T H E P O C K E T G U I D E TO

NEURODIVERSITY
of related interest

The Bigger Picture Book of Amazing Dyslexics and the Jobs They Do
Kathy Iwanczak Forsyth and Kate Power
Foreword by Paul Smith
ISBN 978 1 78592 584 9
eISBN 978 1 78592 585 6

The Spectrum Girl’s Survival Guide

How to Grow Up Awesome and Autistic
Siena Castellon
Foreword by Temple Grandin
ISBN 978 1 78775 183 5
eISBN 978 1 78775 184 2

The Neurodiverse Workplace

An Employer’s Guide to Managing and Working with
Neurodivergent Employees, Clients and Customers
Victoria Honeybourne
ISBN 978 1 78775 033 3
eISBN 978 1 78775 034 0

The #ActuallyAutistic Guide to Advocacy

Step-by-Step Advice on How to Ally and Speak Up with
Autistic People and the Autism Community
Jennifer Brunton Ph.D. and Jenna Gensic M.A.
ISBN 978 1 78775 973 2
eISBN 978 1 78775 974 9

The Autism and Neurodiversity Self Advocacy Handbook

Developing the Skills to Determine Your Own Future
Barb Cook and Yenn Purkis
ISBN 978 1 78775 575 8
eISBN 978 1 78775 576 5

Autism Equality in the Workplace

Removing Barriers and Challenging Discrimination
Janine Booth
Foreword by John McDonnell
ISBN 978 1 84905 678 6
eISBN 978 1 78450 197 6
 The

Pocket Guide
to

Neurodiversity
Daniel Aherne
Illustrated by Tim Stringer
First published in Great Britain in 2023 by Jessica Kingsley Publishers
An imprint of Hodder & Stoughton Ltd
An Hachette UK Company

Copyright © Daniel Aherne 2023

Illustrations copyright © Tim Stringer 2023

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means without the prior written permission of the publisher, nor
be otherwise circulated in any form of binding or cover other
than that in which it is published and without a similar condition
being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.

The fonts, layout and overall design of this book have been prepared
according to dyslexia-friendly principles. At JKP we aim to make our
books’ content accessible to as many readers as possible.

A CIP catalogue record for this title is available from the British
Library and the Library of Congress

ISBN 978 1 83997 014 6

eISBN 978 1 83997 015 3

Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJ Books Ltd

Jessica Kingsley Publishers’ policy is to use papers that are natural,

renewable and recyclable products and made from wood grown
in sustainable forests. The logging and manufacturing processes
are expected to conform to the environmental regulations
of the country of origin.

Jessica Kingsley Publishers

Carmelite House
50 Victoria Embankment
London EC4Y 0DZ

www.jkp.com
Contents

Acknowledgements 8
Preface 11

Ch 1: Neurodiversity Explained 15

Ch 2: Neurotypes 25

Ch 3: Processing 51

Ch 4: Working Memory 63

Ch 5: Communication 70

Ch 6: Unwritten Rules 82

Ch 7: Emotions 90

Ch 8: Problem-Solving 99

Conclusion 106

Neurodiversity Resources 109

References 112
Index 122
This book is dedicated to those who cannot
be saved by spellcheck.
Acknowledgements

I would like to thank three groups of people for making

this book happen. First, the people who enabled the
publication process. This started with Amy Lankester-
Owen at Jessica Kingsley Publishers, who heard me
speak and thought that my speech had the foundations
for a book!

Following a neurodiversity talk I delivered to Hachette

and Jessica Kingsley Publishers, Amy emailed me
(perhaps the best email I have ever received!) and
floated the idea of a pocket guide based on my talk. I
said yes and then promptly did nothing. So, the next
person I want to thank is Isabel Martin, who transcribed
my talk and helped me to get all the words on paper.

Next came an editor and writer who I knew through my

8
 Ac k now l e d g e m e n t s

work with my company, Adjust: the amazing Marianne

Eloise, who helped me turn the transcription into
a semblance of a book! And lastly, Lucy Cowie, who
worked with me very patiently, sensitively and in such
an understanding way, to produce the final version.

Maria Esteban and David Perkins, two of my managers

when I worked at the National Autistic Society (NAS), are
the second group of people I would like to thank.

Maria was my first manager when I worked at an

NAS day centre in Croydon, and she helped me to
understand that everything I had read about autism at
university was pretty much wrong and useless! During
the two years I worked with Maria, I learned so much
about autism (plus a little Spanish!); lots of what Maria
taught me has been the basis of my work for the last
15 years. Maria Esteban is an unsung hero, and she has
done so much to enrich the lives of autistic people.

David Perkins was the manager of the NAS’s

employment service, Prospects, and I kept ringing him
and asking for a job! Dave helped build my confidence
and he let my entrepreneurial side shine. He was
always on hand to give advice about autism and how
employers needed to be doing more to change. Dave
has become a great friend and mentor to me.

The last group I want to thank is the unbelievable

neurodiversity community. I have learned so much from
you all and I know that you will continue to educate and

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T h e P o c k e t G u i de to N e u r odi v e r s i t y

motivate me. There are too many inspiring individuals

for me to be able to thank everyone personally, but
my passion for neurodiversity first started when I
volunteered with the autistic boy in 2000, grew by
working with an amazing group of people at the
National Autistic Society in 2005, and it continues to this
day in my work.

Daniel Aherne, 2022

10
Preface

My name is Daniel Aherne, and this is my guide to the

fascinating and hotly debated topic of neurodiversity.
For more than 20 years I have been working with
neurodivergent people, supporting them to thrive in a
world that isn’t always sensitive to their needs.

My company, Adjust,1 provides training and consultancy

to global businesses with the aim of helping them to
better understand neurodivergent employees. We raise
awareness of neurodiversity in the workplace in a clear,
practical and positive way.

Our sessions include an introductory ‘Lunch and Learn’

to help companies learn about neurodiversity, training

1 www.adjustservices.co.uk/about

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T h e P o c k e t G u i de to N e u r odi v e r s i t y

to ensure the recruitment process is as inclusive as

possible and management training to ensure that
managers can support and retain neurodivergent
employees.

Adjust’s mission, ‘to start the neurodiversity

conversation’, is focused on the workplace, but I believe
that there are huge benefits to this conversation taking
place everywhere: in schools, communities, healthcare
settings, offices and beyond.

My passion for raising the profile of neurodiversity

also comes from personal experience. I was diagnosed
with ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder)
as an adult and, as a neurodivergent person myself, I
genuinely understand how vital it is that we value the
unique perspectives of neurodivergent people.

As I progressed through the UK education system in the

late 1990s, which was largely exam-based, I experienced
first-hand the challenges that neurodivergent students
face in the school environment. Later, in the workplace,
I noticed the barriers that stopped neurodivergent
employees from getting into employment and excelling
in their roles.

ONS (Office for National Statistics) data for 2021 shows

that this trend continues today: they estimate that only
29 per cent of autistic people are in employment (ONS,
2021). Even before I received my own ADHD diagnosis, it
was clear to me that some neurodivergent people were

12
 Preface

encountering major obstacles in their daily lives and

that this needed to change.

As soon as careers started being discussed at school, I

realized that I wanted to do a job that involved moving
about; I knew I could never be office-based all week! I
also thought that I could put my verbal skills, empathy
and emotional intelligence to good use by supporting
others.

So, at the age of 17, I decided I wanted to be a social

worker, and after a social worker advised me to gain
some volunteering experience, I started working on a
playscheme, supporting an autistic boy. This experience,
back in the year 2000, really lit a passion in me, and I
never became a social worker! Instead, it kick-started
my commitment to raising awareness of neurodiversity.
I went on to work with autistic adults at the National
Autistic Society (NAS), helping them to access
employment and volunteering opportunities.

In this role, I started to notice the same barriers in

workplaces arising again and again. Although every
autistic person I was working with was different, almost
every workplace had the same structural barriers. This
made me realize the positive impact I could have by
working with employers to make their businesses more
inclusive.

As I researched neurodiversity, I learned that

neurodivergent people like myself are not rare:

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T h e P o c k e t G u i de to N e u r odi v e r s i t y

estimates suggest that at least 15 per cent of the

UK population are neurodivergent (ACAS, n.d.).
Neurodiversity is extremely common; some readers
of this guide may be neurodivergent, most will have
neurodivergent friends, relatives or colleagues.

Wherever there are people, there is a need to

understand neurodiversity, and this guide aims to
provide an introductory understanding of neurodiversity
in an engaging and practical way. Everyday examples
and the voices of neurodivergent people are included
throughout; I hope these will spark your interest in
neurodiversity.

By better understanding our neurodivergent colleagues,

friends, neighbours and family members, we can create
adaptable communities that work well for everyone.

14
Chapter 1

Neurodiversity
Explained

It is estimated that around one in seven adults are

neurodivergent in some way (ACAS, n.d.), and while the
complex diagnostic process makes it difficult to confirm
whether this figure is accurate or high enough, it gives
an insight into how much more common neurodiversity
is than you might expect. Based on this estimate, it
is highly likely that there are neurodivergent people
in many classrooms, workplaces and homes around
the world.

But despite the data showing the scale of neurodiversity,

many people still don’t understand the concept of
neurodiversity, the different neurotypes and the many
benefits of thinking differently.

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T h e P o c k e t G u i de to N e u r odi v e r s i t y

Neurodiversity is my superpower and I proudly

navigate life by my own rules and routines.
Most people can’t even imagine the wonderful
way I view the world.

Bev Shah, founder of the think tank and advocacy

group City Hive (personal communication, April 2022)

What is neurodiversity?

Essentially, neurodiversity refers to the rich natural

diversity of human minds. To me, neurodiversity is the
celebration, recognition and acceptance that we all
experience the world in different ways.

The concept of neurodiversity was first conceived

by a sociologist called Judy Singer in 1998, and
it was revolutionary at a time when people saw
neurodivergent conditions as a burden or hindrance
to the individual and those around them (Singer, n.d.).
The term first appeared in print in 1998, when the
journalist Harvey Blume compared neurodiversity to
biodiversity: ‘Neurodiversity may be every bit as crucial
for the human race as biodiversity is for life in general’
(Blume, 1998).

Singer believed that all brains are different, and that we

all think and process the world in a different way. She is
the author of NeuroDiversity: The Birth of an Idea.

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 N e u r odi v e r s i t y E x p l a i n e d

As the concept of neurodiversity has evolved, many

workplaces and educational settings have adopted it
as an umbrella term for various under-represented
neurotypes and profiles.

Nurturing neurodiversity

In my training workshops I love to use the analogy of

biodiversity, and I try to get everyone to think about a
cactus. For example, a cactus flowers and blooms in the
desert. Here, it thrives and really reaches its potential,
but if we move that cactus from a desert in Arizona and
plant it in my back garden in the UK, it might not thrive
or survive. The climate would not be right for it.

However, we would never say that the cactus is broken,

or that there’s a deficit with this cactus, or think that
the cactus needs fixing or curing. We would realize that
the environment wasn’t right for the cactus to meet its
potential. And we would recognize that for the cactus
to fulfil its potential we may have to make adaptations
to its environment; for the cactus to thrive in the UK,
moving it into a greenhouse would better meet its
needs for light and heat.

What if we thought about people’s minds in this way,

and we didn’t say that someone who was struggling
at school or work had a deficit or was broken? What
if, instead, we considered how we could change the

17
 N e u r odi v e r s i t y E x p l a i n e d

environment for this person? As a society, what can we

change to ensure that all individuals can thrive and
reach their potential?

In my professional and personal experience, one of

the biggest things we can do to improve someone’s
environment is to provide education and awareness to
those around them. Greater empathy for and awareness
of other people’s differences can radically improve
their day-to-day experiences. This philosophy is what
motivates me to educate people about neurodiversity.
And it’s why I’ve written this guide.

Neurodivergent identities

A person is considered ‘neurodivergent’ if their brain

works differently from the majority of people’s
brains. These differences may be apparent in
neurodivergent people’s learning styles, the way they
are misunderstood and misjudged by others, and in
their communication and processing.

Common neurodivergent identities include autism,

dyslexia, dyspraxia (DCD), ADHD, Tourette’s syndrome,
dysgraphia and dyscalculia. There are lots of diagnostic
overlaps between different neurotypes, and it is
becoming increasingly common for people to identify
with two or more of the neurotypes.

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T h e P o c k e t G u i de to N e u r odi v e r s i t y

In this guide, I will focus on explaining more about

autism, dyslexia, dyspraxia and ADHD; by understanding
these four neurotypes a little better, you will be well
on your way to becoming more neuro-inclusive. I hope
that this awareness will lead you to think again about
people’s learning styles and communication preferences,
as well as people you may have misunderstood or
misjudged.

