-c

MECHANICS

 FORCES

A force is a push or pull. The S.I. unit of the force is the Newton (N). A force can do the
following:
i. They can change the shape and size of an object. Example, pulling a rubber band.
ii. They can cause an object to accelerate.
iii. They can change the direction of an object’s motion.
There are many types of forces; some of these are electrical force, magnetic force, nuclear force,
gravitational force, frictional force.

Gravitational Force

The force that acts between the Earth (or another planet, star, etc) and another body is the
gravitational force. This gravitational force comes about because of the gravitational field
strength of the earth. The gravitational field strength (which is abbreviated as ‘g’) on the
Earth’s surface has a value of approximately 10 N/Kg. Further away from the earth’s surface the
gravitational field strength (g) becomes less than that on the earth’s surface. The gravitational
field strength on the earth’s surface or any other such heavenly body is proportional to the size of
such body. The larger the heavenly body the greater is the gravitational field strength. Therefore,
Jupiter being larger than Earth would have a greater gravitational field strength than that of the
Earth. Similarly, the ‘g’ on the Earth’s surface is greater than that on Mars surface.

Weight and Mass

Weight is a measure of the force of gravity on an object. Weight is a force therefore; the unit
of weight is the Newton (N). The weight of an object is proportional to the strength of the
gravitational field acting on the object: The greater the ‘g’ the greater is the weight of the object
and vice versa. Therefore an object on the Earth’s surface would weight more than an object in
outer space. In contrast, the mass of an object does not change due to its distance away from the
Earth. An object’s mass is the same anywhere.
Although mass and weight are not the same, they are related. This relationship can be written as:
Weight (w) = mass (m) × gravitational field strength (g)
w=m×g
Exercise 1
QUESTION
1. Calculate the weight of a man if his mass is 100 Kg and the gravitational field strength is
10 N/Kg.

Weight = mass x gravity

= 100 x 10
= 1000 N

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2. If the ‘g’ on a certain planet is twice that of earth, what would be the weight of a box on
that planet if it has a mass of 15 Kg?

W= mx g
= 15 x 20
= something N

3. The force of gravity on the moon is said to be one-sixth of that of that on the earth. What
would a mass of 12 Kg weight (a) on the earth and (b) on the moon?

a. W = m x g
= 12 x 10
= 120 N

b. W = m x g
= 12 x 10 x 1/6
= something N

4. If the gravitational field strength on a certain planet is 12 N/Kg, calculate the weight of
an object that has a mass of 20 Kg.

W = m xg
= 20 x 12
= 240 N

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 5. A body of mass 2 Kg weight 10 N at a certain place. What would be the weight of (a) 5
Kg (b) 3 Kg (c) 100 g?

W= m x g
g=W/m
g= 10/2
g = 5 N/kg

a. W = m x g
=5x5
= 25 N

b. W = m x g
=3x5
= 15 N

c. W = m x g
= (100/1000) x 5
= 0.1 x 5
= 0.5 N

6. What is meant by ‘weight’?

7. Calculate the mass that is equivalent to 65 N on the earth surface.
8. Would the mass of a 75 Kg woman be different on (i) the moon, (ii) Jupiter? Explain
your answer

 MOMENT OF FORCE

The handle on a door is at the outside edge so that it opens and closes easily. A much larger force
would be needed if the handle were near the hinge. Similarly, it is easier to loosen a nut with a
long spanner than a short one.
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We call the turning effect of a force the moment of the force. The moment of a force about a
pivot is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance between the pivot and the
line of action of the force.

Moment = Force × Perpendicular distance

The S.I. unit for moments is the Newton-Metre (Nm).

QUESTION
1. Calculate the moment generated by the force in the diagram below. And state which
direction the force will cause the plank to move in.

SOLUTION
Moment = Force × Perpendicular distance
= 10 N × 4m
= 40 Nm
The force will cause the plank to move in a clockwise direction.

QUESTION
2. Calculate the moment of the force in the diagram below (assume that the plank has
negligible weight).

SOLUTION
Moment = Force × Perpendicular distance
= 10 N × 2 m
= 20 Nm

The turning effect of the force, F, is greater in question one (1) because of the distance F is from
the fulcrum (or pivot).

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Principle or Law of Moments

When a body is in equilibrium the sum of the clockwise moments about any point equals
the sum of the anticlockwise moment about same the point.

QUESTION
3. Using the Law of Moments determine the distance‘d’, so that the plank is in equilibrium.

SOLUTION
From the Law of Moments
Ʃ Clockwise moments = Ʃ Anticlockwise moments
Fc × dc = Fa × da
6 N × dc = 4 N × 2 m
dc = 8 Nm/ 6N
dc = 1.33 m

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QUESTION
4. Calculate the weight of the plank so that it balances on the pivot.

SOLUTION
From the Law of Moments
Ʃ Clockwise moments = Ʃ Anticlockwise moments
Fc × dc = Fa × da
10 N × 2 m = Fa × 3 m
Fa = 20 Nm/ 3m
Fa = 6.67 N

Conditions for equilibrium

Sometimes a number of parallel forces act on a body so that it is in equilibrium. We can

then say:
i. The sum of the forces in one direction equals the sum of the forces in the opposite
direction
ii. The sum of the anticlockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of the
clockwise moments about the pivot.

 LEVERS

A lever is any device which can turn about a pivot (fulcrum). In a lever a force called the
effort is applied at one point on the lever, and this overcomes a force called the load at some
other point. Examples of levers are (a) claw hammer, (b) crow bar, (c) wheelbarrow, (d) nut-
cracker, (e) knife, and (f) prong.

