select anchor bolts

and tapped to anchor a machine must be a minimum that have the correct length of the unthreaded portion

thickness of
of the bolts. The bolt may run out of thread and leave
1 V2 times the root diameter of the an-
an incomplete and loose anchor if the unthreaded por-
choring bolts. The threaded depth must be a minimum
tion is too long. Also, the bolt may bottom out in
of 1 V2 times the root diameter of the bolt when a
the base plate hole leaving a loose anchor if the
base plate is thicker than 1 V2 times the root diameter Always use
threaded portion of the bolt is too long.
of the bolt. Mounting bolts require the use of nuts the correct grade and size anchor bolts to properly
and lock washers if the base plate is less than IV2 secure the machine frame to the base plate.
294 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Controlled Machine Movements

The choice of which machine to move during align-

ment, the proper tools to use to prevent equipment
damage, and the components used for precise move-
ments must be known for an accurate, fast, and dam-
age-free alignment. This knowledge includes the
proper use and installation of jack screws and the
proper use and selection of spacers and shim stock.

Machine Movement Specification. Generally, the

heaviest machine or the machine attached to plumb-
ing is machine and is referred to as the
the anchored
stationarymachine (SM). The motor is generally the
machine moved and is referred to as the machine to
be shimmed (MTBS). Either machine may be the
moved and shimmed machine. Regardless of which
machine is moved, the SM must initially be higher
than the MTBS to allow for proper vertical align-
ment. A good practice is to initially install the SM
using .125" shims under each foot. This practice re-
quires raising the MTBS, but prevents any vertical
movement requirements of the SM. See Figure 14-7.

SM- STATIONARY MACHINE

MTBS- MACHINE TO BE SHIMMED

SM .125" HIGHER
TO START ^MTBS

Figure 14-7. A machine is chosen as the MTBS because

it is easier to move than the other machine, which may be
Figure 14-8. A jack screw is a screw attached to a block
larger or connected to piping.
that is bolted or welded to a machine base plate to allow
for ease in machine movement.

Jacli Screws. A jack .screw is a screw inserted through

a block that is attached to a machine base plate allowing Jack screws are used for machine movement only.
for ease inmachine movement. Jack screws should be To prevent additional forces from being applied, jack
installed on the base plate to easily and accurately screw pressure must be backed off after each tight-
control the horizontal movement of a machine. Typi- ening of the anchor bolts. Jack screws are invaluable
cal jack screw blocks are 1 Vj" x 2 V2" rectangular when a machine is to be moved just a few thou-
sandths of an inch.
blocks made from V2" thick steel (larger or thicker
depending on the size of the machine) and are bolted A screwdriver or crowbar can be used for machine
or welded to the sides of the base plate with the jack movement if it is not possible to install jack screws or
screws directly in-line with each mounting hole. Each if they are not available. An easy, steady prying force
jack screw block is drilled and tapped to allow for is safer and less damaging than a blow from a hammer.
a V2" bolt assembly. See Figure 14-8. Use only a soft-blow hammer if a hammer is necessary.
 Aligimu'iu 295

Checking for Shaft Runout. Runout is a radial vari- bination that uses the least amount of shims or spac-
ation from a true circle. Any shaft that runs eccentric ers when different shim or spacer combinations can
machine by more than .002"
to the true centerline of a be chosen. Any spacer .250" ('/;") and over should
makes achieving tolerance impossible and should be equal 1 piece and may be mild steel or stainless steel.
corrected. Eccentric is out-of-round or that which de- Any spacer .125" ('/s") or under is considered a shim
viates from a circular path. An eccentric shaft pro- and must be stainless steel.
duces high vibrations similar to those caused by a
For example, a spacer and shim combination is
bent shaft. An eccentric shaft may be determined by
required to raise a motor .683". To keep the spacer
the use of a dial indicator. A dial indicator is a device
to 1 piece and the shim stack to 5 or less, the spacer
that measures the deviation from a true circular path.
selected should be Vg" (.625") with the remaining
Correction may be accomplished by changing ma-
chines or by having the shaft recut. See Figure 14-9. .058" taken up by shims. Shim stacks used are some-
times based on the sizes available in a shim pack
set. Variations for the .058" shim stack include one
.050" and two .004" or two .025", one .005", one
.002", and one .001". Extra springis added each time

a shim is added to a stack. The best combination is

the one that uses the fewest shims.

Precut stainless steel shims are recommended for

alignment purposes. Cutting shim stock for use can
create rough edges and burrs, making a successful
alignment improbable. Also, any material other than
stainless steel is smashed under load and vibration
or rusts and corrodes.

Good shim packs are laser cut with each size

printed (not stamped) on the shim. Stack 4 or 5 shims
with the printed size reversed on every other shim when
checking for thickness accuracy. This arrangement,
when checked with a micrometer, produces a true size
and condition of the stack. See Figure 14-10.

'

/j//////)/y/\////^ ////>/ /)/////

Figure 14-9. An eccentric shaft produces high vibrations

caused by a bent shaft. An eccentric shaft
similar to those
may be determined by the use of a dial indicator.

Shim Stock. It is rare for any machine to have total

contact of all of its feet with the base plate and also
be within tolerance. Shims and spacers are used to
adjust the height of a machine. Shim stock is steel
material manufactured in various thicknesses, rang-
ing from .0005" to .125". Shim stock can be pur-
chased as a sheet, roll, or in precut shapes. A spacer
is steel material used for filling spaces V4" or greater.
The feet of a machine must be firmly anchored to
Precision Brand Products, Inc.
the base plate without creating excessive forces or
movements between mating shafts. To prevent stack-
Precision Brand slotted sliim assortment are economical, safe,
l<its
ing inaccuracies, limit the amount of shims or spacers and accurate, and reduce costs by eliminating hand cutting, material
on each foot to five or less. Always choose the com- waste, and shim preparation.
296 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

PRINTED
SIZE (THICKNESS)

MICROMETER

PRINT
ON TOP
SHIM
STACK MACHINE WITH ANGULAR
SOFT FOOT PRIOR TO /

PRINT / TIGHTENING ANCHOR BOLT -^

REVERSED-^
LASER-CUT 1/
SHIM STOCK -^

GOOD QUALITY SHIM STACK

SHIMS MEASUREMENT

-FORCES ON BEARINGS
AND SHAFT AFTER
TIGHTENING SOFT FOOT
ANCHOR BOLT

Figure 14-11. Uncorrected soft foot twists and distorts a

machine enough to cause destructive forces on rotor and
- RAISED OR EMBOSSED shaft bearings.
METAL FROM STAMPING
POOR QUALITY SHIMS An angled or raised foot twists and distorts a ma-
chine frame when anchored. Distorted frames cause
Figure 14-10. Good shim quality ensures a proper and internal misalignment to bearing housings, shaft de-
firmmachine-to-base contact. flection, and distorted bearings, resulting in prema-
ture bearing and coupling failure. This condition also
Soft Foot
creates great difficulty in shaft alignment. Before

Soft foot is a condition that occurs when one or more aligning, any machine that has soft foot must be
machine feet do not malce complete contact with the shimmed for equal and parallel support on all feet.

base plate. Distorted fram.es creating internal misalign-

As a soft foot bolt is tightened, the shaft of the
ment due to soft foot is a major reason for bearing
machine is deflected, which loads the bearings. This
failure. This internal misalignment and distortion loads
deflection can easily cause enough back-and-forth vi-
the bearings and deflects the shaft. See Figure 14-11.
brations and pressures to damage the bearings, seals,
and shaft. A shaft that rotates at 1800 rpm in a ma-
chine with a soft foot condition deflects 30 times
() All four corners of a machine foot should be
each second or 108,000 times per hour. Soft foot
^ checked with feeler gauges when a dial indi-
should be checked on the MTBS and SM because
cator check indicates soft foot. Angular soft foot is
soft foot can occur on any machine. Soft foot toler-
present if the total gap measured for any corner is
different from the other corners. Any angularity ance must be within .002" of shaft movement. Soft
greater than .001 "per inch offoot must be corrected foot may be parallel, angular, springing, or induced.
before alignment is started. Each is independent of the others. All four conditions
may exist on the same machine. See Figure 14-12.
 AUi>imu'nt 297

SOFT FOOT

MOTOR
-MOTOR ^poo^^o^
,' PARALLEL
FOOT PARALLEL TO OTHERS
BUT NOT ON SAME
PLANE AS OTHERS

PARALLEL ANGULAR

-BENT, RUSTY.
BURRED SHIMS OR
PAINT AND DIRT

-FOUNDATION

SPRINGING INDUCED

Figure 14-12. Soft foot may be parallel, angular, springing, or induced.

Parallel. Parallel soft foot is a condition that exists Angular. Angular soft foot is a condition that exists
when one or two machine feet are higher than the when one machine foot is bent and not on the same
others and parallel to the base plate. This condition plane as the other feet. Generally, one corner of the
occurs when a machine leg is short or when spacers angular foot is touching the base plate. Angular soft
of different thicknesses are used. foot is usually the result of the machine being
roughly handled or dropped or having uneven mount-
Correcting parallel soft foot is accomplished by
ing pads due to poor machining or welding.
first rocking the machine from side to side and de-
termining the gap under the high foot using feeler
The machine may be sitting high on one side and
low on the other if all four feet appear to have angular
gauges. A feeler gauge (thickness gauge) is a steel
leaf at a specific thickness. Feeler gauges determine
soft foot in the same direction. Angular soft foot may
the air gap between two solids within thousandths be determined when a .002" feeler gauge can be
of an inch. placed under one side of a foot but not under the
other side of the same foot.

Shim stock equal to the thickness of the soft foot Correction of angular soft foot is accomplished
gap is placed under the high foot and all four machine by machining the foot to be on the same plane as
feet are rechecked. The shims should be moved from the other feet or by step shimming the foot to fill
under the first foot to the other rocking foot if soft the gap. Step shimming begins by determining the
foot is noticed was not shimmed.
under a foot that direction and amount of slope and filling the sloping
Check again for soft foot. The shim stock should be void with a series of steps (usually a maximum of
divided between the feet that were rocking if soft 5 or 6). This done by measuring the largest portion
is

foot is noticed under two opposing feet. Checking of the gap and dividing by 5 or 6, giving the thickness
more than once for proper parallel spacing is done of each step. Finally, place each shim by hand, in
as an attempt to find true, or close to true, parallel steps, to fill the gap without lifting the machine.
spacing without creating angular soft foot. Check shaft movement using a dial indicator while
 298 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

tightening the machine bolts and correct as indicated Measuring Soft Foot
from dial movement.
The two methods of measuring soft foot are the at-
Springing. Sitringing soft foot is a condition that oc-
each-foot method and the shaft deflection method.
curs when a dial indicator at the shaft shows soft
Both methods use a dial indicator with a magnetic
foot, but feeler gauges show no gaps. This condition
base to determine movement. More than one set of
occurs from shims that are burred or bent, corroded
readings must be made, in the same direction of
bases or feet, dirt, grease, or rust between the feet,
movement, to ensure that readings are constant. Two
shims, and base plate, or too many shims. The ma-
identical readings are assumed correct if three sets
chine acts as if it were mounted on springs due to
of readings are taken and one set is different from
each imperfection.
the other two. All other feet must remain securely
Prevention of springing soft foot is accomplished tightened and the coupling uncoupled when checking
by using solid bases that are cleaned to the metal by each foot for soft foot. Check and correct angular
removing all paint, grime, rust, and corrosion. Layers soft foot before either method is used. The shaft de-
of grease can even act as a spring. The top and bottom flection method is easier because the indicator does
of the machine feet must also be free of rust, paint, not interfere with loosening the anchoring bolts. See
and grime. Shims used must be flat, clean, and with- Figure 14-13.
out stamping imperfections. After cleaning, check for
out-of-tolerance movement using a dial indicator at
the shaft as the bolts are tightened. MEASURING SOFT FOOT
Induced. Induced soft foot is soft foot that is created
SHAFT
by external forces such as coupling misalignment, DEFLECTION
piping strain, tight jack screws, or improper structural METHOD
bracing. Coupling forces from vertical or horizontal
misalignment are noticed when couplings are diffi-

cult to bolt up or a spring or snap is noticed as cou-

plings are disconnected.

Any external force in any direction to coupled pipe

flanges on a pump strains the machine. This condition
may be seen when checking for soft foot before, dur-
ing, and after piping connections or when checking
for structural bracinc strain.

'
MACHINE
/
FOOT MAGNETIC ;

"'^^'^
BASE
-AT-EACH-FOOT
METHOD

Figure 14-13. Soft foot may be measured at the shaft or

each foot of a machine.

At-Each-Foot Method. In the at-each-foot method,

soft foot is checked at each foot of the machine. A

dial indicator with a magnetic base is secured to the

base plate at the foot to be tested. The dial indicator
is adjusted so the stem is above and perpendicular
to the top of the foot. Ensure that all four feet are

anchored firmly. With the dial adjusted to zero, watch

the dial movement as the bolt for that foot is slowly
The required shim thickness
but steadily loosened.
can be determined from the indicator movement if
Stiaft couplings allow drive and driven equipment connection and pro-
vide protection against misalignment, vibration, and stiock. the foot rises and the dial moves more than .002".
 Alignii

Place shims beneath the foot equal to the amount of

the indicator movement and re-tighten the bolt. Re-
-INTENTIONAL
peat this process until the movement is less than MISALIGNMENT
OF COLD MACHINE
.002". Relocate the dial indicator to another foot and
repeat the above procedure until all four feet have
been checked and corrected.

Shaft Deflection Method. In the shaft deflection

method, the shaft is checked for deflection when an-
choring bolts are tightened or loosened. Critical dis-
tortion has not occurred if there is no measured

deflection even though a foot has movement. Cor-

rection is necessary if there is movement. This
method is quicker and more accurate than the at-

each-foot method.

A magnetic base dial indicator is secured to the

base plate and adjusted so the stem is above and
perpendicular to the top of the shaft or coupling,
whichever is the farthest from the MTBS. The farther
the dial indicator from the first set of feet, the
is

greater the dial movement, which increases accuracy.

Ensure that all four feet are anchored firmly. Zero
the dial on the indicator and slowly loosen the bolt
on the first foot. A dial that indicates .003" rise
WORKING
requires the placement of shim stock beneath that TEMPERATURE /
-'
CORRECTION
foot totaling .003". Tighten the bolt and check the
foot again. Continue checking and shimming each
foot individually until shaft movement is within
Figure 14-14. Temperature differences from cold startup
the .002" tolerance. to working temperature influence the position of one
machine relative to another.
Check all feet for hidden angular soft foot when
been corrected and one
the fourth or final foot has
foot rises when double-checking. Once soft foot Temperature conditions that can change enough
conditions have been corrected, shaft alignment to affect critical alignment measurements may be
may begin. Shaft alignment is difficult or impos- caused by the temperature of product being pumped,
sible if soft foot conditions have not been corrected excessive room or ambient temperature, or loaded
to within tolerance. motor temperatures. Most materials expand when
heated and contract when chilled. For example, a
piece of steel exactly 12" long and 2" in diameter
Thermal Expansion in a room temperature of 72°F grows to 12.008" long
and 2.001" in diameter when heated to 172°F. This
For proper alignment, two coupled shafts must be
change is affected by the material and how much the
on the same horizontal and vertical plane under op-
temperature has changed.
erating conditions. However, there could be a sig-
nificant change in physical dimensions when there Change in material length is calculated to deter-
is a change in operating condition temperature and mine specific tolerances to absorb thermal expan-
thermal expansion results. Thermal expansion is the sion and accommodate different materials. A
growing or shrinking of metal molecules under hot thermal expansion constant is given based on the
or cold conditions. A temperature change between material used. Constants include .0000063 for cast
startup and running conditions can influence machine iron. .000009 for stainless steel, and .0001 for plas-
alignment because metal expands when heated and tic. Thermal expansion is found by applying the
contracts when chilled. See Figure 14-14. formula:
 300 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

AL = L X Ar X C perpendicular results in an immediate error of 2%.

where Blows from mallets or hammers on a machine into

an indicator damage the indicator or throw off read-
AL = change in length (in in.)
ings because indicators have jeweled movements. Al-
L - original length (in in.)
ways use slow, forceful movements when adjusting
AT" = change in temperature (in °F) into an indicator.

C = material constant
For example, what is the change in length of a prevent incorrect readings, position a dial
.0^To '

pump and cast iron frame motor combination when indicator on the circumference of a shaft so
the operating temperature of the motor increases from that the centerline of the indicator probe runs

75°F to 140°F and the motor measures 15" from its

through the centerline of the shaft.

base to the shaft center? Note: The temperature

change equals 65°F (140°F - 75°F = 65°F).
Dial Indicator Use
AL = L X Ar X C
Dial indicators are read using the total movement of
AL = 15 X 65 X .0000063
the dial needle. Readings do not have to begin at
AL = .006"
zero to determine total movement. Total indicator
The vertical plane of the motor should be reduced readings (TIR) are used as indicator readings regard-
by .006" because the motor shaft rises as it gets less of whether the needle begins before, at, or after
warmer (operating temperature). At times, the SM, zero. Total dial indicator readings are determined
which may be a pump that pumps hot liquid, is the from readings above (positive) or below (negative)
machine that rises. Compensating shims may be zero, or a combination of both.
added under the MTBS when this is the case.
Total indicator readings are found by subtracting
the low reading from the high reading when all in-

dicator readings are positive. For example, total in-

dicator readings on an indicator that has a high
reading of +.022" and a low reading of +.006" is

.016" (.022" - .006" = .016"). The same subtraction

rule holds true for dial readings that are negative.

An indicator reading of -.006" is subtracted from a

greater reading of -.022" to give a TIR of .016". The
exception to this rule is when a high reading is posi-
tive and the low reading is negative. In this case, the
TIR is the sum of the two values. For example, an
indicator reading of +.022" and -.006" gives a TIR of
.028" [.022" + (-.006") = .028"]. See Figure 14-15.

Verifying Dial Readings. Indicators must be run

through their movement as many as three times to
Maniifatliiniig A Muiiileiiuiue Systems, Inc.
ensure a proper reading. Dial movement must be in

must be mounted perpendicular

Dial indicator probes
the same direction. False readings are given if shaft
to the contact
surface when used for machine alignment. rotation is reversed. This is due to the play or toler-

ances of indicator moving parts.

Aligning shafts that rotate must be accomplished

DIAL INDICATORS AND ALIGNMENT using an indicator to check both vertical (up and
down) and horizontal (back and forth) positioning.
A dial indicator is a precise, jeweled movement in- Straight movements (not angular) are known as offset
strument similar to a watch and must be treated as movements. Dial indicator offset measurements are
such if it is to be an accurate, useful tool. Dial in- twice their actual offset. For example, a total indi-
dicators are required to be mounted perpendicular to cator reading of -.020" is indicating a shaft centerline
their contacted surface. A dial indicator 10° out of offset of -.010".
 Alii^iiiiii'iil 301

Both coupling halves must be unattached from

DIAL INDICATOR READINGS
each other and must be turned together. Turning the
shafts together gives a true condition of the shaft
centerlines and is not affected by coupling faces that
may not be square with the plane of the shaft or
coupling rims that may not be machined round or
concentric with their inside dimension. Any align-
ment using improper methods results in having good
readings on poorly aligned machinery.

An easy way to verify whether 12:00, 3:00, 6:00,

and 9:00 readings are correct is to add the 3:00 and
9:00 readings and compare the sum to the 6:00 and
12:00 readings. The sum of 3:00 and 9:00 readings
should equal the 6:00 reading if the 12:00 reading
started at zero. Readings may be taken at only three
positions when complete rotation is not possible. See
Figure 14-16.

The shaft being checked is above the centerline

of the shaft on which the indicator mounted if the
is

indicator reading at 6:00 is negative. The shaft being

checked is below the centerline of the shaft on which
the indicator is mounted if the indicator reading at
6:00 is positive. The shaft being checked is below
the centerline of the shaft on which the indicator is
mounted if the angular reading at 6:00 is negative.
The shaft being checked is above the centerline of
the shaft on which the indicator is mounted if the
angulai reading at 6 00 is positive.

Figure 14-15. Dial indicators are read using the total

movement of the dial needle and do not have to begin at
zero.

An offset is checked by placing the indicator tip

at the top of the shaft or coupling and zeroing the

indicator. The top position is known as the 12:00
position. The indicator and shaft that it is attached
Manufacturing & Maintenance Systems, Inc.
to are rotated to the farthest position, known as the
3:00 position. Both shafts must be rotated with the Dial indicators are used during machine alignment procedures to in-
coupling unencumbered. dicate tlie amount ot misalignmentbetween two machine shafts.
302 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

VERIFYING DIAL INDICATOR READINGS

3:00 AND 9:00 3:00 AND 9:00

READINGS EQUAL READINGS EQUAL
READING
6:00 READING
6:00

GOOD READING GOOD READING

3:00 AND 9:00

DIAL INDICATOR READINGS DO NOT
MEASUREMENTS EQUAL 6:00 READING
ARE TWICE
ACTUAL OFFSET

BAD READING
Figure 14-16. Good indicator readings are those where the sum of the 3:00 and 9:00 readings equals the 6:00 reading.

Indicator Rod Sag the distance between rod couplings during the align-
ment measurement. All parts (rods, couplings, indi-
To indicate the alignment of one shaft to another, cator) are assembled on a solid shaft or pipe using
the indicating device that indicates the alignment of the established coupling distance. A solid shaft is

one shaft must be clamped or strapped to the oppos- helpful in determining rod sag because it is not mis-
ing shaft. The entire assembly generally consists of aligned. The dial indicator is adjusted to get a reading

the clamp or strap, a riser rod, two 90° rod couplings, off the bar and then zeroed at the 12:00 position.
a spanning rod, and an indicating device. The indi- The dial shows a negative reading at the 6:00 position

cating device may be a dial indicator or an electronic equal to twice the actual amount of rod sag when
indicator. The greater the distance between the rod the bar is rotated 180°. Record half of the total read-
couplings, the more the weight of the indicating de- ing so it may be subtracted from the actual alignment
vice creates a sag in the spanning rod. See Figure readings. The actual sag is -.005" if the readings on
14-17. This sag, if not accounted for, can throw read- the bar indicated a total sag of .010".
ings off. A \" diameter spanning rod at a distance of
8" between couplings can throw readings off by .010". For example, an actual alignment reading indicates
a rotational misalignment of .024". This is divided

Electronic indicators calculate rod sag when meas- by two, giving a vertical reading of .012". The indi-
urements are keyed in. Rod sag from a dial indicator cator rod sag of .005" is then subtracted from the
must be determined by the technician. Accurate in- vertical reading, giving an actual vertical offset read-

dicator rod sag is determined by first establishing ing of .007" (.012" - .005" = .007").
 Alignment 303

All alignment techniques require that a specific

order of adjustment be made. Any attempt to align
a machine outside of the specific order is considered
trial and error adjustment, which can only lead to

frustration. The specific order of shaft alignment

is: angular in the vertical plane (up and down an-

gle), parallel in the vertical plane (up and down

offset), angular in the horizontal plane (side to side
angle), and parallel in the horizontal plane (side
to side offset).

Once angular in the vertical plane and parallel in

the vertical plane have been corrected, they generally
are not lost when angular in the horizontal plane and
parallel in the horizontal plane are in the process of
ROD LENGTH USED FOR
ALIGNMENT SETUP being corrected. This step-by-step process is used re-

f gardless of the alignment method. Always double

check each corrective move.

Icom Accuracy Expectations

DIAL
INDICATOR
i The choice of alignment method

is skill level
is

accuracy required, ease of use, and time required to

perform the alignment. The accuracy of any align-
ment based on the
based on cost,

of the individual do-

ing the alignment and the alignment method used.
For example, straight-edge measurements are usually
made without the knowledge of coupling irregulari-
ASSEMBLY
--INSTALLED ON and require the
SOLID SHAFT
ties feel of thickness gauge measure-
TO DETERMINE ments. Therefore, the accuracy of straight-edge
ROD SAG (Rs)
alignment generally is no better than Vm".

Dial indicators and electronic measuring devices

(except laser) measure in the thousandths of an inch,
^^TSr^ which allows for an accuracy of alignment within

ACTUAL SAG .001". Laser alignment methods are generally exact

= -.005 "
and quick with a possible accuracy of .0002".

Alignment Tolerance. Alignment tolerance require-

Figure 14-17. Gravity and the weight of the dial indicator ments of two or more shafts are based on the speed
produce a change in indicator readings from rod sag
(rpm) of the motor or drive unit. At times, a manu-
toward and away from the point of reading.
facturer may indicate the alignment tolerance for its

machine. A shaft alignment tolerances chart may be

used if manufacturer tolerances are not available. See
Figure 14-19. A shaft alignment tolerances chart in-
ALIGNMENT METHODS dicates suggested tolerances by speed in thousandths
per inch. Some shaft alignment tolerances charts
Five methods are available to align machinery, each show the tolerance for angularity in degrees, minutes,
having its own degree of accuracy. The five methods and seconds rather than mils or inches. This means
include straightedge, rim-and-face, reverse dial, elec- that before and after each adjustment, an indicator
tronic reverse dial, and laser rim-and-face methods. reading must be taken and converted into angles of
See Figure 14-18. degrees, minutes, and seconds.
 304 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

ALIGNMENT METHODS

/.
K

'^ RIM AND FACE

GAP-^ COMBINATION
REPEATABLE ACCURACY = .001"
REPEATABLE ACCURACY = •
AVERAGE COST = $800

STRAIGHTEDGE RIM-AND-FACE
WIRES TO
COMPUTER/
DIAL CALCULATOR
INDICATOR
AT 12:00

i J
DIAL
INDICATOR WIRES TO COMPUTER
AT 6:00
REPEATABLE ACCURACY = .001" REPEATABLE ACCURACY = .0005"
AVERAGE COST = $800 AVERAGE COST = $3000

REVERSE DIAL ELECTRONIC REVERSE DIAL LASER RIM-AND-FACE

Figure 14-18. The five methods available to align machinery include straightedge, rim-and-face, reverse dial, electronic
reverse dial, and laser rim-and-face methods.