Neurodiversity might explain why your colleague

struggles to make eye contact, your friend always
interrupts you when you’re speaking or your child is
overwhelmed by loud noises.

Just like neurotypical people, neurodivergent people

are all different. Neurodivergent people may have areas
in which they excel and other areas that they struggle
with: aspects of their functioning that might hold
them back in a neurotypically designed world. While
neurodivergent people will have different support needs,
many of the barriers they may struggle with are societal
or cultural, such as rigid schooling, communication
differences or sensory challenges.

These barriers aren’t the fault of the individual –

neurodivergent people are simply navigating a world
that was not set up with their needs in mind. By better
understanding and even celebrating the many benefits
of the different ways people think and communicate, we
can make life easier for everyone.

20
 N e u r odi v e r s i t y E x p l a i n e d

I will never stop being neurodivergent, it is for life.

But I actually love looking at the world through
my eyes – it is a rainbow-coloured kaleidoscope. It
keeps me active, gives me purpose and I feel I am
changing the world every time I have a new idea!

Shofa Miah, founder of the youth mental health

charity Ashok’s Vision: @ashoksvision (Miah, 2021)

Many people have particular areas of interest that

engage them more easily than others, but if they have
a relatively typical neurological profile, it is unlikely that
there will be a huge disparity in their skill set. They are
less likely to be extraordinarily good at specific things
whilst needing adjustments and support in others.

This neurotype is often described as ‘neurotypical’. The

majority of the population has this neurotype, and
our society has developed in line with the needs of
neurotypical people. A lot of neurodivergent people are
discriminated against because we expect most people
to fit into the neurotypically designed world.

For example, a neurotypical child may perform

fairly consistently across a range of subjects, while a
neurodivergent child might be perceived as having
erratic results. Teachers and parents might find it hard
to understand how a neurodivergent child can perform
exceptionally well in some subjects but really struggle

21
T h e P o c k e t G u i de to N e u r odi v e r s i t y

with others. They may have As in some subjects and Fs

in others.

A neurodivergent person in the workplace may also

have contrasting abilities, with noticeable areas of
strengths alongside a need for adjustments in other
areas that they may find more challenging. They may
excel in some areas like problem-solving but need
adjustments around things such as processing and
organization.

Ensuring that every single person has the support they

need, and that we understand difference, will mean that
people can pursue the things they are best at and thrive,
reaching their potential just like the cactus in the desert
in Arizona.1

As awareness grows of the value of the skills

neurodivergent people can possess, employers are
realizing the benefits of recruiting people who think
differently. For example, in the UK, the thinking skills
of dyslexic people have been described as ‘mission
critical’ for national security by the intelligence agency
GCHQ (2021).

To understand neurodiversity is to understand that a

range of neurotypes exist and to understand that many
people communicate and experience the world
differently from the majority. Collectively, we need to

1 For more information on legal adjustments and how to access

advice, see: www.gov.uk/reasonable-adjustments-for-disabled-​
workers

22
 N e u r odi v e r s i t y E x p l a i n e d

recognize and support the reality that some people

need adjustments in workplace, educational or social
settings to fulfil their potential. Maybe some individuals
would thrive in an environment entirely different to the
one they struggle in or would be more at ease in an
environment with more flexible rules.

What we can all do is identify areas where we can offer

that flexibility and compassion. The aim of this book is
to give you a brief introduction to neurodiversity and
develop your understanding of this concept. I hope
that reading it inspires you to think beyond the idea of
differences as deficits and to celebrate the benefits of
thinking differently!

Key takeaways

⚫ Neurodiversity refers to the rich natural diversity

in human minds.

⚫ Neurodivergence encompasses neurotypes

such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia, dyspraxia and
many more.

⚫ One in seven people are estimated to be

neurodivergent in some way.

⚫ Neurodivergent people have unique strengths and

challenges and can thrive in environments that
support their needs.

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T h e P o c k e t G u i de to N e u r odi v e r s i t y

Reflection points

⚫ Does having more awareness of neurodiversity

make you reflect on times when you may have
misjudged someone or misunderstood their
actions? How could you react differently in the
future?

⚫ What kind of adaptations might benefit the

neurodivergent thinkers in your life?

24
Chapter 2

Neurotypes

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T h e P o c k e t G u i de to N e u r odi v e r s i t y

Throughout my career, I’ve noticed a recurring

theme, which is that many neurotypes, including
those we focus on in this guide, overlap. This is shown
by the intersecting diagnostic criteria for several
neurodivergent profiles.

At the National Autistic Society, I discovered that a lot

of autistic people I worked with also had ADHD, while
others also had dyspraxia or dyslexia. Certain forms of
behaviour overlap across neurotypes too; for example,
some autistic people and people with ADHD may hyper-
focus on interests or work that they find particularly
interesting. And some autistic people, as well as people
with dyslexia, dyspraxia and ADHD, can be incredibly
creative.

Learning more about different neurodivergent identities

or neurotypes can help us to support people’s individual
needs and to create conditions in which they can thrive.
However, it is important to realize that we don’t all
necessarily fit into neat diagnostic boxes, and while
diagnoses can often be constructive, everybody is
unique and has different skills and challenges.

Not everyone with a neurodivergent thinking

style is diagnosed. You may have children with a
neurodivergent profile, but you might not know it yet.
You may be neurodivergent yourself, but you have not
needed to or been able to access a diagnosis. Barriers to
diagnosis and therefore adjustments and understanding
can mean people do not get to meet their true potential,

26
 N e u r ot yp e s

and everyone deserves to have the support they need,

regardless of formal diagnosis.

Perhaps one day, if we manage to create more neuro-

inclusive societies, people will naturally think: ‘What can
I change about this person’s environment to ensure that
they can reach their potential?’ However, at this stage
of the journey towards understanding neurodiversity, it
is necessary to be aware that different neurotypes exist
and to learn about how they are defined.

Celebrating individuality

John Elder Robinson, the autistic author of Look Me in

the Eye (2009), explains that neurodiversity is the idea
that neurological differences like autism and ADHD are
the result of normal variation in the human genome.
He introduces the concept that these neurotypes are
a natural part of the human race. As a species, we
need people who think differently and act differently
so we can survive and thrive. If humans all thought
in the same way, we would not have made such
significant strides in our social, cultural and scientific
development.

In this chapter, I want to offer a brief overview of four

neurotypes – dyslexia, autism, ADHD and dyspraxia –
bearing the overlaps between different neurodivergent
identities in mind.

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T h e P o c k e t G u i de to N e u r odi v e r s i t y

Dyslexia

Dyslexia is the most commonly diagnosed of the four

neurotypes that this book focuses on. It has been
estimated by the British Dyslexia Association that 10 per
cent of the UK population has a dyslexia diagnosis (BDA,
2022; dyslexia.uk.com, 2022). To bring that figure to life,
let’s think about the UK population.

The UK population is currently estimated to be

70 million. So, 10 per cent of the UK population is
seven million. Seven million people is more than
three-quarters of the population of London. Imagine
if most people in London had dyslexia! The majority of
Londoners taking the Tube, catching buses and walking
around shopping or going to work! Dyslexia isn’t just
something one person you knew at school had – it’s far
more common than you think.

Returning to the idea of overlapping diagnoses: up

to 35 per cent of people with dyslexia have ADHD too.
Neurodivergence rarely fits into neat little boxes, and
diagnoses often overlap (Olivardia, 2020).

Even for individuals who only experience one

neurodivergent condition, there can be many
misconceptions about their experience of this condition.
For example, we often associate dyslexia primarily
with difficulty spelling, but that is only one part of
dyslexia. Dyslexic people often have great visual skills

28
 N e u r ot yp e s

and creativity, but we put them at a disadvantage in

our current education system when we ask them to
prove their understanding through reading, writing and
written recall.

In her book The Adult Side of Dyslexia (2021), Kelli

Sandman-Hurley interviews a series of dyslexic adults
about their experiences. One interviewee describes
how the set-up of the conventional school system and
not having access to the right support caused her to
experience low self-worth: ‘I always viewed myself as
the stupid slow kid who just couldn’t read or spell. I
had minimal self-worth from an academic perspective,
which quickly spilled over into the personal areas of my
life’ (Sandman-Hurley, 2021, p.32).

By only offering limited metrics to measure ability,

we overlook the many things dyslexic people can
be exceptional at. This can leave dyslexic people
with damaging self-esteem issues, which might not
arise if we offered other metrics by which to measure
their skills. Dyslexic people have always existed, long
before formal education – how would we view dyslexia
without those goalposts?

Like the cactus in Chapter 1 that can’t thrive in the back

gardens of Britain, a lot of dyslexic people can’t fulfil
their potential within the constraints of mainstream
education. However, many dyslexic people are very
empathetic, very intuitive and very good at visual

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T h e P o c k e t G u i de to N e u r odi v e r s i t y

thinking. They can be skilled at connecting the dots

and pattern recognition, and are often highly inventive,
creative and entrepreneurial.

When a dyslexic person is encouraged to pursue their

skills rather than their difficulties, they can thrive.
Dyslexic people will often excel in an environment that
plays to their strengths, and with the right support they
can be successful in any role!

Proudly dyslexic celebrities

A quick google of famous people with dyslexia will
reveal a long list of celebrities who have been successful
in a wide range of industries. Celebrities who have been
vocal about their dyslexia as an asset include Jo Malone,
Whoopi Goldberg and Richard Branson.

Jo Malone, who is famous for creating luxury fragrances,

struggled in school because of the way that her
intelligence and ability was measured. But when she left
school, she became a very successful entrepreneur. As
Jo Malone’s success demonstrates, original thinking and
creativity can be powerful skills in business.

Confronting challenges and stigma

Like the other three neurotypes explored in this guide,
dyslexia can be stigmatized. Many dyslexic people do
not receive a diagnosis until adulthood, especially if
they have attended schools without the resources to

30
 N e u r ot yp e s

diagnose dyslexia, and they may have lived for decades

without support that could have helped them to thrive.

An important point to address about dyslexia is

that about half of dyslexic people see words and
sentences moving around when they read. A common
misconception of dyslexia is that all dyslexic people see
words as blurry. Or that words being blurry or moving
around is only something that affects people with
dyslexia. However, many other people with neurotypes
such as autism and ADHD also experience this. This is
called visual stress or Irlen syndrome, and be worse
when someone is tired or stressed (Irlen, n.d.).

Before reading this passage, perhaps you thought

this was all dyslexia was. But the experience of seeing
moving text, or of having difficulties with writing or
spelling, is just the tip of the iceberg for some dyslexic
people, concealing many skills that lie beneath.

One of the major factors that contributes to a difficulty

with reading for dyslexic people is white background
and black writing. If you think about most educational
resources, they feature black writing on a white
background; this can have a disabling impact on people
with a dyslexic profile. In your documents, try to avoid
using black writing on a bright white background.
In my training sessions, I choose to use an off-grey
background on my slides; you can easily make changes
like this in PowerPoint and Word.

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T h e P o c k e t G u i de to N e u r odi v e r s i t y

Helpful adaptations
If dyslexia were to be better understood and supported
in workplaces and educational settings, dyslexic people
would be given access to things that enable them to
work and learn more effectively.

Helpful adaptations include allowing increased time

to process information; using yellow paper or softer-
coloured PowerPoint slides instead of white; providing
a computer in exams or providing speech-to-text
software; and the option to present work visually
or verbally rather than in writing. Awareness of the
adjustments that can help dyslexic people on a day-to-
day basis can enable them to reach their full potential.

Autism

Autism is a neurotype that affects the way someone

experiences the world and communicates with other
people. It exists on a spectrum, and there can be
significant variation in the strengths and challenges that
different autistic people have; for example, some autistic
people are able to work full-time without needing
any workplace adjustments, some require minimal
adjustments such as a fixed desk, while others have
learning disabilities and need support on a daily basis.

Autistic people can often be incredibly passionate and

32
 N e u r ot yp e s

throw themselves completely into anything they’re

excited by or interested in.

Barriers for autistic people may include the sensory

environment of a school, a shop or a workplace.
Verbal communication can also be an area of difficulty
when communicating with neurotypical colleagues or
peers, and individuals might struggle to maintain eye
contact, pick up on jokes and/or sarcasm, or gauge what
another person is feeling through their facial expression
or tone of voice. However, studies have shown that
autistic people often thrive when communicating
with each other (Crompton, Ropar, Evans-Williams,
et al., 2020).