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Centre of Gravity
The centre of gravity of a body is defined as the point at which the whole weight of the
body seems to act. For regular objects, this point is at the centre of the objects. The c.g. of a
ruler is at its centre and when supported there it balances. If it is supported at any other point it
TOPPLES because the moment of the weight, W, about the point of support is not zero.
In a tall covered truck the heavy engine is mounted lowdown while the roof panels are made of
lightweight aluminium, so the c.g. of the truck is much lower than it might seem. Objects with a
low c.g. and a wide base are difficult to topple when tilted.

Stability

Stability refers to an object’s ability to maintain its original position.

Stable equilibrium exists when a body which is displaced slightly and released returns to its
original position (sometimes after a few oscillations). See figure 1 and 2 below.

Unstable equilibrium exists when a body which is slightly moves away from its original position
and never returns to it.

Neutral equilibrium exists when a body which is displaced remains in its new position.

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How to locate the centre of gravity of a flat object.

Suppose we have to find the c.g. of an irregular cardboard. The following procedure could be
followed:
Make a hole ‘A’ in the cardboard and hang it so that it can swing freely on a nail clamped in a
stand. It will come to rest with its c.g. vertically below ‘A’. To locate the vertical line through
‘A’ tie a plumb line (a thread and a weight) to the nail, and mark its position ‘AB’ on the
cardboard. The c.g. lies on ‘AB’. Hang the cardboard from another position ‘C’ and mark the
plumb line position ‘CD’. The c.g. lies on ‘CD’. Since the c.g. lies on both ‘AB’ and ‘CD’ it
must be where they intersect.
The centre of gravity of a regular shaped body of the same density all over is at its centre.

Assignment: Describe an experiment on how to find the centre of gravity of an irregular shaped
cardboard.

Exercise 2
1. List the effects of a force on a body and identify examples which demonstrate these
effects.
2. Demonstrate the turning effects of a force and establish the conditions of equilibrium.
3. Explain stability with reference to the centre of gravity.

4. A uniform plank of length 100 cm is balance horizontally when it is pivoted at the 50 cm

mark and a weight of 20 N is hung from the 10 cm mark and another weight, of unknown
value, is hung at the 80 cm mark. Draw a diagram showing all the forces and calculate the
value of the unknown weight.

5. Two children, a girl and a boy are at either end of a see-saw. The girl weighing 600 N, sits
at a distance of 2 m from the pivot of the see-saw where would the boy sit to balance the
see-saw if his weight is 400 N?

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 6. Which of the two forms is more stable – a minibus full of people, or a minibus full of
people and carrying a heavy load of luggage on the top? Explain your answer.
7. A metre rule is supported on a knife edge at the 60 cm gradation mark. A weight of 0.4 N
hung at the 85 cm mark is used to balance the rule. What is the weight of the rule?
8. What is a force and name the unit it is measured in?
9. State the conditions for equilibrium.
10. What is a lever? And give examples of at least four (4) levers.
11. What do you understand by the moment of a force about a point? How would you use a
metre rule, a 100 g mass and some thread in order to find the mass of the apple?
12. An irregular lamina is freely pivoted near one corner. Explain why the centre of gravity
must lie vertically below the pivot when the lamina is in equilibrium.
13. A uniform half-metre rule is freely pivoted at the 20 cm mark and it balances horizontally
when a 12 N weight is hung from the 4 cm mark. Draw a clear diagram showing the
forces on the rule and calculate its weight.

 DEFORMATION ( HOOKE’S LAW)

Hooke’s Law states that when a spring is fixed at one end and a force is applied to the
other, the extension of the spring is proportional to the applied force, provided the force is
not large enough to stretch the spring permanently.
This means that doubling the force doubles the extension, trebling the force trebles the extension
and so on. Mathematically, this means F α e.
i.e. stretching force (F) α extension (e or x).
written in equation , this is
F = ke
Where ‘k’ is call the spring constant. Its unit is the N/m.
Note: stretching force, F, is sometimes called stress and extension, x (e), is called strained. It
follows, therefore that stress/strain = constant, k.
If a graph of force, F, against extension, x, is plotted, the gradient give the value of the spring
constant,k, provided that the calculations are done within the elastic limit of the graph.

The graph above shows the relationship between applied force and extension for a spring.
Between the points, ‘O’ and ‘P’, a straight line is produced, thus showing that force applied is

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proportional to the extension. This is called the elastic limit of the spring. Beyond point ‘P’ the
linear relation ceases to exist. This is the inelastic region of the spring- a curve.

Exercise 3
QUESTION
1. Calculate the force needed to cause a spring of spring constant 12N/m to extend 0.3 m.
2. A certain spring was extended by 0.5m when a load was attached to it. If the spring has a
spring constant of 20 N/m calculate the magnitude of the load that was attached.
3. A spring extends by 2 cm when a load of 10 N is hung on it. Calculate the extension
produced when a 15 N load is suspended on it.
4. Show that stress/strain is a constant
5. When a load of 12 N is applied to a steel spring, it produces an extension of 80 mm
without exceeding the elastic limit of the spring. Calculate the weight of the object, which
when hung from the same spring, produces an extension of 60 mm.
6. State Hooke’s Law.
7. What sort of materials does Hooke’s Law apply to?
8. When a load is apply to a spring it causes the spring to extend. If when no load is
attached to the spring the natural length of the spring is 0.5 m and when 20 N is applied
to the spring the length of the spring changes to 0.6 m, calculate
a. The spring constant of the spring
b. The extension produced by a 26 N load

 VECTORS AND SCALARS

Quantities that can be completely defined by a number and a unit are called SCALAR
QUANTITIES. Examples of scalar quantities are mass, time, distance, and density. Scalar
quantities are added by the normal rules of arithmetic (e.g. 20 Kg – 13 Kg = 7 Kg).
A VECTOR QUANTITY is defined with both magnitude and direction. Examples of vector
quantities are displacement (distance in a specific direction), velocity, force, and acceleration. It
is therefore correct to say, a force of 12 N acting vertically downwards.
A vector is represented in a diagram by a straight line drawn to a scale in a specified direction.
An arrow on the line shows which way along the line it acts.

