Disaster &

Volume 13
Development Issue 01 January to June 2024 ISSN : 0973-6700

● Kerala Flood 2018 and the Socio-Economic Deprivation of Households in Alappuzha District

● Implications of Cloud Burst and Heavy Precipitation during the Uttarakhand Disaster
(2013) on the Frontal Dynamics of the Gangotri Glacier
● Community involvement in Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM): A Study of Disaster
Management Volunteers
● Target Analysis of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015 - 2030:
Kerala Flood, 2018
● Assessment of Fire Safety Knowledge, Perception, and Practices Among Healthcare
Workers in Srinagar City, India
● Multi-criteria Based Assessment of Coastal Vulnerability Along Biodiversity Rich Tropical
Coastline In Karnataka
● Local Perception of Flood Risk: Evaluating Risk Awareness and Indigenous Knowledge
Among Flood-Prone Communities in the Trans-Himalayan Valley, Leh District
● Challenges of Development-Induced Hazards on Tribal livelihood in Singrauli, Madhya
Pradesh: An Empirical Study

Resilient India - Disaster free India Journal of the National Institute of Disaster Management, New Delhi
Disaster & Development
Journal of the National Institute of Disaster Management, New Delhi

Editorial Advisory Board

Dr. R.K. Bhandari Shri Sarbjit Singh Sahota
Distinguished Visiting Professor UNICEF
Centre of Excellence in Disaster Mitigation and
Management (CoEDMM)
Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT), Roorkee

Shri P. P. Shrivastav (Demise) Dr. K. Satyagopal

Former Member, North Eastern Council Former RC, TN

Lt. Gen. N.C. Marwah (Retd.) Dr. Harshad P. Thakur

Former Member, NDMA Former Director, NIHFW, Delhi

Dr. L.S. Rathore Shri R. K. Shrivastav

Former DG, IMD Ex. JS (DM), MHA

Dr. Anil Kumar Sinha, IAS

Former Vice Chairman
Bihar SDMA

Chief Editor
Shri Rajendra Ratnoo, IAS
Executive Director
National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM), Delhi
[email protected]

Editor
Prof. Surya Parkash
Head, GMR Division, NIDM
[email protected]

Mailing Address
Disaster & Development
National Institute of Disaster Management
Ministry of Home Affairs
Government of India
Resilient India - Disaster free India Plot No. 15, Pocket 3, Block B, Sector 29, Rohini, Delhi 110042
 Disaster & Development
Journal of the National Institute of Disaster Management

Volume 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024

© National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM), Delhi.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and
retrieval system without permission from National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM), Delhi.

ISSN: 0973-6700

Disaster & Development Journal is published biannually

Printed and Published by National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM), Ministry of Home Affairs,
Govt. of India, Plot No. 15, Block B, Pocket 3, Sector 29, Rohini, Delhi 110042

ii Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
Contents
Volume 13, Issue 01,
January to June, 2024

Editor-in-Chief v

Editorial Note vii

1. Kerala Flood 2018 and the Socio-Economic Deprivation of 1

Households in Alappuzha District
Lavanya Sivan and Anitha V.

2. Implications of Cloud Burst and Heavy Precipitation 25

during the Uttarakhand Disaster (2013) on the Frontal
Dynamics of the Gangotri Glacier
Pooja, Pawan Kumar, Surbhi Gaur, Sanjay Deswal, Rakesh Saini,
Syed Umer Latief and Milap Chand Sharma

3. Community involvement in Disaster Risk Management 39

(CBDRM): A study of Disaster Management Volunteers
Tanushree Verma and Sayantani Guin

4. Target Analysis of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk 61

Reduction 2015- 2030: Kerala Flood, 2018
Neenu S. Pillai

5. Assessment of Fire Safety Knowledge, Perception, and 75

Practices Among Healthcare Workers in Srinagar City, India
Ashiq Hussain Rather, Javeed A Rather, Shahid Saleem and Anil
Kumar Gupta