For example, a technician is aligning a pump/mo-

tor combination that has a 5" coupling and operates
at 1300 rpm. The vertical offset is .005", the hori-

zontal offset is .003", the vertical angularity is

.006", and the horizontal angularity is .005". Using

the shaft alignment tolerances chart indicates that
at 1300 rpm, the acceptable offset tolerance is

.0038". The chart also indicates that the angularity

tolerance of a 10" coupling operating at 1300 rpm
is acceptable at .010".

The angular measurements must be doubled to

equate with a 10" coupling because the equipment

coupling is 5". This gives a recorded reading of .012"
SPM Instrument, Inc.
for vertical angularity and .010" for horizontal angu-
larity. The results of the recorded readings indicate that
The MAC- 10 Irom SPM Instrument, Inc. is an alignment computer
that uses electronic indicators and the electronic reverse dial method
both horizontal readings are in tolerance and both ver-
to correct machine misalignment. tical readings are out of tolerance.
 Alif;iwu'iil 305

SHAFT ALIGNMENT TOLERANCES*

306 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

To prevent compounding errors, new readings is the same whether it

plane (vertical or horizontal),
must be taken after each adjustment to the MTBS. ismeasured off of the coupling face or the misalign-
To reduce the chances for error, always rotate dial ment at the feet of the machine. Known readings of
indicators in one direction. Start back at the zero distance and gap may be used to determine angularity
setting if movement direction has been reversed. and gap at any other distance. This principle can be
Clock position movements (clockwise/counterclock- used to determine the shim thickness to eliminate
wise) are those viewed from the MTBS toward the any angle. The angle reading (gap) must always start
SM. Repeat dial indicator movements and recheck at zero for this to occur. Indicator readings that begin
readings at least three times. at a number greater than zero must have the initial
Angular measurements are easier to interpret when reading subtracted from the total needle movement
it is realized that each misalignment angle, in its own to give the proper gap. See Figure 14-21.

4 "(Dp)

NEGATIVE READING R ~ BACK

AT 6:00 REQUIRES / FOOT (82)
SHIMS PLACED /
UNDER S1 -^
ANGULARITY IN VERTICAL
PLANE CORRECTED BY
PLACING -08" SHIMS UNDER
BOTH FRONT FEET

Figure 14-21. Each misalignment angle, In its own plane (vertical or horizontal), is the same whether it is measured off of
the coupling face or the misalignment at the feet of the machine.
 The gap at the desired distance is found by ap-
plying the formula:

G = ^jX D
where
G - gap at desired distance (in in.)
g = known gap (in in.)
d - known distance from zero (in in.)
D = distance desired from zero (in in.)
For example, what is the gap at 8" if the gap at
4" from zero is .04"?

G =
 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

front and back MTBS mounting holes. Shim stock For example, what is the shim stock thickness re-
thickness to eliminate angular misalignment in the quired to correct the angular misalignment in the ver-
vertical plane is found by applying the formula: tical plane of a pump and motor assembly having a
5" diameter coupling, a vertical angular gap of .050"
(.410" - .360" = .050"), and an MTBS mounting hole
distance of 6.5"?
where
D
S =
S = shim stock thickness (in in.)

Va = vertical angular gap (in in.) s =

2 = constant

D = diameter of coupling (in in.)

A = distance between front and back MTBS

mounting holes (in in.)

STRAIGHTEDGE ALIGNMENT

UPPER GAP
(12:00) = .410"

LOWER GAP / \ L /i-fis-^i Vracf

(6:00) = .360"-/ \
^- ^'^
' '

^ffj^E
\- TAPER
GAUGE
VERTICAL PLANE ALIGNMENT

BASE
OFFSET PLATE
(9:00) = .02"

HORIZONTAL PLANE ALIGNMENT

 Aliiinmeni 309

The adjustment to eliminate angular misalignment of .020" by the jack screws. Recheck the angular
in the horizontal plane is based on the horizontal position in the horizontal plane and the offset posi-
angular gap (gap at 3:00 minus gap at 9:00 or gap tion in the horizontal plane after making any adjust-
at 9:00 minus gap at 3:00), the diameter of the cou- ments.
pling, and the distance between the front and back
Straightedge alignment is not necessarily true to
MTBS mounting holes. Horizontal adjustment to
the shaft axis because straightedge alignment meas-
eliminate angular misalignment in the horizontal
ures the condition of a coupling and shaft assembly
plane is found by applying the formula:
along with machined surfaces of the coupling. Final
D results may easily be far from tolerance if this
X A
method is used as the total alignment method. Upon
completion of alignment, release (unscrew) any pres-
where
sure from jack screws.
5 = shim stock thickness (in in.)

Ha = horizontal angular gap (in in.)

2 = constant
W^ ) When using
usi feeler gauges, start with the small-
and keep adding
7]
D = diameter of coupling (in in.) P^B est thickness
thicki feeler thick
nesses until a slight interference is felt with the feeler
A - distance between front and back MTBS between the two parts.
mounting holes (in in.)

For example, what is the adjustment required to

correct the angular misalignment in the horizontal
plane of a pump and motor assembly having a 5"
diameter coupling, a horizontal angular gap of .124"
(.193" - .069" = .124"), and a MTBS mounting hole
distance of 6.5"?

Ha D

.062
2.5 t'rccision Brand Products. Inc.

.0248 X 6.5
Feeler gauges are used to determine the distances that machines
.161" must be moved for correct alignment.

The horizontal angular adjustment of .161" is at

the back foot (S:) because the gap is wider at the

3:00 position (.193") than the 9:00 position (.069"). Rim-And-Face Method
Offset misalignment in the horizontal plane is cor-
The riin-atid-face alignment method is an alignment
rected similar to correcting offset misalignment in method in which the offset and angular gap of two
the vertical plane. A straightedge and feeler gauge
shafts is determined using two dial indicators that
is placed at the 9:00 position and the offset is meas- measure the rim and face of a coupling. A coupling
ured. A
rim is the outside diameter surface of a coupling.
coupling face is the flat surface of a coupling half,
For example, a straightedge placed at the 9:00 po-
facing the flat surface of the connecting coupling
sition of a 5" coupling shows a .020" offset between
half.
the straightedge and the coupling half connected to
the MTBS. The gap being between the straightedge A dial indicator measuring at the rim position
and the MTBS coupling half at the 9:00 position re- measures offset directly under the indicator stem.
quires the motor to be moved to the front a distance Also, the difference in offset over the distance be-
 310 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

tween two indicators is the angularity in thousandths and kept in-line as the couplings are rotated. By ro-
per inch. Before shim size adjustments are deter- tating both couplings, shaft centerlines are measured,
mined, offset and angular gaps must be calculated whereas rotating only one shaft measures one shaft
and used to determine if a machine must be moved in relation to the opposing coupling face or diameter.

up or down or back or forth.

I
Ensure that neither the driven nor drive shafts
move axially when taking face readings be-
cause this distorts the face readings.

Combination Rim-and-Face Alignment. The com-

bination rim-and-face alignment method uses two
dial indicators. One indicator reads the rim offset,
and the other reads the face to measure the angu-
larity. Both indicators are assembled using rods and

couplings (hardware) and are assembled at the

same end of the spanning rod. The two indicators
measure the vertical and horizontal planes of the
same shaft simultaneously.
Angular gap and offset information must be ob-
tained before shim thickness and location can be de-
termined. Angular gap and offset information used
Miiiiiiliicliiriiiit S: Maintenance Systems, Inc.
for shim placement is found by checking angular mis-
alignment in the vertical plane (up and down), offset
The combination rim-and-face alignment method uses one dial indi-
cator to read the rim to measure offset and the other dial indicator
misalignment in the vertical plane (vertical offset),
to read the face to measure angularity. angular misalignment in the horizontal plane (side
to side), and offset misalignment in the horizontal

The rim-and-face method is the most widely used, plane (side to side offset). The misalignment values
most widely misused, and most troublesome of the are found by measuring with dial indicators. See Fig-
precision alignment methods. It is misused by the ure 14-24. Combination rim-and-face alignment is

technician who turns only one shaft to check align- performed by applying the procedure:
ment and troublesome because misuse creates a never 1. Check for angular misalignment in the vertical
ending search in trying to be within tolerance. This plane (up and down).
method also has additional error sources such as axial
Angular misalignment in the vertical plane is
float and irregular coupling shapes. Axial float is the
checked by measuring the face of the coupling at the
axial movement of a shaft due to bearing and bearing
12:00 and 6:00 positions. The vertical angular gap
housing clearances.
equals the 6:00 reading minus the 12:00 reading if
Rim-and-face alignment may be accomplished by both total indicator readings are either positive or
using the individual rim-and-face method or the com- negative. The vertical angular gap equals the 6:00
bination rim-and-face method. The combination reading plus the 12:00 reading if one reading is posi-
method is considerably faster and more accurate than tive and the other reading is negative.
the individual method.
The shim stock thickness to adjust for angular mis-
Individual Rim-and-Face Alignment. The individ- alignment in the vertical plane can be found once
ual rim-and-face alignment method uses an indicator the vertical angular gap is determined. The shim
that is attached and used to measure the coupling stock thickness is based on the diameter traveled by
face (angularity) and then repositioned to measure the face indicator tip, the vertical angle gap, and the
the coupling rim (offset). Rim and face readings must distance between front and back MTBS mounting
be taken with the coupling disconnected and both holes. Shim stock thickness to eliminate angular mis-
coupling halves rotated together. This is best accom- alignment in the vertical plane is found by applying
plished when a mark is made on both coupling halves the formula:
 Alignment 311

H, Dr
5 =

where where
S = shim stock thickness (in in.) S = shim stock thickness (in in.)

Va = vertical angular gap (in in.)

Hi = horizontal angular gap (in in.)
2 - constant = constant
2
Dp = diameter traveled by the face indicator tip
Di = diameter traveled by the face indicator tip
(in in.)
(in in.)
A = distance between front and back MTBS
A = distance between the front and back MTBS
mounting holes (in in.)
mounting holes (in in.)
2. Check for offset misalignment in vertical plane.
4. Check for offset misalignment in the horizontal
Offset misalignment in the vertical plane is
plane (horizontal offset). Offset misalignment in
checked by measuring the rim of the coupling at the
the horizontal plane is checked by measuring the
12:00 and 6:00 positions.
rim of the coupling at the 3:00 and 9:00 positions.
The shim stock thickness to adjust for offset mis-
alignment in the vertical plane can be found once The shim stock thickness to adjust for offset mis-
the vertical offset is determined. The shim stock alignment in the horizontal plane can be found once
thickness is based on the difference between the the horizontal offset is determined. The shim stock
12:00 and 6:00 rim readings minus the rod sag. Shim thickness is based on the difference between the 3:00
stock thickness to eliminate offset misalignment in and 9:00 rim readings. Rod sag deviation has no ef-
the vertical plane is found by applying the formula: fect in the horizontal plane. Shim stock thickness to
eliminate offset misalignment in the horizontal plane
Rq — Re — RS
Vo = is found by applying the formula:

where
Vo = offset in vertical plane (in in.)

/?o = reading of rim at 12:00 (in in.)

where
^6 = reading of rim at 6:00 (in in.)
Hi, = offset in horizontal plane (in in.)
RS = rod sag (in in.)
R^ = reading of the rim at 3:00 (in in.)
2 = constant
/?., = reading of the rim at 9:00 (in in.)
3. Check for angular misalignment in the horizontal
plane (side to side). 2 = constant

Angular misalignment in the horizontal plane is

checked by measuring the face of the coupling at

the 3:00 and 9:00 positions. The horizontal angular
gap equals the 9:00 reading minus the 3:00 reading
if both indicator readings are either positive or nega-
tive. The horizontal angular gap equals the 9:00 read-
ing plus the 3:00 reading if one reading is positive
and the other negative.

The horizontal adjustment to eliminate angular

misalignment in the horizontal plane is based on the
horizontal angular gap (gap at 3:00 minus gap at 9:00
or the gap at 9:00 minus the gap at 3:00), the diameter
traveled by the face indicator tip, and the distance
between the front and back MTBS mounting holes.
Manujactunng & Maintenance Systems, Inc.
Horizontal adjustment to eliminate angular misalign-
ment in the horizontal plane is found by applying Many years of service to equipment seals and bearings may be added
the formula: by keeping machine sliafts within alignment tolerances.
312 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

RIM-AND-FACE ALIGNMENT

DIAL INDICATOR DATA |

SPANNING ROD SAG

FACE
READINGS
(ANGULARITY)
RIM READINGS
(OFFSET)

JACK SCREWS

What are the proper shims to be placed under the feet of

a pump/motor combination with readings as shown in Dial
Indicator Data?

I. Check for angular misaligninent in vertical plane.

Measure the face of the coupling at the 12:00 and 6:00

positions (-.016" + .000" = -.016"). Shim slock is placed
beneath the front feet (Si) because the 6:00 reading is nega-
tive.

,. Va Of , ,

S = -.001 X 9
5 = -.009"
. Check for offset misalignment in the tical plane.

Measure the rim of the coupling at t 12:00 and 6:00

.000" - .021" .021"

Ho -Rb + RS

.000 -.021 -.009

Vo

-.030
Vo
2

\'o = -.015"
Shims are placed beneath the feet of the MTBS to raise

the MTBS because the 6:00 reading is negative (/?h = -.021").

To compensate for vertical offset, shims equaling .01.5" are

placed under all four feet.

 Alignment 313

Reverse Dial Method

The reverse dial method is an alignment method that

uses two dial indicators to take readings off of op-
posing sides of coupling rims, giving two sets of shaft
runout readings. Since faster and more accurate
it is

than the rim-and-facemethod, the reverse dial

method is not affected by axial float. Each indicator
shows both angle and offset. Reverse dial indicator
readings can be illustrated by a plotted layout. See
Figure 14-25.
Plots are laid out using graph paper. Each square
represents a horizontal and vertical measurement.
Horizontal measurements are in inches, providing a
representative view of the overall machine dimen-
sions. Vertical measurements are total indicator read-

ings plotted in thousandths of an inch. Plotting may

be done to \iew the top and side relative positions.

Plotting a graph of alignment measurements

£
P:
^ allows easy experimentation with various shim
moves, produces an exact hard copy description of
the amount of shim movement needed that can be
stored in the plant maintenance files for future ref-
l.udeca Inc.. representative of PRVEFTECH.MK AG.
erence, and is less expensive than calculators and
computers.
Vertical MTBS adjustments are made by selecting the proper shim
thickness to bring both machines into proper alignment.
 314 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

the graph from the opposite indicator stem point. The

difference between these lines should be adjusted for
proper alignment.

Plotting provides a graphic illustration as well as

an indication of the movements required for align-
ment. In this case, itis shown that any corrective
move must be made by raising the SM or lowering
the MTBS.
Exact movements and shim thicknesses are deter-
mined by calculating the angular and offset dimen-
sions in the vertical and horizontal planes. See Figure
14-26. Reverse dial alignment is obtained by apply-
ing the procedure:

1. Correct vertical offsets.

Angular and offset conditions are corrected using

the SM and MTBS offset readings. Corrections are
first determined by adjusting the TIR to represent
the shaft offset. The vertical shaft offset at the SM
Manufacturing & Maintenanct
is found by applying the formula:

In the reverse dial method, two dial indicators are used to take 5(1 - 56 - RS\
readings off of opposing couplings, giving two sets of shaft runout STv =
readings.
where
The plot shows the relative position of shaft cen- STv = vertical shaft offset at SM (in in.)
teriines and the indicator reading dimensions. The
5o = SM indicator reading at 12:00 (in in.)
horizontal squares are 1" per three-square division
56 = SM indicator reading at 6:00 (in in.)
and the vertical squares are .005" per division.
;?5i = SM rod sag (in in.)
Plotting begins by drawing a horizontal centerline
and placing a mark on the centerline that represents 2 = constant
an indicator stem point. Count the appropriate num-
The vertical shaft offset at the MTBS is found by
ber of squares and place a mark at the second indi-
subtracting the MTBS rod sag and indicator reading
cator stem point. This distance represents the distance
at 6:00 from the MTBS indicator reading at 12:00
between the indicator stem points on the two shafts.
and dividing by 2. The vertical shaft offset at the
To plot the MTBS shaft centerline, plot half of the
MTBS reading toward the top of the graph from one
MTBS is found by applying the formula:

indicator point and make a mark. For example, if the Mo - M6 - RS2

Mv
total MTBS reading is .046", a mark is made .023"
toward the top of the graph from one of the indicator where
stem points (4'/2 squares).
Mv vertical shaft offset at MTBS (in in.)
=
A line is drawn from this mark through the op-
Mo MTBS indicator reading at 12:00 (in in.)
=
posing indicator stem point. To plot the SM shaft
centerline, plot half of the SM reading from the in- M(, = MTBS indicator reading at 6:00 (in in.)

dicator point toward the bottom of the graph and RS2 = MTBS rod sag (in in.)
make a mark. Draw a line from this mark through
2 - constant
the opposing indicator point. These lines indicate that
reverse dial readings give offset and angular posi- The vertical shim corrections are calculated after
tions. The alignment objective is to end up with both the shaft offsets are determined. The vertical shim
lines parallel. For example, if the total SM reading correction under both MTBS front feet (Si) is found
is .034", a mark is made .017" toward the bottom of by applying the formula:
 Alignmeiil 315

Horizontal shaft offsets are then used to calculate

V5, - \(STv + M,): STv
the side movement of the MTBS. The horizontal cor-
where rective movement of the MTBS front feet (S|) is
found by applying the formula:
VSi = vertical shim correction under both MTBS
front feet (in in.)
//5, {STh + Mh) X STh
57"! = vertical shaft offset at SM (in in.)
Mv = vertical shaft offset at MTBS (in in.) where
D: = distance between SM indicator and MTBS HS] = horizontal corrective movement at MTBS
front feet (in in.) front feet (in in.)

Di - distance between indicators (in in.) S7"„ = horizontal shaft offset at MTBS (in in.)

The vertical shim correction under both MTBS Mh = horizontal shaft offset at SM (in in.)

back is found by applying the formula:

feel (82) D: = distance between SM indicator and MTBS
front feet (in in.)
VS2 = \{STy + M,): STv
D, = distance between indicators (in in.)

where
The horizontal corrective movement of the MTBS
V5: == vertical shim correction under both MTBS back feet (S:) is found by applying the formula:
back feet (in in.)

STv= vertical shaft offset at SM (in in.) HS: (STh + Mh)x STh
Mv = vertical shaft offset at MTBS (in in.)
where
D3 = distance between SM indicator and MTBS
back feet (in in.)
HS2 = horizontal corrective movement at MTBS
back feet (in in.)
D] = distance between indicators (in in.)
STh = horizontal shaft offset at MTBS (in in.)
2. Correct horizontal offsets.
Mh = horizontal shaft offset at SM (in in.)
Angular and offset conditions are corrected using
reverse dial offset readings. The horizontal offset TIR
D) = distance between SM indicator and MTBS
back feet (in in.)
of both machines is adjusted to represent true offsets
divided by 2. The horizontal shaft offset at the MTBS Di = distance between indicators (in in.)

is found by applying the formula:

„„ S, - S, - RS,
o/h =

where
STh = horizontal shaft offset at MTBS (in in.)

59 SM indicator
= reading at 9:00 (in in.)

5,1- SM indicator reading at 3:00 (in in.)

RS\ = SM rod sag (in in.)

2 = constant
The horizontal shaft offset at the SM is found by
applying the formula:

M9-M,-/?5>
M„. ^

where
Mh = horizontal shaft offset at SM (in in.)

M., MTBS indicator reading

= at 9:00 (in in.)

Mf = MTBS indicator reading at 3:00 (in in.) Sprecher + Schuh

RS2 = MTBS rod sag (in in.)

Alignment performed to the correct motor/pump tolerance increases
2 = constant the life of pump seals and bearings.
316 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

REVERSE DIAL ALIGNMENT

MTBS INDICATOR (M)

MTBS ROD SAG

(RS2) = .005"

What adjustments must be made to the MTBS using the

reverse dial alignment method for proper alignment?
1. Correct vertical offsets.

„_ So- Sb- US]

^
 Alignment 317

Electronic Reverse Dial Method The electronic reverse dial method requires that
two sensing devices are used, each being assembled
The electronic reverse dial method is an alignment using rods and couplings and attached to a coupling
method that uses the reverse dial as a base method or shaft. Installation is similar to using dial indicators
with the dial indicators replaced with electrome- where one sensor is opposite the other. Sensor wires
chanical sensing devices. The electronic reverse dial must be secured with slack to prevent unwanted tug-
method is supported by computer-aided electronic in- ging forces.
strumentation. The sensing devices detect physical Some manufacturers recommend that the coupling
movement and convert the movement to an electrical be disconnected while others suggest that they be
signal, which is sent to a calculator. Before the cal- connected. Always follow manufacturer's recommen-
culator can process an adjustment response, it must dations. However, any force, including coupling
have the electronic movement signal and certain force, can create enough resistance to produce ad-
physical dimensions, which must be entered by the verse responses.
technician. The calculator computes MTBS move- The shafts are rotated together and readings are
ments as its response. See Figure 14-27. entered with the press of a button at the 12:00, 3:00,
6:00, and 9:00 positions. Some manufacturers rec-
ommend entering readings at 12:00. then forward
ELECTRONIC REVERSE DIAL METHOD (clockwise) to 3:00, back (counterclockwise) to 9:00,
forward (clockwise) to 6:00. and back (counterclock-

CD wise) to 12:00. Check manufacturer's requirements.

Also, add any necessary thermal expansion compen-
sation information to the calculation.
WIRE TIE ^
In preparation for corrective horizontal move-
ments, place two dial indicators against the farthest
front and back feet of the MTBS and zero both in-

dicators as a starting reference. Vertical and horizon-

tal movements are made according to the calculator's
indication.
Finally, repeat all measurements until shaft runout
is within tolerance. Upon startup, vibration readings
can be taken to compare previous readings with pre-
sent readings to determine alignment condition and
establish data in order to determine future progress-
ing conditions.

^- CONVERSION TO Laser Rim-and-Face Method

ELECTRICAL
SIGNAL
The laser rim-and-face alignment method is an align-
Figure 14-27. In the electronic reverse dial method,
ment method in which laser devices are placed op-
electromechanical aligning devices convert a mechanical posite each other to measure alignment. The laser
movement into an electrical signal. rim-and-face method is used when extreme accuracy
and fast alignment is required. Even though the initial
cost of laser equipment is higher than that of other
Inspect equipment condition before beginning any methods, known and hidden payback costs are gen-
alignment procedure. Check motor and pump bases for erally worth the extra expense. Known paybacks due
breaks or cracks. All contact surfaces must be clean, to extreme accuracy are those items that are meas-
smooth, and flat. Foundation and base plates must be urable, such as less emergency downtime, less need
in good condition. Check shaft, coupling, and bearing for extra or spare replacement inventories, and less

condition for any irregularities. Finally, organize tools, Energy savings on an accurately aligned
utility costs.

materials, and workplace. Anchor bolt condition, ec- machine are 1% to 12% per alignment over a mar-
centric shafts, and soft foot must be checked and cor- ginally acceptable aligned machine. Hidden savings
rected before the alignment procedure begins. are those that are not measurable, such as the avail-
 318 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

ability and utilization of power elsewhere or the in-

creased morale within a smoother running facility.

Laser alignment devices operate using the rim-

and-face method, with the dial indicator being re-

placed with a laser beam. The beam is directed to a

90° prism reflector, which is directed back to the
sending unit where a receiving transducer (photo po-
sition detector) accepts the signal and converts it into
an impulse for the calculator. See Figure 14-28. A
benefit of using a laser beam is that there is no rod
sag to calculate and the alignment is not affected by
distance or axial The beam sensor is able to detect
float.

up and down movement. Offsets and angles are read

and measured accurately when the return beam is de-
tected at one position (12:00) and then detected at
another position (6:00). The calculator determines
offset as a direct send/receive reading and determines
the ansuiarity by measurina right triunoies.

3
y
Figure 14-28. Laser accuracy is based upon being able to
send a pinpoint light beam, reflect it, and send
itto another
location without deflection.

Once set up, laser alignment devices check soft

foot, compensate for thermal expansion, indicate the
movement of a machine during alignment, rapidly
couple machines with multiple couplings, and deter-
mine shim placement. The ease and simplicity of
making alignment moves is noted when all adjusting
moves are being observed on a screen as they happen.
A graphic display presents the condition of each foot
when soft foot or angular soft foot is checked. Fi-
nally, all rechecking is completed and corrected in

a matter of seconds.

An advantage of a laser alignment device is that

measurements are not required to be read, recorded,
and calculated for proper movements to be made.
Also, the corrective values for the machine feet ap-
pear automatically in the computer display.

A laser alignment device requires care in handling

to maintain its high level of calibration. Dropping or
bumping may result in loss of calibration and align-
e of PKUEFTECHNIh AG.
ment integrity. Care must also be used with lasers

TurbaligrP is a laser alignment device tliat uses a visible laser combined because steam, dust, and sunlight can adversely affect
with a 4-axis position detector to measure mactiine misalignment. the laser beam.
 Elecirici
ricity 15
Chapter

is the main energy source used to provide

lldectricity
power equipment. The National Electrical Code*
for
safeguards persons and property form hazards aris-
ing from the use of electricity. Components normally
encountered by a mechanical technician Include
transformers, contactors, motor starters, fuses, cir-
cuit breakers. GFCIs, switches, and solenoids. Elec-
trical safety rules should be practiced by all personnel
working with electricity.

Fluke Corporal!

I
ELECTRICITY up various molecules each have a different number
of electrons and a different number of electron shells.

Electricity is a physical occurrence involving electric A shell is an orbiting layer of electrons in an atom.

charges and their effects when in motion and at rest.