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All vector quantities obey a special rule for addition and subtraction which takes account of
direction as well as magnitude. The vector derived from the combination of two or more vectors
is called the resultant vector, or more simply, the resultant.

Addition of vectors.

1. The resultant of two vectors, which are parallel and acting in the same direction, is the
sum of the magnitude of the vectors in the given direction.

2. If the vectors are in opposite direction, the resultant vector has magnitude equal to the
difference between the two vectors and in the direction of the larger.

3. The resultant of two vectors, which are perpendicular, is found by drawing a scale
diagram. The magnitude of the resultant can be calculated using Pythagoras’s Theorem.

AC2 = AB2 + BC2

= (3 N)2 + (4 N)2
= 9 N2 + 16 N2
= 25 N2
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 AC = √25 N2
=5N

4. If the angle between the two vectors is not a right angle, the resultant is found by the
PARALLELOGRAM RULE.

The direction of the resultant is given as the angle between the resultant and one of the vectors.

Exercise 4
1. State the difference between scalar and vector quantities. Give examples of each.
2. Which one of the following is not a scalar quantity?
a. Density
b. Force
c. Length
d. Mass
3. How is a vector different from a scalar?
a. A vector has mass and scalar does not.
b. A vector has direction and a scalar does not.
c. A vector measures speed while a scalar measures velocity.
d. A vector has a numeral and a unit while a scalar does not.
4. Which of the following statements includes an example of a vector quantity?
a. The density of aluminium is 2700 Kg/m3.
b. Jane walks 2 Km to get water.
c. The jogger runs 3 Km round the track.
d. My town is 24 Km east of the capital.
5. Find the magnitude and the direction of the resultant of a force of 5 N and a force of 12
N acting at the same point on an object if
a. The forces are in the same direction in the same straight line.
b. The forces act in opposite directions but in the same straight line.
c. The forces act at right angle to each other.
6. Why is force referred to as a vector quantity? Two forces acting at a point have
magnitude of 5 N and 8 N. explain why their resultant may have any value between 3 N
and 13 N.
7. What is meant by: (a) the resultant; (b) the equilibrant of two or more forces?
8. A liner is towed into harbour by two tugs A and B whose cables makes an angle of 300. If
A exerts a pull of 2.5 tonnes, and B a pull of 3.2 tonnes, find, graphically, the resultant
pull on the liner and the angle it makes with the cable of the weaker tug.
9. Which one of the following groups of terms does not contain a scalar quantity?
a. Velocity, force, power
b. Displacement, acceleration, force
c. Acceleration, speed, work
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 d. Energy, work, distance

 ENERGY

The forms of energy that exists are as follows:

i. Electrical
ii. Magnetic
iii. Sound
iv. Chemical
v. Heat/thermal
vi. Mechanical
vii. Nuclear
viii. Light
ix. wind
Energy is defined as the capacity or ability to do work. The S.I. unit for energy is Joules (J),
similar to that for work.
Work is done when a force produces motion. It is the product of the force and the distance
moved in the direction of the force. When work is done on a body, the body gains an amount of
energy equal to the work done on it and increases its capacity to do work. Similarly, when work
is done by a body it loses an amount of energy equal to the work done. The S.I. unit for
work/energy is the Joule (J); and is defined as the work done when the point of application of a
force of 1N moves 1m in the direction of the force i.e.,
Work = Energy (E) = Force(f) × Distance (d)
Done Transfered

Work done = force x distance cos θ

NOTE: THE JOULE IS EQUIVALENT TO THE NEWTON-METRE i.e.1 J = 1Nm.

QUESTION:
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 1. A 30N force is applied horizontally, causing a block to be displaced horizontally 5m
along a frictionless floor.
a. How much work is done on the block?
b. What is the energy transferred to the block

SOLUTION:

Work done = force × distance

Work done = 30 N × 5 m
Work done = 150 Nm or 150 J

Work done = energy transferred, therefore energy transferred = 150J

2. An object of weight 40 N is pulled up at constant speed a vertical distance of 10 m. How
much work is done on the object? And determine the energy transferred to the object.
Work done = force (f) × distance moved (d)
Work done = 40 N × 10 m
Work done = 400 Nm or 400 J
Since work done = energy transferred, then the energy transferred to the object is 400 J.

Potential Energy

This is the energy stored in a body by virtue of its position or state. Thus a wound spring or a
stretch elastic band has potential energy (P.E.) of state, while a raised object has potential energy
(gravitational potential energy) of position. The most common form of P.E. encountered at this
level is potential energy which a body gains due to work done in moving it against the
gravitational attraction of the Earth.
Gravitational potential energy, Ep, of an object may be expressed mathematically as:

Gravitational Potential (Ep) = mass (m) × gravitational field (g) × height (h)
Energy strength
i.e. Ep = m×g×h

where ‘g’ equals 10 N/Kg on the Earth’s surface.