Damian Milton’s (2018) research on the ‘double empathy

problem’ suggests that while autistic people often
communicate well with each other, neurotypical people
can sometimes misunderstand or not communicate
clearly with autistic people. The expectations and
cultural differences of neurotypical communication can
create a barrier.

Challenges with understanding unwritten rules in

schools, social settings or workplaces can also cause
difficulties for autistic people.

The language debate

There are many different labels for autism and autistic
people (these include: ‘autistic person’, ‘person with

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autism’, ‘person on the spectrum’, ‘Asperger’s’,1 ‘Aspie’

and ‘autism spectrum disorder’ or ‘ASD’). For clarity, I
will use ‘autism’ or ‘autistic’ through this guide, as that’s
the language many autistic adults and advocates use for
themselves.

Identity-first language ( for example, saying ‘autistic

person’ or ‘I am autistic’, rather than ‘person with
autism’) is preferred by many autistic individuals
because it recognizes that autism is an inherent part
of a person’s identity, and one which impacts many
other areas of their experience (Brown, 2022). It is not
something to be cured or overcome, and in placing that
linguistic emphasis on autism as an identity, advocates
argue that you emphasize the inherent value of autistic
individuals.

Back in the year 2000, when I first learned about autism,

I was encouraged by non-autistic people to use the
‘person-first’ phrase ‘people with autism’. However,

1 Asperger syndrome is not included in the Diagnostic and

Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition, and so
many people who would have previously fit this profile are now
diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) instead. Some
individuals who did receive a diagnosis of Asperger syndrome
may prefer to continue using the term, whilst others refer to
themselves as autistic or as being on the autism spectrum.

For more information, see: www.autism.org.uk/advice-and-

guidance/what-is-autism/asperger-syndrome or
www.spectrumnews.org/opinion/viewpoint/why-fold-asperger-
syndrome-into-autism-spectrum-disorder-in-the-dsm-5

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over the past two decades, as autistic advocacy has

grown stronger, I have listened to the views of many
autistic people and I now understand that person-first
language is not the preference for the majority of the
autistic community. But it is always important to respect
personal preferences about language and to respect
every autistic person as a unique individual.

Early in my career I asked an autistic person, Ross,

which label he preferred. His reply was ‘Ross’. This was
a great reminder that there is always an individual in
front of you! If you are not autistic and you are speaking
to and/or working with an autistic person, always use
their preferred terminology.

Prevalence and diagnosis

It has been estimated by the National Autistic
Society (NAS) that 1.1 per cent of the UK population
is autistic (NAS, 2022c), but the true figure is almost
certainly higher, partly because many people do not
get diagnosed.

White men or boys represent the majority of people

who receive an autism diagnosis. However, in recent
years there has been a push to redress the diagnostic
balance in relation to gender and ethnicity. At the time
of writing, the male-to-female ratio of diagnosis is
three to one (Loomes, Hull and Mandy, 2017; NAS, 2022a),
but there is a growing awareness that girls and women
may be under-diagnosed.

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Women and girls are often diagnosed late because they

present differently and often ‘mask’ their difficulties
more than men and boys. Masking, or camouflaging,
is a self-protecting mechanism wherein someone will
imitate others or hide their true self and behaviours to
fit in. However, over time, this can cause burnout and
meltdowns, and seriously damage mental health.

I’ve worked with girls who receive many other

diagnoses, such as borderline personality disorder,
eating disorders, anxiety and ODD (oppositional defiant
disorder), before they get an autism diagnosis, which
means they go without the specific understanding and
support they need. On the other hand, boys are often
diagnosed much earlier and autism is frequently their
first diagnosis.

It is important to note that access to diagnosis for

all groups is a real barrier; there are many different
autistic expressions, and many boys and men may also
mask. It is also vital to recognize the many different
gender identities that exist and to consider the different
presentations of autism across these (NAS, 2022b).

Myths, misconceptions and stereotypes

There are a lot of misconceptions and myths around
autism. For instance, you may be aware of the myth
that the measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) jab caused
autism. This has been completely disproved (CDC, 2022;
Taylor, Miller and Farrington et al., 1999) and is very

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unhelpful to the autistic community. I recently heard

the phrase, ‘Vaccines don’t cause autism. Autism causes
vaccines,’ which refers to the fact that many people in
the scientific community might be autistic, and that
these gifted scientists are the people who come up with
life-saving vaccines. I love that idea.

This topic brings me on to the issue of stereotyping

that I often discuss in my workshops. Many scientists
and inventors in the past may have been autistic. Today,
high-profile autistic people in science and technology
include biochemist and prize-winning author Dr Camilla
Pang (2019), and the entrepreneur and engineer Elon
Musk (SNL, 2021).

However, despite much evidence of autistic people

successfully applying their creativity to technological
innovation, scientific problem-solving and artistic
expression, there is still a common myth that
autistic people can’t be creative. This may have been
compounded by the ‘triad of impairments’ medical
model of autism that views autistic people as having
a lack of ‘social imagination’.

The triad of impairments said autistic people had a

deficit in three main areas: social imagination, social
communication and social interaction. But this theory
is challenged by the many autistic people who thrive
in creative fields such as fine art, theatre, literature,
music and dance.

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Proudly autistic celebrities

Anthony Hopkins and Daryl Hannah are autistic actors
who have described how being autistic has helped them
to become successful in film and theatre (Willingham,
2013; Gannon, 2017). Many autistic people have expansive
imaginations, and I have often speculated that this
may be due to not being constrained by conventional
neurotypical thinking and to being able to imagine
things that other people have simply never thought of!

Dan Aykroyd of Ghostbusters fame is also autistic

(Strombo, 2013), and recently British celebrities such
as Christine McGuinness (Barnfield, 2021) and Chris
Packham have openly discussed being autistic:

Humanity has prospered because of people with

autistic traits. Without them, we wouldn’t have
put man on the Moon or be running software
programs.

Chris Packham, presenter, photographer and author

(Battersby, 2018)

Helpful adaptations
Autistic people often struggle with change, so I often
suggest adjustments to accommodate for this. For
example, in workshops, I advise managers that we
can ensure autistic people reach their potential by
communicating information about changes in advance

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or by reducing change as much as possible, thereby

reducing uncertainty.

For instance, in workplace settings, I have helped people

to receive adjustments around change. One autistic man
I supported, who was employed by a large department
store, only worked on a specific till in menswear. Other
constructive adaptations I have suggested include
giving autistic employees their own parking space, or
allowing them to be exempt from hot-desking policies;
the uncertainty of not knowing where to park or to sit at
work can cause intense anxiety.

Adjustments that may be beneficial to autistic people

both within and beyond the workplace include warning
them in advance about changes in routine; repeating
or clarifying expressions if needed; allowing extra
time for processing information; and not placing
significant expectations on communication, for example,
understanding that it is not rude if an individual doesn’t
make eye contact.

ADHD

Many people with ADHD describe it as being both one

of the ‘best’ and ‘worst’ parts of their identity. Discussing
his experiences of having ADHD, musician Loyle Carner
says, ‘It is the best and worst thing about me. You know,
I love it but I hate it. But me being ADHD, it’s just who I

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am. All the best things about me come from it – being

emotionally intelligent, being passionate, being
inquisitive’ (Levine, 2019).

When you think of ADHD, you’re likely to think of

naughty boys playing up in the classroom, but it’s much
more complicated. This assumption can be damaging
too: women and people of colour sometimes face
barriers to diagnosis due to the stereotype of a person
with ADHD typically being a child who is white. In my
work I have met a diverse range of people with ADHD
who are very charismatic, sensitive, passionate, creative
and outcome-focused, and who have unique ways of
solving problems.

Prevalence and characteristics

The prevalence of ADHD within the population is
estimated to be approximately 5 per cent (ADHD UK,
n.d.). There is some variation in ADHD prevalence
between children and adults, with lower rates of
diagnosis documented among adults, but this may
reflect changes in environment and expectations at
different stages of development. Despite the persistent
stereotype that ADHD only affects children (diagnostic
tests for adults in the UK were only introduced relatively
recently), it is a life-long profile.

ADHD is defined by inattention, hyperactivity and

impulsivity, and a person might have it without the

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hyperactive element, which can make it harder for them

to get diagnosed, particularly for girls.

ADHD is characterized by many different behaviours,

including an inability to sit still, excessive physical
movement, impulsivity, an inability to wait to take turns
and an inability to concentrate.

While poor concentration is one diagnostic symptom,

it doesn’t solely define ADHD – in some ways, it can be
too much concentration on the ‘wrong’ thing in strict
school environments that can get people in trouble! For
example, a person who is passionate about Star Wars
might be able to focus for hours on learning everything
about that universe but would struggle to concentrate
when faced with routine school tasks.

However, this ability to intensely focus can be

advantageous in some settings, particularly when
someone works with their preferred topics or interests.
The greatest swimmer of all time, Michael Phelps, has
ADHD. When he was young, his mum noticed that her
son struggled to concentrate on maths, so she hired a
tutor and encouraged the tutor to adapt questions to
relate to Michael’s passion for swimming: ‘How long
would it take to swim 500 meters if you swim three
meters per second?’ (Dutton, 2021).

Michael Phelps’s mother’s realization that her son

had the potential to focus exceptionally well when he
was engaged may have helped to enable his sporting

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success. If Michael Phelps had only ever encountered

environments that didn’t support his way of thinking or
working, he may not have been as successful.

Hyper-focus
Michael Phelps is one of many sports stars who
have ADHD; other high-performing sports professionals
with ADHD include Simone Biles (Rodden, 2021) and
Michael Jordan (Archer, 2014). It could be argued that
there is an overlap between ADHD and a proficiency
for the laser focus, dedication and energy that many
sports require.

Another thing that can really help with hyper-focus

is pressure. Like many people with ADHD, if I have a
deadline I will do the work just before the deadline,
as the pressure and urgency help me to focus most
effectively and that’s when I get stuff done. A fast-
paced career such as working in sport can suit many
individuals with ADHD, while jobs in which you work to
very clear deadlines, such as journalism, can also be a
good professional fit for people with ADHD.

When I worked in a medical school, lots of the

paramedics had ADHD, and the high-pressure
conditions of their working environment suited them.
The hyper-focus that they had when they went to an
incident combined with their super-fast processing
meant they were very good at their jobs.

I was working with paramedics because I was a

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disability advisor at a university, and the paramedics

had been forced off the field to do written work for
what was referred to as CPD (continuing professional
development). Think back to that biodiversity analogy:
in a formal academic environment poorly suited to their
needs, the paramedics became disabled. But when they
were out in the field they thrived, just like the cactus in
the desert in Arizona.

Celebrities with ADHD

The hyper-focus, dedication and high energy associated
with ADHD can lead to success in many fields beyond
sports too. Several famous musicians and actors,
including Mel B (Ojomu, 2019), Zooey Deschanel (Freeth,
2021) and Justin Timberlake (Weintraub, 2008), have
spoken publicly about their perceptions of both the
benefits and challenges of having ADHD.

Comedian Rory Bremner has described his life with

ADHD as ‘a bit like plate spinning sometimes, I feel
like my life used to be like how you see circus acts
with six plates spinning and there’s always one just
about to fall off – sometimes your life can be like that’
(Bedigan, 2022).

Helpful adaptations
There are a number of straightforward adaptations
that can enable people with ADHD to thrive rather
than struggle in workplaces, classrooms and social

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settings. Accepting and promoting the need for frequent

movement can help to reduce restlessness and aid
concentration, while standing desks, walking meetings
and outdoor learning can also enhance focus.

Dyspraxia

It is estimated by the Dyspraxia Association that

3–5 per cent of the population has dyspraxia, also
known as ‘developmental coordination disorder’
(BBC Yorkshire, 2021).

While developmental coordination disorder, or DCD,

is the official diagnostic term, the term dyspraxia
is commonly used. In this guide, I will use the term
dyspraxia. The neurodiversity movement focuses on
recognizing the positive aspects of under-represented
neurotypes whilst still addressing the barriers that can
exist for people. So where possible I will avoid using the
term ‘disorder’. This change in language is vital, as the
impact of negative terms can affect people’s self-esteem
and confidence.

Coordination and planning

Dyspraxia is commonly associated with difficulties with
coordination. This is often broken down into ‘gross
motor skills’ (such as catching a ball or riding a bike),
fine motor skills (such as writing or doing up shoelaces)

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and balance. This can create challenges with things such

as handwriting or learning to drive a car, and dyspraxic
individuals might take longer to learn new skills
requiring coordination.