The electrons travel at such a high rate of speed in

Electricity may be static (stored) or dynamic (flow- form a shell around the nucleus.
their orbits that they

ing). Static electricity is the accumulation of charge. Each shell has a specific number of electrons, which
Dynamic electricity (electric current) is electron flow becomes greater with each consecutive shell from the
from one atom to another atom. nucleus with the exception of the last (valence) shell.
A valence shell is the outermost shell of an atom. A
An atom is the smallest building block of matter
valence electron is an electron located in the outer-
that cannot be divided into smaller units without
most shell of an atom. For example, a hydrogen atom
changing its basic character The three fundamental
has only 1 electron, which makes it the valence elec-
particles contained in atoms are protons, neutrons, tron. Silveratoms have 47 electrons with valence 1

and electrons. Protons and neutrons make up the nu-

electron, and lead atoms have 82 electrons with 4
cleus, and electrons whirl about the nucleus in orbits
valence electrons. See Appendix.
or shells. The nucleus is the heavy, dense center of
an atom. The nucleus has a positive electrical charge.
A proton is a particle with a positive electrical charge
Each shell can hold a specific number of electrons.
of one unit. A neutron is a particle with no electrical
The innermost shell can hold two electrons. The sec-
charge. The nucleus is surrounded by one or more ond shell can hold eight electrons. The third shell
electrons. An electron is a negatively charged particle can hold 18 electrons, etc. The shells are filled start-

whirling around the nucleus ing with the inner shell and working outward, so when
at great speeds in a shell.
See Figure 15-1. the inner shells are filled with as many electrons as
they can hold, the next shell is started. Electrons and
Atoins are combined to form molecules. A mole- protons have equal amounts of opposite charges. There
cule is the smallest particle of a substance that retains are as many electrons as there are protons in an atom,
all the properties of the substance. Atoms that make which leaves the atom electrically neutral.
320 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

another. The amount or number of electrons in the

valence shell and the ease at which electrons are
pulled out of their orbit is the difference between a

ELECTRON^ conductor and an insulator. A conductor is a material

that has very little resistance and permits electrons
to move through it easily. Valence shells carrying one
or two electrons make up materials that are conduc-
tors, like copper, which contains only one valence
electron. One or two valence electrons are unstable
ORBIT
and held loosely, allowing the atom to give them up
(SHELL)
with little effort. The best conductor materials are
silver, copper, and aluminum.
HYDROGEN ATOM
An insulator is a material that has a very high
resistance and resists the flow of electrons. Atoms
containing a large number of valence electrons make
good insulating material. Common insulators include
rubber, plastic, air, glass, and paper. Atoms with a
large number of valence electrons have a strong force
of attraction with the nucleus. This makes it difficult
to force an electron out of orbit or allow another
electron into the orbit.

Electron Flow

Current (electron flow) is the amount of electrons

flowing through an electrical circuit. Current is meas-
ured in amperes. Electron flow may be compared to
the amount and force of liquid flow in a pipe. An
amp (short for amperage) is a measure of a quantity

COLLIDING of electron movement per second, commonly referred

1 „^^
ELECTRONS-^ V to as electric current. This, however, is only a meas-
A^^fcTRON
urement of speed. The quantity moved at this speed
is the coulomb. A coulomb is a quantity of electrons

equal to 6.25 x 10'* (6.25 quintillion). The coulomb

and amp can be compared to a hydraulic system's
liquid flow in gallons per minute. An amp (A) is a

flow of 6,250,000.000,000,000.000 (one coulomb)

electrons per second.

Voltage (V) is the amount of electrical pressure in

a circuit. Voltage is measured in volts. A volt is a
ELECTRON DISPLACEMENT measure of electromotive force (electrical pressure).
Voltage is the force that pushes the electrons through

Figure 15-1. An atom is the smallest particle ot an a conductor. Voltage pushes current through a wire,
element that cannot be divided into smaller units without but voltage cannot flow through a wire. This is simi-
changing its basic character. lar to the pressure of a hydraulic system. There may
be pressure potential, but there is no flow. There is

voltage (potential) at a wall outlet, but no current flow

The totalnumber of electrons is not as important
until an electrical device is connected and turned ON.
to electricity as is the number of valence electrons.
Electron flow (electrical current) is the traveling of Resistance is the opposition to electron flow. Re-
a displaced (free) valence electron from one atom to sistance is measured in ohms (Q). An ohm is the
 Electricin 321

resistance of a conductor in which an electrical pressure OHM'S LAW

of 1 V causes an electrical current of 1 A to flow.

Just as water pressure in a long hose is reduced

Ohm's law is the relationship between voltage (E),
by friction (resistance), voltage is reduced by the zig-
current (I), and resistance (R) in a circuit. Ohm's
zag activity, detouring, and collisions of countless
law states that current in a circuit is proportional to
electrons in motion within a long wire. Resistance
the voltage and inversely proportional to the resis-
to the flow of electrons varies according to the physi-
tance. If the resistance in a circuit remains constant,
cal dimensions and the material through which elec-
a change in current is directly proportional to a
tric current passes. A large wire allows a greater
change in voltage. If voltage in a circuit remains con-
number of free electrons to tlow with less resistance
stant, current in a circuit decreases with an increase
than a smaller wire. See Figure 15-2.
in resistance, and current in the circuit increases with
a decrease in resistance. Using Ohm's law, any value
It takes 1 V (pressure) to push 1 A (current)
in this relationship can be found when the other two
through 1 ii (resistance). Even though the theoretical
are known. The relationship between voltage, current,
speed of an electron is greater than the speed of light
and resistance may be visualized by presenting
( 1 86,000 miles per second), the actual forward motion
Ohm's law in a pie chart form. See Figure 15-3.
of an electron is about 2" to 3" per minute. Increasing
the electrical pressure enables a higher rate of electrical
flow (current) through a larger conductor.

Using Ohm's Law

O'Hard1

netize,
steel
making
is difficult to
it
magnetize and demag-
a good permanent magnet. Ohm's law can be used for determining voltage, cur-

Soft iron is ideal for temporary magnets used in con- rent, or resistance requirements during circuit design
trol devices because it does not retain residual mag- and for predicting circuit characteristics before power
netism very easily. is applied. For example, in a heating element (resis-
tive load) circuit, a fixed load resistance of 4 Q is

LAMP
(RESISTANCE)

CONDUCTOR

ELECTRON FLOW LIQUID FLOW

Figure 15-2. Current (electron flow), voltage (pressure), and electrical resistance are similar to the flow, pressure, and
resistance of liquid in a pipe.
322 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

connected to a variable power supply which supplies dicates that the circuit resistance has increased or
V to 24 V. See Figure 15-4. The current in the the circuit voltage has decreased. An increase in
circuit may be found for any voltage by applying circuit resistance is usually caused by poor con-
Ohm's law. nections, loose connections, corrosion, and/or dam-
For example /hat is the current in a circuit if aged components.
the voltage is :• at 8 V and the resistance is 4 i2?

' = 1 CIRCUIT VALUE RELATIONSHIPS

/ = 2 A CIRCUIT VALUES

OHM'S LAW

E= VOLTAGE (IN V)
/= CURRENT (IN A)
R= RESISTANCE (INO)

VOLTAGE = CURRENT x RESISTANCE

VOLTAGE
RESISTANCE

RESISTANCE =-

Figure 15-3. Ohm's law is the relationship between

voltage, current, and resistance in a circuit.

In troubleshooting applications. Ohm's law can be

used to determine how a circuit should operate and
how it is operating under power. For example, when
the insulation of equipment or conductors breaks
down, a current measurement higher than normal in-

dicates that circuit resistance has decreased or circuit

voltage has increased. This information is used when
identifying potential problems such as insulation
breakdown or a high-voltage condition. In the same
circuit, a current measurement lower than normal in-
 Electricin 323

The flux lines leave the north pole and enter the
south pole of a magnet or magnetic field. Polarity
is the positive (+) or negative (-) state of an object.
The fundamental law of magnetism is that unlike
poles attract each other and like poles repel each
other. For example, when two magnetic forces are
aligned, the north or south poles face each other and
repel each other. The force of repulsion increases as
the two poles are moved closer together.

MAGNETISM
 324 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Electromagnetic Induction Alternating Current. Alternating current (AC) is a

flow of electrons that reverses its direction of flow at
Electromagnetic induction is the process by which regular intervals. AC is generated as a loop of wire
voltage is induced in a wire by a magnetic field when (armature) enters and leaves a magnetic field. See Fig-
lines of force cut across the wire. See Figure 15-7. ure 15-8. In position 1, the rotor is just about to rotate
Voltage is induced in a wire by electromagnetic in-
clockwise direction. There
in the is no current flow at
duction when the wire is moved across a magnetic
this point because the rotor is not cutting any magnetic
field. Increasing the speed of the wire movement flux lines. As the rotor rotates from position 1 to po-
through the magnetic field increases the voltage.
sition 2, the rotor begins to cut across the magnetic
A generator is a device that converts mechanical flux lines. The vohage in segments AB and CD in-
energy into electrical energy. A generator consists of
creases as the rotor rotates. The maximum number of
a loop of wire (armature), which rotates between magnetic flux lines are cut when the rotor is in position
north and south magnetic poles. An armature is the
2. The induced voltage is greatest in this position.
movable part of a generator or motor. A flow of cur-
rent is induced as the loop of wire cuts through the
From position 2 to position 3, the voltage de-
creases to zero because the rotor is cutting less and
magnetic field between the poles. The direction of
less magnetic flux lines, and finally none at position
current flow is determined by the magnetic north pole
and the direction of the wire movement through the
3. As the rotor continues to rotate from position 3
to position 4. the voltage increases, but in the oppo-
magnetic field.
site direction. The voltage reaches a maximum nega-
tive value at position 4, then returns to zero at

position 1 . Alternations of current (reversing polarity)

continue as long as the loop rotates. Slip rings are
used to connect the external load to the armature
without interfering with its rotation.

Direct Current. Direct current (DC) is a flow of

electrons in only one direction. DC is generated using
the principle of electromagnetic induction. A DC gen-
erator produces direct current using a commutator
with brushes instead of slip rings. A commutator is
a device for reversing the direction of current flowing
through the wires of a rotating armature that ensures
a single-direction flow of current from the generator.
Approximately 40% of the electrical energy generated in the United The commutator is split into two parts with an insu-
States is used to provide power for equipment in industry. lated gap between each part.

WIRE MOVEMENT
THROUGH A
MAGNETIC FIELD
GENERATES VOLTAGE

Figure 15-7. A voltage is induced in a wire by electromagnetic induction when the wire is moved across a magnetic field.
 Eleclrkin- 325

MAGNETIC FLUX LINES -

The direction of current is reversed at the same
time as the rotating armature reverses its polarity.
PERMANENT MAGNET -
The commutator maintains the correct polarity to
each brush. DC generation is made possible because
the wire cutting through the north pole magnetic field
is always connected to the negative brush, and the
wire cutting through the south pole magnetic field
is always connected to the positive brush.

In an actual device, the armature consists of many

wires wound around a core of laminated iron sec-
tions. Similarly, thecommutator must have sections
to match and connect each wire of the armature. Each
section is separated by an insulating material. The
DC voltage is generated by the relative motion of
the armature wires through the magnetic field. The
induced voltage is number of flux
proportional to the
lines cut per second. The output voltage is deter-
mined by the speed of the armature if the number
of turns of wire used to make the magnetic field re-
mains constant. Increasing the speed of the armature
and its cutting action increases the output voltage.
Decreasing the rotational speed decreases the output
voltage. DC voltages of 6 V, 12 V, 24 V, 36 V, 125
V, 250 V, and 600 V are typically used to drive loads.

Figure 15-8. Voltage changes direction in a wire as it

passes through north and south magnetic poles.

alternately

Positive and negative brushes riding against the

commutator segments carry the power to the load
circuit. The open or insulated areas of the split com-

mutator match the brushes and the neutral area of

the armature. As the commutator turns and the
brushes pass the neutral area, the other half of the
commutator contacts the brushes, reversing the cur-
rent flow. See Figure 15-9.

I (y The vast majority of electricity is produced by

I ^ converting potential (stored) energy into a force

I
that can turn a generator. Forms of energy used to

f produce electricity include fossil fuels, nuclear

I power, and hydroelectric (water) power. Transformers enable AC voltage to be stepped up for transmission
over power lines and then stepped down for final use.
326 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

DIRECT CURRENT

rp .^WYYYA
"^ BRUSH

COMMUTATOR

BRUSH

SMOOTH CURRENT

^ COMMUTATOR

Figure 15-9. Increasing the number of wires that pass through the flux field creates a smooth generated current.

Power Distribution. Power distribution is the process Transmission substations. The transmission sub-
of delivering electrical power to where it is needed. stations transform the voltage to a lower primary
Power distribution includes all parts of the electrical (feeder) voltage. The primary voltage level is usu-
utility system from the power generating plant to the ally between 4.16 kV and 34.5 kV.
customer's service-entrance equipment. Power control,
protection, transformation, and regulation must take
Primary transmission lines. The 4.16 kV to 34.5

place before any power is delivered. See Figure 15-10. kV primary transmission lines deliver power to the

The distribution system includes the following: distribution substations and heavy industry.

• Step-up transformers. The generated voltage is Distribution substations. The distribution substa-
stepped up to a transmission voltage level. The tions transform the voltage down to utilization volt-
transmission voltage level is usually between ages. Utilization voltage levels range from 480 V to

12.47 kV and 245 kV. 4.16 kV.

• Power plant transmission lines. The 12.47 kV to Distribution lines. Distribution lines carry the power
245 kV power plant transmission lines deliver from the distribution substation along the street or
power to the transmission substations. rear-lot lines to the final step-down transformers.
 Electricity 327

POWER
GENERATING PLANT

RESIDENTIAL
INDUSTRIAL

Figure 15-10. High-voltage electricity from power plants is transmitted through electrical lines and substations.

• Final step-down transformers. The final step-down NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CODE®

transformer transforms the voltage to 480 V. The
final step-down transformers may be installed on The National Electrical Code® (NEC®) is published
poles, grade-level pads, or in underground vaults. The
by the National Fire Protection Association, Inc.
The secondary of the final step-down transformers
purpose of the NEC® is the practical safeguarding
is connected to service drops that deliver the power of persons and property from hazards arising from
to the customer's service-entrance equipment.
the use of electricity. The NEC® is updated on a
A typical power distribution system delivers power three-year cycle.

to industrial, commercial, and residential customers. The NEC® is adopted by governmental bodies that
In a power distribution system, standard voltage lev- have legal jurisdiction over electrical installations
els at fixed current ratings are delivered to set points, and for use by insurance inspectors. The authority
such as receptacles. These voltage levels are typically having jurisdiction (AHJ) is responsible for enforcing
1 10 V, 115 V, 120 V, 208 V, 220 V, 240 V, 277 V, the NEC®. See Figure 15-11.
430 V, 440 V, 460 V, and 480 V. However, there is
no such thing as a standard voltage or current level The NEC's scope of coverage includes:

in an electrical circuit, because these levels are con-

• Electrical conductors and equipment in public and
tinuously being changed to meet the circuit require-
private buildings, structures, mobile homes, RVs,
ments. In a typical heavy industrial facility, the
floating buildings, and yards, carnivals, parking
electricity is delivered directly from a transmission
lots, and industrial substations.
substation to an outside transformer vault.
• Installations of conductors and equipment con-
nected to the electrical supply.
{_) AC generators normally produce voltages of up • Installations of other outside conductors and
to 22,000 V which are stepped up to a higher
f^ equipment.
voltage for economical transmission.
• Installations of optical fiber cable and raceways.
328 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Grounding is the connection of all exposed non-

current-carrying metal parts to the earth. Grounding
provides a direct path for unwanted (fault) current
to the earth without causing harm to persons or equip-
ment. Grounding is accomplished by connecting the
circuit to a metal underground pipe, a metal frame
of a building, a concrete-encased electrode, or a
ground ring. See Figure 15-12.

Noncurrent-carrying metal parts that are con-

nected to ground include all metal boxes, raceways,
enclosures, and equipment. Unwanted current exists
because of insulation failure or if a current-carrying
conductor makes contact with a noncurrent-carrying
part of the system. In a properly grounded system,
the unwanted current flow blows fuses or trips circuit
breakers. Once the fuse is blown or circuit breaker
is tripped, the circuit is open and no additional cur-

rent flows.

Hazardous Locations

A hazardous location is a location where there is an

Figure 15-11. The authority having jurisdiction (AHJ)
increased risk of fire or explosion due to the presence
responsible for enforcing the NEC".
of flammable gases, vapors, liquids, combustible
dusts, or easily-ignitable fibers or flyings. The use
Installations in buildings used by the electric util-
of electrical equipment in areas where explosion haz-
ity that are not part of the generating plant, sub-
ards are present can lead to an explosion and fire.
station, or control center.
This danger exists in the form of escaped flammable
The NEC" does not cover: gases such as naphtha, benzine, propane, and others.
Coal, grain, and other dust suspended in air can also
Ships, trains, aircraft, or automotive vehicles other cause an explosion. Article 500 of the NEC® covers
than mobile homes and RVs. hazardous locations. Any hazardous location requires
the maximum in safety and adherence to local, state,
Installations in mines.
and federal guidelines and laws, as well as in-plant
Installations of communication equipment controlled safety rules. Hazardous locations are indicated by
by communications utilities and located outdoors. Class, Division, and Group. See Figure 15-13.

Installations controlled by electric utilities for

communications, metering, generation, control,
transformation, transmission, or distribution of
electrical energy.
ELECTRICAL MEASURING DEVICES

A mechanical technician must often determine the

Grounding electrical condition of a component within a system.
A mechanical technician must determine if the com-
Electrical circuits are grounded to safeguard equip- ponent is receiving an electric current when required,
ment and personnel against the hazards of electrical if the conductors are able to carry an electric current,
shock. Proper grounding of electrical tools, ma- and if an electrical component operates when elec-
chines, equipment, and delivery systems is one of tricity is present. These questions may be answered
the most important factors in preventing hazardous by using a continuity tester, a voltage tester, or a
conditions. multimeter.
 Electricin' 329

GROUNDING METHODS

METAL UNDERGROUND
WATER PIPE
CONCRETE-ENCASED ELECTRODE
• 250-50(a) -
AT LEAST 20 IN LENGTH OR
NO. 4 OR LARGER CONDUCTOR GROUND RING- AT
AT LEAST 20 IN LENGTH LEAST 20' OF BARE
• 250-50(c) NO. 2 Cu CONDUCTOR
• 250-50(d)

Figure 15-12. Grounding is accomplished by connecting the circuit a metal underground pipe, a metal frame of a
building, a concrete-encased electrode, or a ground ring.

Continuity Testers tester lead to one of the wire ends and the other
tester lead to the component body. A short circuited
A continuity' tester is a device that indicates if a cir- component, meaning a bare spot in the wire insula-
cuit is open or closed. An open circuit is an electrical tion, allows the wire to come in contact with the
circuit that has a gap or opening that does not allow component body, giving an indication of a short from
current flow. A break in a conductor or an open the tester.
switch causes an open circuit, preventing the flow
of electricity. A closed circuit is an electrical circuit
with a completed path that allows current flow. Con-
tinuity is generally determined using a continuity
tester or a multimeter. A continuity tester supplies
its own voltage and current by the use of batteries.
A continuity tester must be used only in an inopera-
tive circuit with the power OFF. See Figure 15-14.

Continuity Tester Use. A continuity tester may be

used on an electrical component to check a wire to
determine if it is continuous or broken. The circuit
is complete and the continuity tester lights when the
tester leads are touching both ends of a continuous
(unbroken) wire. The wire may be broken if the tester
does not light.

Greenlee Textron Inc.

Continuity testers are also used to check for short
circuits between component wiring and the body of
A voltage tester is used tocheck if voltage is present and gives an
the component. This is accomplished by touching one indication of its approximate level.
330 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

HAZARDOUS LOCATIONS -500

Classes
 Electricin 331

CONTINUITY TESTERS VOLTAGE TESTERS

AC/DC NEON LAMP-,

VOLTAGE TESTER

CONTINUITY TEST

SHORT CIRCUIT TEST

Figure 15-14. A continuity tester uses its own power

determine if a wire is continuous or broken or if a
circuit to
short exists between a wire and its housing.

The procedure for using a voltage tester is to con-

nect one test probe to one side of the circuit and Figure 15-15. A voltage tester is effective in determining
voltages up to 600 V.
then connect the other test probe to the other side
of the circuit. A reading is taken from the pointer.
The white wire, when present, should be checked
Multimeters
first to determine that it is the neutral conductor. A
neutral conductor is a wire that carries current from A multimeter is a test tool used to measure two or
one side of the load to ground. Neutral conductors more electrical values. Multimeters may be analog
are connected directly to loads and never connected or digital. An analog multimeter indicates readings
through fuses, circuit breakers, or switches. Connect- by the mechanical motion of a pointer. The value is

ing a voltage tester between the neutral wire and a read from right to left on the scale. Extremely high
grounded surface should give no voltage indication. readings on the scale are to the far left and are re-
All other hot wires are then checked to ground or garded as infinity (°°). A digital multimeter indicates
neutral and should show a voltage reading (voltage readings as numerical values. Digital multimeters
present) on the voltage tester. help eliminate human error when taking readings by
displaying exact values measured. Multimeters have
a function switch that enables the testing of various

'
Before using any electrical lest equipment, al-
electrical values such as current, voltage, resistance,
ways refer to the user's manual for proper op- etc. The function switch is set on AC when measuring
erating procedures, safety precautions, and limits. alternating voltage (VAC) and is set on DC when meas-
uring direct voltage or current (DC). See Figure 15-16.
 332 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

MULTIMETERS

ANALOG DIGITAL

Figure 15-16. A multimeter is a test tool used to measure two or more electrical values.

If a multimeter does not have a separate setting

for resistance, the positive DC setting is used. The
function and range switches must be set at the correct
quantity and the correct scale must be read when
taking electrical measurements using a multimeter.

Multimeter Use. Multimeters measure many differ-

ent electrical quantities. Care must be taken to ensure
that a multimeter is set on the correct settings, con-
nected to a circuit correctly, and the correct scale is

read accurately. Ensure that the multimeter is prop-

erly set before connecting it to a circuit.

Resistance is measured by first checking that all

power is OFF in the circuit being tested. Resistance
is checked only in an inoperative circuit with the

power turned OFF and the component removed from

the circuit. Multimeters do not require an external
power source because they use a battery to supply
their own current and voltage. Resistance measure-
ments are so sensitive that normal circuit voltages
Fluke Corporation
burn out a multimeter. However, many multimeters
A multimeter enables the testing of several different electrical values. are protected from incorrect use and damage by fuses
 Electricin 333

in their circuitry. Ensure that the multimeter batteries

TRANSFORMERS
are in good condition. Plug the blacic test lead into

the negative jack (-) and plug the red test lead into
SIGNIFICANT
the positive jack (+). In an analog multimeter, adjust
EDDY CURRENTS
for zero (far right) by touching the test leads together
and, using the adjustment knob, set the zero adjust-
ment by placing the pointer on the Q mark. Connect
the meter leads across the component under test and
read the displayed resistance. Turn the meter OFF
after measurements are taken to save battery life.

ELECTRICAL DEVICES

Electrical circuits are used to produce work. To pro-

duce work, an electrical circuit must include a com- STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER
ponent (load), a source of electricity (battery,
generator, etc.), and a method of controlling the flow
LAMINATION --<

of electricity (switch). In addition, a circuit should

also include a protection device (fuse, circuit breaker,
etc.) to ensure that the circuit operates safely and
within its electrical limits. Components encountered
by an mechanical technician include transformers,
contactors, motor starters, fuses, circuit breakers,
GFCIs, switches, and solenoids.

Transformers

A transformer is an electric device that uses electro-

magnetism to change AC voltage from one level to
another. A transformer consists of two looped con- STEP-UP TRANSFORMER
ductors (windings) and a laminated iron core. The
iron core is used as a magnetic coupling between 10 VAC CURRENT
the windings and is laminated to reduce power loss COMES FROM POWER
SOURCE ON PRIMARY SIDE
due to eddy current. Eddy current is an electric cur-
rent that is generated and dissipated in a conductive
material in the presence of an electromagnetic
field. A solid iron core has many unwanted eddy
V AC CURRENT
currents flowing in two directions as AC electric
/
,
1 1

IS INDUCED ON
current alternates through the core. Eddy currents / SECONDARY SIDE
create an excessive amount of heat. Laminating
(layering) iron reduces the amount of eddy cur-
rents. The core, like that in an electromagnet, con-
centrates the flux lines of the conductors. See
Fiaure 15-17.