Also, ΔEp = m×g×Δh

Where ΔEp = Ep1 – Ep2
Δh = h1-h2

Exercise 5
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QUESTION:
1. What is the potential energy of an object of mass 30 Kg if it is at a height of 10 m above
the Earth’s surface? Use g = 10 N/Kg
2. A barrel of mass 45 Kg is located on the third floor of a building at a height of 5m above
the earth’s surface. What is the gravitational potential energy of the barrel?
3. A boy of mass 60 Kg moving from the ground floor of a building travel up a flight of
stairs of vertical height 2 m to the first floor of the building. He continued up the stairs to
the fourth floor. If the vertical height from the fourth floor to the ground is 8 m, calculate
a. The gravitational potential energy of the boy on the first floor.
b. The gravitational potential energy of the boy on the fourth floor.
c. The change in gravitational potential energy of the boy when he moves from the
first floor to the fourth floor of the building.
d. The weight of the boy.
4. What is the gravitational potential energy of a 20 g ball lying on the earth’s surface?
5. When an apple falls from a tree did it lose or gain gravitational potential energy?
6. What is the change in gravitational potential energy of a 40 N box when it moves from a
height of 3.5 m to a height of 2 m? Is it a gain or loss of gravitational potential energy?
7. What is the mass of an object if at 5 m above the earth’s surface it has gravitational
potential energy of 80 J?
8. At a certain height ‘h’, the gravitational potential energy of a body, of mass 2.5 Kg, is
1500 J. What is the height ‘h’ of the object above the earth’s surface? What is the
gravitational potential energy of another body of mass 5 Kg at the same height ‘h’?
9. Define potential energy.

Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy (K.E.) is the energy possessed by a moving object. It is expressed

mathematically as:
K.E. = ½ × mass (m) × velocity square (v2)

K.E. = ½ mv2 the unit of K.E. is the Joule (J) or the Nm.

Exercise 6

QUESTION:
1. What is the kinetic energy (K.E.) of 1.5 Kg ball when it is kicked at a velocity of 5 m/s?
2. An object has mass of 60 Kg and moves at 4 m/s. Calculate the kinetic energy of the
object.
3. What is the kinetic energy of a 400 N toy that is stationary?
4. Rearrange the K.E. equation making ‘v’ the subject of the formula.
5. What is the velocity of a 20 Kg object if it has 800 J of energy?

Page 15 of 33
 6. If a dagger is allowed to fall from a height of 6 m onto the ground, at what point during
the fall would the velocity of the dagger be greatest. And at what point would the kinetic
energy of the dagger be (i) the least (ii) the greatest
7. When an object is released from a pre-determined height the velocity of the object just
before it hit the ground was less than the calculated result. Discuss the possible cause(s)
for this.
8. Define kinetic energy and give examples of object that have K.E.

Energy Transformation

All forms of energy can be converted to other forms. For example, the sun’s energy is not used
merely as heat energy or light energy. It is converted to other forms of energy as well. Solar cells
convert the energy of the sunlight directly into electrical energy (electricity).
Example, the chemical energy of a battery is converted to electrical energy to electrical energy in
a battery operated radio. The electrical energy is further converted to sound energy. Thermal
energy is wasted because of the heating of the wires caused by the electricity.
Discuss the energy transformation in:
a. An electrically operated television
b. A pedal cycle
c. A hydro-power station
d. A windmill

The Law of Conservation of Energy

The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. It can only be converted from one form to another.

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Exercise 7

QUESTION:

1. When a ball of mass 1.2 Kg is thrown up into the air with an initial velocity of 9 m/s it
reaches a maximum height, h, where its velocity is zero. Neglecting the effect of air
resistance, calculate

a. The K.E. of the ball when it reaches its maximum height, h.

b. Discuss if the K.E. of the ball changes. Why?
c. Discuss if the ball has at any time P.E.
d. Using the Law of Conservation of Energy calculate the maximum height, h.

2. A tennis ball of mass 0.4 Kg was released by a player from a height of 1.2 m and allowed
to fall freely onto a hard surface. The ball then rebound to a height of 1.0 m before it was
caught by the player. Calculate:
a. The weight of the tennis ball.

b. The K.E. of the ball before it was released.

c. The P.E. of the ball before it was released.

d. From the law of conservation of energy, what is the K.E. of the ball the moment
before it hit the ground?

e. What is the velocity of the ball that corresponds with the K.E. calculated from (d)
above?
P.E = K.E
4.8 = ½ mv2
4.8 = ½ x 0.4 x v2
4.8 = 0.2 v2
v2 = 4.8/0.2
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 v2 = ( 24) ½
v = 5 m/s

f. When the ball hit the ground, what is the K.E. and P.E. of the ball?
g. When the ball rebounded it did not return to the height it was released from.
Discuss the possible cause(s) for this.

3. A spherical object of mass ‘m’ was released from a height of 3.0 m and allowed to fall
freely onto the ground. Show that the mass of an object does not depend on how quickly
it falls, hence calculate the maximum velocity of the object.

4. A body of mass 6 kg moving at a constant velocity of 18 m/s along a horizontal

frictionless plane travels up a smooth inclined plane until it comes to rest. Calculate
a. The K.E. of the body while travelling along the horizontal frictionless plane.
b. The vertical height the object went before coming to rest.

Power

Power is defined as the rate at which work is done or the energy converted in unit time. In
equation form, it reads: Work done (w) Energy (E)
Power = Time (t) = Time (t)

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Power = Force x velocity
P = Fv

The S.I. unit for power is the Joule per second (J/s) called the Watt (W). i.e. Js-1= W

The efficiency of a machine is defined as the ratio of useful power output to the power
input. It is expressed as a percentage

Exercise 8
QUESTION:
1. A force of 500 N acting for 20 s displaces an object a distance of 25 m. Calculate
i. The work done on the object.
Work done = Force x distance
= 500 x 25
= 12,500 J

ii. The energy transferred to the object.