Dyspraxia is also associated with difficulties with

planning and organization, which is where there is
an overlap with dyslexia or ADHD. I often compare
dyspraxia to having all the jigsaw pieces in your
mind but no jigsaw-box picture to copy. It can also
affect sense of direction, meaning that dyspraxic
people often get lost. I have a diagnosis of ADHD but
I identify strongly with the strengths and challenges
of dyspraxia too, including struggling with my sense
of direction; a lot of the time I just get a cab to avoid
getting lost!

To give you a more vivid idea of the prevalence of

dyspraxia: if we think of about 5 per cent of the UK
population having dyspraxia, that’s roughly equivalent
to the size of the population of Wales. If everyone in
Wales had dyspraxia, we would know much more about
it. Dyspraxia often seems to be the least well known
of all the neurodivergent profiles. You might think a
dyspraxic person is simply clumsy, but it’s more complex
than that.

Proudly dyspraxic celebrities

The dyspraxic actor Daniel Radcliffe once joked, ‘I
sometimes think, “Why, oh why, hasn’t Velcro taken

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off?”’, because he finds it hard to tie his shoelaces up

(Tobin, 2008; Evening Standard, 2008). However, despite
the challenges Radcliffe has experienced with clothing,
he has spent his successful acting career using his
communication and creativity skills. Many people that I
have met with dyspraxia often demonstrate real creative
flair and strong emotional intelligence.

I think it is vital to redress the unbalanced perception

many people have of dyspraxia and to focus on some
of the positive aspects. Radcliffe struggled with his
coordination and has said that he found school difficult,
but in film he found an industry he could thrive in.

Florence Welch, the singer in the band Florence and the

Machine, is also dyspraxic, and she is best known for
making music and dancing – challenging the simplicity
of the ‘clumsy’ stereotype (Holland, 2012). There is always
more to the lived experiences of people than you realize
at first, and while dyspraxia affects your coordination, it
doesn’t mean you can’t achieve, even in quite physical
areas. In fact, the English rugby union player Ellis
Genge is dyspraxic, and he has spoken openly about his
dyspraxia in the past (Mead, 2021).

As always, people might have incredible abilities in

some areas due to their neurotype, but in others they
might need adjustments. These adjustments could be as
simple as being patient and understanding when you
perceive someone to be flaky or clumsy: there could be
more to it!

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Helpful adaptations
People with dyspraxia may struggle with aspects of
dressing – for example, doing up buttons or tying
shoelaces – but these challenges don’t mean that
they are slapdash or careless. Due to difficulties with
directions, dyspraxic people may also find it harder
than many neurotypical people to arrive at a new
place on time. Greater tolerance and flexibility around
appearance and punctuality may help dyspraxic people
to feel more comfortable.

Key takeaways

⚫ There can often be overlaps between different

neurodivergent identities.

⚫ Not everyone with a neurodivergent condition

is diagnosed, and many people may be
neurodivergent without knowing it. Regardless of
formal diagnosis, everyone deserves the support
they need.

⚫ Dyslexia is the most commonly diagnosed

neurodivergent condition: an estimated one in
ten people have a dyslexia diagnosis.

⚫ Dyslexic people are often very creative and

entrepreneurial, with great visual skills, but are
put at a disadvantage by our formal education
system’s focus on reading, writing and spelling.

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⚫ Adjustments that can help support dyslexic

people include extra processing time, text-
to-speech or speech-to-text software, using a
keyboard rather than pen and paper, and using
soft-coloured paper or screen backgrounds
when reading.

⚫ Celebrities who have spoken openly about being

dyslexic include Whoopi Goldberg and Jo Malone.

⚫ Autism impacts the way an individual

communicates and experiences the world.

⚫ Common autistic traits include communication

differences, intense topics of interest, sensory
processing difficulties, difficulty interpreting jokes
and/or sarcasm and in maintaining eye contact.

⚫ Autism has many labels; these include ‘autistic’,

‘autism spectrum’, ‘Aspie’ and more. It is important
to respect an autistic individual’s preferred
terminology when referring to their condition.

⚫ Many autistic people ‘mask’ their autistic

characteristics as a defence mechanism, which
can eventually lead to burnout or meltdowns.

⚫ Masking is more common in autistic women and

girls, which can result in late diagnosis.

⚫ Autistic people can be supported with

adjustments including reducing uncertainty

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where possible, and allowing for routine and

consistency, such as giving an individual the same
parking spot or place to work.

⚫ ADHD is defined by inattention, hyperactivity and

impulsivity, but can exist without the hyperactive
element (sometimes referred to as ADD).

⚫ It is characterized by behaviours including

impulsivity, an inability to wait or sit still and
difficulty concentrating.

⚫ People with ADHD can often thrive in fast-paced

careers including sports and journalism, but can
succeed in any field with the right adjustments.

⚫ It is estimated that 3–5 per cent of the UK

population has dyspraxia.

⚫ Dyspraxia is associated with difficulties with

coordination, balance, and gross and fine motor
skills, but it can also cause issues with working
memory and concentration.

Reflection points

⚫ Can we make it easier for people to express

their knowledge and understanding in different
ways? Some dyslexic people can articulate their
understanding amazingly well in speech.

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⚫ Many dyslexic people are creative and original

thinkers. What benefits can this have for society?

⚫ Why do you think masking might be so

emotionally draining for an autistic person? Do
you think masking would be less common in a
more inclusive society?

⚫ How could your workplace, school or community

adapt to better meet the needs of autistic people?

⚫ Could you introduce more movement into your

social or professional interactions?

⚫ Have you misjudged people in the past by

assuming they may not be listening to you
because they are fidgeting or interrupt you?
Does understanding more about ADHD make
you reconsider your previous assumptions?

⚫ What was your initial understanding of

dyspraxia? Has reading this chapter changed
your perception?

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Chapter 3

Processing

Differences in cognitive and sensory processing

are common among neurodivergent people. Some
neurodivergent people may find it challenging to
process information as quickly as other people might
expect them to, while sensory processing difficulties
can mean that neurodivergent individuals struggle with
certain sounds, tastes, textures, bright lights and busy
environments.

Issues with sensory processing can also influence and

complicate how a neurodivergent person experiences
cognitive processing. For example, if an autistic person
is in a noisy and busy crowded place and becomes
overwhelmed, it can make it more difficult for them to
process thoughts and information, potentially leading
to meltdown.

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Reflective processing

I often say that neurodivergent people are the only

people who fully listen to what I say, because many of
them really take time to understand what I am saying!

I worked with an autistic man who had been referred

to the National Autistic Society by his local job centre to
access support to get a job. They told me that he was
completely non-verbal and did not speak, but after I
had worked with him for a few weeks, I found that he
could speak. He just needed longer than you might
anticipate to reflectively process what you had said, and
he needed to be asked one question at a time.

People would often ask him, ‘How are you? How did
you get here today?’ That’s two questions to process. His
processing time was around 15 seconds, so if I just asked,
‘How are you?’ and waited 15 seconds for a reply, he
was able to respond. Little adjustments such as this can
make life so much easier for people who have a different
way of listening and processing.

That is the most extreme version of reflective processing

I’ve ever come across. I usually find that, for a lot
of dyslexic people, processing might take three to
four seconds, or perhaps a bit longer when they’re
reading. I often say, ‘If the computer page takes
longer to load, it doesn’t mean it contains any less
important information.’ Frequently it means there’s
more information being accessed.

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P r o c e ss i ng

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We all operate at different speeds and as the author

and advocate of the slow movement Carl Honoré
explains, ‘everyone has their own personal metronome’
(Magidoff, 2021).

I don’t want to look at processing in a negative way,

but it is a difference for some neurodivergent people.
Greater tolerance of reflective processing could be
constructive for us all.

In many circumstances, whether at school, at work or

in a social setting, someone with reflective processing
may have been labelled as ‘slow’. I don’t agree with that
negative terminology. It simply means that someone
takes longer to absorb information, process it and
formulate a response.

Author Maxine Frances Roper, who has ADHD and

dyspraxia, describes how her processing speed as a
child has affected her communication as an adult:

I tend to open up to people quickly and am

known as a good listener. I’m proud of these
things, but I think they’re partly ways I
overcompensate for being misread as shy or
disengaged because I process certain things
more slowly, particularly when I was younger.

Maxine Frances Roper, author with dyspraxia and

ADHD (personal communication, November 2021)

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Super-fast processing

In contrast, I’ve worked with a lot of people with ADHD

who have super-fast processing and seem to know what
you’re going to say before you say it, and even answer
your question before you’ve asked it. As a consequence,
people with super-fast processing can be perceived as
rude because they cut people off before they’ve finished
speaking.

Super-fast processing can be a positive and people can

come across as charismatic, witty, sharp, and able to
grasp concepts and see the bigger picture quickly.

People with any neurodivergent condition may struggle

with processing in different ways, and it’s important to
ask an individual which adjustments can be put in place
to help them.

Sensory processing

The sensory differences that many neurodivergent

people have are often referred to as ‘sensory processing
difficulties’, in which the brain has difficulty receiving
and responding to information that comes through the
senses. This might manifest as a neurodivergent person
being unable to filter out certain sounds, being able to
smell too much, finding certain textures painful or even
being clumsy.

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We most often associate sensory issues with autistic

people, some of whom can even hear electricity in
the walls or might find loud noises painful. Certain
aspects of sensory processing can be difficult to
experience, and misconceptions around how sensory
processing is experienced can make life complicated
for neurodivergent people.

For example, if a person struggles in a classroom

or social setting because they find it too noisy or
overstimulating, it can make it very hard to function.
Sensory overwhelm might cause a meltdown or other
distress, which to an outside observer might look like a
‘tantrum’.

Better understanding of the fact that someone who is

experiencing sensory overload is in genuine distress
would relieve a lot of stress for people with sensory
processing issues, but there are also other ways that
the risk can be mitigated.

For example, someone might benefit from wearing

earplugs in loud places, or spending time alone if they
feel overloaded. They may also prefer to remove labels
from clothes or only wear certain materials against their
skin. Forcing somebody to ‘get used’ to something that
they find painful or distressing can be very traumatic.

In her book The Spectrum Girl’s Survival Guide, Siena

Castellon writes:

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Having sensory sensitivities is a large part of

being autistic. Not being able to filter out sensory
information can be intolerable, especially at the
end of a long day when our defences have been
weakened. Yet since most neurotypical people
don’t experience sensory overloads, they cannot
fully understand how distressing, overwhelming
and painful they can be[…] Trying to build up
sensory tolerance and ignoring sensory
sensitivities does not work.

Siena Castellon, author (Castellon, 2020, pp.58–60)

Heightened sensory sensitivity

A lot of neurodivergent people have heightened sensory
sensitivity, and that might be to touch, smell, taste, light
or a combination of all of these. Sometimes this can be
quite disabling, but sometimes it can be quite enabling
in the right circumstances or environment – providing
a distinct lens that a neurodivergent person views and
experiences the world through.

As mentioned earlier, Jo Malone, the perfumer, is

dyslexic. At school she struggled greatly and was
considered ‘severely’ impaired in a setting where
intelligence was solely measured through written words
(BBC News, 2015). She left school at the age of 13 to care
for her mother, and in some circumstances might have
struggled to get through life.

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Like many neurodivergent people, Jo Malone had an

extremely heightened sense of smell, which in some
situations might have been overwhelming. However, in
her case, combined with her entrepreneurial ability to
solve problems and to see things differently, her sense
of smell made her uniquely qualified to craft and sell
luxury candles and perfumes.

Understanding that someone’s success might be

because of their cognitive differences and not in spite of
them is key to appreciating the different ways that we
experience the world. By making adjustments that make
certain environments more manageable for people with
sensory processing issues, and by encouraging people
to pursue their unique skills, we can make a huge
difference.

Of course, for every person who manages to overcome

the societal barriers to success faced by neurodivergent
people, there are many more who aren’t adequately
supported. It is important to shift from focusing on
the negatives to thinking about the positives, while
never forgetting that there are adjustments people
need to thrive. With adjustments, neurodivergent
employees can be properly supported, which can
enable them to flourish and even go beyond the
neurotypical standard.

This idea can be expanded to relationships and

friendships, too – if you are willing to make

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individualized adjustments for things such as

communication and memory, you and your
neurodivergent friend, partner or relative can enjoy a
more meaningful relationship. There are many ways of
doing this, but they all start with asking the individual
what adaptations they need.