A is overloaded when it is required

transformer
P'
'

more power than its rating. Trans-

deliver
formers are not damaged when overloaded for a
short period of time.
Figure 15-17. A transformer consists of two looped
conductors (windings) and a laminated iron core.
334 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

The two windings are referred to as the primary

TESTING TRANSFORMERS
and secondary windings. The primary winding is the
power input winding of a transformer and is con-
TRANSFORMER
nected to the incoming power supply. The secondary
winding is the output or load winding of a trans-
former and is connected to the load. A magnetic field

builds up around the primary winding when current

passes through its conductor. As the magnetic field
builds around the primary winding, current is trans-
ferred (induced) in the secondary winding. This is

done without any physical connection between the

two windings.
Alternating current is connected to the primary
winding when an alternating current is transferred
through a transformer. The magnetic field builds up
and collapses in one direction, then reverses direction
and builds up and collapses again, completing one
cycle of the alternating current. Concentrating the NORMAL READING
WHEN CHECKING FOR
primary winding magnetic field, the iron core induces SHORT BETWEEN
WINDING AND BODY ^
a voltage in the secondary winding.
The number of turns in the secondary winding es-
tablishes whether the transformer steps up or steps
down voltage. A transformer is a step-up transformer
if it has more turns in the secondary winding than
in the primary winding. The transformer is a step-
down transformer if there are fewer turns in the sec-
ondary winding than the primary winding. The
amount of voltage induced in the secondary winding
is determined by the ratio of the number of turns of
wire in the secondary winding to those in the primary
winding. For example, if a primary winding contains
100 turns and is connected to an input supply of
120 V, and the secondary winding has 50 turns ('/z

of the primary), the output voltage to the load is 60

V ('/2 the input voltage). In this case, the transformer
is a step-down transformer with a 2 : 1 ratio.
TRANSFORMER
Troubleshooting Transformers. The input and out-
put voltages should be checked if there appears to
be a problem with a transformer. The transformer is
good as far as voltages are concerned if the voltage

is within ±10% of the nameplate rating. A multimeter

set on the resistance setting may be used if a break
in the wires or a short is suspected. This is accom-
plished by first zeroing the meter. Then, check for a
break in either the primary or secondary winding
wires by touching the meter leads to the ends of the
wires of the circuit. Normally, the reading is approxi-
mately midway between zero and infinity for a good
Figure 15-18. Transformers are tested by checking the
transformer. Exact resistance values for each winding
resistance of the primary and secondary windings and
may be found by comparing a good transformer with checking for shorts or breaks between each wire and
one of the same type and size. See Figure 15-18. between each wire and the core.
 Elecmcin- 335

To check a transformer for a short, the meter leads connected to them. Magnetic contactors and motor
should be touched between each of the secondary starters use a coil which magnetically closes a set of
and primary wires, or between each of the secondary contacts to energize and de-energize the load connected
and primary wires and the core. An unshorted trans- to them. Magnetic contactors and motor starters contain
former produces a reading of infinity. Connect the an armature and coil. The armature is connected to a
test lead to the metal of the core, not to the paint set of contacts which, when activated, make contact
or varnish, when checking between the wires and the and close a circuit. See Figure 15-19.
core. During a test for shorts, any reading other than
infinity indicates a short.
Contactors and motor starters consist of com-
pletely separate power circuits and control circuits.
A power circuit is the part of an electrical circuit

Contactors and Motor Starters that connects the load to the main power lines. A
control circuit is a circuit that allows electrical de-
A contactor is a control device that uses a small vices to be controlled from remote locations. A con-
control current to energize or de-energize the load trol circuit requires the use of a pilot device, such
connected to it. A motor starter is an electrically- as a pushbutton, float switch, flow switch, etc. The
operated switch (contactor) that includes motor over- voltage of a control circuit may be lower, higher, or
load protection. Manual contactors and motor starters the same as the power circuit voltage because the
use pushbuttons to energize or de-energize the load control circuit is independent of the power circuit.

CONTACTORS AND MOTOR STARTERS

POWER CIRCUIT

COIL

CONTACTOR -OVERLOAD
TO LOAD RESET

MOTOR STARTER

Figure 15-19. A magnetic contactor or motor starter is operated when a control current is sent to a coil, which magnetically
closes a set of power circuit contacts.
 336 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

The two circuits are always at different current levels. Continuous operation using a momentary pilot sig-
The control circuit may be constructed of a light- nal is accomplished through use of a holding contact.

gauge wire because its required current is only the A holding contact is an auxiliary contact used to
amount needed to produce a magnetic force for con- maintain current flow to the coil of a relay. Holding
tactor or motor starter operation. Many control cir- contacts are physically attached to the side of the
cuits operate on less than 1 A. contactor or motor starter and open and close with

Contactors and motor starters (relays) allow a pilot

the power contacts. Once an ON pushbutton is

pressed, holding contacts may use the current of the

operator in one location to close a switch in another
circuit that it is component of to maintain the closed
a
location. A relay is an interface that controls one
condition of the circuit. Once an OFF pushbutton is
electrical circuit by opening and closing contacts in
pressed, the circuit is opened and current flow to the
another circuit. A relay sends a signal (mechanical
holding contact coil is removed, signaling the holding
input) to a decision maker (contactor or motor
contacts and power contacts to open.
starter), which creates the action by turning ON the
load (motor, heater, light, etc.). A relay consists of
Troubleshooting Contactors and Motor Starters.
a wire coil wound on an iron bar to produce a magnet.
Motor starters usually have built-in motor overload
protection. Overload protection is accomplished
The magnet, produced by a small current from the pilot
operator, moves and connects contacts, closing a circuit
through the use of overload relays. An overload relay

of another (usually higher) voltage. A contact is a con-

is a time-delay device that senses motor current tem-
peratures and disconnects the motor from the power
ducting part of a relay that acts as a switch to connect
or disconnect a circuit or component.
supply if the current is excessive for a certain length
of time. Overload relays are the main difference be-
Contactors or motor starters may relay a signal to tween a motor starter and a contactor. Contactors or
the load through a continual push of a button or op- motor starters should be checked first when there is

erator input switch. In a switch requiring a continual a contactor or motor starter in a circuit and the load
push, power to the load is constant as long as the isinoperative because these components are the point
input switch is held closed. This may not always be where the incoming power, load, and control circuits
the best situation. Most pushbutton switches are are connected. See Figure 15-20.

pressed and released, leaving the load operational and Testing contactors and motor starters is done by
requiring only a momentary pilot signal to operate visually inspecting the contactor or starter for physi-
a load. The load continues to operate until the control cal damage. Check for incoming voltage of the power
circuit is signaled to open. Opening the control cir- circuit. Each hot line must be within ±10% of the
cuit is accomplished by using a stop pushbutton load voltage rating. Also, check each incoming power
switch, which requires only a momentary signal to wire to ground for a blown fuse upstream. Check the
open the circuit. voltage used by the control circuit and the control de-
vice, which may be a start/stop switch or pilot operation

(pressure switch, float switch, flow switch, etc.).

On motor starters, check if the overload has
tripped by testing each side of the overloads for the
presence of voltage. The overloads may have tripped
if there is supply voltage and power voltage but no
output voltage. Do not attempt to reset the overloads
unless authorized to do so. Overloads protect a motor
and normally trip when there is a high current condi-
tion. Other checks must be made by an authorized tech-
nician to determine the overload condition before the
resetting of overloads.

O:are
To meet motor protection needs, overload relays
I

designed have a time delay

to allow to
harmless temporary overloads without disrupting the
The control voltage of a motor starter is checked by touching the circuit.

voltage tester leads to the control circuit terminals.

 Electricity i2n

TESTING CONTACTORS AND MOTOR STARTERS

POWER CIRCUIT

Figure 15-20. The incoming voltage, control voltage, and output voltage should be checked when testing a contactor or
motor starter.

Fuses and Circuit Breakers the electrical circuit before damage is done to the

copper conductor or other electrical devices.

A fuse is an overcurrent protection device with a fus-

ible link that melts and opens the circuit on an over-
current condition. A circuit breaker is a device with
a mechanical mechanism that may manually or auto-
matically open a circuit when an overload condition
or short circuit occurs. Fuses and circuit breakers
automatically interrupt the flow of current in a circuit
if the current exceeds the amount the circuit was de-
signed to handle. Overcurrent conditions may be
caused by an overloaded circuit that uses too many
by a short circuit
lights, appliances, or other loads, or

where a bare hot wire touches another hot wire or

any metal that is grounded.

Excessive heat is generated in a conductor that

has more current than the conductor can handle
because of the activity of the free electrons in the

conductor. This principle is used in safety devices

such as fuses and circuit breakers. Fuses and circuit
breakers are an intentional weak spot in a circuit. Fuses
and circuit breakers have a higher resistance than the
rest of the circuit. Fuses are designed to have high re-

sistance by the use of a material other than copper (usu-

ally zinc alloy), which melts at a lower temperature
than the copper conductor. The melted alloy opens
338 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

less electron activity. The other metal, being a better

TESTING INCOMING VOLTAGE
conductor, offers little resistance and allows greater
electron activity. During a high flow of current, the
great electron excitement in the better conductor
causes its temperature to rise. The difference between
the electron activity in the two metals causes one
metal to expand more than the other. The difference
in expansion rates between the two metals creates a
bending action, which separates the electrical contacts.

Troubleshooting Fuses and Circuit Breakers. To

troubleshoot fuses and circuit breakers, begin by check-
ing the incoming voltage to ensure that power is coming
to the fuse or breaker. An electrical problem may be
as simple as a disconnect switch that was not turned
ON. A disconnect switch (disconnect) is a switch that
disconnects electrical circuits from motors and ma-
chines. Also, within a problem electrical distribution
system, power may be fed through other fuses or
breakers with the problem being further upstream.

Incoming power to fuses or circuit breakers is

tested using a voltage tester by checking between

each incoming power lead and ground or by check-
ing between each pair of power leads. See Figure

15-21. Incoming voltage should be within ±10% of

the nameplate voltage. A high or low voltage situ-
ation indicates a supply problem. In a 240 V circuit,

each leg should have 120 V.

A check should be made for proper grounding of

the enclosure, conduit, boxes, etc., if proper voltage
is present. To test for proper grounding, connect one
probe of the voltage tester to an unpainted metal part
of the equipment (enclosure) and touch the other
probe to each of the line terminals. Properly
grounded equipment produces a voltage indication.

Fuses or circuit breakers are also tested for an

open circuit. This may be accomplished using a volt-
age tester and line power, or with the fuses or circuit
breakers removed using a continuity tester. Always
turn OFF the power and remove the fuses or breakers
when checking with a continuity tester. To prevent
accidental dead shorts, remove fuses using a fuse
puller. A fuse puller is a device made of a non-con-
ductive material such as nylon that is used to grasp
and remove cartridge fuses. See Figure 15-22. With
the fuse or breaker removed, place continuity tester
leads across the fuse or breaker. The fuse or breaker
is good if the continuity tester lights. The fuse or
breaker is bad if the continuity tester does not light.
The circuit breaker must be in the ON position when
testing using a continuity tester.
 Electricitx 339

TESTING FUSES AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS

FUSE PULLER

DISCONNECT OFF

VOLTAGE TESTER -

Figure 15-22. Fuse or circuit breaker condition may be checl<ed using a voltage tester witln the disconnect ON or with a
continuity tester after the disconnect has been opened and the fuses or breakers removed.

Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) ous depending upon the path the current takes, the
amount of time exposed to the shock, and the physi-
A ground fault exists when an unintended current
cal condition of the person receiving the shock.

path is established between ground and an un- Therefore, GFCIs are required in such places as

grounded (hot) conductor. A ground fault may result dwellings, hotels, motels, construction sites, marinas,

from defective electrical equipment, improperly in- receptacles near swimming pools and hot tubs, un-

stalled equipment, or through misuse of good equip- derwater lighting, fountains, and other areas in which
ment. Ground faults may damage equipment. More a person may experience a ground fault.

importantly, however, a ground fault may cause an

electrical shock resulting in injury or death to any A GFCI compares the amount of current in the
person who becomes part of the ground fault circuit. ungrounded (hot) conductor with the amount of cur-
See NEC® 210-8, 215-9. 215-10, and 230-95. See rent in the neutral conductor. If the current in the
Figure 15-23. neutral conductor becomes less than the current in

the hot conductor, a ground fault condition exists.

A ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) is an The amount of current that is missing is returned to
electrical device that protects personnel by detecting the source by some path other than the intended path
potentially hazardous ground faults and quickly dis- (fault current). A fault current as low as 4 mA to 6
connecting power from the circuit. A potentially dan- mA will activate the GFCI and interrupt the circuit.
gerous ground fault is any amount of current above Once activated, the fault condition is cleared and the
the level that may deliver a dangerous shock. Any GFCI is manually reset before power may be restored
current over 8 mA is considered potentially danger- to the circuit. See Figure 15-24.
340 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

GFCI protection may be installed at different lo-

cations within a circuit. Direct-wired GFCI recepta-
cles provide a ground fault protection at the point
of installation.

-NEUTRAL WIRE GFCI receptacles may also be connected to pro-

vide GFCI protection at all other receptacles installed
downstream on the same circuit. GFCI CBs, when
installed in a load center or panelboard, provide GFCI
protection and conventional circuit overcurrent protec-
branch circuit components connected to
tion for all the
CB. Plug-in GFCIs provide ground fault protection for
FAULTY I
=5r~-- GROUND FAULT devices plugged into them. These plug-in devices are
APPLIANCE I
^ CURRENT
often used by personnel working with power tools in
-REDUCED CURRENT
an area that does not include GFCI receptacles.

Switches

A switch is a device that starts or stops the flow of

electrical energy. Regardless of the source being
used, power must be under control at all times. Con-
trol of power means that a system must contain de-
NEUTRAL WIRE
L vices that permit it to be safely turned ON or OFF.
limited in strength, or controlled in direction. Con-
trolling the ON/OFF function of power is accom-
plished using a switch. A switch is closed when it

allows current to flow in a circuit. A switch is open

Figure 15-23. A ground fault exists when an unintended when it prevents How of current in a circuit. See
current path is established to ground. Figure 15-25.

SOLID-STATE CIRCUITRY
(USED TO MEASURE
CURRENT FLOW)-

V RESISTOR
(USED TO LIMIT
CURRENT FLOW)

_L ---EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
~ CONDUCTOR -RESISTOR
(USED TO DETECT
CURRENT FLOW)

Figure 15-24. A GFCI compares the amount of current in the ungrounded conductor with the amount of current in the
grounded conductor.
 Elect ricin- 341

the switch is in the OFF position and the tester leads

are connected between the load side and ground. See
Figure 15-26.

Testing a switch with a continuity tester is accom-

plished with the switch removed from electrical en-
ergy because a continuity tester uses its own power
supply. A continuity tester is used for switch testing
to ensure that the mechanisms within the switch are
properly making or breaking contacts and allowing
or preventing continuity of current flow. This is ac-
complished by connecting one of the tester leads to
either of the switch terminals and the other lead to
the remaining terminal. A switch in good operating
condition indicates a light condition when the switch

SWITCH ON WHEN
is in the ON position and a no light condition when
IN UP POSITION the switch is in the OFF position. Continuity testers
HOT CONDUCTOR may also be used to give an indication of current
(RED OR BLACK)
paths on 3-way light switches.

Figure 15-25. A switch is used to allow or prevent the flow

Solenoids
of currentin a circuit by switching the hot (live) conductor.

A solenoid is a device that converts electrical energy

Conductors to and from a switch must be identi-
to a linear, mechanical force. Solenoid use is com-
fied. The neutral conductor is grounded to earth and mon in the operation of valves, clutches, contactors,
is always white or gray. Hot wires are generally red
and motor starters. A solenoid consists of a plunger
or black, although colors other than red or black are
(armature) and a coil. A magnetic field is set up
sometimes used. Switching neutral wires should around the coil when the coil is energized by an elec-
never be used to open or close a circuit unless all the
tric current. The magnetic field causes the plunger
wires in the circuit are used for switching. Generally,
to move into the coil. See Figure 15-27.
only the hot wire is used for switching purposes.

Troubleshooting Switches. Testing a switch may be

accomplished by using a voltage tester when the
switch is connected to a voltage supply or by using
a continuity testerwhen the switch is removed from
Checking a switch to determine that it is
the circuit.
working properly is done by first checking the supply
voltage to verify that the voltage is present at the
switch terminals using a voltage tester. This is ac-
complished by checking between the supply line ter-
minal of the switch and ground. Ground may be
found as a separate wire (generally bare) within the
conduit, cable, or raceway, or as the metal enclosure
and conduit itself. A voltage should be indicated as
one lead is connected to the supply side of a switch
(hot side) and the other lead is connected to
ground. A voltage reading should also be indicated
when the switch is in the ON position and one
tester leadis connected to the load side of the

switch and the other lead is connected to ground.

Voltage into a switch is tested by connecting one lead to ttie supply
A voltage reading should not be indicated when side of the switch and the other lead to ground.
342 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

TESTING SWITCHES

SOURCE ^GROUNDED
TERMINAL/ ENCLOSURE

VOLTAGE TESTER CONTINUITY TESTER

Figure 15-26. Testing a switch may be accomplished using a voltage tester when the switch is connected to a voltage
supply or a continuity tester when the switch is removed from the circuit.

SOLENOID OPERATION
MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCED
AROUND COIL W/HEN CURRENT
FLOWS THROUGH WINDINGS -

N>^-^^

Figure 15-27. A magnetic field is set up around the coil of a solenoid when the coil is energized by an electric current.
 Electricity 343

The force of the plunger movement is transmitted

TESTING SOLENOIDS
into a useful function by being combined with or
attached to some other device. For example, a
plunger attached to a set of electrical contacts be-
comes a relay switch. A plunger attached to a friction
pad becomes a brake or clutch. A plunger attached
to a spool in a housing becomes a valve.

Troubleshooting Solenoids. To troubleshoot a so-

lenoid, first check that the solenoid is capable of
MULTIMETER
receiving the proper voltage when required. Then,
lock out all electrical power to the solenoid or so-
lenoid circuit. Double-check the electrical lockout
by challenging the solenoid circuit. Challenging is

the process of pressing or selecting the start switch

of a machine to determine if the machine starts when
it is not supposed to start. At this time, check for
any voltages that may be coming from another SHORTED SOLENOID
source. Remove the solenoid cover and visually in-
READING IF COIL HAS
spect for burnt, broken, or frozen parts. Verify that A BROKEN WIRE
the plunger is free to move and is not jammed. Most
solenoids have ways to be manually shifted.

Electrical troubleshooting begins by disconnecting

the solenoid wires from the electrical circuit to
check the coil resistance. Connect the leads of a
multimeter set on the resistance setting to the so-
lenoid wires. The condition of the solenoid is based
on the meter reading. The solenoid is good if the
meter is within ±15% of the normal coil or rated
value. Unknown values may be found by comparing
a good solenoid with that of the same type and
size. A low or zero reading indicates a short in the
SOLENOID WITH BROKEN WIRE
solenoid coil windings. No reading or a reading of
infinity indicates that the coil has a broken wire
and is open. See Figure 15-28.

ELECTRICAL SAFETY

Improper electrical wiring or misuse of electricity

causes destruction of equipment and fire damage to
property. Electricity is the number one cause of fires.
More than 100,000 people are killed in electrical fires
each year. Safe working habits are required when
troubleshooting an electrical circuit or component be-
cause the electric parts that are normally enclosed
GOOD SOLENOID
are exposed. Electrical safety rules should be prac-
Figure 15-28. Solenoids are tested using a mLiltlmeter set
ticed by all personnel working with electricity. See
on the resistance setting to check for shorts, broken wires,
Figure 15-29.
or normal resistance.
 344 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Always comply with the NEC®.
Use UL® approved appliances, components, and equipment.
Keep electrical grounding circuits in good condition. Ground any conductive component or element that does
not have to be energized. The grounding connection must be a low-resistance conductor heavy enough to carry
the largest fault current that may occur.
Turn OFF, lockout, and tag disconnect switches when working on any electrical circuit or equipment. Test all
circuits after they are turned OFF Insulators may not insulate, grounding circuits may not ground, and switches
may not open the circuit.
Use double-insulated power tools or power tools that include a third conductor grounding terminal which
provides a path for fault current. Never use a power tool that has the third conductor grounding terminal
removed.
Always use protective and safety equipment.
Know what to do in an emergency
Check conductors, cords, components, and equipment for signs of wear or damage. Replace any equipment
that is not safe.
Never throw water on an electrical fire. Turn OFF the power and use a Class C rated fire extinguisher.

Work when working in a dangerous area or with dangerous equipment.

with another individual
Learn CPR
and first aid.
Do not work when tired or taking medication that causes drowsiness.
Do not work in poorly lighted areas.
Always use nonconductive ladders. Never use a metal ladder when working around electrical equipment.
Ensure there are no atmospheric hazards such as flammable dust or vapor in the area. A live electrical circuit
may emit a spark at any time.
Use one hand when working on a live circuit to reduce the chance of an electrical shock passing through the
heart and lungs.
Never bypass or disable fuses or circuit breakers.
Extra care must be taken in an electrical fire because burning Insulation produces toxic fumes.
Always fill out accident forms and report any electrical shock.

Figure 15-29. Electrical safety rules should be practiced by all personnel working with electricity.

Electrical current always searches for the path of

least resistance (direction back to ground). Ground
is an electrical connection to the earth. A dead short
(short circuit) occurs if an uncontrolled flow of cur-
rent goes back to ground. A short circuit could over-
heat wires and burn up motors or switches and even
start a fire. Also, electricity does not require wire to
form a circuit or to complete its path. Electricity
flows through gas, water, air, and even human flesh
when given the opportunity.

The technician must make a conscious effort to

remain safe when working around electric current.
The severity at which an individual is affected by
electrical shock depends on the rate of current flow
through the body and the resistance to electricity of
an individual's body. See Figure 15-30.

(Hh) Over 1000 people are killed each year in the

^"^ United States from electrical shock and over
Fluke Corporation
65,000 injuries occur due to failure to properly con-
Proper test and personal safety equipment must i used when testing trol hazardous energy sources during maintenance.
any electrical circuit.
 Electricin 345

EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

 346 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

Figure 15-31. Equipment must be locked out and tagged out before maintenance or servicing is performed.

Advanced Assembly Automation Inc. Harrington Hoists Inc.

Electrical devices should be wired in an orderly manner to promote The Peerless ES electric chain hoist has an electric limit-

efficiency and safety. switch mechanism to automatically stop the hoist instantly
in case of overlifting or overloading.
 Appendix
^\S\\\\^\^^^\\\\^Vt\^-^'^^^ ^

English System 348

Metric System 349
Prefixes 350
Conversion Table 350
English to Metric Equivalents 35
Metric to English Equivalents 352
Stock Material Weight 353
Hoisting Equipment Checklist 354
AISI-SAE Designation System 355
Unified Numbering System (UNS) for Metals and Alloys 355
Standard Series Threads - Graded Pitches 356
Metric Drill Sizes 356
Inch - Millimeter Equivalents 357
Twist Drill Fractional. Number, and Letter Sizes 358
Metric Screw Threads 358
Drilled Hole Tolerances 358
Regular Nut Eyebolts 359
Shoulder Nut Eyebolts 360
Machinery Eyebolts 361
Wire Rope Strength 362
Sling Angle Loss Factors 362
Choker Sling Loss Factors 362
Filter Pressure Loss Constants 363
Pipe Pressure Loss Constants (100 ft of Schedule 40 Pipe) 363
Pipe Fitting Pressure Loss Constants 363
Pipe 364
Fluid Weights/Temperature Standards 364
Fluid Power Graphic Symbols 365
Logic Symbols 368
FluidPower Abbreviations/Acronyms 369
Timing Belt Standard Pitch Lengths and Tolerances 370
Timing Belt Standard Widths and Tolerances 371
Allowable Tight Side Tension For AA Section V-Belts 372
Allowable Tight Side Tension For BB Section V-Belts 373
Allowable Tight Side Tension For CC Section V-Belts 374
Allowable Tight Side Tension For DD Section V-Belts 375
Vibration Characteristics 376
Vibration Severity 377
Three-Phase Voltage Values 378
Power Formula Abbreviations and Symbols 378
Ohm's Law and Power Formula 378
Power Formulas - 3(() 1 (j), 378
Horsepower to Torque Conversion 379
Motor Horsepower 380
Common Nails 381
Chemical Elements 382
348 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

ENGLISH SYSTEM
 AppemlLx 349

METRIC SYSTEM
LENGTH Unit Abbreviation Number of Base Units
kilometer
1000

hectometer 100

square kilometer

A= I X w

square centimeter

VOLUME cubic centimeter cu cm, cm", or cc

cubic decimeter
V = lxw)

CAPACITY

cubic decimeter

MASS AND WEIGHT

kilogram

decigram dg
350 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

I .
 Appendix 351

ENGLISH TO METRIC EQUIVALENTS

LENGTH Metric Equivalent

5 029
.9144

> IP MM ,,yj^.

.405 hectacre. 4047 m^

,.., ^%,
CAPACITY

MASS AND WEIGHT

i
352 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

METRIC TO ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS

 Appendix 353

1
STOCK MATERIAL WEIGHT*
354 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

HOISTING EQUIPMENT CHECKLIST

1. Prior to Installation: 7. Lower Hook Travel (when hoist

Check for any possible damage during shipment. Do not does not have lower limit switch):
install a damaged hoist. LJ Lower the unloaded hook to its lowest possible operating

Check all lubricant levels. point, or, for wire rope hoists, until two full wraps of wire
remain on the drum.
LJ Check wire rope for damage if hoist wire-rope type. Be
sure wire rope is properly seated in drum grooves and Q If it appears that less than two wraps of wire rope will be

sheaves. on the drum at the lowest possible operating point, the

hoist cannot be installed or used unless it is equipped w ith
U Check chain for damage if hoist is chain type. Be sure
a lower limit device.
chain properly enters sprockets and chain guiding points.

Q Check to be sure that power supply shown on serial plate 8. Trolley Operation:
of hoist is the same as the power supply planned for con- CJ Operate a trolley-mounted hoist over its entire travel dis-
nection to the hoist. tance on a monorail beam while the hoist is unloaded to
check all clearances and verily that no interference occurs.
2. Installation:
Q Install stationary mounting or trolley mounting to
9. Braking System:
monorail beam exactly as instructed by the manufac- U Raise and lower hook, without load, stopping the motion
at several points to test the operation of the brakes.