Energy transferred = Work done
= 12,500 J

iii. The power of the object

Powe = Enegy /time
= 12500/20
= 625 W

2. A boy uses up 200 J of energy in 5 s. Find his power output.

Power = Energy / time
= 200/5
= 40 W

3. A man of mass 80 Kg climbs up 15 steps, each 25 cm high, in 7.5 seconds. Calculate the
power the man develops.
Total vertical height = 15 x 25
= 375 cm (when converting from cm to m you divide by 100)
= 3.75 m
Power = Energy / time
Potential Energy = mass x gravity x height
= 80 x 10 x 3.75
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 = 3000 J

Power = Energy / time

= 3000/ 7.5
= 400 Watts

4. Calculate the power of a pump which can lift 200 Kg of water through a vertical height of
6 m in 10 s.

Ep = mx g x h
= 200 x 10 x 6
= 12,000 J

P = E/t
= 12,000/10
= 1200W

5. How long will it take an electric motor of power output 25 KW to lift a mass of 1000 Kg
through 20 m?

Efficiency

A machine is a device which enables a force (the effort) acting at a point to overcome another
force (load) acting at some other point.
A machine may be identified as a force or distance multiplier: It is a force multiplier, if the load
is greater than the effort, example spanner. It is a distance multiplier if the distance moved by the
load is greater than the distance the effort moves, example a bicycle.

Efficiency, η, can be calculated using the equation,

Energy output × 100% Power output × 100% Work output × 100%

Efficiency = Energy input OR Power input OR Work input

Note: efficiency has no unit.

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QUESTION:
1. An effort of 250 N raises a load of 1000 N through 5 m in a pulley system. If the effort
moves 30 m what is:
a. The work raising the load.
Work done = Force x distance
= 1000 x 5
= 5000 J
b. The work done by the effort.
Work done = 250 x 30
=7500 J
c. The efficiency of the pulley system.
= Energy output × 100%
Efficiency = Energy input

2. A load, 500 N, is raised 0.2 m by a machine in which an effort of 150 N moves 1 m.

calculate the efficiency of the machine.

 GALILEO

Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa, Italy in 1564. He began his university career as a medical
student but switched to the study of Mathematics and Physics.
Galileo is regarded by many as a major contributor to the establishment of Experimental Physics.
Before his time, a philosophical approach was taken to the study of Physics. Scientists were
principally interested in understanding why things happened rather than how. This was the
approach that Aristotle took.
Galileo started his investigation with initial observation of a phenomenon. He then formulated
hypothesis based on these observations, which he tested experimentally. In this way, he was able
to obtain fairly accurate quantitative answers to questions asked and to formulate equations
describing the behaviour of systems.
Galileo did not invent the telescope, but used it to make significant astronomical discoveries. He
is considered the founder of modern astronomy. His discoveries with the telescope included:
i. Spots on the sun
ii. Jupiter’s moons; known as the four Galilean satellites.
He also conducted experiments on falling bodies to describe how they fall. His conclusions
contradicted the Aristotelian argument that the rate at which bodies fall depends on their weight.
He also showed that the rate was independent of weight. He also verify the equation S = ½ gt2 by
investigating the movements of bodies down inclined planes.

 MOTION IN STRAIGHT LINE

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DISPLACEMENT – This is the distance moved in a specified direction. It is a vector quantity.
It is measured in the same unit as distance – the metre.

SPEED – This is the rate at which distance changes with time and so be expressed
mathematically as:
distance covered
= time taken
Its unit of measurement is hence ms-1. It is a scalar quantity since it has no direction.
Also, average speed = total distance OR u+ v
total time 2

VELOCITY – This is the rate at which displacement changes with time, and hence it is a vector
quantity. It can be expressed similarly to speed as
= displacement
time taken
has the same units as speed.

ACCELERATION – This is the rate at which velocity changes with time and hence changes in
both speed and direction result in acceleration. It is expressed as
(final velocity – initial velocity) v - u
= time taken for change to occur = t
and has units of ms-2.

GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION

This is the acceleration with which all objects fall when unsupported. Such a motion is also
known as free fall. This acceleration is the same for all falling objects regardless of their masses.
It is a constant near the surface of the Earth and has a value of approximately 10 ms-2.

A falling object, not subjected to air resistance will increase its speed by 10 ms-1 every second
(10 ms-2). The diagram above is a speed-time graph for such a falling object.

TERMINAL VELOCITY

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When objects fall through air, they are always subjected to air resistance which slows down
their acceleration. Air resistance is dependent on two factors.
a. The surface area of the object; the larger the surface area, the greater the air resistance.
b. The speed of the object; the faster the object, the greater the air resistance.

As an object falls through air, it

is accelerated by gravity and its
speed increases. This implies
that air resistance acting on it
also increases. When the air
resistance becomes equal to the
object’s weight, the net force on
the object is zero and it will then
fall with a constant velocity
known as terminal velocity.
The following graph shows how the speed of such
a falling object varies with time.

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

 Newton’s first law of motion

Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless
compelled by some external force to act otherwise.
 Use Newton’s first law to explain the need for a seat-belt in the case of an accident.

 Newton’s second law of motion

The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force and takes
place in the direction in which the force acts.
OR
Whenever there is a resultant force F acting on a mass, the mass will accelerate.

In equation form, it reads: mv - mu

F= t

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 = m (v-u)
t
F = ma
 Use the second law of motion to explain why a truck requires a larger force to set it in
motion when it is heavily laden than when it is empty.

 Newton’s third law of motion

To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
 Use the third law of motion to explain why a gun recoils when a bullet is fired.

Equation of motion
In the study of motion, five (5) quantities will be encountered. Below is a list of these quantities
with appropriate symbols:

Quantity Symbols
Initial velocity or speed u
Final velocity or speed v
Acceleration or deceleration a
Displacement or distance s or x
Time t

Each of three equations of motion relates four of these five quantities.