Sensory seeking
While sensory processing issues can often cause distress
for people who are overwhelmed, it is worth bearing
in mind that there is just as much joy to be found for
people who are able to sensory seek.

Sensory seeking is any behaviour wherein you pursue

stimulation through your senses: smelling candles,
moving around, feeling nice fabrics. We all sensory seek
in some way but, particularly for autistic people and
those with ADHD, it can be necessary.

Sensory seeking is often called ‘stimming’, and those

behaviours can look like rocking back and forth,
feeling material and playing with their hands. These
are behaviours that can be punished, particularly in
controversial behavioural therapy, but understanding
that it is not only normal but necessary and
encouraging people to feel safe to engage in this
behaviour will often make it easier for neurodivergent
people to cope.

It’s also important to remember that these are

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behaviours many of us do – it is just often more

noticeable in a neurodivergent person and more
necessary for them.

Helpful adaptations

One of the most helpful adaptations you can make for

a neurodivergent person with reflective processing is to
wait for up to ten seconds for them to respond; try to be
conscious that not everyone is able to answer questions
instantly.

Being mindful of differences in sensory processing is

vitally important too: when someone tells you that they
perceive a fluorescent light as flashing, do believe them,
even if it isn’t flashing for you!

If we all approach interactions with greater patience

and awareness of people’s different styles of
communication and processing, neurodivergent people
who experience challenges in these areas will feel better
understood and supported.

Key takeaways

⚫ Many neurodivergent individuals have differences

in processing information and sensory input, and
may have more reflective processing speeds.

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⚫ Having patience and allowing people more time

to process and understand information can help
people with reflective processing.

⚫ Sensory overwhelm might cause distress or

meltdown and is not something that an individual
can ‘get used’ to.

⚫ Overwhelm can be prevented in some instances

by removing labels from clothing, avoiding
unpleasant textures, wearing ear defenders or
noise-cancelling headphones, or turning down
bright lights.

⚫ Some neurodivergent people also sensory seek,

which is also known as ‘stimming’. Allowing
individuals to feel safe in engaging in these
behaviours makes it easier for them to cope with
sensory differences.

Reflection points

⚫ What are the benefits of both reflective and super-

fast processing?

⚫ How can you show sensitivity in relation to a

neurodivergent person’s sensory processing?

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Chapter 4

Working Memory

Working memory is an area that a lot of neurodivergent

people can struggle with. It essentially refers to the
amount of information you can hold in your brain and
use. It might impact your ability to problem-solve, make
decisions and follow verbal instructions.

For example, you might go to the kitchen to make a

drink, boil the kettle, and once you walk away you forget
you need to make the tea. Maybe a simple task like
putting the laundry on takes two or three tries, as you
forget why you entered the room. You might go upstairs
to get a book but forget the purpose of your trip after
you get distracted by shutting a window because
it’s raining!

Difficulties with working memory can also affect

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neurodivergent people when they meet new people. I

often find I forget people’s names, as their name may
be the least interesting thing about them. I might
remember where they are from, or the job they do or a
funny story they told me, but my memory of their name
just slips away!

Issues with working memory can be the reason why a

lot of neurodivergent people might interrupt people
when they are speaking. When they are having a
conversation that is moving quickly they may have an
idea, and if they don’t share it immediately it will float
out of their consciousness.

Working memory is important for decision-making but

it is often unfairly seen as a reflection of someone’s
competence. Someone with difficulties with working
memory might just need more reminders at home or
at work to help them follow through with tasks. They
might also have excellent memory in other areas – for
example, some autistic people can have long-term and
photographic memory that is far better than average.

Working memory can also impact your ability to take

in verbal instructions. Due to my ADHD, I have difficulty
with my working memory, and I sometimes struggle to
follow and remember directions.

For instance, I often find myself needing to ask strangers

how to get somewhere and then struggling to mentally
retain the directions that I’m given! I could be told,

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‘Come out of Victoria Station, turn right, you will find a

Sainsbury’s on the corner, just after that turn left, and
then take the second right after the bridge and you are
there’, and I will often only remember the first part of
this verbal instruction.

As a consequence, I have to continuously ask people

how to get to my destination until I arrive – and, yes, I
know that Google Maps exists, but I struggle with map
reading too!

In contrast, someone with good working memory might

be able to hold all that directional information in their
mind without getting distracted or forgetting what they
are doing. In my case, I am not even listening to most
of the directions you are giving me; I am simply holding
on to that first instruction (whilst smiling and nodding at
you!) as I try to remember it.

These cognitive differences might make a

neurodivergent person appear rude or forgetful, and
they might be misjudged because of them.

For example, if someone realizes you haven’t

remembered their name, they might be offended
or hurt. However, it is important to remember that
with the right tools, such as a smartphone with maps
and the ability to set reminders, that person could
be far less hindered out in the world. And, as the
author Maxine Frances Roper’s experiences reflect, if a
neurodivergent person’s issues with working memory

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are misinterpreted as a sign that they are rude or

careless, it can be distressing for them too:

I was picked on at school for being clumsy and

have mostly forgotten or come to terms with it. I
still have traumatic flashbacks all the time to
adult rows arising from my lack of short-term
memory. I’ve been singled out and disbelieved to
tears over it, at work and at home.

Maxine Frances Roper, author with dyspraxia and

ADHD (personal communication, November 2021)

I have heard phrases like ‘It goes in one ear and out the
other’ that reflect how we view people with working
memory issues. If you have ever said something similar
about a child or someone you work with, know that
their difficulties with retaining information are probably
connected to working memory in some way.

If you experience difficulties with processing and

working memory, this can affect your planning and
organization, which can also create problems and
friction with other people. People with ADHD are often
seen to fidget or doodle when people are speaking to
them, which again can be interpreted as rude, but it can
be a way to aid working memory and listening skills,
keeping the body stimulated so the mind can focus.

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Helpful adaptations

If you know someone who struggles with working

memory, there are various ways you can support them.
One approach that can be effective is to provide gentle
reminders using visual aids such as whiteboards.

To reduce my own difficulties with working memory, I

love using magic white paper that you can stick on walls
with static, and then I write things I need to remember
to do or places that I need to be! Or sometimes I try to
trigger my memory by leaving a relevant object by the
door, such as a milk carton to remind myself I need to
buy more milk!

Often, simply being patient when you have to repeat

things to someone can be helpful. Make sure you allow
some extra time if somebody needs a moment to write
down instructions, and be understanding if they ask
further questions. It can also be helpful to reflect on how
you ask questions and to check for understanding; try
to give instructions calmly with pauses, allow someone
time to take notes and aim to be non-judgemental if
they need to record something you say.

Key takeaways

⚫ Working memory refers to the amount of

information you can hold in your brain and use.

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⚫ Difficulties with working memory can affect

problem-solving, decision-making and following
instructions.

⚫ Gentle reminders, repeating information and

being patient can help support people with
working memory difficulties.

Reflection points

⚫ Have you ever thought someone was rude for

forgetting your name? Does understanding more
about difficulties with working memory make you
reconsider your reaction?

⚫ Can you think of any ways you can support a

neurodivergent person who struggles with
working memory?

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Chapter 5

Communication

When you think of communication, it is likely

that you only think in terms of talking to another
person. However, there are many different types of
communication: non-verbal communication, which
includes body language, facial expressions, eye contact
and sign language; visual communication; written
communication; and listening.

We might judge a person who can’t express themselves

verbally or who struggles to listen to others as being a
bad communicator, but it’s often not the case.

A deaf person who can lip-read and speak through sign

language is a great communicator in the right contexts,
but they might struggle to converse with people who
don’t make an effort to pay attention or to learn sign

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language. A non-verbal autistic person with a text-to-

speech machine or who paints beautiful pictures is still
communicating. The Reason I Jump (2013), the vivid
bestselling memoir of a 13-year-old non-verbal autistic
boy, Naoki Higashida, was creatively composed using an
alphabet grid.

There are other issues in communication for

neurodivergent people, and these often relate as
much to what people don’t say as to what they do,
particularly culturally. Recognizing what is generally
considered to be an appropriate topic of conversation
can be challenging for neurodivergent people. For
example, in the UK, ‘small talk’ is considered an integral
part of polite communication, yet there is no obvious
logic to some small-talk exchanges, which may touch
on relatively neutral topics such as the weather, work or
your immediate surroundings.

At the National Autistic Society, when I specialized in

supporting autistic jobseekers, a big part of my work
was helping them to prepare for interviews. In my
current role at Adjust, running training workshops
for employers on recruitment and neurodiversity, I
encourage employers to change their interview
questions so that they aren’t so confusing.

A seemingly simple opening question such as, ‘Tell me

about yourself’ could be complicated for an autistic
person to interpret, because they might think: ‘Well,

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how much do you want to know about me? I’m not

sure what to say.’ If an employer changed the interview
question to something more specific like, ‘Tell me three
skills and experiences you’ve had in your life that relate
to this job’, then that can make the interview process
more accessible for autistic people.

The strikingly low levels of employment for autistic

people (only 29 per cent of autistic people were in
employment in the UK in the year ending June 2021,
according to Office for National Statistics estimates (ONS,
2021)) highlight how important it is to make recruitment
more neuro-inclusive. This is why I am so passionate
about working with employers, because I feel like I can
have a lasting impact on reducing the barriers autistic
people may face during the recruitment process.

Consistency and reliability can be crucial for autistic

people. It is very important in your interactions with
an autistic person to do exactly what you say you’re
going to do. Whether you’ve scheduled a work meeting,
planned a date or arranged to meet for a coffee, if you
tell an autistic person you’ll be there at 2 p.m., be there
at 2 p.m. Change and uncertainty can be overwhelming
for autistic people, and ensuring that you communicate
properly and commit to pre-arranged times and dates
can make a huge difference.

Additionally, while an autistic person might struggle to

convey ideas verbally, preparation can be key to making

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them feel comfortable in a new situation. For example,

employers can offer to send questions to an autistic
person in advance of an interview so they can process
what will be asked and prepare answers.

Communication can be different in different settings

too. Greta Thunberg, the young climate activist, is
autistic and has ADHD (Elizabeth, 2021). I was asked in a
neurodiversity workshop how Greta could be autistic if
she could deliver speeches in front of the United Nations.
But for a lot of autistic people, it might be easier to do
a pre-rehearsed and scripted talk in front of 500 people
than to have a one-to-one conversation with somebody.

In that one-on-one setting, there’s a lot of nuanced

communication taking place such as body language,
navigating turn-taking and changing topics, which
can all be quite difficult. These dynamic forms of
communication might not come so naturally to some
autistic people, while doing a scripted speech might suit
them better.

I find it fascinating that because the person asking the

question considered autism to be a negative neurotype
they didn’t think an autistic person could do something
that they themselves would find hard. Neurodivergent
individuals are often judged by neurotypical standards.

Thunberg, as a young autistic woman, has probably

done more to raise awareness of climate change than
any organization I’ve ever known. However, if she had

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applied for a job at a climate change organization

before she was famous, she might not have made it
through the interview process due to the rigidity of that
environment. From this example, we can extrapolate
that many organizations are likely to be missing out on
a great deal of talent by always recruiting in the same
way for the same skills and standards.

I am currently working with many organizations who

are at the start of their neurodiversity conversation,
and they are examining their recruitment methods
to understand where there may be barriers for
neurodivergent candidates. This makes me hopeful that
over the next ten years we will start to see a significant
increase in the numbers of neurodivergent people
recruited, retained and supported in their professional
development by workplaces.

Different styles
of communication

Some neurodivergent people, especially those who

struggle with communicating in writing, might be
fantastic talkers and charismatic conversationalists,
but it is important to be patient when it comes to the
different ways someone might communicate.

For those with ‘flat affect’, whose tone and pitch might

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not change depending on their emotions, social

conversations can be difficult as they worry about
being misinterpreted. There is a simple way we can all
help to ease that discomfort: by listening to the words
that people say and understanding that even if their
tone seems flat, they may still be excited or happy.
Dismissing them as ‘cold’, ‘blunt’ or ‘rude’ is hurtful and
can only hinder communication.

Similarly, try not to assume that someone is being rude,

or that they seem untrustworthy because they don’t
make eye contact when they are talking to you. For
many neurodivergent people, particularly some autistic
people, forcing themselves to make eye contact can be
a distressing experience and is sometimes even painful,
whereas they feel better able to focus and listen to
you if they don’t look you in the eyes. I have been told
by autistic people that making eye contact can be as
unbearable as staring into the sun.