Q Check supporting structure, including monorail, to make lJ Raise hook with capacity load several inches and stop to
sure it has a load rating equal to that of the hoist installed, check that brake holds the load and that the load does not
downward. If drift does not occur, raise and lower
drift

3. Power Supply: hook with capacity load, stopping the motion at several
points to test the operation of the brakes.
U Make sure all electrical connections are made in accord-
ance with manufacturer's wiring diagram, which usually
is
10. Load Test:
found inside the cover of the control enclosure.
Load test the hoist with a load equal to 1 2.')% of the rated
LI Make sure electrical supply system is in compliance with capacity load. If the hoist is equipped with a load limiting
the National Electrical Code®. device that prevents the lifting of \259c of the rated load,
testing should be accomplished with a load equal to 100%
4. Phase Connections: of the rated capacity load, followed by a test to cheek the
Q Depress the UP button on the pendant control to determine function of the load limiting device.
the direction of hook travel. If hook travel is upward, the
hoist is properly phased. If it is downward, discontinue
11. Filing the Report:
operation until phasing is corrected. LJ Prepare written report outlining installation procedures,
probleins encountered, and results of all checks and tests
Li Correct power connections if hoist is improperly phased by
conducted. This report should indicate the approval or
changing any two power line leads to the hoist. Never
certification of the equipment for plant use, and should be
change internal wiring connections in the hoist or pendant
signed by the responsible individual and filed in the equip-
ment folder.
CJ Recheck operation of hoist after interchanging power I

leads to confirm proper di. 12. Operating Instructions:

[J Issue instructions for hoist operators based on instructions
5. Upper Limit Switch: and warning in hoist manufacturer's manual.
Raise unloaded hook until below the
it is approximately 1'
Q Check warning tag or label on the hoist and make sure it
upper limit switch trip point. Slowly jog hook upward until stays there. Warning tag is a recent code requireinent for
hook can be raised no further. Lower block about 2' and new equipment. It is highly recommended for existing
raise without jogging until limit switch trips and hook can equipment. The warning tag should contain the following
be raised no further. message:
Disconnect power supply and check all electrical connec-
tions if upper limit switch does not operate, or trip point is
WARNING:
loo close to hoist. To avoid injury, do not:

Make any necessary adjustments. lift more than rated load

lift people or load over people

Reconnect power supply and recheck hoist operation after
checking connections or making adjustments. operate with twisted, kinked, or damaged rope or chain

operate damaged or malfunctioning hoist

6. Lower Limit Switch: make side pulls that misalign rope or chain with hoist

LJ Check operation of hoist having a lower limit switch in operate if rope is not seated in groove or chain in pockets

same manner as for one with an upper limit switch. Never operate unless travel devices limit function; test each
adjust lower limn switch to a point where less than one wrap shift

of wire rope remams on the drum. operate hand-powered hoist except with hand power
 Appendix 355

AISI-SAE DESIGNATION SYSTEM

356 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

STANDARD SERIES THREADS - GRADED PITCHES

 Appendix 357

INCH — MILLIMETER EQUIVALENTS*

358 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

TWIST DRILL FRACTIONAL,

NUMBER, AND LETTER SIZES
 Appemtix 359

REGULAR NUT EYEBOLTS

360 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

SHOULDER NUT EYEBOLTS

 Appendix 361

MACHINERY EYEBOLTS
362 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS
 Appendix 363

FILTER PRESSURE LOSS CONSTANTS

364 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS
 Appendix 365

FLUID POWER GRAPHIC S ^17.

LINES QUICK DISCONNECTS

SOLID (MAIN LINE)

CONNECTED DISCONNECTED

DASHED (PILOT LINE)

WITHOUT CHECKS

DOTTED (DRAIN LINE)

-o> <o ^M^^I

CONNECTED DISCONNECTED
WITH TWO CHECKS
CENTER (ENCLOSURE LINE)

ARROWS
CONNECTED DISCONNECTED
WITH ONE CHECK

ADJUSTABLE ADJUSTABLE ACCUMULATORS

SPRING PRESSURE FLOW
CONTROL

^ H
SPRING LOADED GAS CHARGED WEIGHTED

RESERVOIRS
DIRECTION OF FLOW

PRESSURIZED SIMPLIFIED SYMBOL

HEAT EXCHANGERS
FLOW LINES

LIQUID GASEOUS
TO HEAT
RECEIVER FILTER -STRAINER FILTER -SEPARATORS

MANUAL DRAIN AUTOMATIC DRAIN

366 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

FLUID POWER GRAPHIC SYMBOLS

AIR DRYER LUBRICATORS INSTRUMENTS

NO DRAIN MAUAL DRAIN

ACTUATORS AND CONTROLS

^ (tC
PUSHBUTTON
fc
^8^
FLOW METER

INDICATING AND RECORDING

t^ d^ C!2^ ZC
0(C [^ A/N K\A

SOLENOID OR PILOT SOLENOID OR PILOT

ETF Cm^
SOLENOID AND PILOT
PNEUMATIC NOZZLE

EXTERNAL SUPPLY INTERNAL SUPPLY

AND EXHAUST

eh \^z SERVO
^.
SOLENOID
IZH
SOLENOID AND
HYDRAULIC NOZZLE

OR PILOT
MANUAL OR MANUAL

CYLINDERS ACCESSORIES

7>^
SINGLE-ACTING PRESSURE SWITCH

^
PRESSURE INTENSIFIER
>
 Appendix 367

FLUID POWER GRAPHIC SYMBOL

HYDRAULIC PUMPS PNEUMATIC PUMPS PNEUMATIC MOTORS

FIXED VARIABLE
UNIDIRECTIONAL BIDIRECTIONAL
DISPLACEMENT DISPLACEMENT
FIXED DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR PRESSURE UNIDIRECTIONAL BIDIRECTIONAL
COMPENSATED
COMPRESSOR
OSCILLATORS PRIME MOVERS

^ ^
UNIDIRECTIONAL BIDIRECTIONAL
VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT
MANUALLY COMPENSATED
^x —^^
MANUAL SHUT-OFF
VALVES

AA
NORMALLY CLOSED
AA
NORMALLY OPEN
TWO-WAY TWO POSITION

^A AA ^ I

UNIDIRECTIONAL BIDIRECTIONAL
VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT
PRESSURE COMPENSATED

HYDRAULIC MOTORS

UNIDIRECTIONAL BIDIRECTIONAL
FIXED DISPLACEMENT

UNIDIRECTIONAL BIDIRECTIONAL
VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT
368 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

mmm^-Tw:
LOGIC ELEMENT
LOGIC OUTPUT IF ALL OUTPUT IF ANY ONE OUTPUT IF SINGLE OUTPUT IF ALL OUTPUT IF ANY
ELEMENT CONTROL INPUT OF THE CONTROL CONTROL INPUT CONTROL INPUT OF THE CONTROL
FUNCTION SIGNALS ARE ON INPUTS IS ON SIGNAL IS OFF SIGNALS ARE ON INPUTS ARE ON

MIL-STD-806B
AND ELECTRONIC
LOGIC SYMBOL

\—\h<^^ { H^' CR

lB^
ELECTRICAL SWITCH
LOGIC SYMBOL -^v^
-^v=

=h?

( )•( ( )+( ( ( )•( ( )+(

FLUIDIC DEVICE
TURBULENCE
AMPLIFIER s^
 Appendix 369

FLUID POWER ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS

 370 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

1
TIMING BELT STANDARD PITCH LENGTHS AND TOLERANCES* |
 Appendix 371

f. ^
372 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

^.'-'^-^
.t^ii^
Appnulh 373
374 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

fe .
i
 Appendix 375

ALLOWABLE TIGHT SIDE TENSION FOR DD SECTION V-BELT

376 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

I
 Appendix ill

VIBRATION SEVERITY
378 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

THREE-PHASE VOLTAGE VALUES

 Appendix 379

HORSEPOWER TO TORQUE CONVERSION

38() INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

, ;,a«|
Appendix 381
382 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
 w ?\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\^^^^^
assci.ax^.^i^tKji^'imsai.

Glossary
:

alternating current (AC): A flow of electrons that reverses

its direction of flow at regular intervals.

altitude: The perpendicular dimension from the vertex

1.

to the base of a triangle. 2. The perpendicular distance be-

tueen the two bases of a prism. 3. The perpendicular dis-

abrasion: The removal or displacement ot material due to
tance from the vertex to the base of a pyramid.
the pressure of hard particles.

abrasive wear: Wear caused by small, hard particles.

ambient temperature: The temperature of the air surround-
ing a piece of equipment.
absolute pressure: Pressure above a pert'ecl vacuum.
amp: A measure of a quantity of electron movement per
absolute rating: .An indication of the largest opening in a
second, commonly referred to as electric current.
strainer element.
anchoring: Any means of fastening a mechanism securely
absolute temperature: The temperature on a scale that be- to a base or foundation.
gins with absolute zero.
AND logic element: A logic element that provides a logic
absolute zero: The temperature at which substances possess level I only if all inputs are at logic level I.
no heat.
angle: The intersection of two lines or sides.
acceleration: An increase in speed.
angular-contact bearing: A rolling-contact bearing de-
accelerometer transducer: A de\ice constructed of signed to carry both heavy axial (thrust) loads and radial
quartz crystal material that produces an electric current loads.
when compressed.
angular misalignment: 1. In ITexible belt drives, a con-
accumulator: A container in which fluid is stored under dition where two shafts are parallel but at different angles
pressure. with the horizontal plane. 2. In inotor couplings, a condi-
action: The work of an actuator or a pilot operator, which tion where one shaft is at an angle to the other shaft.
becomes the input for another section of a control circuit. angular soft foot: A condition that exists when one ma-
actuator: A de\ ice that transforms fluid energy into linear chine foot is bent and not on the same plane as the other
or rotary mechanical force. feet.

acute angle: An angle that contains less than 90°. arc: A portion of the circumference.

acute triangle: A scalene triangle with each angle less than area: The number of unit squares equal to the surface of
90°. an object.

additive: A chemical compound added to a fluid to change armature: The moveable part of a generator or motor.
its properties. asymmetrical load: A load in which one-half of the load
adjacent angles: Angles that ha\'e the same vertex and is not a mirror image of the other half.
one side in common. atmospheric pressure: The force exerted by the weight of
adsorption: The adhesion of a gas or liquid to the surface the atmosphere on the Earth's surface.

of a porous material. atom: The smallest building block of matter that cannot
aftercooler: A heat exchanger that cools air that has been be divided into smaller units without changing its basic
compressed. character.
air compressor: A device that takes air from the atmos- authorized individual: A knowledgeable individual to
phere and compresses it to increase its pressure. whom the authority and responsibility to perform a specific
air cylinder: A device that converts compressed air energy assignment has been given.
into linear mechanical energy. auto-ignition: The temperature at which oil ignites by itself.

air motor: An air-driven device that converts fluid energy axial float: The axial movement of a shaft due to bearing
into rotary mechanical energy. and bearing housing clearances.
alignment: The location (within tolerance) of one axis of axial load: A load in which the applied force is parallel
a coupled machine shaft relative to that of another. to the axis of rotation.
384 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

bolt bound: The prevention of the horizontal movement

B of a machine due to the contacting of the machine anchor

bolts to the sides of the machine anchor holes.
boundary lubrication: The condition of lubrication in
which the friction between two surfaces in motion is de-
babbitt metals: Alloys of soft metals such as copper, tin,
termined by the properties of the surfaces and the properties
and lead, and a hard material such as antimony.
of the lubricant other than viscosity.
backlash: The play between mating gear teeth.
Bourdon tube: A hollow metal tube made of brass or simi-
balanced-vane pump: A vane pump that has two sets of
lar material.
internal ports and contains an elliptical cam ring. bowline knot: A knot that forms a loop that is absolutely
ball bearing: An anti-friction bearing that permits free mo- secure.
tion between a moving part and a fixed part by means of breakaway torque: The initial energy required to get a
balls confined between inner and outer rings. nonmoving load to turn.
base: The side upon which a triangle stands. bridge girder: The principal horizontal beam that supports
base diameter: The diameter from which the involute por- a hoist trolley and is supported by end trucks.
tion of a tooth profile is generated. butt spur: A notched, pointed, or spiked end of a ladder
base plate: A rigid steel support for firmly coupling and which helps prevent the ladder butt from slipping.
aligning two or more rotating devices.
bases: The ends of a prism.
bearing: A machine part that supports another part, such
as a shaft, which rotates or slides in or on it.

bed section: The lower section of an extension ladder.

bellows: A device that draws air in through a flapper valve
when expanded and expels the air through a nozzle when cab: A compartment or platform attached to a bridge girder
contracted. from which an operator may ride while controlling a crane.
belt and sheave groove gauge: A
gauge that has a male cabling: A rope's attempt to rotate and untwist its strand
form to determine the size of a pulley and a female form lays while under stress.
to determine the size of a belt. cage: A barrier or enclosure mounted on the siderails of a
belt deflection method: A belt tension method in which fixed ladder or fastened to a structure.
the tension is adjusted by measuring the deflection of the cam ring: A metal ring that provides an area for fluid flow
belt. and a surface against which vanes ride.
belt pitch line: A line located on the same plane as the cantilever: A projecting beam or member supported at only
belt tension member. one end.
bend: A permanent movement of a hook attempting to capacity: The ability to hold or contain something.
straighten. capillary action: The action by which the surface of a
bending strength: A metal's resistance to bending or de- liquid is elevated on a material due to its relative molecular
flection in the direction in which the load is applied. attraction.
bevel gear: A gear that connects shafts at an angle in the carrier: The track of a ladder safety system consisting of
same plane. a flexible cable or rigid rail secured to a ladder or structure.
bight: A loose or slack part of a rope between two fixed cats-paw hitch: A hitch used as a light-duty, quickly-
ends. formed eye for a hoisting hook.
bimetallic device: A device that consists of two dissimilar caustic solution: A liquid that creates heat and corrosion.
metals. cavitation: The process in which microscopic gas bubbles
binary system: A system that has two values such as pres- expand in a vacuum and suddenly implode when entering
sure or no pressure. a pressure.
bird caging: A damage condition of wire rope where the center of gravity: The balancing point of a load.
strands separate and open forming a shape similar to a bird centerpoint: The point a circle or arc is drawn around.
cage. centralized system: A lubrication system that contains per-
blackwall hitch: A hitch made for securing a rigging rope manently installed plumbing, distribution valves, reservoir,
to a hoisting hook. and pump to provide lubrication.
bladder gas charged accumulator: An accumulator con- centrifugal force: The outward force produced by a rotating
sisting of a seamless steel shell, a rubber bladder (bag) object.
with a gas valve, and a poppet valve. chain: A series of metal rings connected to one another and
block: An assembly of hook(s), pulley(s), and frame sus- used for support, restraint, or transmission of mechanical power.
pended by hoisting ropes. challenging: The process of pressing or selecting the start
blockout: The process of placing a solid object in the path switch of a machine to determine if the machine starts when
of a power source to prevent accidental energy flow. it is not supposed to start.
check valve: A valve that allows flow in only one direction. connecting rod: The rod that connects the crankshaft to a
chemisorption: A chemical adsorption process in which piston.
v\eak chemical bonds are formed between liquid or gas Conrad bearing: A single-row ball bearing without loading
molecules and solid surfaces. slots that has deeper-than-norinal races.
choker hook: A sliding hook used in a choker sling and contact: A conducting part of a relay that acts as a switch
hooked to a sling eye. to connect or disconnect a circuit or component.
chord: A line from circumference to circumference not
contactor: A control device that uses a small control current
through the ccnterpoint.
to energize or de-energize the load connected to it.
circle: 1. A plane figure generated about a ccnterpoint.
continuity tester: A device that indicates if a circuit is open
2. A plane figure formed by a cutting plane perpendicular
or closed.
to the axis of a cone.
control circuit: A circuit that allows electrical devices to
circuit: A closed path through which hydraulic fluid flows.
be controlled from remote locations.
circuit breaker: A device with a mechanical mechanism
controlled flow: The fluid flow after a flow control device
that may manually or automatically open a circuit when an
has reduced the volume (gpm) of the fluid flow.
overload condition or short circuit occurs.
circular pitch: 1. In belts, the distance from the center of core protrusion: A damage condition of wire rope where
one tooth to the center of the next tooth, measured along compressive forces from within the rope force the strands
the pitch line. 2. In gears, the distance from a point on apart.
a
gear tooth to the corresponding point on the next gear tooth, corrosion: The action or process of eating or wearing away
measured along the pitch circle. gradually by cheinical action.

circumference: The boundary of a circle. corrosive wear: Wear resulting from metal being attacked by
clearance: The radial distance between the top of a tooth acid.

and the bottom of the mating tooth space when fully mated. coulomb: A quantity of electrons equal to 6.25 x lo"'.
cleat: A narrow wood piece, nailed across another board coupling: A device that connects the ends of rotating shafts.
or boards, to provide support or to prevent movement. coupling face: The flat surface of a coupling half, facing
closed circuit: An electrical circuit with a completed path the flat surface of the connecting coupling half.
that allows current flow.
coupling rim: The outside diameter surface of a coupling.
clove hitch: A quick hitch used to secure a rope temporarily
to an object. coupling unbalance: An unequal radial weight distribution
where the mass and coupling geometric lines do not coincide.
coalescing filter: A device that removes submicron solids
and vapors of oil or water by uniting very small droplets
cow hitch: A hitch used to secure a tag line to a load.

into larger droplets. crankshaft: A shaft that has one or more eccentric sur-
faces that produce a reciprocating motion when the shaft
coefficient of friction: The measure of the frictional force
between two surfaces is rotated.
in contact.

commutator: A device for reversing the direction of current crossover: One wrap winding on top of the preceding wrap.
flowing through the wires of a rotating armature that ensures crowning: A reverse strand splice that is used when an
a single-direction flow of current from a generator. enlarged rope end is desired or not objectionable.
competent person: A person capable of recognizing and cubic foot: Contains 1728 cu in. (12" x 12" x 12" = 1728 cu in.).
evaluating employee exposure to hazardous substances or
cubic inch: Measures 1" x I" x I" or its equivalent.
to other unsafe conditions and of specifying the necessary
cubic yard: Contains 27 cu ft (3' x 3' x 3' = 27 cu ft).
protection and precautions to be taken to ensure the safety
cup seal: A lip seal whose lip forms the shape of a cup.
of all employees.
current (electron flow): The amount of electrons flowing
complementary angles: Two angles formed by three lines in
through an electrical circuit.
which the sum of the two angles equals 90°.
compound gear train: Two or more sets of gears where two
curved line: A line that continually changes direction.
gears arc keyed and rotate on one common shaft.
curve/rope (D/d) ratio: The ratio between the diameter of
concentric circles: Two or inore circles with different diame- a curved component (D), such as a pulley, and the nominal
ters but the same ccnterpoint. diameter of the rope (d).

condensation: The change in state from a gas to a liquid.

curvilinear belt: A timing belt containing circular-shaped
teeth.
conductor: A material that has very little resistance and per-
mits electrons to move through it easily.
cutaway diagram: A diagram showing the internal de-
tails of components and the path of fluid flow.
cone: A solid generated by a straight line moving in contact
with a curve and passing through the vertex. cylinder: A solid generated by a straight line (genatrix)
conic section: A curve produced by a plane intersecting a moving in contact with a curve and remaining parallel to
right circular cone. the axis and its previous position.
connecting link: A three-part chain attachment used to as- cylindrical roller bearing: A roller bearing having cylinder-
semble and connect the muster link to a chain. shaped rollers.
386 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

dropping point of grease: The temperature at which the

D oilin grease separates from the thickener and runs out,

leaving just the thickener.

drum wrap: The rope length required to make one com-
plete turn around the drum of a hoist or crane.
decision: A judgement or conclusion reached or given. dry air: Air free of water vapor or oil droplets.
deniulsification: The act of separating water and oil
dryer: A device that dries air through cooling and con-
quickly.
densing.
desiccant dryer: A device that removes water vapor by dynamic electricity: Electron How from one atom to an-
adsorption. other atom.
dew point: The temperature to which air must be cooled dynamic head: The head of fluid in motion.
in order for the moisture in the air to begin condensing. dynamic head pressure: The pressure and velocity of a
dial indicator: A device that measures the deviation from fluid produced by a liquid in motion.
a true circular path. dynamic lift: The lift of fluid in motion.
diameter: The distance from circumference to circumfer- dynamic range: The ratio between the smallest and largest
ence through the centerpoint. signals that can be analyzed simultaneously.
diametral pitch: The ratio of the number of teeth in a gear dynamic seal: A seal used between moving parts that pre-
to the diameter of the gear's pitch circle. vents leakage or contamination.
diaphragm gas charged accumulator: An accumulator dynamic signal analyzer: An analyzer that uses digital sig-
with a flexible diaphragm separating the gas and fluid. nal processing and the FFT to display a dynamic vibration
direct-acting valve: A valve that is activated or directly signal as a series of frequency components.
moved by fluid pressure from the primary port. dynamic total column: Dynamic head plus dynamic lift.

direct current (DC): A flow of electrons in only one

direction.
directional control valve: A valve whose primary function
is to direct or prevent flow through selected passages.

direct proportion: A statement of equality between two

E
ratios in which the first of four terms divided by the second
equals the third divided by the fourth.
eccentric: Out-of-round or that which deviates from a cir-
disconnect switch (disconnect): A switch that disconnects
cular path.
electrical circuits from motors and machines.
dispersed solid: A solid that is finely ground in order to
eccentric circles: Two or more circles with different di-
ameters and different centerpoints.
be spread.
displacement: 1. The volume of oil moved during each eccentric surface: A surface that has a different center than

cycle of a pump. 2. The measurement of the distance (am- the center of a crankshaft.

plitude) an object is vibrating. eddy current: An electric current that is generated and
displacement transducer: A mechanical sensor whose gap- dissipated in a conductive material in the presence of an
to-voltage output is proportional to the distance between electromagnetic field.

it and the measured object (usually a shaft). efficiency: A measure of a component's or system's useful
dodecahedron: A regular solid of twelve pentagons. output energy compared to its input energy.
double-acting cylinder: A cylinder that requires fluid flow electrical pitting: An electric arc discharge across the film
for extending and retracting. of oil between mating gear teeth.
double hitch knot: A knot with two half hitch knots.
electricity: A physical occurrence involving electric
double-pole scaffold: A wood scaffold with both sides rest-
charges and their effects when in motion and at rest.
ing on the floor or ground and is not structurally anchored
electromagnet: A magnet created when electricity passes
to a building or other structure.
through a wire.
double trapezoidal belt: A timing belt containing two
trapezoidal-shaped sets of teeth. electromagnetic induction: The process by which voltage

dowel effect: A condition that exists when the bolt hole is induced in a wire by a magnetic field when lines of
force cut across the wire.
of a machine is so large that the bolt head forces the washer
into the hole opening on an angle. electron: A negatively charged particle whirling around the

drift: The slippage of a load caused by insufficient braking. nucleus at great speeds in a shell.

drip system: A gravity-flow lubrication system that pro- electron flow (electrical current): The traveling of a dis-
vides drop-by-drop lubrication from a manifold or manu- placed (free) valence electron from one atom to another.
ally-filled cup through a needle valve. electronic reverse dial method: An alignment method that
drive gear: Any gear that turns or drives another gear. uses the reverse dial as a base method with the dial indi-
driven gear: Any gear that is driven by another gear. cators replaced with electromechanical sensing devices.
element: A logic device that is capable of making a or filter: 1. A device containing a porous substance through
I output decision based on its input. which a fluid can pass but particulate matter cannot. 2. A
ellipse: A plane figure formed by a cutting plane oblique device that limits vibration signals so only a single fre-
to the axis of a cone, but at a greater angle with the axis quency or group of frequencies can pass.
than with the elements of the cone. fire point: The temperature at which oil ignites when
emulsification: The act of mixing oil and water. touched with a flame.
end play: The total amount of axial movement of a shaft. fixed bore pulley: A machine-bored one-piece pulley.
end truck: A roller assembly consisting of a frame, wheels, fixed ladder: A ladder that is permanently attached to a

and bearings generally installed or removed as complete structure.

units. flared fitting: A fitting that is connected to a tubing whose
energy: A measure of the ability to do work. end is spread outward.
energy-isolating device: A device that prevents the trans- flareless (compression) fitting: A fitting that seals and
mission or release of energy. grips by manual adjustable deformation.
equal rotor unbalance: The unbalance of weighted force flash point: The temperature at which oil gives off enough
across one side of a rotor or armature. gas vapor to ignite briefly when touched with a flame.
equation: A means of showing that two numbers or two flexible belt drive: A system in which a resilient flexible
groups of numbers are equal to the same amount. belt is used to drive one or more shafts.
equilateral triangle: A triangle that has three equal angles flexible coupling: A coupling with a resilient center, such
and three equal sides. as rubber or oil. that flexes under temporary torque or mis-
equilibrium: The condition when all forces and torques alignment due to thermal expansion.
are balancedby equal and opposite forces and torques. flow: The movement of a fluid.
exhaust flow: The fluid flow from an actuator, back flow control valve: A valve whose primary function is to
through a valve, to a reservoir. regulate the rate of fluid flow.
extension ladder: An adjustable-height ladder with a fixed
flow rate: The volume of fluid flow.
bed section and sliding, lockable tly section(s).
fluid: A substance that tends to flow or conform to the
eyebolt: A bolt with a looped head. outline of its container (such as a liquid or a gas).
eye loop: A rope splice containing a thimble.
fluid flow: The movement of fluid caused by a difference
in pressure between two points.
fluting: The elongated and rounded grooves or tracks left
by the etching of each roller on the rings of an improperly
grounded roller bearing during welding.
fly section: The upper section(s) of an extension ladder.
foaming: Excessive air in hydraulic fluid.
face width: The length of gear teeth in an axial plane, foot pad: A metal swivel attachment with rubber or rub-
false Brinell damage: Bearing damage caused by forces ber-like tread which helps prevent a ladder butt from
passing from one ring to the other through the balls or slipping.
rollers. force: The energy that produces movement.
Fast Fourier Transform analyzer: A microprocessor ca- formula: A mathematical equation that contains a fact, rule,

pable of displaying the FFT of an input signal. or principle.