FIRST EQUATION OF MOTION

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 v = u + at

SECOND EQUATION OF MOTION

x = ut + ½at2

THIRD EQUATION OF MOTION

v2 = u2 + 2ax

Exercise 9
QUESTION:
1. Using the first equation of motion, calculate the final velocity of a bike if it has initial
velocity of 2 ms-1 and accelerated at 3 ms-2 for 4 s.

v=u + at
v=2 + 3 x 4
v = 14m/s

2. If an object moves from rest and accelerated at 20 ms-2 for 3 s, what would be its final
velocity?
a=20m/s2
t= 3s
u = 0 m/s
v= ?
v = u + at
v= 0 + 20 x3
v = 60 m/s

3. A ball of initial velocity of 5 ms-1 comes to rest in 2.5 s when a force is applied to it.
Calculate the deceleration (opposite of acceleration) of the ball.

u=5m/s
t= 2.5 s
v= 0 m/s
a=?
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 v= u + at
0 = 5 + a x 2.5
-5 / 2.5= 2.5a/2.5
a=-2m/s2

4. Moving at 4 ms-1 a body begins to accelerate at 10 ms-2 for 5 s. calculate the distance the
body moved when it began to accelerate. Hint: use equation 2

x = ut + ½at2
= 4 x 5 + ½ x 10 x 52
= 20 + 125
= 145 m

5. What is the distance travelled when an object moves at 15 ms-1 for 20 s?

6. A motor-car is uniformly retarded and brought to rest from a speed of 108 Km/h in 15
seconds. Calculate,
a. The speed of the car in m/s.
b. The deceleration of the car.
7. A body of initial velocity of 1ms-1 begins to accelerate at 4 ms-2 for some time‘t’. If the
body covers a distance of 30 m while accelerating what is the final velocity of the object?
Hint: use equation 3.
8. From the third equation of motion show that s = v2 – u2
2a
9. When a coin is thrown up it reaches its maximum height, ‘h’, after some time‘t’. What is
the velocity of the coin when it reaches its maximum height? Explain your answer.
10. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 14 m/s. Neglecting air
resistance, find
a. The maximum height reached.
b. The time taken before it reaches the ground.
11. An object is released at a height of 20 m above the ground and is allow to free-fall until it
reaches ground. Determine the following:
a. The acceleration of the object as it begins to fall.
b. At which point during the fall does the objects has maximum and minimum
velocity.
c. The time it takes the object to reach the ground (assuming negligible air
resistance).
12. An object moves from rest and accelerated at 2 ms-2 for 5 s, it then maintain this velocity
for 4 s after which it starts to decelerate coming to rest in an additional 6 s. Calculate
a. The final velocity of the object when it begins to accelerate at 2 ms-2 for 5 s.
b. The distance the object covered in part a.
c. The distance the object covered while maintaining its velocity for 4 s.
d. The deceleration of the object
e. The distance the object covered while decelerating
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 f. The total distance the object covered from moving from rest to going back to rest.
13. Recall in order the three(3) equations of motion.
14. What is the force required to cause an acceleration of 20 ms-2 on a 50 Kg object.
15. A bullet of mass 20 g, travelling with velocity of 16 m/s, penetrates a sandbag and is
brought to rest in 0.05 s. Find:
a. The dept of penetration in metres.
b. The average retarding force of the sand in newtons.
16. Explain the difference between speed and velocity.
17. What is meant by average speed. A motorist travels from a town A to a town B, 145 Km
distant in 3 h 45 min. Find his average: (a) in km/h; (b) in m/s.
18. Define the terms displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
19. Explain the term acceleration due to gravity.
20. A stone, dropped down a well takes 2 s to reach the water surface. Calculate:
a. The velocity with which the stone hits the water.
b. The distance of the water surface from the top of the shaft.

Motion Graphs

i. Displacement-time graphs
When drawing displacement-time graphs, displacement is usually plotted on the y-axis and time
on the x-axis. The gradient (slope) of this graph gives velocity. If distance is plotted in place of
displacement, the gradient gives speed.

ii. Velocity-time graphs

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The gradient of these graphs represent acceleration. The area under the graph represents
displacement. Velocity is usually plotted on the y-axis and time on the x-axis.
 If the graph is a straight line parallel to the time axis, the velocity is constant i.e. the body
is not accelerating (acceleration = 0 ms-2).

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 If the graph is a straight line, the acceleration is uniform. A line sloping upwards means a
positive acceleration (velocity is increasing) and one sloping downwards means negative
acceleration (velocity is decreasing).

 If the graph is a curve whose gradients is increasing, the acceleration is not uniform but is
also increasing.

 If the graph is a curve whose gradient is decreasing, the acceleration is decreasing.

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Exercise 10
QUESTION

1. The velocity-time graph of a sports car is shown below.

a. Explain the motion of the car between A-B, B-C, and C-D.
A-B: the sports car accelerated uniformly from rest and reached a velocity of 30 m/s in a
of 20s.
B- C: the sports car travelled at a constant velocity of 30 m/s for a time of 15s.

C-D: the sports car decelerated uniformly from travelling at 30 m/s and came to rest in
another 15s.

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 b. Find the acceleration of the car for the first 20 s.
a=(v-u)/t
= 30-0/20
= 30/20
= 1.5 m/s2

c. Using the graph calculate the distance travelled by the car for the first 20 s.
Distance travelled = area under the graph
=½bxh
= ½ x 20s x30 m/s
= 300 ms/s
= 300 m

d. What is the acceleration of the car between B-C.?

There the body is NOT accelerating = 0 m/s 2

e. What is the distance travelled by the car between B-C.

Distance travelled = area under the graph
=lxw
= 15 x 30
= 450 m
x=ut + ½ at2

= 30 x 15 + 0
= 450 m

f. Calculate the deceleration of the car.

a=(v-u)/t
=(0 -30)/15
= -2 m/s2

g. What is the total displacement of the car?