Many neurodivergent people will in fact be listening

to you more effectively if they are not looking at you!
Perceptions of the value of eye contact may be different
for autistic people too; an autistic person once asked
me, ‘Why should I make eye contact? You don’t sit
and stare at the radio when it is on.’ That old phrase
‘Look me in the eyes when I’m talking to you’ is not
always helpful!

Some autistic people can be very direct in a way that

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neurotypical people might find rude, but often it can

make life easier for everyone to be a little more direct.

A neurotypical person might say that they are OK

when they’re not, anticipating that the person they are
speaking to might be able to intuit that it isn’t the case.
However, if you are talking to an autistic person who has
difficulty interpreting tone, facial expressions or hints,
they might just take you at your word. In a work setting,
a question such as, ‘Would you like to come to this
meeting?’, when there’s no appropriate answer but ‘yes’,
could be difficult for an autistic person to translate.

There are two easy ways to simplify interactions with

autistic people: by understanding that someone isn’t
rude just because they’re direct, and also by being direct
in what you ask of people, especially in social situations
and in the workplace.

Communication contexts

For companies to become more neuro-inclusive, their

recruitment processes need to evolve to meet the
different needs of neurodivergent people. Interviews
can be quite discriminatory for many neurodivergent
individuals for several reasons.

For example, if you’ve got a working memory issue and

someone asks you a question such as, ‘Tell me about

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a time you had a conflict at work; how did you resolve

this and what did you learn from it?’, you might feel
overwhelmed by what you are being asked to recall
because there are three separate parts to that question.
Communication issues affecting neurodivergent people
may also arise at assessment centres or when they are
filling out application forms.

Managers need to have greater awareness of the

hurdles presented by rigid recruitment processes as a
more flexible approach to recruitment can have huge
benefits for neurodivergent employees.

At interview stage, a lot of value is placed on the first

impression you develop of a person. You might be
thinking about how confidently they can get their points
across, how much eye contact they make or how natural
their tone of voice seems. Even if you aren’t deliberately
looking out for these things, they can all impact the
idea of an individual that you form in your mind. Biases
such as these will always put those with communication
differences at a disadvantage.

If somebody seems like the right fit for the role, but
you are put off by their lack of eye contact, or think
that they lack confidence or sound ‘flat’ in their tone of
voice, or perhaps they seem to ‘jump’ around between
topics, it is important to remember that these things are
not a reflection of the individual or their abilities. It is
most likely that they are concentrating on formulating

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the right answer and collecting their thoughts, rather

than working hard on masking their communication
differences. You can miss out on a great deal of talent
.

if you place too much value on conversational fluency,

confidence and communication.

The workshops we run with recruiters, managers

and colleagues are the key to starting to unlock
neurodivergent potential. But, from the perspective
of neurodivergent employees, they also need to know
that they’ve got their own pathway of support in the
workplace. Is there a neurodiversity network? Do they
understand their own neurotype?

Educational settings can also be a challenging context

for neurodivergent people with communication
differences. For example, autistic children in a busy
classroom may not respond to a teacher’s instruction
unless they are named personally. An autistic child may
more effectively follow a task or instruction when they
are directly addressed and the teacher’s expectations of
them are individually clarified.

A teacher’s first impression may be that a student

does not seem to hear them (many undiagnosed
autistic children get wrongly referred to audiology
departments) or is wilfully refusing to follow instructions.
However, once you use an autistic child’s name to
engage with them, the communication process can be
much less confusing for them.

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Helpful adaptations

Respecting communication differences and responding

to them in a non-judgemental way will help to put
neurodivergent people at greater ease during social
interactions.

Addressing people directly by name, simplifying

questions within conversations and sticking to p
­ re-
arranged commitments to reduce uncertainty can
all enhance communication with neurodivergent
people too.

It is important to remember that many of the

adjustments discussed in this chapter can improve the
environment for everyone! Who doesn’t benefit from
clear communication?

Key takeaways

⚫ There are many different forms of communication

including verbal communication, non-verbal
communication, visual communication,
written communication and listening.

⚫ Some neurodivergent people struggle in a world

based on neurotypical conventions around
communication.

⚫ Difficulties with communication can affect

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neurodivergent people’s employment

opportunities, educational experiences and
social lives.

⚫ Simple adaptations and increased understanding

can improve neurodivergent people’s experiences
of communication.

Reflection points

⚫ How can you try to communicate more effectively

with neurodivergent friends, relatives or
colleagues?

⚫ Does having greater awareness about

neurodiversity make you reflect differently on
a time when you may have judged somebody
negatively for the way they communicated
with you?

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Chapter 6

Unwritten Rules

One of the biggest challenges a neurodivergent person,

particularly an autistic person, might experience with
communication is unwritten rules. Unwritten rules are
a set of cultural expectations that are assumed to be
understood by everyone based on the misconception
that we all have the same shared experiences
and values.

I have worked with many autistic people in the

workplace who have been ostracized, bullied or
nearly lost their jobs because they struggled to follow
unwritten rules. These rules could be things such as
offering to make other people a cup of tea when you
make yourself one, staying late to meet a deadline or
not asking questions that are perceived to be personal.

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Failure to follow these rules is often disapproved of and

neurotypical people often assume that these social
norms are implicit. By simply voicing these rules out
loud and not presuming that they are obvious, you
ensure everyone is on a level playing field. In fact, it
can be worth questioning why some of these rules exist
at all.

Unwritten rules can often change without warning

in different contexts, and they’re often cultural. For
example, in the UK, we love to queue. We queue in
many different contexts: for a table at a restaurant,
to use public toilets or to pay for our groceries in a
supermarket. But we don’t typically queue in pubs and
bars, where it is often a free-for-all. It can be tough
to know when it’s right to queue, and it’s not always
considered acceptable to ask.

When I worked at a university as a disability adviser, the

international students officer used to run sessions on
British culture. As these sessions also helped my autistic
students to learn about unwritten rules, I used to ask if
they could attend too.

Misunderstandings

Once, a woman I supported called in sick at work. She

took a few hours to rest, watched a bit of This Morning
and slept in, but because she felt better in the afternoon,

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she went to work at 2 p.m. She was logical, dedicated

and loyal and wanted to get back to work, but her
manager saw her as someone who wanted a lie-in and
who thought she could turn up when she wanted.

His view was that when you’re sick, you’re off for the day,
even if you feel better. This kind of unwritten rule can be
tough to navigate and it is important that neurotypical
managers don’t assume someone’s intentions without
further discussion.

Masking

Difficulties with unwritten rules are common in the

workplace, but they often manifest socially too.

Women and girls are often not diagnosed as autistic

early in life, because a lot of young boys can have more
apparent behavioural issues that lead to diagnosis
(Ploszajski, 2019). Girls are socialized to hide their
difficulties and to conform to social expectations as
much as possible, so they ‘mask’, hiding their true selves
and trying to blend in. I have spoken to autistic women
who explained that when they were at school, they
would study the personality of someone popular in the
class and mimic it.

Socially, this can make life very painful for autistic girls.
There are unwritten social rules that are never explained,

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and girls who fail to follow them are often bullied and
excluded. As they often aren’t diagnosed, they don’t
understand why they’re different, which is very painful.

Girls, rather than communicating an issue directly or

by bullying in the violent ways boys often do, often
engage in ‘covert bullying’, such as gossiping or leaving
someone out. This is harder for an autistic girl to pick up
on, but it also makes it easier to hide the bullying from
oblivious teachers.

Autistic girls are often targeted by people who pretend

to be their friends, with the intention of using them as
a source of amusement. Neurodiversity advocate Siena
Castellon describes her experiences of covert bullying:

When I was 12, a group of girls, who claimed to

be my friends, insisted that I wear a panda onesie
to the school Christmas dance. They told me that
they would be wearing animal onesies too. I
believed them. Luckily, my mom intervened and
made me wear a party dress. When I got to the
dance, the girls were wearing party dresses and
were visibly disappointed that I hadn’t come to
the dance dressed like a panda.

Siena Castellon, author (Castellon, 2020, p.200)

Masking and trying desperately to fit in might enable

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girls to cope until they’re about 13 or 14 years old, but

then, when relationships get more complicated, this
starts to break down. This might be the point where
they display behavioural issues, for example, self-harm,
shoplifting and other rebellious behaviour.

I have worked with girls who been diagnosed with

oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), a behaviour
disorder in which children can be seen as being
uncooperative and defiant towards figures of authority,
such as parents or teachers (Mayo Clinic, 2022). Autistic
women and girls can also be mistakenly diagnosed with
borderline personality disorder, obsessive compulsive
disorder (OCD), anxiety and other conditions. This is a
major issue.

There will be women in the workplace who are autistic

and undiagnosed, and the internalizing, masking and
mirroring of behaviour that they do on a day-to-day
basis can be both damaging and exhausting. A lot of
behavioural therapy, which is highly controversial, will
encourage masking, but it shouldn’t be celebrated. I
believe that people should be accepted for who they
really are.

These rules and this pressure to mask can also pop up in

romantic situations, such as what to do and what not to
do on a first date. However, while people can hide who
they are for so long, their psychological distress will only
grow as they try to hide.

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People are often ostracized for not understanding

unwritten rules, particularly in British culture, which
can be exceptionally passive-aggressive. Looking at the
rules you follow and reflecting on whether they could
be less rigid could make a massive difference to the way
you communicate with other people, whether they’re
neurodivergent or not. Honesty can only strengthen
communication.

Greta Thunberg said that she appreciates being autistic

because ‘Being different is a gift. It makes me see things
from outside the box. I don’t easily fall for lies, I can see
through things’ (BBC Newsround, 2019). While autistic
people, especially girls, struggle to cope in social
situations that are rife with unwritten rules and complex
behavioural codes, they often thrive in spaces where
those masks can be dropped.

When people find friends, hobbies or workplaces that

celebrate and embrace who they are, and make an
effort to meet them halfway, life gets a lot easier – in
fact, early diagnosis can seriously mitigate the risk of
the dangerous behaviours mentioned in this chapter.

Helpful adaptations

Always try to tolerate neurodivergent people’s

differences and not to simply assume that they share
common views and experiences. This can reduce

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misunderstandings about unwritten rules and distress

related to feelings of falling short of social expectations.

Within your workplace, school or community, if you

notice someone struggling to grasp social norms,
attempt to clearly communicate the ‘rules’ that might
confuse them.

Key takeaways

⚫ Unwritten rules are a common challenge for

neurodivergent people, particularly autistic
people, but the same individuals can thrive when
they don’t have to mask their difficulties.

⚫ People are often viewed negatively for failing to

follow unwritten rules or social norms. Greater
tolerance may help to reduce the challenges
experienced by neurodivergent people who find
unwritten rules hard to understand.

Reflection points

⚫ Can you think of some ‘unwritten rules’ in your

society? How obvious do you think they are?

⚫ How can you support someone who seems

unaware of unwritten rules?

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Chapter 7

Emotions

Emotions can be a tricky subject for neurodivergent

people for many different reasons. For a start, when
you experience the world differently from other people
or perhaps have difficulty communicating with others,
emotional subjects can be tricky to navigate.

There are other issues too. People with ADHD, for

example, might have emotional dysregulation, wherein
they struggle to control and regulate feelings (ADHD
Aware, 2021). A relatively minor incident might set off
what appears on the outside to be a temper tantrum,
or they might struggle with feelings of rejection or
disappointment.

Autistic people often have to deal with challenging

situations in a social world organized around neurotypical

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people’s needs, and end up having meltdowns, which

is when their senses get so overwhelmed they literally
stop being able to function properly.

Emotional regulation

There are specific terms for the difficulties expressing,

identifying or regulating emotions that are experienced
by many neurodivergent people, wherever they fall
under the umbrella. Alexithymia, for example, is when
someone cannot identify or name their own emotions.
A neurodivergent person might know that they’re
feeling something but find it tough to articulate it to an
outsider. This can be really distressing, particularly if it is
a painful emotion (Wilkinson, n.d.).

Additionally, many autistic people struggle with

interoception, the perception of sensations from within
the body. This is the sense that most people have that
tells them if they are hungry, are in pain or need to go to
the bathroom, for example. Struggling to recognize those
needs – or articulate them – can also affect emotional
regulation, causing burnout and meltdowns in people
who are unable to give their body what it needs.

A difficulty with managing and expressing feelings

can lead to the misunderstanding that some people,
particularly autistic people, don’t actually feel emotions

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– they do, but naming and expressing them can be

harder.