fatigue crack: A crack in a gear that occurs due to bending, foundry hook: A hook with a wide, deep throat that fits

mechanical stress, thermal stress, or material Haws. the handles of molds or castings.
fatigue fracture: A breaking or tearing of gear teeth. four-way directional control valve: A valve that has four
fatigue life: The maximum useful life of a bearing. main ports that change fluid How from one port to another.
fatigue wear: Gear wear created by repeated stresses below fracture: A small crack in metal caused by the stress or
the tensile strength of a material. fatigue of repeated pulling or bending forces.
feeler gauge (thickness gauge): A steel leaf at a specific free air: Air at atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature.
thickness. frequency: The number of cycles per minute (cpm), cycles
ferromagnetic material: A material, such as soft iron, that per second (cps), or multiples of rotational speed (orders).
is easily magnetized. frequency domain: The amplitude versus frequency spec-
ferrous metals: Metals containing iron. trum observed on an FFT analyzer.
ferrule: A metal sleeve used for joining one piece of tube frequency spectrum: A representation of the frequency and
to another. content of a dynamic signal.
FFT: A calculation method for converting a time waveform fretting corrosion: The rusty appearance that results when
into a series of frequency vs. amplitude components. two metals in contact are vibrated, rubbing loose minute
fiberglass ladder: A ladder constructed of fiberglass. metal particles that become oxidized.
filler wire: Wire rope that uses fine wires to fill the gaps friction disc: A device that transmits power through contact
between the major wires. between two discs or plates.
388 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

frustum: The remaining portion of a pyramid or cone with grease gun: A small hand-operated device that pumps
a cutting plane passed parallel to the base. grease under pressure into bearings.
fulcrum: A support on which a lever turns or pivots and great circle: The circle formed by passing a cutting plane
is located somewhere between the effort force and the re- through the center of a sphere.
sistance force. ground: An electrical connection to the earth.
fuse: An overcurrent protection device with a fusible link ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI): An electrical de-
that melts and opens the circuit on an overcurrent condition. vice that protects personnel by detecting potentially haz-
fuse puller: A device made of a non-conductive material ardous ground faults and quickly disconnecting power from
such as nylon that is used to grasp and remove cartridge the circuit.
fuses. grounding: The connection of all exposed noncurrent-car-
rying metal parts to the earth.
guardrail: A rail secured to uprights and erected along the
exposed sides and ends of a platform.
guyline: A rope, chain, rod, or wire attached to equipment
as a brace or guide.

galling (adhesive wear): A bonding, shearing, and tearing

away of material from two contacting, sliding metals.
gantry crane:
legs.
A crane with bridge beams supported on
H
gas: A fluid that has neither independent shape nor volume
and tends to expand indefinitely. half hitch knot: A binding knot where the working end is

gas charged accumulator: An accumulator that uses com- laid over the standing part and stuck through the turn from
pressed gas over hydraulic fluid to store energy, the opposite side.

gasket: A seal used between machined parts or around pipe halyard: A rope used for hoisting or lowering objects.
joints to prevent the escape of fluids. hand chain: A continuous chain grasped by an operator to
gas laws: The relationships between the volume, pressure, operate a pocket wheel.
and temperature of a gas. hand-chain drop: The distance between the lower portion
gas lubricant: A lubricant that uses pressurized air to sepa- of a hand chain to the upper limit of the hoist hook travel.
rate two surfaces. hand-chain hoist: A manually-operated chain hoist used
gate valve: A two-position valve that has an internal gate for moving a load.
that slides over the opening through which fluid flows.
hazardous location: A location where there is an increased
gauge pressure: Pressure above atmospheric pressure that
risk of fire or explosion due to the presence of flammable
is used to express pressures inside a closed system.
gases, vapors, liquids, combustible dusts, or easily-ignitable
gear: A toothed machine element used to transmit motion
fibers or flyings.
between rotating shafts.
head: The difference in the level of a liquid (fluid) between
gear pump: A pump consisting of two meshing gears en-
two points.
closed in a close-fitting housing.
head pressure: The pressure created by fluid stacked on
gear train: A combination of two or more gears in mesh
top of itself.
used to transmit motion between two rotating shafts.
generator: A device that converts mechanical energy into headroom: The distance from the cup of the top hook to
electrical energy. the cup of a hoist hook when the hoist hook is at its upper

globe valve: An infinite-position valve that has a disk that limit of travel.

is raised or lowered over a port through which fluid flows. heat energy: The ability to do work (usually destructive)
grab hook: A hook used to adjust or shorten a sling leg using the heat stored or built up in a fluid.

through the use of two chains. heat exchanger: A device which transfers heat through a
graphic diagram: A drawing that uses simple line shapes conducting wall from one fluid to another.
(symbols) with interconnecting lines to represent the func-
helical gear: A gear with teeth that are cut at an angle to
tion of each component in a circuit.
its axis of rotation.
grease: A semisolid lubricant created by combining low-
viscosity oils with thickeners, such as soap or other finely
helical screw compressor: A compressor that contains
meshing screw-like helical rotors that compress air as they
dispersed solids.
grease cup: A receptacle used to apply grease to bearings.
grease dropping point: The maximum temperature a
helix: A spiral or screw shape form.

grease withstands before it softens enough to flow through herringbone gear: A double helical ge that contains a
a laboratory testing orifice. right- and left-hand helix.
Hertz (Hz): A measurement a frequency equal to one hypoid gear: A spiral bevel gear with curved, non-sym-
cycle per second. metrical teeth that are used to connect shafts at right angles.

hexahedron: A regular solid of six squares. hypotenuse: The side of a right triangle opposite the right
hitch: The interlacing of rope to temporarily secure it with- angle.
out knotting the rope.
hoist chain: The chain that raises a load.

hoisting apparatus chain: A precisely-measured chain

calibrated to function in pocket-type wheels used in manual
or powered chain hoists.

hoisting hook: A steel alloy hook used for overhead lifting

and connected directly to the piece being lifted. icosahedron: A regular solid of twenty triangles.

hoist trolley: The unit carrying the hoisting mechanism idler gear: A gear that transfers motion and direction in a

that travels on a bridge girder. gear train, but does not change speeds.

holding contact: An auxiliary contact used to maintain cur-

imbalance: A lack of balance.

rent flow to the coil of a relay.

impact flaring method: A basic flaring method in which
a flaring tool is inserted into the tubing end and ham-
hook: A curved or bent implement for holding, pulling, or
mered into the tubing until the tubing end is spread
connecting another implement.
(flared) as required.
hook drift: The slippage of a hook caused by insufficient implosion: An inward bursting.
braking. inching: Slow movement in small degrees.
horizontal line: A line that is parallel to the horizon. inclined line: A line that is slanted.

horizontal weight center: A weight mass above a pivot induced soft foot: Soft foot that is created by external
point that causes a load to topple because it is top heavy. forces such as coupling misalignment, piping strain, tight

horsepower: A unit of power equal to 746 W or 33,000

jack screws, or improper structural bracing.

Ih-ft per minute (550 Ib-ft per second). induction: The process of causing electrons to align or
uniformly join to create a magnetic or electrical force.
hose: A flexible tube for carrying fluids under pressure.
industrial crane: A crane with structural beam supports
humidity: The amount of moisture in the air.
for lifting equipment.
hunting tooth: A tooth added to mesh with every tooth on inert gases: Gases that lack active properties.
a mating gear to produce even tooth wear.
instrumentation: The area of industry that deals with the
hydraulic actuator: A device that converts hydraulic en- measurement, evaluation, and control of process variables.
ergy into mechanical energy. insulator: A material that has a very high resistance and
hydraulic cylinder: A device that converts hydraulic en- resists the flow of electrons.
ergy into straight-line (linear) mechanical energy. intake filter: A filter that removes solids from free air at

hydraulic diagram: The layout, plan, or sketch of a compressor inlet port.

a hy-
draulic circuit that is designed to explain, demonstrate, intake flow: The fluid flow from a reservoir, through fil-

or clarify the relationship or functions between hydraulic ters, to a pump.

components. intensifier (booster): A device that converts low-pressure
fluid power into high-pressure fluid power.
hydraulic motor: A device that converts hydraulic energy
into rotary mechanical energy.
intercooler: A piped connection between the discharge of
one compression stage and the inlet of the next compression
hydraulics: The branch of science that deals with the
stage.
practical application of water or other liquids at rest or
intercooling: The process of removing a portion of the
in motion.
heat of compression as the air is fed from one compression
hydraulic scissor lift: A mobile hydraulically-operated stage to another.
platform controlled by remote switches attached at the interference fit: Fit in which the internal member is larger
platform. than the external member so that there is always an actual
hydrocarbon: Any substance that is composed mostly of interference of metal.
hydrogen and carbon. inverse proportion: A proportion in which an increase in

hydrodynamics: The study of the forces exerted on one quantity results in a proportional decrease in the other
a solid
body by the motion or pressure of a fluid. related quantity.

hydrostatics: The study of liquids at rest and the forces inverse ratio: The ratio that results when the second term
exerted on them or by them. is divided by the first.

hyperbola: A plane figure formed by a cutting plane that involute form: A tooth form that is curled or curved.
has a smaller angle with the axis than with the elements irregular polygon: A polygon with unequal sides and un-
of a cone. equal angles.
390 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

irregular polyhedra: Solids with faces that are irregular lead line: The part of a rope to which force is applied to
polygons (unequal sides). hold or move a load.
isosceles triangle: A triangle that contains two equal angles left lang-lay rope: A rope in which the wires are laid to
and two equal sides. the left and the strands are laid to the left.

left regular-lay rope: A rope in which the strands are laid

to the left and wires are laid to the right.

lever-operated hoist: A lifting device that is operated

manually by the movement of a lever.

lichens: Fungi normally seen as a growth on tree trunks

or rocks.

lift: 1. In hoisting, the distance between thehoist's upper

and lower limits of travel. 2. In pumping, the height at
jack screw: A screw inserted through a block that is at-
which atmospheric pressure forces a fluid above the ele-
tached to a machine base plate allowing for ease in machine
vation of its supply source.
movement.
jib crane: A crane that is mounted on a single structural lifting: Hoisting equipment or machinery by mechanical

leg. means.
journal: The part of a shaft, such as an axle or spindle, lifting lug: A thick metal loop (eyebolt) welded or screwed
that moves in a sleeve bearing. to a machine to allow balanced lifting.

limit switch: A device that cuts off the power automatically

at or near the upper limit of hoist travel.

limit valve: A mechanically-actuated 3-way valve that is

used to either monitor motion or measure position of an

K object.

line: The boundary of a surface.

linear amplitude spectra: Amplitude signals displayed in

equal increments.
kinetic energy: The energy of motion.
kinking: A sharp permanent bending. lip seal: A seal that is made of a resilient material that has

knot: The interlacing of rope to form a permanent connection. a sealing edge formed into a lip.

knotting: Fastening a part of a rope to another part of the liquid: A fluid that can flow readily and assume the shape
same rope by interlacing it and drawing it tight. of its container.
liquid lubricant: A lubricant that uses a liquid, such as
oil, to separate two surfaces.
litmus paper: A color-changing, acid-sensitive paper that
is impregnated with lichens.

loading slot: A groove or notch on the inside wall of each

bearing ring to allow insertion of balls.

lobe: The screw helix of a rotor.

ladder: A structure consisting of two siderails joined at

lockout: The process of preventing the flow of energy from

intervals by steps or rungs for climbing up and down. a power source to a piece of equipment.

ladder duty rating: The weight logarithmic amplitude spectra: Amplitude signals dis-
(in lb) a ladder is designed
to support under normal use.
played in powers of 10.

ladder jack: A ladder accessory that supports a plank to

logarithmic scale: An amplitude or frequency displayed

be used for scaffolding.

in powers of ten.

ladder safety system: An assembly logic: The science of correct reasoning.

of components whose
function is to arrest the fall of a worker. loop: The folding or doubling of a line, leaving an opening
through which another line may pass.
lang-iay rope: A rope in which the wires and strands are
laid in the same direction.
loop eye: A length of webbing folded back and spliced to
a sling body, forming an opening.
lanyard: A rope or webbing device used to attach a
lubricant: A substance placed between two solid surfaces
worker's harness to a lifeline.
to reduce their friction.
laser rim-and-face alignment method: An alignment lubrication: The process of maintaining a fluid film be-
method in which laser devices are placed opposite each tween solid surfaces to prevent their physical contact.
other to measure alignment. lubricator: A device that injects atomized oil into the air

lay: A complete helical wrap of the strands of a rope. sent to pneumatic components.
 molecule: The smallest division of matter that can be

M made and have a substance still retain its chemical iden-

tity.

motor starter: An electrically-operated switch (contactor)

that includes motor overload protection.
machine: A group of mechanical devices lluil traiisl'er force,
multimeter: A test tool used to measure two or more elec-
motion, or energy input at one device into a force, motion,
trical values.
or energy output at another device.
multiple-point suspension scaffold: A suspension scaffold
magnet: A device that attracts iron and steel because of
supported by four or more ropes.
the molecular alignment of its material.
multistage compressor: A compressor that uses two or
magnetic flux lines: The invisible lines of force that make three cylinders, each with a progressively smaller diameter,
up a magnetic field. to produce progressively higher pressures.
magnetism: A force that interacts with other magnets and
ferromagnetic materials.
main header: The main
a
air

receiver and the circuits in a pneumatic system.

supply line that runs between
N
manifold: A device that contains passageways that en-
able one input signal to be divided into several output
needle bearing: An anti-friction roller-type bearing with
long rollers of small diameter.
master link: A chain attachment with a ring considerably needle valve: An infinite-position valve that has a narrow
larger than that of the chain to allow for the insertion of
tapered stem (needle) positioned in line with a tapered hole
a hook. or orifice.
maximum intended load: The total of all loads, including neutral conductor: A wire that carries current from one
the working load, the weight of the scaffold, and any other side of a load to ground.
loads that may be anticipated. neutron: A particle with no electrical charge.
mechanical: Pertaining to or concerned with machinery or nip: A pressure and friction point created when a rope
tools. crosses over itself after a turn around an object.

mechanical advantage: The ratio of the output force of a nominal value: A designated or theoretical value that may
device to the input force. vary from the actual value.

mechanical drive: A system by which power nonparallel misalignment: Misalignment where two pul-
is transmitted
from one point to another. leys or shafts are not parallel.
nonpositive displacement pump: A pump that is not sealed
mercury barometer: An instrument that measures atmos-
between its inlet and outlet.
pheric pressure using a column of mercury.
nonpositive seal: A seal that allows a minute amount of
mesh: 1. In rope, the size of the openings between the
fluid through to provide lubrication between surfaces.
rope or twine of a net. 2. In filters, the number of horizontal
NOT logic element: A logic element that provides an output
and vertical threads per square inch.
that is the opposite of the input.
metal fatigue: The fracturing of worked metal due to nor- nucleus: The heavy, dense center of an atom.
mal operating conditions or overload situations.
metal ladder: A ladder constructed of metal.
metering: Regulating the amount or rate of fluid flow.

micron (|i): A unit of length equal to one millionth of a

meter (.000039").
midrail: A rail secured to uprights approximately midway
between the guardrail and the platform.
oblique cylinder: A cylinder with the axis not perpendicu-
misalignment: The condition where the axes of two ma- lar to the base.
chine shafts are not aligned within tolerances.
oblique prism: A prism with lateral faces not perpendicular
miter gear: A gear used at right angles to transmit horse-
to the bases.
power between two intersecting shafts at a 1 : 1 ratio.

modified curvilinear belt: A timing belt containing modi- obtuse angle: An angle that contains more than 90°.
fied circular-shaped teeth.
obtuse triangle: A scalene triangle with one angle greater
moisture separator: A device that separates a large per- than 90°.
centage of water from cooled air through a series of plates
or baffles. octahedron: A regular solid of eight triangles.

molded notch belt: A belt that has notches molded into offset misalignment: 1. In flexible belt drives, a condition
its cross-section along the full length of the belt. where two shafts are parallel but the pulleys are not on
392 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

the same axis. 2. In motor couplings, a condition where parallel soft foot: A condition that exists when one or two
two shafts are parallel but are not on the same axis. machine feet are higher than the others and parallel to the

ohm: The resistance of a conductor in which an electrical base plate.

pressure of I V causes an electrical current of 1 A to flow. part: A rope length between the lower (hook) block and
Ohm's law: The relationship between voltage (E). current the upper block or drum.
(I), and resistance (R) in a circuit. particulate: A fine solid particle which remains individu-
oil analysis: A predictive maintenance technique that de- ally dispersed in a gas.
tects and analyzes the presence of acids, dirt, fuel, and pawl: A mechanism used to prevent a ratchet wheel from
wear particles in lubricating oil to predict equipment failure. turning backwards.
oil carry-over: The released lubricating oil from the walls pawl lock: A pivoting hook mechanism attached to the fly
of a compressor cylinder and piston. section(s) of an extension ladder.
oil whirl: The buildup and resistance of a lubricant in a peak: The absolute value from a zero point (neutral) to
rolling-contact bearing that is rotating at excessive speeds. the maximum travel on a waveform.
open circuit: An electrical circuit that has a gap or opening peak-to-peak: The absolute value from the maximum posi-
that does not allow current flow. tive travel to the maximum negative travel on a waveform.
operational pitch point: The tangent point of two pitch pendant: A pushbutton or lever control suspended from a
circles at which gears operate. crane or hoisting apparatus.
opposing forces rotor unbalance: The unbalance of perpendicular line: A line that makes a 90° angle with
weighted forces on opposing ends and sides of a rotor or another line.
armature.
petroleum fluid: A fluid consisting of hydrocarbons.
order: A multiple of a running speed (rpm) frequency. phase: The position of a vibrating part at a given moment
orifice:A precisely-sized hole through which fluid flows. with reference to another vibrating part at a fixed reference
O-ring: A molded synthetic rubber seal having a round
point.
cross section.
pictorial diagram: A diagram that uses drawings or pic-
OR logic element: A logic element that provides a logic
tures to show the relationship of each component in a
level 1 if one or more inputs are at logic level 1
circuit.
oscillator: A device that generates a radio frequency (RF)
piezoelectric: The production of electricity by applying
field that, when sent to a probe tip, creates eddy currents.
pressure to a crystal.
overhead crane: A crane that is mounted between overhead
pilot line: A passage used to carry fluid to control a valve.
runways.
pilot-operated valve: A valve that is actuated by fluid in
overhung load: A force exerted radially on a shaft that
the line that is otherwise sent back to the reservoir.
may cause bending of the shaft or early bearing and belt
pilot operation: Controlling the function of a valve using
failure.
system pressure or pressure supplied by an external (pilot)
overload relay: A time-delay device that senses motor cur-
source.
rent temperatures and disconnects the motor from the power
pinion: The smaller gear of a pair of gears, especially when
supply if the current is excessive for a certain length of
engaging rack teeth.
time.
pipe: A hollow cylinder of metal or other material of sub-
oxidation: The combining of oxygen with elements in oil
stantial wall thickness.
which break down the basic oil composition.
piston compressor: A compressor in which air is com-
pressed by reciprocating pistons.
piston gas charged accumulator: An accumulator with a
floating piston acting as a barrier between the gas and fluid.

piston pump: A pump in which fluid flow is produced by

reciprocating pistons.
pitch circle: The circle that contains the operational pitch
point.
packing: A bulk deformable material or one or more mat-
ing deformable elements reshaped by manually adjust- pitch diameter: The diameter of a pitch circle.

able compression. pitch length: The total length of the timing belt measured
at the belt pitch line.
parabola: A plane figure formed by a cutting plane oblique
pitting: Localized corrosion thai has the appearance of
to the axis and parallel to the elements of a cone.
cavities (pits).

parallelepiped: A prism with bases that are parallelograins. plane figure: A flat figure with no depth.

plank: A board 2" to 4" thick and at least 8" wide.

parallel lines: Two or more lines that remain the same
platform: A landing surface which provides access/egress
distance apart.
or rest from a fixed ladder.
parallelogram: A four-sided plane figure with opposite plumb: An exact vertically (determined by a plumb bob
sides parallel and equal. and line) with the surface of the earth.
ply: A layer of a tanned malL-rial. pressure-compensated vane pump: .\ \anc pump
pneumatic circuit: A combinalioii ol an-dpeiatcd cumpi)- ei|uipped with a spring on the low displacement side of
nciils that are connected to perform work the cam ring,

pneumatic hoist: A power-operated lioist operated h\ a pressure compensator: .A displaceineni control that al-

geared reduction air iiiolor. ters displacement in rcs|ionsc to pressure changes in a

pneumatic lojjic element: A iiiiniatiire an \al\e used as a

pressure drop: The pressure differential between upstream

pneiiniatie eireiiit.
aiul downstream fluid (low caused by resistance.
pressure energy: The ability to do work by apph ing pres-
pneumatics: The branch ol science that deals with the
sure to a Ouid.
iraiisiiiission of energy umiil' a gas,
pressure Tdter: A very fine lilter placed after a pump for
pneumatic system: A s\sieni that iraiisinils and controls
protection of system components.
energ\ through the use ol a pressiin/ed gas within an en-
pressure gauge: A device that measures the intensitx of a
closed circinl.
force applied to a fluid.
pocket wheel: A piillc\ like wheel with chain link pockets
pressure-reducing valve: .A valve that limits the maximum
that IS connected lo ,i hoist mcchanisin
pressure at its outlet, regardless of the inlet pressure.
polarity: I'he posiii\c ( + i oi iiegati\c (-1 state ol an ob|ect. pressure regulator: A valve that restricts and/or blocks
pole scaffold: A wood scalTold w iih one or two sides I irmly downstream air flow,

resting on the floor or ground. pressure-relief valve: .A valve that sets a niaximum oper-
polygon: A man\ -sided plane figure, ating pressure level for a circuit to protect the circuit from

pol>lu'dra: Solids bound by plane surfaces i faces), overpressure.

polymer: The m which two pressure switch: .A device that senses a high- or low-pres-
result of a chemical reaction
sure condition and relays an electrical signal to turn the
or more small molecules combine to form larger molecules.
port plate: A device that contains |iorts thai connect the
compressor motor ON or OFF.
primary port: The source or inlet port.
puinp internal inlet and discharge areas to the pump housing
primary winding: The power input winding of a irans-
inlet and outlet ports,
foriner that is connected to the incoming power supply.
position: A specific location of a spool within a \aKe which
prime mover: .An electric motor or engine that supplies
determines the direction ol lluid flow through the \al\e,
rotational force at a constant speed.
positive displacement: The mo\ing of a fixed amount oi
prism: ,A solid with two bases that are parallel and identical
a substance with each cycle.
polygons.
positive displacement compressor: .A compressor that process variable: .Any characteristic that changes its value
compresses a fixed quantity of air with each cycle. during any operation within the process.
positive-displacement pump: A pump that delners a defi- proportion: .An expression of equality between two ratios.
nite volume of fluid for each cvcle of the pump at an\ proton: .A particle with a positive electrical charge of one
resistance encountered. unit.

positive seal: A seal that does not allow the slightest pseudocavitation: Artificial cavitation caused by air being
amount of fluid to pass. pump
allowed into a suction line.
potential energy: Stored energy a bod\ has due to its po- pump: A mechanical device that causes fluid lo flow.

sition, chemical state, or condition. pyramid: .A solid with a base that is a polvgon and sides
power: The rate or speed of doing work. that are triangles.

power circuit: The part of an electrical circuit that connects

Pythagorean Theorem: States that the square of the hy-

the load to the main power lines.

potenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides.
power distribution: The process ol delivering electrical
power to where it is needed.
precharge pressure: The pressure of the compressed gas
in an accumulator prior to the admission of hydraulic fluid.

preformed rope: Wire rope in which the strands are per-

manently tbrmed into a helical shape during fabrication.
preloading: .An
when axial load forces are expected
initial pressure placed on a bearing
to be great enough
Q
to overcome preload force, thereby resulting in proper
clearances.
quadrant: One-fourth of a circle containing 90°.
pressure: The force per unit area.
pressure compensated flow control valve: A needle valve
quadrilateral: A four-sided polygon with four interior angles.

that makes allowances for pressure changes before or after quad-ring: A molded synthetic rubber seal having a basi-
an orifice through the use of a spring and spool. cally square cross-sectional shape.
394 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

resonance: The magnification of vibrations and their noise

R by 20% or more.
return-line filter: A filter positioned in a circuit just before
the reservoir.
reverse dial method: An alignment method that uses two
race: The track on which the balls of a bearing move.
dial indicators to take readings off of opposing sides of
rack gear: A gear with teeth spaced along a straight line.
coupling rims, giving two sets of shaft runout readings.
racking: The ability to be forced out of shape or form.
rhomboid: A quadrilateral with opposite sides equal and
rack teeth: Gear teeth used to produce linear motion.
no 90° angles.
radial bearing: A rolling-contact bearing in which the load
rhombus: A quadrilateral with all sides equal and no 90°
is transmitted perpendicular to the axis of shaft rotation.
angles.
radial load: A load in which the applied force is perpen-
rigging: Securing equipment or machinery in preparation
dicular to the axis of rotation.
for lifting by means of rope, chain, or webbing.
radius: The distance from the centerpoinl to the circum-
right angle: Two lines that intersect perpendicular to each
ference.
other.
ratchet: A mechanism that consists of a toothed wheel and
right circular cone: A cone with the axis at a 90° angle
a spring-loaded pawl.
to the circular base.
ratio: The relationship between two quantities or terms.
right cylinder: A cylinder with the axis perpendicular to
raveling: The unwinding or untwisting of rope.
the base.
reach: The distance between the cup of a top hook and
the cup of a hoist hook when the hoist hook is at its lower
right lang-lay rope: A rope in which the wires are laid to
the right and the strands are laid to the right.
limit of travel.

reciprocate: To move forward and backward alternately.

right parallelepiped: A prism with all edges perpendicular
to the bases.
reciprocating compressor: A device that compresses gas
by means of a piston(s) that moves back and forth in a
right prism: A prism with lateral faces perpendicular to
the bases.
cylinder.

rectangle: A quadrilateral with opposite sides equal and

right regular-lay rope: A rope in which the strands are
laid to the right and the wires are laid to the left.
four 90° angles.
rectangular parallelepiped: A prism with bases and faces
right triangle: A triangle that contains one 90° angle and
no equal sides.
that are all rectangles.

reel: A wooden assembly on which wire rope is wound for

rim-and-face alignment method: An alignment method in

shipping and storage.

which the parallel and angular offset of two shafts is de-
termined using two dial indicators that measure the rim
reeving: Passing a rope through a hole or opening or around
and face of a coupling.
a series of pulleys.
refrigerant dryer: A device designed to lower the tem- roller bearing: An anti-friction bearing that has parallel or

tapered steel rollers confined between inner and outer rings.