2. A trolley of initial velocity of 20 ms-1 moves along a frictionless floor for 5 s, it then
accelerated uniformly in the same direction at 2 ms-2 for 10 s.
a. Draw a velocity-time graph for the motion of the trolley.
b. From the graph calculate the distance travelled by the trolley while accelerating.
3. An object moves from rest and accelerated for 6 s until it reaches a velocity of 50 ms-1. It
then maintains this velocity for 4 s before coming to rest 15 s after it began to move.
Draw a velocity-time graph of the object.
4. Sketch a velocity-time graph for an object which has an acceleration that is increasing.
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Momentum

Momentum, p, is defined as the mass of the body multiplied by its velocity. It can be
expressed mathematically as
Momentum = mass × velocity
The unit of momentum is the kilogram metre per second i.e. Kgms-1. Momentum is a vector
quantity.

QUESTION:
1. Calculate the momentum of a body that has a mass of 70 Kg and moving with a velocity
of 3 ms-1 in a easterly direction.
p=mv
p= 70 x3
p=210 kgm/s

2. What is the momentum of a trolley if it has a mass of 50 Kg and moving at 2.5 ms-1 in a
westerly direction?
p=mv
= 50 x 2.5
= 125 kgm/s
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Conservation of Momentum (Linear)

When two or more bodies act on one another, as in a collision, the total momentum of the
bodies remain constant provided that no external forces is acting (e.g. friction).
Therefore, total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision

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QUESTION:
1. A car of mass 2000 Kg travelling easterly at a velocity of 3 ms-1 collides and sticks to a
stationary car of mass 1800 Kg. if both cars move off with a velocity, v, calculate this
velocity.
SOLUTION:

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

p (car A) + p (car B) = p (car A + car B) V
mA×vA + mB ×vB = mA+B V
2000 ×3+ 1800 × 0 = (2000 + 1800) × V
Since after the collision both cars move off with the same velocity
6000 + 0 = (2000 + 1800) V
6000 = (3800 Kg) V
6000 =v
3800
1.58 m/s =v

2. A boy with mass 50 Kg running at 5 m/s jumps unto a 20 Kg trolley travelling in the
same direction at 1.5 m/s. What is their common velocity?

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

p (boy) + p (trolley) = p (boy + trolley) V
50 x 5 + 20 x 1.5 = 70 V
280 = 70 V
V = 4 m/s

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 3. A rifle of mass 12 Kg is suspended so that it is free to recoil, and fires a 50 g bullet which
leaves the muzzle at 800 m/s. Find the velocity of recoil of the rifle, and the kinetic
energy of the bullet.

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

0 = mr x vr- mb x vb
= 12 x vr - 0.05 x 800
-12vr = - 40
vr = -40/-12
vr = 3.33 m/s

Force and Momentum

If a steady force, F, acting on a body of mass, m, increase its velocity from‘u’ to ‘v’ in time t,
then the acceleration ‘a’ is given by v-u
a= t from v = u + at
substituting for a in F = ma
= m (v-u)
t
= mv-mu = change of momentum = rate of change of momentum
t t
4. A boy catches a cricket ball of mass 0.14 Kg which has a velocity of 20 ms-1. Calculate
a. The momentum of the ball
b. The average force used by the boy’s hand to stop the ball
I. 0.5 seconds
II. 0.01 seconds
c. Explain why stopping the ball in 0.01 seconds hurt the boy?
5. A pile machine has a 3000 Kg hammer that is allowed to free-fall from a height of 9.5 m
onto a pile that is placed in the ground. If when the pile hammer falls it sticks to the pile
and both move with the same velocity before coming to rest in 0.1 s, calculate:
a. The maximum velocity of the pile hammer before hitting the pile.
b. The weight of the hammer.
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 c. The common velocity with which the hammer and pile move with.
d. The deceleration of the pile and hammer combination causes by the soil.
e. The distance the pile moved.
f. The average force needed to stop the hammer and pile combination.
6. State the principle (law) of conservation of momentum.
An inflated balloon contains 2.0 g of air which is allowed to escape from a nozzle at a
speed of 4.0 m/s. Assuming that the balloon deflates at a steady rate in 2.5 s, what is the
force exerted on the balloon.

Circular Motion

If a moving mass is to follow a circular path there must be a continual force on it which acts at
right angles to the direction of travel, inwards to the centre of the circle.
The unbalance force which acts towards the centre and keeps a body in a circular path is called
the centripetal force. When a car goes around a bend the centripetal force is provided by friction
between the car tyres and the road. What provides the centripetal force for a satellite orbiting the
earth?
Objects going in a circular motion undergo changes in its velocity (velocity is speed in a specific
direction; if its direction changes its velocity also changes). Hence, a change in velocity is
acceleration and so during the circular motion the object is accelerating.

 PRESSURE

Pressure due to a solid

Pressure is the force acting normally (i.e. in a perpendicular direction) per unit area. In
equation form, it reads:
Pressure = Force/ Area i.e. P = A
The S.I. unit of pressure is newton per metre square (Nm-2). Another name for this unit is the
Pascal (Pa).

The pressure exerted on the floor by the same box of weight 30 N:

a) Standing on end b) Lying flat

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 Force Force
Pressure = Area Pressure = Area
30 N 30 N
= 2m × 3m Pressure = 3m × 4 m
30 N 30 N
= 6 m2 Pressure = 12 m2
= 5 N/m2 = 2.5 N/m2
= 5 Pa = 2.5 Pa

The pressure exerted by each force differs even though the weight of the box remains constant.
Therefore, the greater the area which a force acts the less is the pressure.
Exercise 11
Question:
1. Why is it that a tractor with wide wheels is best when driving on soft ground?
2. Why a girl in stiletto heels is more like to damage a wooden floor than an elephant?
3. What is the pressure over a surface when a force of 500 N acts on an area of a) 100 m2,
b) 0.1 m2.
4. A block of concrete whose base is a square of side 4 m exerts a pressure of 2000 Pa on
the ground. What is its weight?