This is what leads to the myth that autistic people

are lacking in empathy – they are not, and many
are hyper-empathetic. They just have more difficulty
understanding what they are feeling and knowing the
‘right’ way to express it. This can also lead to overwhelm
and burnout when an autistic person experiences
all-consuming emotion and empathy but doesn’t know
how to pinpoint or manage it.

Managing feelings of difference

There are social reasons that exacerbate intense and

difficult emotions for neurodivergent people. A lot of
neurodivergent people will have very high anxiety and
low confidence. It’s not surprising if, at every turn, you
try to do something and you struggle at it or find it
very difficult.

Many neurodivergent people will have experienced

repeated criticism for failing to meet neurotypical
standards of behaviour or following unwritten rules.
For some people with ADHD, particularly those who
experience the intense emotional sensitivity known as
rejection sensitive dysphoria (RSD), such criticism can
feel almost unbearable (Dodson, 2022).

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Restlessness can be part of ADHD, and keeping to

routines can be challenging for people with ADHD. They
might thrive by following an established routine, but
it can be quite difficult to get that routine in place and
stick to it. The frustration that someone might feel with
themselves when they get things wrong can be very
extreme and overwhelming.

Additionally, feeling ostracized, bullied or different can

often lead to feelings of extreme hurt or anger that
might be hard to express appropriately. With support,
diagnosis and understanding, neurodivergent people
can learn to channel their emotions.

On the flipside, experiencing high emotions isn’t

necessarily negative; people who are neurodivergent
are often incredibly loving, open and empathetic. They
can be also very passionate and charismatic and throw
themselves into their interests with abandon. Not
everyone with ADHD can do this, but I often say that
ADHD is two sides of the same coin and most people
with ADHD are very outcome-focused and some are
excellent in business and target-driven roles.

Accepting emotional differences

In social or romantic situations, the way that

neurodivergent people express their feelings can

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cause friction with people who don’t understand their

emotional differences.

For example, a person with ADHD might not reach

out to a friend for several weeks; perhaps they have
been distracted or busy. However, their friend might
find their lack of communication strange and think
that they have stopped wanting to maintain the
friendship. The answer, as always, is to communicate
and to understand that people might have different
love languages.

Something such as ADHD, autism or dyslexia is innate in

who you are – while unfortunately some people might
see this as a hindrance, it is a fundamental part of
personal identity. There is no cure for these conditions,
and while some neurotypical people think there should
be, a cure would change who a person is at their core.
Instead, neurodivergent people need understanding
and adjustments so they can thrive and experience full
acceptance of who they are.

ADHD is the only one of the four neurotypes we focus

on in this guide for which medication is prescribed for
the neurotype – often in the form of stimulants that
increase activity in certain parts of the brain. Many
people with neurodivergent brains may take medication
for other overlapping conditions such as anxiety,
depression, sleep and epilepsy, but ADHD is the only
neurotype that has specific medication.

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I once heard someone liken the symptoms of ADHD

to a pollen allergy. If you were allergic to pollen, you
wouldn’t walk through a massive field without taking an
antihistamine. He explained that life is so stimulating for
him, with sensory overload and racing thoughts, that his
medication enables him to focus.

However, other people find that ADHD medication

alters their sense of who they really are, and they don’t
feel like they have the same levels of passion, creativity,
hyper-focus and energy when they take it. For author
Maxine Frances Roper, ADHD medication helps her to
write more creatively:

ADHD medication helps me get to the sweet spot

where I have the feelings and ideas to be creative,
without being so overwhelmed by feelings and
ideas that I can’t physically sit down and
organize them into a piece of work.

Maxine Frances Roper, author with ADHD and

dyspraxia (personal communication, November 2021)

Helpful adaptations

Supporting someone who struggles with regulating

emotions and feelings can sometimes be as simple as
offering friendly reminders: Have they eaten? What do

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they need to feel OK today? Would it be helpful to go for

a walk?

At other times it can be as straightforward as just being

understanding: Can they tell you about their feelings in
their own way, maybe visually or in a way that isn’t too
strenuous?

Ultimately, we need to understand that everyone

is different, and be patient – the fact that someone
struggles to articulate their feelings doesn’t mean they
don’t have any!

Key takeaways

⚫ Many neurodivergent people struggle identifying

and/or regulating emotions.

⚫ Difficulty understanding or naming an emotion is

particularly common in autism and is known as
alexithymia.

⚫ Many autistic people also struggle with

interoception and can find it hard to gauge
signals such as hunger and fullness, tiredness
and needing to use the bathroom.

⚫ Intense emotions are also common in

neurodivergent people. This means that
many neurodivergent people are extremely
empathetic, passionate and caring.

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Reflection points

⚫ How can you offer feedback as constructively as

possible to support neurodivergent people who
may be hyper-sensitive to criticism?

⚫ Can you think of different ways that people might

feel and express empathy?

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Chapter 8

Problem-Solving

One year, a few days before Christmas, I was sitting

with a young boy while his mum was getting him
to write out Christmas cards. They weren’t spelt
correctly because of his dyslexia, and because of
his dyspraxia, his handwriting was messy. His mum
was making him write them again and again and it
was frustrating. It probably took 45 minutes of tears
and anger, his negative emotions rising up as the
minutes passed.

Later in the afternoon, after his mum had taped

Christmas decorations up, the boy said they should
invent superglue tape because when you Sellotape stuff
up and then put the heating on, Sellotape dries up. His
creativity was the result of him having the verbal skills

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and the problem-solving ability to originate ideas and

be creative, and his mum just said, ‘Whatever’.

I’m not being critical of parents, but I said to her later

that we should have got him to make a poster for
superglue Sellotape to sell it. Then, as her son grows up,
she could refer to his brilliant ideas to explain to him
that his dyslexia and dyspraxia profile isn’t just the stuff
he can’t do. It is also his inventive brain.

Celebrating
neurodivergent skills

A lot of neurodivergent people are great problem-

solvers because they often have one of two key skills:
out-of-the-box thinking and logical problem-solving.
That boy I met is an out-of-the-box thinker, and that’s
something that could serve him well if he finds the
right kind of career path.

Skills like these are hugely beneficial in STEM and

the arts. Pattern recognition is another ability that is
common in some neurodivergent people. Patterns are
everywhere in nature, and an innate ability to recognize
and understand them is undervalued.

And things are changing. Many organizations,

including GCHQ, are now actively recruiting dyslexic

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and neurodivergent people because of their strengths

such as pattern recognition, creative thinking and
problem-solving.

I recently trained an organization that embraced

diversity and inclusion, adjusting their recruitment
process to recruit from more diverse talent pools. This
employer had created an environment where people
could be their authentic selves – while I was visiting
their office, somebody skipped through reception
with their shoes and socks off. I don’t know if that
person was neurodivergent or not, but I was impressed
that they felt comfortable enough in that environment
to behave exactly how they wanted.

A lot of autistic people, along with all neurodivergent

profiles, have significantly contrasting abilities. They
may have areas of outstanding strength and other
areas where they need support or adjustments. There’s
a bit of a stereotype that all autistic people excel
at maths or IT, but I have worked with an incredibly
broad range of people throughout my career,
and I have seen autistic people do well at a variety
of jobs.

One thing that many people I have worked with have in

common is a good eye for detail. Sometimes that might
be manifested in an ability to notice other people’s
mistakes: in copyediting, for example. A lot of autistic

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people describe mistakes as jumping out at them. If I

read a document, especially if I have written it, my brain
goes into survival mode, and I don’t see any mistakes,
but someone who is autistic may look at the same
document and immediately notice errors.

In diagnostic tests for dyslexia, many dyslexic people

score highly in problem-solving, and a lot of dyslexic
and autistic people score highly in verbal reasoning.
Dyslexic people can also be very intuitive and good
with people.

When I was employed at a medical school, I

worked with different groups of medical healthcare
professionals, and several of the physiotherapists had
dyslexia. This is because their strengths, such as their
verbal skills, problem-solving, ability to work well with
people and 3D thinking (visualizing something in your
mind and turning it around) made them well suited to
their profession.

A lot of dyslexic people really see the big picture, and

we need people who think that way. For example, if
you go to the doctor with a bad foot, a physiotherapist
would be able to take a holistic approach and tell you
that you need to increase your core strength, or that
the problem comes from the way you walk. This ability
to look beyond the small details and to think outside
the box perfectly illustrates the idea that we need all

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kinds of different thinkers, and this attitude is core to

understanding neurodiversity.

The high proportion of architects who are dyslexic,

including the late Richard Rogers, who designed
London’s Millennium Dome and Paris’s Centre
Pompidou (The Yale Center for Dyslexia and Creativity,
2017), perhaps also reflects the skills of many dyslexic
people in the areas of problem-solving, spatial
awareness and pattern recognition.

Key takeaways

⚫ Many neurodivergent people are brilliant

problem-solvers due to their creative, out-of-the-
box thinking styles.

⚫ Excellent pattern recognition and logical-thinking

skills are common in neurodivergent people,
particularly autistic people.

⚫ Many organizations are now actively seeking to

recruit dyslexic and other neurodivergent people
due to associated strengths in problem-solving
and pattern recognition.

⚫ Contrasting profiles of ability are common

in neurodivergent people, in which areas of
outstanding strength coexist with areas where
further support is needed.

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Reflection points

⚫ How can out-of-the-box thinking be useful to

society?

⚫ Can you think of ways that neurodivergent

people’s distinctive skills could enhance your
workplace, school or community?

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Conclusion

I hope that this guide has galvanized your interest

in neurodiversity and helped you to develop your
understanding of some of the key concepts.

If you feel better placed to celebrate the power of

thinking differently now than when you started
reading, I have achieved one of my goals. We have
focused on four neurotypes to illustrate the concept of
neurodiversity, but there are many other neurotypes out
there too – perhaps they can be discussed in The Pocket
Guide to Neurodiversity Part Two!

My main aim is to raise awareness of the many children

and adults who do not think in a neurotypical way, and
of the ways in which these neurodivergent people can

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 C onc lus ion

be disabled by the neurotypical structures we have in

our society.

This is just the start of your journey, and I hope that

your understanding of neurodiversity continues to grow.
Within society, understanding is gradually increasing, in
part due to the hard work of activists who raise awareness
of how neurodivergence presents and affects individuals.
This has led to an increase in diagnoses of conditions
such as ADHD and autism, particularly in groups that
were once overlooked, such as women and girls.

But even more needs to be done for different groups,

including people of colour. Greater understanding of
the different ways people may present, as well as the
positive traits that neurodivergence can give someone,
means that a person will have an easier time accessing
support and being accepted.

It is important to remember that, while things are

far better for neurodivergent people than they were
even ten years ago, there are still many barriers to
overcome. Education and employment are often
organized around a neurotypical framework, while
navigating an overloaded healthcare system can make
diagnosis difficult to access. Additionally, widespread
stereotypes and misconceptions about more stigmatized
neurodivergent conditions, such as autism, can make
it difficult for a person to navigate society and engage
with people on a social level.

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To return to my cactus metaphor in Chapter 1,

sometimes simple environmental adjustments are all
that are needed to enable someone to thrive. These
adjustments can be simple: understanding why
someone is often late, offering different coloured
backgrounds on documents, challenging your
assumptions if someone doesn’t make eye contact.

Everyone is different, and every neurodivergent

condition is too, but by communicating with people
on an individual basis, you can find out exactly what
they need. This will make life easier not only for
neurodivergent people but for everyone – wouldn’t a
more holistic approach improve wellbeing for every
person?

The tips and information in this introductory book

will support you in developing your understanding
of neurodiversity and adjusting to a neurodivergent
framework of approaching the world, so that you can
start to make the world more inclusive by simply paying
attention to people around you.

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Neurodiversity
Resources

Books

Adam Feinstein (2018) Autism Works: A Guide to Successful

Employment. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.

Brock Eide and Fernette Eide (2011) The Dyslexic

Advantage: Unlocking the Hidden Potential of the
Dyslexic Brain. London: Hay House UK.

David Grant, (2017) That’s the Way I Think: Dyslexia,

Dyspraxia and ADHD Explained. Abingdon, UK:
Routledge.

Dr Gabor Maté (2019) Scattered Minds: The Origins and

Healing of Attention Deficit Disorder. London: Vermillion.

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Janet Taylor and Mary Morris (2015) Dyspraxia: Dyspraxic

Adults Surviving in a Non-Dyspraxic World: A Dyspraxia
Foundation Adult Support Group Publication. Hitchin,
UK: Dyspraxia Foundation.

Judy Singer (2017) NeuroDiversity: The Birth of an Idea.

Self published.

Mark Haddon (2004) The Curious Incident of the Dog in

the Night-Time. London: Vintage.