perature of compressed air to 35°F.
rolling: The deforming of metal on the active portion of
regular-lay rope: A rope in which the wires in the strands
gear teeth caused by high contact stresses.
are laid in the opposite direction to the lay of the strands.
regular polygon: A polygon with equal sides and equal
rolling-contact (anti-friction) bearing: A bearing com-
posed of rolling elements between an outer and inner ring.
angles.
regular pyramid: A base that is a regular polygon and a
root mean square (rms): The square root of the sum of
a set of squared instantaneous values.
vertex that is perpendicular to the center of the base.
regular solids (polyhedra): Solids with faces that are regu- rope grab: A device that clamps securely to a rope.
lar polygons (equal sides). rope lay: The length of rope in which a strand makes a
relative humidity: The percentage of moisture contained complete helical wrap around the core.
in air compared to themaximum amount of moisture (satu- rounding off: The process of increasing or decreasing a

ration) it is capable of holding. number to the nearest acceptable number.

relay: An interface that controls one electrical circuit by round sling: A sling consisting of one or more continuous
opening and closing contacts in another circuit. polyester fiber yarns wound together to make a core.

reservoir: A container for storing fluid in a hydraulic running torque: The energy that a motor develops to keep
system. a load turning.
resilience: The capability of a material to regain its original runout: A radial variation from a true circle.
shape after being bent, stretched, or compressed. runway: The rail and beam on which a crane operates.

resistance: The opposition to electron flow. rust: A form of oxidation in which metal oxides are chemi-
restrictive check valve: A check valve with a specific sized cally combined with water to form a reddish-brown scale
hole drilled through its center. on metal.
 shackle: A U-shaped metal link with the ends drilled to
receive a pin or bolt.
shear strength: 1. A metaPs resistance to a force applied

parallel to its contacted plane. 2. A liquid's ability to re-

main as a separator between solids in motion.
safety net: A net made of rope or webbing for catching
shear stress: Stress in which the material on one side of
and protecting a falling worker.
a surface pushes on the material on the other side of the
safety relief valve: A device that prevents excessive pres-
surface with a force parallel to the surface.
sure from building up by venting air to the atmosphere.
shell: An orbiting layer of electrons in an atom.
safety sleeve: A moving element with a locking mechanism
shim stock: Steel material manufactured in various thick-
that is connected between a carrier and the worker's body
nesses, ranging from .0005" to .125".
belt.
signal: In pneumatic logic, a condition that initiates a start
saturated air: Air that holds as much moisture as it is
or stop of fluid flow by opening or closing a valve.
capable of holding.
scaffold: A temporary or movable platform and structure single-acting cylinder: A cylinder in which tluid pressure

for workers to stand on when working at a height above moves the piston in only one direction.
the tloor. single ladder: A ladder of fixed length having only one

scaffold hitch: A hitch used to hold or support planks or section.

beams. single-pole scaffold: A wood scaffold with one side resting

scalene triangle: A triangle that has no equal angles or on the floor or ground and the other side structurally an-
equal sides. chored to the building.

scuffing: The severe adhesion that causes the transfer of single-stage compressor: A compressor that uses one pis-

metal from one tooth surface to another due to welding ton to compress air in a single stroke before it is discharged.

and tearing. slant height: The distance from the base to the vertex par-

seal: A device that creates positive contact between cylinder allel to a side.

components to contain pressure and prevent leakage. sleeve bearing: A bearing in which the shaft turns and is

Seale wire: Wire rope that uses different size wire in dif- lubricated by a sleeve.

ferent layers. sling: A line consisting of a strap, chain, or rope used to

secant: A straight line touching the circumference at two lift, lower, or carry a load.

points. sling apex: The uppermost point where sling legs meet.
secondary port: An external passage that allows fluid flow slip clutch: A spring-loaded, friction-held fiber disc that
to other components. is adjusted to slip at 125% to 150% of the hoist-rated load.
secondary winding: The output or load winding of a trans- slip knot: A knot that slips along the rope from which it

former that IS connected to the load. is made.

sectional metal-framed scaffold: A metal scaffold consist- slippage: The internal leaking of hydraulic fluid from a
ing of preformed tubes and components. pump outlet to a pump inlet.

sector: A pie-shaped piece of a circle. small circle: The circle formed by passing a cutting plane
segment: The portion of a circle set off by a chord. through a sphere but not through the center.
seizing: The wrapping placed around all strands of a rope socket: A rope attachment through which a rope end is

near the area where the rope is cut. terminated.

seizing bar: A round bar Vi to Vg" in diameter and about soft foot: A condition that occurs when one or more ma-
18" long used to seize rope. chine feet do not make complete contact with its base.

selvedge: A knitted or woven edge of a webbing formed solenoid: A device that converts electrical energy into a
to prevent raveling. linear, mechanical force.

semicircle: One-half of a circle containing 180°. solid lubricant: A material such as graphite, molybdenum
disulfide, or polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) that shears eas-
semisolid lubricant: A lubricant that combines low-viscos-
ity oils with thickeners, such as soap or other finely dis-
ily between sliding surfaces.
persed solids. sorting hook: A hook with a tapered throat and a point

sequence: The order of a series of operations or movements. designed to fit into holes.

sequence valve: A pressure-operated valve that diverts flow spacer: Steel material used for filling spaces '/t" or greater.

to a secondary actuator while holding pressure on the pri- spalling: The flaking away of metal pieces due to metal
mary actuator at a predetermined minimum value after the fatigue.
primary actuator completes its travel. spectrometer: A device that vaporizes elements in the oil

serpentine belt (double-V or hex belt): A belt designed sample into light.

to transmit power from the top and bottom of the belt. spectrum: A representative combination of the amplitude
service life: The length of service received from a bearing. (total movement) and frequency (time span) of a waveform.
396 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

speltered socket: A socket assembled by separating the strainer: A fine metal screen that blocks contaminant
wire rope ends after inserting the rope through the socket particles.
collar. strand: Several pieces of yarn helically laid about an axis.
sphere: A solid generated by a circle revolving about one submersion system: A lubrication system in which the
of its axes. bearings are submerged below oil for lubrication.

splice: 1.The joining of two rope ends to form a permanent suction strainer: A coarse filter attached to a pump inlet.

connection. 2. The lapped and secured load-bearing part supplementary angles: Two angles formed by three lines
of a loop eye. in which the sum of the two angles equals 180°.

springing soft foot: A condition that occurs when a dial suspension scaffold: A scaffold supported by overhead
indicator at the shaft shows soft foot, but feeler gauges wire ropes.
show no gaps. swaged socket: A compressed socket assembled to the wire
spring-loaded accumulator: An accumulator that applies rope under high pressure.
force to a fluid by means of a spring. switch: A device that starts or stops the tlow of electrical
spur gear: A gear that has straight teeth that are parallel energy.
to the shaft a.xes. symbol: A graphic clement which indicates a particular de-
square: A quadrilateral with all sides equal and four 90° vice, etc.

angles. symmetrical load: A load in which one-half of the load

(12" x 12" = 144 sq is a mirror image of the other half.

square foot: Contains 144 sq in. in.).

square inch: Measures 1" x 1" or its equivalent. synthetic fluid: A lubricant, often based on petroleum,
which has improved heat, chemical resistance, and other
staging: The process of dividing the total pressure among
characteristics than straight petroleum products.
two cylinders by feeding the outlet from the first large (low-
synthetic yarn: Yarn made of twisted, manufactured fibers
pressure) cylinder into the inlet of a second small (high-
such as nylon or polyester.
pressure) cylinder.
system operating pressure: The pressure of a fluid after
standard: A guideline adopted by regulating authorities.
the pump until the tlow is reduced, metered, or returned
standing end: The end of the rope that is normally fixed
to the reservoir.
to a permanent apparatus or drum, or is rolled into a coil.
standing part: The portion of the rope that is not active
in the knot-making process.
standoff: A ladder accessory that holds a single or an ex-
tension ladder a fixed distance from a wall.
starting torque: The energy required to start a load turning
after it has been broken away from a standstill.
static electricity: The accumulation of charge. tackle: The combination of ropes and block assemblies ar-
energy (potential energy): The ability of a fluid to
static
ranged to gain mechanical advantage for lifting.
do work using the height and weight of the fluid above
tag line: A rope, handled by an individual, to control ro-
some reference point.
tational movement of a load.
static head: The height of a fluid above a given point in
tagout: The process of placing a tag on a power source
a column at rest.
that warns others not to restore energy.
static head pressure: A force over an area created by the
weight of the fluid itself. tangent: A straight line touching the curve of the circum-

static lift: The height to which atmospheric pressure ference at only one point.
causes a column of fluid to rise above the supply to
tapered bore bearing: A bearing whose bore varies in di-
restore equilibrium.
ameter from the face to the back of the bearing.
static load: A load that remains steady.
static seal: A seal used as a gasket to seal nonmoving parts.
tapered bore pulley: A two-piece pulley that consists of

static total column: Static head plus static lift.

a tapered pulley bolted to a tapered hub (bushing).
steel alloy: Metallic material formulated from the fusing tapered roller bearing: A roller bearing having tapered
or combining of two or more metals. rollers.

stepladder: A folding ladder that stands independently of taper gauge: A flat, tapered strip of metal with graduations
support. in thousandths of an inch or millimeters marked along its

straight angle: Two lines that intersect to form a straight length.

line.
tempering: The process in which metal is brought to a
straightedge alignment method: A method of coupling
temperature below its critical temperature and allowed to
alignment in which an item with an edge that is straight
cool slowly.
and smooth, such as a steel rule, feeler gauge, or taper
gauge, is used to align couplings. tensile strength: A measure of the greatest amount of
straight line: The shortest distance between two points. straight-pull stress metal can bear without tearing apart.
tension member: The load-carrying element of a belt which two-way directional control valve: A valve that has twc
prevents stretching. main ports that allow or stop the flow of fluid.
tetrahedron: A regular solid of tour triangles. tying off: Securely connecting a harness directly or indi
thermal expansion: The dimensional change of a substance rectly to an overhead anchor point.
due to a change in temperature.

thimble: A curved piece of metal around which the rope

is fitted to form a loop.

3(t) circuit: A circuit that has three

each wire having the same voltage.
incoming wires, with
u
three-way directional control valve: A valve that has three
main ports that allow or stop fluid flow or exhaust.
thrust damage: Bearing damage due to axial force.
union: A fitting used to connect or disconnect two tubes
that cannot be turned.
throttling: Permitting the passing of a regulated flow.
unlay: The untwisting of the strands in a rope.
timber hitch: A binding knot and hitch combination used
unloading valve: A device that senses a high-pressure con-
to wrap and drag lengthy material.
ditionand removes the compression energy.
timing (synchronous) belt: A belt designed for positive
unthread rotation: Counterclockwise rotation of an eye-
transmission and synchronization between the drive shaft
bolt having right-handed threads, or the clockwise rotation
and the driven shaft.
of an eyebolt having left-handed threads.
time domain: The amplitude as a function of time.
U-ring seal: A lip seal shaped like the letter U.
toeboard: A barrier to guard against the falling of tools
or other objects.

tooth form: The shape or geometric form of a tooth in a

gear when seen as its side profile.

top hook: The hook assembled to the top of a hoisting

mechanism to allow for overhead suspension.
top support: The area of a ladder that makes contact with
vacuum: A pressure lower than atmospheric pressure.
a structure.
valence electron: An electron located in the outermost shell
torque: The twisting (rotational) force of a shaft. of an atom.
total column: The fluid head plus lift. valence shell: The outermost shell of an atom.
total energy: A measure of a fluid's ability to do work. valve: A device that controls the pressure, direction, or rate
transducer: A device that converts a physical quantity into of fluid flow.
another quantity, such as an electrical signal or a graphic valve actuator: A device that changes the position of a
display. valve spool.

transformer: An electric device that uses electromagnetism vane air motor: An air motor that contains a rotor with

to AC
change voltage from one level to another. vanes that are rotated by compressed air.

trapezium: A quadrilateral with no sides parallel. vane compressor: A positive-displacement compressor that
has multiple vanes located in an offset rotor.
trapezoid: A quadrilateral with two sides parallel.
vane pump: A pump that contains vanes in an offset rotor.
trapezoidal belt: A timing belt containing trapezoidal-
shaped teeth.
variable displacement pump: A pump in which the dis-
placement per cycle can be varied.
trending: A graphic display used for interpretation of ma-
chine characteristics.
variable-speed belt drive: A mechanism that transmits mo-
tion from one shaft to another and allows the speed of the
triangle: A three-sided polygon with three interior angles.
shafts to be varied.
troubleshooting: The systematic elimination of the various V-belt: An endless power transmission belt with a trape-
parts of a system, circuit, or process to locate a malfunc- zoidal cross section.
tioning part.
V-belt pulley: A pulley with a V-shaped groove.
truth table: A table that lists the output condition of a vector: A quantity that has a magnitude and direction.
logic element or combination of logic elements for every
velocity: The distance a fluid travels in a specified time.
possible input condition.
velocity transducer: An electromechanical device that is
tube: A thin-walled, seamless or seamed, hollow cylinder.
constructed of a coil of wire supported by light springs.
tuck set: Wedging a strand of rope into and between two vertex: 1. The point of intersection of the sides of an angle.
other rope strands. 2. The common point of the triangular sides that forms a
two-point suspension scaffold: A suspension scaffold sup- pyramid.
ported by two overhead wire ropes. vertical line: A line that is perpendicular to the horizon.
398 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

vibration: A continuous periodic change in displacement wear pad: A leather or webbed pad used to protect the
with respect to a fixed reference. web sling from damage.
vibration acceleration: The increasing of vibration move- wear particle analysis: The study of wear particles present
ment speed. in the lubricating oil.
vibration amplitude: The extent of vibration movement webbing: A fabric of high-tenacity synthetic yarns woven
measured from a starting point to an extreme point. into flat narrow straps.
vibration analyzer: A meter that pinpoints a specific ma- web sling body: The part of the sling which is between
chine problem by identifying its unique vibration or noise the loop eyes or end fittings (if any).
characteristics. web sling length: The distance between the extreme points
vibration cycle: The complete movement from beginning of aweb sling, including any fittings.
to end of a vibration. wedge socket: A socket with the rope looped within the
vibration signature: A set of vibration readings resulting socket body and secured by a wedging action.
from tolerances and play within a new machine. weight-loaded accumulator: An accumulator that applies
vibration velocity: The rate of change of displacement of force to a fluid by means of heavy weights.
a vibrating object. well (shaft): A walled enclosure around a fixed ladder.
viscosity: The measurement of the resistance of a fluid's whipping: Tightly binding the end of a rope with twine
molecules to move past each other. before it is cut.
viscosity index: A scale used to show the magnitude of vis-
wick system: A lubrication system that uses capillary action
cosity changes in lubrication oils with changes in temperature.
to convey oil to a bearing surface.
visual adjustment method: A belt tension method in which
wiper: A seal designed to prevent foreign abrasive or cor-
the tension is adjusted by observing the slight sag at the
rosive material from entering a cylinder.
slack side of the belt.
wood ladder: A ladder constructed of wood.
voltage: The amount of electrical pressure in a circuit.
work: The energy used when a force is exerted over a
voltage tester: A device that indicates approximate voltage distance.
level and type (AC or DC) by the movement of a pointer working depth: The depth of engagement of two gears.
on a scale.
working end: The end of the working part of a rope.
volume: The three-dimensional size of an object measured
working height: The distance from the ground to the top
in cubic units.
support.
volumetric efficiency: The percentage of actual pump out-
working load (WLL): The maximum
limit pull that should
put compared to the pump output if there were no slippage.
be applied to a vertical load.
V-ring seal: A lip seal shaped like the letter V.
working part: The portion of the rope where the knot is

formed.
worm: A shank having at least one complete tooth around

w
the pitch surface.

worm gear: A set of gears consisting of a worm (drive

gear) and a wheel (driven gear) that are used extensively
as a speed reducer.
wagoneer's hitch knot: A knot that creates a load-securing
loop from the standing part of the rope.

Warrington wire: Wire rope constructed of strands con-

sisting of more than one size wire staggered in layers.

waveform: A graphic presentation of an amplitude as a

function of time.
yarn: A continuous strand of two or Ibers twisted
way: A flow path through a valve. together.
 American Society of Mechanical Engi- Conrad. 227
neers, 72, 135 failure investigation, 232 - 235
amp, 320 installation, 236-242
amplitudes, 284 mounting, 237 - 242
abrasion, 268
anchoring, 292 - 293 using temperature. 239 - 240
abrasive wear. 26S - 26<)
machinery. 291 -300 needle. 226. 227. 229
absolute pressure. 112. 170
AND logic element. 207 plain, 229-230
ab.solute rating. 140
angle. 3 precision class, 239
absolute temperature. 172
radial, 227 - 228
absolute zero, 172
obtuse, 3 removal, 231 -235
acceleration. 124
right. 3 roller, 226, 227. 229
accelerometer transducer. 278 - 279
straight. 3 cylindrical,229
accumulator. 164- 165
angles tapered. 229
hydro-pneumatic. 164. 165
adjacent. 4 rolling-contact. 225-229
bladder, 164. 165
complimentary. 3 bed section. 92
diaphragm. 164. 165
supplementary. .* - 4 bellows. 167
piston. 164. 165
angle symbol, 3 belt and sheave groove gauge, 245
spring-loaded. 164
angular-contact bearing, 227 - 22S belt deflection method, 250
weight-loaded, 164. 165
angular lifting. 77 belt pitch length, 252
acid. 27
angular misalignment. 248. 249, 289. 290 belt pitch line, 245
action. 206
angular sling load capacity. 25 bending strength. 53
actuator. 161 - 164. 194. 201 -205
angular soft foot. 297 bevel gear. 66 - 67. 266 - 267
acute angle. 3
Anti-Friction Bearings Manufacturers As- bight. 36
acute triangle. 6. 1 sociation, 225 bimetallic device. 337-338
additive. 138 arc, 4, 6 binary system, 205
adjacent angles, 4 Archimedes water-screw, 110 bird caging. 58. 60
adsorption, 182 area, 4-5. 113 blackwall hitch. 46
aftercooler, 179 armature. 324 bladder gas charged accumulator. 164.
air compressor. 185 - 188 asymmetrical load. /7. 18 165
air contaminants. 178- 182 atmospheric pressure. 111-112. 169 block and tackle, 63 - 66
air cylinder. 201 - 202 atom, 168 blockout, 256
air flow requirements, 69 authority having jurisdiction. 327 - 328 body belt, 107
air motor. 204 - 205 authorized individual. 345 bolt bound, 292, 293
vane, 205 auto-ignition. 138 boundary lubrication, 212
alignment, 272.289-318 axial float. 310 Bourdon tube, 154
methods. 303-318 axial load. 225. 226 bowline knot, 42
electronic reverse dial. 317 axis, 36 Boyle's Law. 171-172
laser rim-and-face. 3\1 -318 breakaway torque, 131
reverse dial. 313-316 bridge girder, S3
rim-and-face, 309-312 B bridle sling. 22 - 24
straightedge. 307-309 British measurement system. 2
sequence. 290 butt spur. 87
babbitt metals. 230
tolerance. 303 - 305
backlash. 264
alkali. 27
measuring, 264 - 265
alternating current. 324
ball bearing, 226-228
altitude. 6, 9. II
base, 6, 9
ambient temperature, 69
diameter. 263 cah. <S'.i'

American Gear Manufacturers Associa-

tion, 263. 268
-mounted jib crane. 81 cabling. 32

American National Standards Institute.

plate. 290-291 cage. 91
72, 135 basket sling. 22 - 24 calculating load weight. 19-21
American Petroleum Institute. 217 bearing. 225 - 242 calculating pulley speed and size. 254 -

American Society for Testing and Mate- angular-contact, 227 - 255

rials. 217 ball, 226-228 calculations. 1 - 16
4()0 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

cam ring, 149 coinmutator, 324, 326 overhead, 83 - 84

cantilever, 81 - iS2 competent person, 98 safety, 85 - 86
capacity. 121-123 complimentary angles, 3 Crane Manufacturers Association of
cylinder, 121-123 compound gear train, 261 -262 America, Inc., 72
when retracting, 121 - 123 compression. 175 - 177 crankshaft, 186
capillary action, 220 intercooling. 7 77 crossover, 71
carrier, 91. 105 multistage. 176. 177 crowning, 38, 39
cat's-paw hitch. 45 compressor cubic fool. 14
caustic solution. 27 air. 185-188 cubic inch. 13
cavitation, 150 helical screw. 187 cup seal. 162, 163, 203
center of gravity. 18 multistage, 185 curve/rope ratio, 28 - 29
centerpoint, 4-6 piston, 185-187 curvilinear belt, 251, 252
centralized system, 221 positive displacement, 185 cutaway diagram. 134
centrifugal force, 110 reciprocating, 176 cutting wire rope, 32 - 33
chain, 22. 52-57 single-stage, 185 cylinder, //

construction, 53 - 54 vane, 188 air, 201-202

grade 43, 53, 54 concentric circles. 4. 6 double-acting, 161. 201 -202
grade 70, 54 condensation. 179 hydraulic. 161 - 163

grade 80, 54 conditioning compressed air. 194- 196 oblique. //

hoisting apparatus, 54 conditions affecting rope. 27 - 29 right. //

inspection, 61. 62 bending. 28. 29 single-acting. 161. 201 -202

working load limit, .'>3-54 chemical activity. 27. 28 volume of. 14. 15

challenging. 290. 343 moisture. 27. 28

Charles- Law. 172- 173 temperature. 27, 28
check valve. 155. 193. 195 conductor, 320
chemisorption. 213 cone. 12 decision, 206

choker hook, 57, 58 altitude. /: demulsification, 138

choker sling, 22 - 24 slant height. 12 desiccant dryer, 182

chord, 4, 6 vertex. 12 dew point, 179

circle. 4-6. 12. 13 volume of. 14. 15 diagrams
arc. 4. 6 conic sections. 72-13 cutaway. 134
area of. 5-6 circle. 12. 13 graphic. 134. 135
centerpoint. 4-6 ellipse. 12. 13 pictorial. 133- 134
chord, 4, 6 hyperbola. 12. 13 dial indicator. 295. 300 - 303
circumference, 4-5 parabola, 12. 13 rod sag. 302 - 303
diameter. 4-6 connecting link, 56 use, 300 - 302
quadrant. 4. 6 connecting rod, 186 verifying readings. 300 - 302
radius. 4-6 Conrad bearing, 227 diameter. 4-6
secant. 4. 6 contact, 336 rope, 26 -27
sector, 4. 6 holding, 336 diametral pitch. 263
segment. 4. 6 contactor, 335-337 diaphragm gas charged accumulator. 164,
semicircle. 4. 6 troubleshooting, 336 - 337 165
tangent. 4. 6 continuity tester, 329, 331 direct-acting valve, 151, 152
circles use. 329, 331 direct current, 324 - 325, 326
concentric. 4. 6 ontrol circuit. 335 directional control valve. 154-/56. 197
eccentric. 4. 6 ontrolled flow. 134 -200
circuit breaker. 337-339 ore protrusion, 58, 60 four-way, 155, 156, 197
troubleshooting. 338 - 339 orrosion, 27, 269 three-way, 155, 156, 197
circular pitch, 252, 26.* orrosive wear, 269 two-way, 155, 156, 197
circumference, 4-5 oulomb. 320 direct proportion, 260
clearance, 263 coupling, 290 dispersed solid, 218
cleat, 100 face, 309 displacement, 120, 273-27-/
climbing techniques, 90 flexible, 290 transducer, 278-280
clip, 23 rim, 309 distribution line, 326, 327
closed circuit, 329 unbalance, 275 - 276 distribution substation. 326. 327
clove hitch, 44 cow hitch, 45 dodecahedron, 9. 10
coalescing filter. 180 -/S/ crane, SO - 86 double-acting cylinder. 161
coefficient of friction. 212 gantry, 81 - 82 double hitch knot, 40. 41
combination rim-and-face aligninent. 310 -83 double trapezoidal belt. 251. 252
combined gas law. 174- 175 operation. 84 - 86 double V-belts, 250. 251
common formulas, 2 hand signals, 85 - 86 dowel effect. 292. 293
drift, 85 equilateral triangle. 6, 1 flared joint tightening. 145
drip system, 221 equilibrium. 109 flareless fitting. 147
drive gear, 259 exhaust flow. 134 flash point. 138
driven gear, 259 extension ladder. 92 - 96 flexible belt drive. 243 - 256
drum wrap, 71 angle positioning. 95 safety, 255
bed section. 92 clean environment. 256
dry air, 182 fly section. 92 proper clothing. 255
dryer, 181-182 overlap and height. 94 - 95 removing and locking out energy sup
desiccant. ]S2 raising. 93 - 94 plies, 256

refrigerant. 182 pawl lock, 92 flow, 118-125

duty rating, 89 section overlap. 95 rate, 124
dynamic electricity, 319 eyebolt, 23. 76 - 80 flow control valve, 158- 160, 200. 201
dynamic head, 1 16 angular lifting. 77 fluid, 1 1