Fluid Pressure

The pressure due to a liquid at rest depends only on the depth and the density of the liquid. The
equation for liquid pressure is:
Pressure = ρ×g×h
Where ρ is the density of the liquid in Kg m-3, g is the gravitational field strength in N Kg-1 and h
is the depth of the liquid in m.
Question:
1. Calculate the pressure at the base of a 5 m deep swimming pool (Assume that the density
of water is 1000 Kg m-3 and g = 10 N/Kg).

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 2. What is the pressure at a depth of 15 m in a particular fluid if the density of the fluid is
3000 Kg m-3?
3. Is the pressure at a point 100 m below the surface of sea water of density 1150 kgm-3,
greater than, less than or equal to the pressure 50 m below the surface? Give a reason for
your answer.

4. Three containers, each with the same liquid, is shown below. Which point (A, B, or C)
would the pressure be greatest? Why?

Assignment (P/D)
Describe an experiment to prove that the pressure in a fluid is dependent on the depth of
the fluid below the surface.

The pressure exerted by any fluid is equal in all horizontal direction at that particular depth.

Liquid finds its own level

When water (liquid) is poured into the vessel shown above, the water stands at the same level in
each tube of the vessel. This proves the fact that water finds its own level. When the liquid is at
rest in the vessel the pressure must be the same at all points along the same horizontal level,
otherwise the liquid would move until the pressures are equalised.

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Question
1. The figure below shows a dam. Why is the wall of the dam thicker at the bottom?

Hydraulic Machines

Liquids are almost incompressible (i.e. their volume cannot be reduced by squeezing) and they
pass on any pressure applied to them. Use is made of this fact in hydraulic machines.

In the diagram shown representing a hydraulic machine a force F, is applied to piston A of a

specified area. This applied force causes a pressure in the liquid which is passed on throughout
the liquid (incompressibility of liquid). Therefore the pressure at piston B is the same at point A.
Owing to the fact that the area of piston B is greater than the area of piston A, it would follow
that the force at piston B is greater than the force at piston A. Examples of hydraulic machines
are hydraulic jacks, or lifts and brakes.

Question:
1.

Calculate:

i. The pressure at piston A

ii. The pressure at piston B
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 iii. The force at piston B
2. In a hydraulic press a force of 20 N is applied to a piston of area 0.2 m2. The area of the
other piston is 2 m2. What is
a. The pressure transmitted through the liquid
b. The force on the other piston

Atmospheric Pressure

The atmosphere is the thin layer of air that surrounds the earth. Air has mass and weight and the
atmosphere exerts a pressure of 100, 000 Pa (100 KPa) on the earth’s surface. We do not
normally feel atmospheric pressure because the pressure inside our bodies is almost the same
outside. The effect of atmospheric pressure is noticeable when air is removed from a body. A
space from which all air is removed is a vacuum.

The effects of atmospheric pressure

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 a. Crushing can experiment

If air is removed from a can by a vacuum pump, the can collapse because the air pressure inside
becomes less than that outside.

b. The drinking straw

The pressure inside the straw is lowered by sucking.

The atmospheric pressure on the surface of the
liquid then forces it up the straw and into the mouth.

The Mercury Barometer

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A barometer measures atmospheric pressure. The height of mercury in the tube above the level in
the trough represents the pressure of the atmosphere. The vacuum exerts no pressure on the
mercury inside the tube. The mercury is maintained in its position by atmospheric pressure on
the mercury in the dish. The height of the mercury (roughly 760 mm) is a measure of
atmospheric pressure.
The vertical height of the column is unchanged if the tube is tilted. The width of the tube does
not affect the height. (Remember P = Δρgh, the pressure of liquid does not depend on the area of
the container but only on the density, length of the column and the acceleration due to gravity.)

760 mm Hg (milli of Mercury) = 100,000 Pa =1 atmosphere = 1 Bar = 1000 millibar

The Manometer

Water in a U tube settles with the levels in the two halves being
exactly the same. The water moves until the pressures exerted in the
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two limbs are equal. The pressure at a point in a liquid depends on the depth of the point below
the surface hence the pressure at A and B in the diagram are exactly the same.

The U tube can be used to measure excess gas pressure.

Pressure of gas supply = atmospheric pressure + pressure due to height, h, of liquid

Therefore:

Excess gas pressure = pressure of gas supply – atmospheric pressure

Exercise 12

QUESTION

1. Define pressure and state its S.I. unit.

2. The base of a rectangular vessel measures 10 cm × 18 cm. Water is poured in to a depth
of 4 cm. What is the pressure on the base? What is the thrust (force) on the base.
3. Explain the action of a syringe for the in-take of fluid.
4. Is the pressure at a point 50 m in a fluid of density 1500 Kg m-3 greater than the pressure
of another point at 70 m in a fluid of density 900 Kg m-3?
5. Calculate the pressure in Pascal at the bottom of a 760 mm column of mercury if the
density of mercury is 13.6 g cm-3. And what is the value of atmospheric pressure at mean
sea-level?
6. Differentiate between the barometer and the manometer
7. What holds up the mercury in the barometer?
8. At what height is the mercury in the barometer at normal atmospheric pressure?
9. During a hurricane the pressure decreases, how will this affect the barometer?
10. What will happen to the height of the mercury in the tube of a manometer is the tube is
tilted?
11. Draw a diagram to show how a water manometer is used to measure the pressure of gas
at a gas tap. Such a manometer connected to a gas main reads 12 cm. Calculate the
pressure of the gas, in excess of atmospheric pressure, stating clearly the units in which
your answer is expressed.
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12. An open U-tube pressure gauge containing water shows a difference in level of 15 cm
when connected to a gas supply. Find in N/m2, the excess pressure of the gas above
atmospheric pressure.

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