Temple Grandin (2014) The Autistic Brain: Thinking Across

the Spectrum. London: Rider.

Thomas Armstrong (2011) The Power of Neurodiversity:

Unleashing the Advantages of Your Differently Wired
Brain. Boston, MA: Da Capo Lifelong Books.

Victoria Honeybourne (2019) The Neurodiverse

Workplace: An Employer’s Guide to Managing and
Working with Neurodivergent Employees, Clients and
Customers. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Documentaries

Chris Packham: Asperger’s and Me

Chris Packham invites us inside his autistic world to try
to show what it is like being him. Chris explores the
questions of whether Asperger’s has helped make him
who he is today.

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 N e u r odi v e r s i t y R e s o u r c e s

Kara Tointon: Don’t Call Me Stupid

Actress Kara Tointon presents a documentary about
dyslexia and meets other dyslexic people whose moving
stories reveal the impact it can have on young lives
without the right support.

Media

Dyspraxic Me: www.youtube.com/watch?v=dEIwafUGgnY

Desert Island Discs with Jo Malone:

www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b04xmqd6

Is ADHD an Advantage?
www.youtube.com/watch?v=n2EVEYmeSqg

Things Not to Say to an Autistic Person:

www.youtube.com/watch?v=d69tTXOvRq4

Things Not to Say to Someone with Dyslexia:

www.youtube.com/watch?v=ObwAzZr87jg&t=1s

Podcasts

Neurodiversity – The New Normal (The Different Minds

Podcast)

The Neurodiversity Podcast with Emily Kircher-Morris

Neurodiversity – Eliminating Kryptonite & Enabling

Superheroes

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Nothing to Be Ashamed of. ADDitude Magazine. Accessed

on 16/05/2022 at https://www.additudemag.com/simone-
biles-adhd-olympic-gymnast-publicly-addresses-condition

Sandman-Hurley, K. (2021) The Adult Side of Dyslexia.

London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

SNL (2021, May 9). Elon Musk Monologue – SNL [Video].

YouTube. Accessed on 26/05/2022 at www.youtube.com/
watch?v=fCF8I_X1qKI

Strombo (2013, 6 March). Dan Aykroyd Talks Mental Health

and Acting [Video]. YouTube. Accessed on 26/05/2022 at
www.youtube.com/watch?v=XftZWhTnveo

Taylor, B., Miller, E., Farrington, C.P., Petropoulos, M.C.,

Favot-Mayaud, I., Li, J. and Waight, P.A. (1999) ‘Autism and
measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine: no epidemiological
evidence for a causal association.’ Lancet, June 12, 353(9169),
2026–2029.

Tobin, A.M. (2008) ‘Harry Potter star’s disability takes cloak

off DCD.’ The Globe and Mail. Accessed on 19/05/2022
at www.theglobeandmail.com/life/harry-potter-stars-
disability-takes-cloak-off-dcd/article20386836

Weintraub, S. (2008) ‘Justin Timberlake interview – the Love

Guru.’ Collider. Accessed on 26/05/2022 at https://collider.
com/justin-timberlake-interview-the-love-guru

Willingham, E. (2013) ‘Wall Street’ actress Daryl Hannah

is an autistic woman.’ Forbes. Accessed on 19/05/2022

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at www.forbes.com/sites/emilywillingham/2013/09/29/
wall-street-actress-daryl-hannah-also-autistic-
woman/?sh=57edc68f49fa

Chapter 3

BBC News (2015) ‘Jo Malone says childhood dyslexia helped

her to smell.’ BBC. Accessed on 19/05/2022 at www.bbc.
co.uk/news/av/business-34769381

Castellon, S. (2020) The Spectrum Girl’s Survival Guide: How

to Grow Up Awesome and Autistic. London: Jessica Kingsley
Publishers.

Magidoff, S. (2021) Carl Honoré. Slow Entrepreneur.

Accessed on 19/05/2022 at www.slowentrepreneur.com/the-
interviews/carl-honor

Chapter 4

Higashida, N. (2013) The Reason I Jump. Trans. K.A. Yoshida

and D. Mitchell. New York: Random House.

Chapter 5

Elizabeth, D. (2021) ‘Greta Thunberg on her autism diagnosis

and climate activism.’ Teen Vogue. Accessed on 26/05/2022
at www.teenvogue.com/story/greta-thunberg-autism-
diagnosis-climate-activism

ONS (2021) Outcomes for Disabled People in the UK: 2021.

Office for National Statistics. Accessed on 26/05/2022

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at www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/
healthandsocialcare/disability/articles/outcomesfordisabled​
peopleintheuk/2021

Chapter 6

BBC Newsround (2019) ‘Greta Thunberg: 16-year-old

climate activist inspired international youth movement.’
BBC. Accessed on 19/05/2022 at www.bbc.co.uk/
newsround/47467038

Castellon, S. (2020) The Spectrum Girl’s Survival Guide: How

to Grow Up Awesome and Autistic. London: Jessica Kingsley
Publishers.

Mayo Clinic (2022) Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD).

Rochester, MN: Mayo Clinic. Accessed on 19/05/2022 at www.
mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/oppositional-defiant-
disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20375831

Ploszajski, A. (2019) ‘Women “better than men at disguising

autism symptoms”.’ The Guardian. Accessed on 26/05/2022
at www.theguardian.com/society/2019/sep/13/women-
better-than-men-at-disguising-autism-symptoms

Chapter 7

ADHD Aware (2021) ADHD Symptoms. Brighton, UK: ADHD

Aware. Accessed on 19/05/2022 at https://adhdaware.org.uk/
what-is-adhd/adhd-symptoms

Dodson, W. (2022) How ADHD Ignites Rejection Sensitive

120
 R e f e r e nc e s

Dysphoria. ADDitude Magazine. Accessed on 16/05/2022 at

www.additudemag.com/rejection-sensitive-dysphoria-and-
adhd

Wilkinson, L.A. (n.d.) Alexithymia, Empathy, and Autism.

Wetherby, UK: Living Autism. Accessed on 19/05/2022 at
https://livingautism.com/alexithymia-empathy-autism

Chapter 8

The Yale Center for Dyslexia and Creativity (2017) Richard

Rogers, Architect. New Haven, CT: Yale. Accessed on
19/05/2022 at https://dyslexia.yale.edu/story/richard-rogers

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Index

A and hyper-focus 42–3

key takeaways 49
ACAS 14 prevalence of 40
Ackroyd, Dan 38 and processing 55, 60
adaptations reflection points 50
for ADHD 43–4 ADHD Aware 90
for autism 38–9 ADHD UK 40
for communication 80 Adjust training company 11–12
for dyslexia 32 Adult Side of Dyslexia, The
for dyspraxia 47 (Sandman-Hurley) 29
for emotions 96–7 Archer, D. 42
for processing 61 autism
for unwritten rules 88–9 adaptations for 38–9
for working memory 68 barriers for 32–3
ADHD celebrities with 38
adaptations for 43–4 communication 71–2, 74–5, 76–7
celebrities with 42, 43 diagnosis of 35–6
description of 40–2 emotions 90, 92
emotions 90, 94–6 in employment 12, 32, 72
experience of 39–40 key takeaways 48–9

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 INDEX

language used for 33–5 D

masking 85–8
misconceptions about 36–7 Deschanel, Zooey 43
myths about 36–7 diagnosis of neurodiversity 26–7
problem-solving 101 diversity in neurodiversity 19–23
and processing 52, 57–8, 60 Dodson, W. 93
prevalence of 35 double empathy problem 33
reflection points 50 Dutton, J. 41
stereotypes about 37 dyslexia
and unwritten rules 82, 84, 85–8 adaptations for 32
celebrities with 30
B in education 28–30
key takeaways 47–8
Barnfield, K. 38 misconceptions about 28–9
Battersby, K. 38 overlapping diagnoses 28
BBC News 58 problem-solving 103–4
BBC Newsround 88 and processing 52
BBC Yorkshire 44 reflection points 49–50
Bedigan, M. 43 stigma 29
Biles, Simone 42 dyspraxia
Blume, Harvey 16 adaptations for 47
Branson, Richard 30 celebrities with 45–6
Bremner, Rory 43 coordination 44–5
British Dyslexia Association 28 key takeaways 49
planning and organisation 45
C prevalence of 44
reflection points 50
Castellon, Siena 57–8, 85 Dyspraxia Association 44
CDC 36
communication E
adaptations for 80
different styles of 75–7 education
difficulties with 70–5 communication in 79
in education 79 and dyslexia 28–30
in employment 77–9 Elizabeth, D. 74
key takeaways 80–1 emotional difference 94–5
reflection points 81 emotional regulation 92–3
Crompton, C.J. 33

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emotions J
adaptations for 96–7
emotional difference Jordan, Michael 42
acceptance 94–5
emotional regulation 92–3 K
difficulties with 90–2
key takeaways 97 key takeaways
managing feelings of ADHD 49
difference 93–4 autism 48–9
reflection points 98 communication 80–1
employment dyslexia 47–8
communication in 77–9 dyspraxia 49
and neurodivergent skills 22 emotions 97
people with autism 12, 32, 72 neurodiversity 47
problem-solving 101–2 problem-solving 104
Evans-Williams, C.V.M. 33 processing 61–2
Evening Standard 46 unwritten rules 89
working memory 68–9
F
L
Farrington, C.P. 33
Freeth, B. 43 Levine, N. 40
Look Me in the Eye (Robinson) 27
G Loomes, R. 35

Gannon, L. 38 M
GCHQ 22, 101–2
Genge, Ellis 46 Magidoff, S. 54
Goldberg, Whoopi 30 Malone, Jo 30, 58, 59
Mandy, W. 35
H masking 85–8
Mayo Clinic 87
Hannah, Daryl 38 McGuinness, Christine 38
heightened sensory sensitivity 58–60 Mead, A. 46
Higashida, Naoki 71 Mel B 43
Holland, K. 46 memory see working memory
Honoré, Carl 54 Miah, Shofa 21
Hopkins, Anthony 38 Miller, E. 33
Hull, L. 35 Milton, Damien 33

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 INDEX

misunderstandings of Pang, Camilla 37

unwritten rules 84–5 Phelps, Michael 41–2
Musk, Elon 37 Ploszajski, A. 85
problem–solving
N celebration of 101–4
in employment 101–2
National Autistic Society eye for detail 102–3
(NAS) 13, 26, 35, 36, 52, 71 key takeaways 104
neurodiversity reflection points 105
diagnosis of 26–7 seeing big picture 103–4
diversity in 19–23 processing
individuality in 27 adaptations for 61
key takeaways 47 heightened sensory
nurturing 17, 19 sensitivity 58–60
prevalence of 14 key takeaways 61–2
resources for 109–11 and neurodivergence 51
NeuroDiversity: The Birth reflection points 62
of an Idea (Singer) 16 reflective processing 52–4
neurotypes sensory processing 55, 57–61
ADHD 39–44 sensory seeking 60–1
autism 32–9 super-fast processing 55
dyslexia 28–32
dyspraxia 44–7 R
nurturing neurodiversity 17, 19
Radcliffe, Daniel 45–6
O reflection points
ADHD 50
Office for National autism 50
Statistics (ONS) 12, 72 communication 81
Ojomu, N. 43 dyslexia 49–50
oppositional defiant dyspraxia 50
disorder (ODD) 87 emotions 98
overlapping diagnoses problem-solving 105
and dyslexia 28 processing 62
and neurodiversity 26 unwritten rules 89
working memory 69
P reflective processing 52–4
Robinson, John Elder 27
Packham, Chris 38 Rodden, J. 42

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Rogers, Richard 104 W

Ropar, D. 33
Roper, Maxine Frances 54, 65, 67, 96 Weintraub, S. 43
Welch, Florence 46
S Wilkinson, L.A. 92
Willingham, E. 38
Sandman-Hurley, Kelli 29 working memory
sensory processing 55, 57–61 adaptations for 68
sensory seeking 60–1 difficulties with 63–7
Shah, Bev 16 key takeaways 68–9
Singer, Judy 16 reflection points 69
Spectrum Girl’s Survival Guide,
The (Castellon) 57–8 Y
super-fast processing 55
Yale Center for Dyslexia
T and Creativity 104

Taylor, B. 33
Thunberg, Greta 74–5, 88
Timberlake, Justin 43
Tobin, A.M. 46

unwritten rules
adaptations for 88–9
difficulties with 82, 84
key takeaways 89
masking 85–8
misunderstandings 84–5
reflection points 89

126