pressure, 1 16 capacities, 78-19 maintenance. 166

dynamic lift, IJ7 formed steel, 77 fluting. 234 - 235
dynamic range, 286 loads. 79 - 80 fly section. 92
dynamic seal, 162, 202 machinery, 77 - 80 foaming. 137
dynamic signal analyzer, 28 regular nut. 77-80 foot pad, 87
dynamic total column. 117 shoulder nut. 77-80 force, 65-66, 111
working load limits. SO formed steel eyebolt, 77
eye loop. 39. 40 formulas, 1 - 2
foundation, 290-291
foundry hook, 57, 58
four-part reeving. 66
eccentric, 295
four-way directional control valve. 155-
circles, 4, 6 156
surface, 186
face width. 264 fracture, 53
eddy current, 280. 333 free air, 178
fall-arrest sequence, 106
efficiency, 128-/29 frequency, 274 - 275
false Brinell damage. 233
electrical devices. 333 - 343 domain, 285 - 286
Fast Fourier Transform analyzer.
electrical measuring devices. 328 - 333 spectrum, 285 - 2S6
fatigue crack, 270
continuity tester, 329, 331 fretting corrosion, 233 - 234
fatigue fracture, 270
multimeter, 331 -333 friction, 118-119
fatigue life, 225
voltage tester, 330-331 disc, 257
fatigue wear, 270
electrical pitting, 234 - 235, 269 frustum, 13
feeler gauge, 297
electrical safety, 343 - 346 fulcrum, 125
ferromagnetic material. 322
electric hoist, 70 fuse, 337 - 339
ferrous metals. 138
checklist, 73 puller. 338
ferrule. 147
electricity, 319-346 fiberglass ladder. 88 - 89
troubleshooting. 338-339
dynamic, 319
fiber rope, 22, 34 - 46
static, 319
applications. 36
electromagnet, 323
hitch. 36
electromagnetic induction, 324 - 327
knotting, 36
electron, 319. 320 construction. 35 - 36
flow, 320 -i2/ galling, 234
inspection. 59, 60
valence, 319
natural. 35
gantry crane, 81 - 82
electronic reverse dial alignment. 317 strength. 36 gas, HI
element. 205 synthetic. 35 characteristics. 168-175
ellipse. 12. 13 filter. 138. 195. 285 laws, 171-175
emulsification, 138 coalescing, 180- 181 Boyle's Law, 171-172
end play, 240 intake. 178 Charles' Law, 172- 173
end truck, 81 -S2 pressure. 140 combined gas law. 174- 175
energy, 127 - 132 return-line. 140 Gay-Lussac's Law. 173- 174
heat, 128 suction. 140
-isolating device, 165-166 final step-down transformer. 327 gas charged accumulator. 164. 165
kinetic, 128, 165 fire point, 138 gasket. 163
pressure, 128 fixed bore pulley. 246. 248 gate valve. 159. 160
static, 128 fixed ladders. 90-91 gauge pressure, 112, 169
total. 128 installation, 91 Gay-Lussac's Law. 173 - 174
equal rotor unbalance. 275-276 flange seal, 162. 163 gear. 66 - 67, 257
equation, / flared fitting. 144. 145 bevel, 66 - 67. 266 - 1(,1
402 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

drive, 259 helical screw compressor. 187 scissor lift, 102

driven, 259 helix. 26 system history. 110-
helical, 148, 265 - 266 heptagon. 8 hydraulics. 109- 132
herringbone, 148. 266 herringbone gear. 148. 266 hydrocarbon. 214
hypoid, 266, 268 Hertz. 274 hydrodynamics, 110
idler, 260-261 hexagon, 8 hydrostatics. 109
miter, 266 - 267 hexahedron, 9, 10 hyperbola. 12. 13
pump, 120, 148 hitch, 40 hypoid gear, 266, 268
rack, 265 - 266 blackwall, 46 hypotenuse, 7
speed, 259 - 260 cat's-paw. 45
spur, 148, 265 - 266 clove. 44
tooth form, 262 cow. 45
259
train,

compound, 261 - 262

wear, 268 - 270
abrasive, 268 - 269
scaffold,
timber, 43,
hoist, 66 - 76
46
44 m
inspection, 72 - 76
icosahedron, 9, 10
corrosive, 269 brake lining, 76 idler gear, 260-261
electrical pitting, 269 motor brake, 75 - 76 imbalance, 18
fatigue. 270 regularly-scheduled. 72 - 74 impact flaring method. 146
rolling, 270 load tests, 76 implosion, 150
scuffing, 270 manually-operated, 66 - 68 inching, 76
worm, 66-67, 266-268 hand-chain, 67 - 68 inclined line. 3
generator, 324 lever-operated, 67 - 68 independent wire rope core, 30
globe valve, 159, 160 power-operated, 68-71 individual rim-and-face alignment. 310
grab hook, 57, 58 electric, 70 mduced soft foot. 297, 298
graphic diagram, 134, 135, 183 -/S4 checklist, 73 induction, 323
graphic symbols, 135. 136, \%i-I84 pneumatic, 69- 70 industrial crane, 80 - 86
graphite, 219-220 safety, 72 - 76 gantry, 81 - 82
grease. 218
trolley, 83 jib. 81 -83
application, 222
hoist chain, 67 operation. 84 - 86
cup, 222
hoisting apparatus chain, 54 hand signals. 85 - 86
dropping point, 219, 233
hoisting hook. 57 overhead. 83 - 84
gun, 222
capacity, 59 safety. 85 - 86
great circle, 13
holding contact. 336 inert gases, 213
ground. 344
hook, 23, 57, 58
ground fault circ interrupter, 339 - 340
bend, 57 insulator, 320
grounding. 328
choker, 57, 58 intake filter. 178
methods. 329
drift. 75 intake flow. 134
guardrail. 98
foundry, 57, 58 intensifier, 204
guyline, 101
grab. 57, 58 intercooler, 177
hoisting, 57 intercooling, 177
mousing, 57 interference 229
H sorting, 57, 58
fit,

International Organization for Stand

horizontal lines, 3 ardization, 72

horizontal weight center, 18 nverse proportion. 260

half hitch knot. 40, 41
horsepower, 130, 258 - 259 nverse ratio. 260
halyard. 92. 94
hose, 142, 143 nvolute form. 262
hand chain. 67
installation, 143 rregular polygon. 8
hand-chain drop. 67
humidity, 177 rregular polyhedra. 9, 10
hand-chain hoist. 67 - 68
relative, 178 sosceles triangle. 6, 7
hand signals. 85 - 86
hunting tooth. 268
harness, 107
hydraulic
hazardous location, 328. 329
actuators. 161 - 164
head, 114- 116
circuit components. 137 - 165
dynamic, 115 - 1 16
circuit maintenance. 165- 170
pressure. 114- 116 circuitry, 133-136
static, //5- 116 jack screw, 294
cylinder, 161 - 164
headroom, 67 diagram, 133 jib crane. 81-83
heat energy, 128 fluid, 137- 141 base-mounted, 81
heat exchanger, 142 166 mast, 81 -S2
helical gear, 148, 265 - 266 motors, 163, 164 journal, 229, 230
m
kinetic energy. 128. 165
horizontal. 3
inclined.
parallel. 3

perpendicular, 3
_-i

machine. 243. 257

straight, 3 element efficiency. 258
kinking. 58. 60
vertical, 3 movement, 294 - 296
knot. 40 - 43
lip seal, 162, 163, 202-203 run-in, 242
bowline. -12
cup, 162. 163 machinery eyebolt, 77-80
double hitch. 40. 41
flange, 162. 163 machinery vibration, 272 - 273
half hitch. 40. 41
U-ring, /62, 163 magnet, 322
slip, 41
V-ring, 162. 163 magnetic flux lines, 322, 323
wagoneer's hitch, 43
liquid characteristics, 111-125 magnetism. 322 - 327
flow. 118-125 main header. 192. 193
capacity, 121 - 123 main sling components. 22
friction, 118- //9 chain. 22
speed, 125 fiber rope. 22
ladder. 87 - 96
velocity, 72i-125 round sling, 22
climbing techniques. 90 viscosity, 119-120 webbing, 22
duty rating, 89 volume, 120- 121 wire rope, 22
extension, 92 - 96 pressure, 111-117 manifold, 206
overlap and height, 94 - 95 head, 114- 116 manually-operated hoists, 66 - 68
raising, 93 - 94 -68
dynamic, 115- 116 hand-chain, 67
fall protection, 105 static, 115- 116 lever-operated. 67 - 68
fiberglass. 88 - 89 116-117 master link. 23, 56
lift,

fixed. 90-9/ dynamic, 117 mast jib crane, 81 -S2

installation. 91 column, 117 material weight calculations. 21
total
jacks. 95 static, 116- //7 maximum intended load, 98
metal. 88 total column, /// measurement systems, 2
position protection. 105 - 106 liquid lubricant, 214 measuring soft foot, 298 - 299
regulations and standards. 89 animal/vegetable oil, 214 at-each-foot method, 298 - 299
safety, 105-107 petroleum fluid, 214 shaft deflection method. 299
safety feet, 89 litmus paper, 138 mechanical, 257
safety system. 91 load advantage, 63-65, /25- 127
single, 91 asymmetrical, 17. 18 drive, 257 - 270
standoffs. 96 balance, 17 mercury barometer. 1 1

step. 96 static, 29 mesh. 104. 139

wood. 87 symmetrical, 17 metal fatigue. 232
lanyard. 106- 107 tests, 76 metal ladder. 88
laser rim-and-face alignment. 317-_?/J lipping, 18 metering. 159
lay. 36 toppling, 18 metric measurement system. 2
lead line. 63-6-/ weight calculation, 19-21 micron, 139
factors. 66 loading slot, 227 midrail, 98
left lang-lay rope. 26 lobe, 187 misalignment, 272. 289 - 290
left regular-lay rope, 26 lockout, 256 angular, 289, 290
lever-operated hoist, 67 - 65 logarithmic amplitude spectra, 282 - 283 offset, 289, 290
lichens, 138 logarithmic scale, 282 misalignment wear, 234
lift, 67. 116- 117 logic, 205 miter gear. 266 - 267
dynamic, 117 element combination. 209-210 mobile scaffold. 101 -102
static, 116- 117 loop, 36 modified curvilinear belt. 251. 252
total column, 117 loop eye, 47 moisture separator. 179
dynamic, 117 lubricant, 21 molded notch belt. 244
static, 117 additives, 215 molecule. 319
lifting, 17, 63-86 application, 220 molybdenum disulfide. 220
devices, 63-71 contamination, 222 - 223
block and tackle, 63 - 66 gas, 213 air, 204 - 205
lug. 18 liquid, 214 hydraulic, 163, 164

limit switch. 70 semisolid. 218-219 regreasing, 222 - 22J

limit valve, 206 solid, 219-220 starter, 335 - 337

linear amplitude spectra. 282 - 283 lubrication. 211 -224 troubleshooting, 336 - 337

linear measure, 4 programs. 223 - 224 mousing, 57

lines, 2-3 lubricator. 195. 196 multimeter, 331-333
404 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

use, 332 pipe installation, 193

multiple-point ;nsion scaffold, 102 - plumbing, 189

103 materials, 193

multiple-wire strand core, 30 pressure loss, 191

packing, 162. 163. 203
multistage compression, 176, 177 pneumatics, 167-168
parabola. 12. 13
multistage compressor. 185 pocket wheel, 67
parallelepiped. 9. 10
polarity. 323
right, 9, 10
pole scaffold. 98- 101
parallel lines, 3
components. 99
parallelogram. 8. 9
double-pole. 98-101
rectangle. 8. 9
planking spans. 100
National Association of Chain Manufac-
rhomboid. <^. 9
turers. 53 single-pole, 98 - 101
rhombus. 8, 9
National Electrical Code®, 72, 327-328 polygon, 8
square, 8, 9
National Fire Protection Association, 72 heptagon, 8
parallel soft foot, 297
National Fluid Power Association, 206 hexagon. 8
part. 63
National Lubricating Grease Institute, 218 irregular. 8
particulate. 178
natural fiber rope. 35 octagon. 8
Pascal's law. 126. 169
needle bearing, 226, 227. 229 pentagon. 8
pawl, 68
needle valve, 159. 160 regular, 8
pawl lock. 92 - 9.?
triangle. 8
neutral conductor, 331
peak. 273 9-13
neutron, 319, 320 polyhedra.
peak-to-peak. 273
nip. 40 polymer. 220
pendant. 70 polytetrafluoroethylene. 220
nominal value, 29, 244
pentagon. 8 port plate. 149
nonparallel misalignment, 248. 249
perpendicular line. 3
position, 156. \91 - 198
nonpositive displacement pump, 1 10
petroleum fluid. 214 position protection. 105-/06
nonpositive seal, 162
NOT logic element. 208 phase, 275-276 positive-displacement. 147
pictorial diagram. 133 - 134
nucleus. 319. 320 compressor. 1 85
piezoelectric. 278-279 pump. 120
pilot line, 152 positive seal. 162
pilot-operated valve. 152 potential energy. 165
pilot operation. 152 power. 129
oblique cylinder. // pinion. 263 circuit. 335
oblique prism. 9. 10 pipe, 143, 144 distribution. 326 -j(27
obtuse angle. 3 piping strain, 292 power-operated hoist. 68-71
obtuse triangle. 6. 7 piston compressor. 185- 187 electric. 70
Occupational Safety and Health Admii piston cushioning device. 203 checklist. 73
piston pump. 150 pneumatic. 69 - 70
octagon. <( pitch circle, 263 power plant transmission lines. 326. 327
octahedron. 9. 10 pitch diameter. 264 precharge pressure. 165
offset misalignment, 248. 249, 289, 290 pitting, 137 precision class bearings. 239
ohm. 320-321 plain bearing, 229 - 230 preformed rope. 33
Ohm's law. 321 -322 materials. 230 preloading. 240
oil analysis. 223 plane figures. 2-9 pressure. 111-117. 168
oil application. 220-221 circle. 4-6 absolute. 112. 170

oil carry-over. 179 plank. 95 atmospheric. 1 1 1. 169

oil whirl. 276-277 planking spans. 100 compensated flow control valve. !60
one-part reeving. 64 platform, 91 compensated vane pump. 149
open circuit. 329 plumbing, 142 - 147 compensator. 149. 189
operational pitch point. 26.? ply, 46 control. 189

opposing forces rotor unbalance. 275 - pneumatic drop. 119. 180

276 circuit, 183 energy. 128
order. 274 components, 194-205 equivalents, 112

orifice. 159. 160 circuitry, 183- 184 filter. 140

O-ring. 762. 202 hoist, 69-70 gauge. 112. 153. 154. 169
OR logic element. 201-208 logic, 205-210 -reducing valve. 153. 154
oscillator. 280 element, 206 - 208 regulator. 196

overhead crane. 83 - 84 principles, 167 - 182 -relief valve, 151

overhung load. 248 system, 167, 183. 185-194 switch. 189. 190

overload relay, 336 leaks, 192 primary port. 151

oxidation, 137, 138 liquid drainage, 192, 193 primary transmission line. 326, 327
prime mover, 147 inverse, 260 right regular-lay rope, 26
prism. 9, 10. II reach, 67 right triangle. 6. 7

oblique, 9, 10, // reciprocate, 185 rim-and-face alignment, 309-312

parallelepiped, 9, 10, II reciprocating compressor, 176 combination. 310
right, 9. 10. II rectangle, 8. 9 individual, 310
process variable, 181 area of, 9 roller bearing, 226. 227. 229
proportion, 260 rectangular parallelepiped, 9, 10. II cylindrical. 229
direct, 260 reel, 71 tapered. 229
inverse, 260 reeving, 63 - 66 rolling. 270
proton, 319, 320 four-part, 66 rolling-contact bearing, 225-229
primary winding, 334 one-part, 66 root mean square, 283 - 284
pseudocavitation, 151 three-part. 66 rope. 25 -46
pulley two-part. 66 conditions affecting. 27 - 29
alignment. 248 - 249 refrigerant dryer, 182 bending, 28. 29
fixed bore, 246. 24H regular-lay rope. 26 curve/rope ratio. 28 - 29
tapered bore, 246 - 248 regular nut eyebolt. 77-80 efficiency. 29

recommended hub torque values, 248 regular polygon. 8 chemical activity, 27. 28
pump, 147 - 151 regular pyramid. 12 moisture, 27, 28
gear, 148 regular solids. 9. 10 temperature. 27. 28
piston, 150 dodecahedron, 9, 10 construction. 26
vane, 148- 150 hexahedron, 9, 10 diameter, 26 - 27
balanced, 149 icosahedron, 9, 10 fiber, 34-46
pressure compensated, 149 octahedron, 9, 10 grab, 106-/07
variable displacement, 158 tetrahedron, 9, 10 lay, 26
putlogs, 99 volume of. 14 left lang-lay, 26
pyramid, // - 12 relative humidity, 178 left regular-lay, 26
altitude. 12 relay, 336 preformed, 33
regular. 12 overload, 336 regular-lay, 26
slant height, 12 reservoir, 141
right lang-lay, 26
vertex, // resilience, 162 right regular-lay, 26
Pythagorean Theorem, 7 strength. 27 - 29
resonance, 271
restrictive check valve, 159, 160 wire. 29-34
rounding off. 21
return-line filter. 140
reverse dial alignment, 313-316 round sling, 22. 50-52
inspection, 60, 6/
rhomboid, 8, 9
strength. 50
rhombus, 8. 9
quadrant, 4, 6 running torque, 131
rigging, 17-62
quadrilateral, 8-9 chain attachments, 55
runout, 295
rectangle. S, 9 runway, 83
hook. 57. 58
rhomboid, S, 9
master link, 56
rhombus, 8, 9
shackle. 55, 56
square, S, 9
chain strength, 54 - 55
trapezium, S, 9
component inspection, 58-61
trapezoid, S, 9
component recordkeeping, 62
quad-ring, 162
equipment storage, 61, 62
safety
hardware attachments, 23
electrical, 343 - 346
clip, 23
safety net, 704-105

m
eyebolt, 23
maintenance, 104
hook, 23
master link, 23 requirements, 104

shackle, 23 testing, 104-105

race, 226, 227 socket, 23 safety relief valve, 189, 191
rack gear. 265 - 266 triangle choker fitting. 23 safety sleeve, 91, 105
racking, 96 wedge socket. 23 saturated air, 177
rack teeth, 262 techniques, 51 Saybolt viscometer, 119
radial bearing. 227 - 228 right angle, 3 scaffold. 97-103
radial load, 225, 226 right circular cone, 12 fall protection. 106
radius, 4-6 right cylinder, // hitch, 46
raising ladders, 93 - 94 right lang-lay rope, 26 hydraulic scissor lift, 102
ratchet, 68 right parallelepiped, 9, 10. II mobile, 101-702
ratio, 260 right prism, 9, 10 pole. 9S-101
406 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

components, 99 slip clutch, 68 straightedge alignment, 307 - 30

planking spans, 100 slip knot, 41 straight line, 3

single-pole, 98-100 slippage, 120 strainer, 138

anchoring, 100 small circle, 13 strand, 26

regulations and standards, 98 Society of Automotive Engineers. 217 submersion system, 220, 221
safety, 106, 108 socket, 23. 34 suction strainer, 140

sectional metal-framed, /0/-102 speltered, 34 supplementary angles. 3

suspension, \02- 103 swaged, 34 suspension scaffold. \02- 103

multiple-point. 102- 103 wedge, 34 multiple-point. \02- 103

two-point, 102 - 103 soft foot, 289, 296 - 298 two-point, \()2- 103

scalene triangle, 6, 7 angular, 297 swaged socket, 34

scuffing, 270 induced, 297, 298 switch, 340-341

seal, 202 measuring, 298 - 299 troubleshooting, 341 - 342

cup, 203 parallel, 297 symbol, 134, 183 -/S-/

dynamic, 202 springing, 297. 298 symmetrical load, 17

-343 synthetic fiber rope, 35
lip, 202 - 203 solenoid, 199, 341
troubleshooting, 343 nylon, 35
static, 202
200 polyester, 35
V-ring, 203 valves,
solid lubricant, 219-220 polypropylene, 35
secant, 4, 6
secondary port, 151 solids. 9-13 synthetic fluid. 217-218
sorting hook, 57, 58 synthetic yarn. 46
secondary winding, 334
spacer, 295 system operating pressure. 134
sectional metal-framed scaffold, 101
102 spalling, 232-233
sector, 4, 6 spectrometer, 223
segment, 4, 6 spectrum, 273
seizing, 32 - 33 speed, 125
bar, 33 speltered socket, 34
tackle. 63
selvedge, 46, 47 sphere, 13
tag line. 45
semicircle, 4, 6 great circle, 13
tagout, 256
semisolid lubricant, 218-219 small circle. 13
tangent, 4, 6
sequence. 152 volume of, 14. 16
tapered bore bearing, 242
sequence valve, 152, 153 splice, 37, 47
tapered bore pulley, 246 - 248
service life, 226 springing soft foot, 297. 298
recommended hub torque values. 248
shackle, 23. 55, 56 spur gear, 148. 265 - 266
tapered roller bearing adjustment. 240 -
shear strength, 53, 216 square. 8. 9
242
shear stress, 216 area of. 9
taper gauge. 307
shell, 319, 320 square foot, 4
tempering, 53
valence, 319, 320 square inch, 4
tensile strength, 53
shim stock. 295, 296 staging, 187
tension member, 243
shim thickness for 90° rotation, 77 standard, 72
tetrahedron, 9, 10
shoulder nut eyebolt, 77 -SO V-belt pulley groove dimensions, 247
thermal expansion, 168, 289, 299-300
working load limits, SO standards organizations, 72
thimble, 29
signal, 205 standing end, 36
threaded cup follower, 240
single-acting cylinder, 161 standing part, 36
three-part reeving, 64
single ladder, 91 standoff, 96
starting torque, 131
three-phase circuit, 338
single-stage compressor, 185
static electricity, 319 three-way directional control valve, 155 -
slant height, 12
156
sling, 22-25, 48 static energy, /2S
throttling, 159
angle, 25 static head, 1 1

thrust damage, 234

loss factors, 25 pressure, 115
116, 117
timber hitch, 43, 44
angular load capacity, 25 static lift,

static load, 29 time domain, 284 - 2S5

basket, 22
162, 202 timing belt, 250, 251
bridle, 22 static seal,

column, 117 toeboard, 98

choker, 22 static total

combinations, 22 - 24 steel alloy, 53 tooth form, 262

material strength capacities, 32 stepladder, 96 top hook. 67

round, 50 - 52 step-up transformers, 326. 327 top support. 95

U, 22 stock material weight tables. 19, 20 torque, 66, 130- 132, 257-258
vertical, 22, 48 weight of steel and brass bar stock, 20 breakaway, 131

sling apex, 18, 19 weight of steel plate. 20 running, 131

sling eyebolt capacity loss, 78 straight angle, 3 starting, 131

total column. 117 direct-acting, 151, 152 placement. 281
dynamic, 117 directional comrol, 154 - 156. 197 - 200 selection. 280
static. 117 now control, 158-/60, 200, 201 velocity, 278
vibration analyzers. 277 -
total energy. 128 gate, 159, 160
transducers. 277-281 globe. 159. 160 monitoring programs. 287
accelerometer. 278-279 limit. 206 recordkeeping. 287

displacement. 278-280 needle, 159, 160 trending. 287

placement. 281 pilot-operated, 152 ity. 277

selection, 280 position, \91-198 signature, 281 - 282

velocity. 278 pressure compensated flow control. 160 velocity, 276

transformer, 333 - 335 pressure-reducing, 153, 154 viscosity, 119-120, 138, 21

troubleshooting, 334-335 pressure-relief, 151 index, 120. 216

transmission substation. 326, 327 safety relief, 189, 191 visual adjustment method. 2

trapezium, 8. 9 sequence. 152, 153 voltage. 320 - 321

trapezoid, 8, 9 solenoid, 200 voltage tester. 330-331

trapezoidal belt, 251. 252 unloading, 189, 190 use, 330-331
triangle. 6-1.8 vane air motor, 205 volume, 13- 16, 120- 121,

acute, 6. 1 vane compressor. 188 of cone, 1

altitude. 6 vane pump. 148- 150 of cylinder, 15, 120- 121

area of. 7 variable displacement pump, 158 of rectangular solid. 14, i:

base. 6 variable-speed belt drive. 253 - 255 of sphere, 16

choker fitting. 23 changing speed, 253 volumetric efficiency, 120

equilateral, 6. 7 V-belt, 243 - 246 V-ring seal, 162, 163. 203

isosceles. 6. 7 classification, 244

obtuse. 6, 7 double, 250, 251
right. 6, 7

hypotenuse. 7
scalene, 6. 7
forces,

pulley,
246
246 - 250
fixed bore, 246, 2461
w
symbol, 6 tapered bore, 246 - 248 wagoneer's hitch knot, 43
truth table, 207 recommended hub torque values, 248
waveform. 273
tube, 144 sizes, 243 - 246
way. 155, 156. 197
installation, 146 tensioning. 249 - 250
wear pad, 47
two-part reeving. 64 bell deflection method, 250
wear particle analysis, 224
two-point suspension scaffold, 102 - 103 visual adjustment method, 250
155- webbing, 22. 46-50
two-way directional control valve, vector, 123
156 inspection, 60. 61
velocity, 123- 125
tying off, 106 strength. 49
transducer. 278
web sling body. 47
vertex. 3, 7/
web sling configurations. 41-48
vertical line. 3
Type 47 - 48

H
I.
vertical sling. 22. 24
Type II. 47 - 48
vibration, 271 -288
Type III. 41-48
acceleration, 276
Type IV. 48
union, 144 amplitude, 273
Type V. 48
units of measure, 2 analysis. 280 - 286
Type VI, 48
unlay, 37 analyzers, 282
web sling length, 47
unloading valve. 189. 190 dynamic signal. 282
wedge socket. 23. 34. 35
unthread rotation. 78 Fast Fourier Transform, 282
weight-loaded accumulator. 164. 165
U-ring seal. 162. 163 characteristics, 273 - 277
well (shaft), 91
U-sling. 22-24 cycle, 273
displacement. Hi -274 Weston Brake, 74

frequency, 274 - 275

whipping, 37

oil whirl, 276-277 wick system, 220, 221

phase, 275 - 276 wiper, 203

check sheet, 288 wire rope, 22. 29 - 34

effects, 272 construction, 30

12. 169 cutting. 32
machine 275gear,
valence electron, 319 machinery, 272 - 273 filler wire. 29, 30
valence shell, 319. 320 measurement methods, 277-281 inspection, 58 - 59

transducers, 277-281
accelerometer, 278-279 Scale, 30
check. 155. 193, 195 displacement. 278-280 strength. 30 - 32
 INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS

terminations, 33 - 34 working end, 36

Warrington, 30 working height, 95

Warrington-Seale, 29, 30 working load limit, 53 - ;

wood ladder. 87 working part, 36

work, 127-132 worm, 266 - 267

working depth. 263 worm gear, 66 - 67. 266 -
 ISBN 0-8269-3690-3
9 000

9 780826 936905
A