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 iii
6. Multi-criteria Based Assessment of Coastal 97
Vulnerability Along Biodiversity Rich Tropical
Coastline In Karnataka
Vamshij Joseph, Kanaya Dutta, Mahendra R. S. and
Hashim Mohammed S

7. Local Perception of Flood Risk: 121

Evaluating Risk Awareness and Indigenous Knowledge
Among Flood-Prone Communities in the
Trans-Himalayan Valley, Leh District
Isha Kaushik and Tsering Dorjay

8. Challenges of Development-Induced Hazards on 141

Tribal livelihood in Singrauli, Madhya Pradesh:
An Empirical Study
Shreyash Dwivedi, Roosen Kumar and Anamika Sharma

iv Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Editor-in-Chief
As we release this latest edition of Journal on Disaster and Development,
I am reminded of the critical role that knowledge and research play in the
face of growing global challenges. Disasters whether natural, technological,
or human-induced are becoming more frequent and severe, with increasingly
complex socio-economic and environmental implications. Our journal stands
at the intersection of academia, policy, and practice, aiming to bridge the
gap between cutting-edge research and real-world application.

In this issue, we have gathered a diverse collection of articles that reflect the
ever-expanding field of disaster risk reduction (DRR) and developmental
issues. This volume explore a wide range of themes, from community-based
disaster resilience strategies and innovative technological interventions to
policy frameworks. Notably, there is a growing recognition of the significance
of multi-disciplinary approaches in addressing the multifaceted nature of
disasters, particularly in the context of climate change and rapid urbanization.

Authors have highlighted the role of vulnerable communities and indigenous

populations, in the disaster risk reduction process. Their participation is
essential to building comprehensive, context-specific solutions that can
withstand the complexities of today’s risk environment.

We are also proud to feature articles on community involvement that are

transforming the landscape of disaster management. From the use of geospatial
technologies and remote sensing in hazard mapping to the integration of
latest technology in DRR are paving the way for more efficient and proactive
DRR efforts.

However, as we celebrate these advancements, we must also acknowledge the

ongoing challenges. As several contributors in this issue have pointed out,
there remains a significant gap between the policies laid out in international
frameworks, such as the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, and
their implementation on the ground. Overcoming these barriers requires
sustained efforts, not just from governments and institutions but from all
stakeholders, including the private sector and civil society.

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 v
It is our hope that the research presented in this edition will inspire further
dialogue, collaboration, and action across sectors. As always, we are committed
to fostering an inclusive platform for sharing knowledge that can drive
meaningful change in disaster risk management and development.

I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to our authors, reviewers, readers,

editorial board members, hardworking and conscientious editorial and
publication team for their continued contributions and support. Together, we
are building a body of work that not only advances academic understanding
but also has the potential to save lives and protect communities.

Thank you for being a part of this important journey.

Shri Rajendra Ratnoo, IAS

vi Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Editorial Note
It is with great enthusiasm that I welcome you to the latest edition of
Disaster and Development. As our journal continues to grow, it remains
committed to addressing the increasingly urgent and complex challenges
that disasters pose to societies worldwide. This edition brings together
a series of insightful contributions from researchers, practitioners, and
policymakers who are dedicated to advancing the discourse on DRR and
sustainable development.

Disasters, as we know, are not isolated events; they are deeply intertwined
with development patterns, environmental degradation, and socioeconomic
inequities. As the global community faces the escalating impacts of
climate change, urbanization, and population growth, it is crucial that
we examine disaster risk through an integrated lens. This issue highlights
such interdisciplinary approaches, offering innovative perspectives on
how we can strengthen resilience at local, national, and global levels.

One of the key focal points in this edition is the intersection of disaster risk
reduction with developmental issues. Several articles in this issue delve
into the community participation in disaster risk management and related
issues. The articles featured in this issue underscore the importance of
engaging local populations, especially those most vulnerable, in disaster
preparedness and resilience-building efforts. Whether through local
knowledge systems, grassroots advocacy, or participatory decision-making
processes, the inclusion of communities is paramount to creating solutions
that are both effective and sustainable.

As we reflect on the insights shared in this edition, it is clear that the path
to a more resilient and equitable world requires continuous collaboration
across disciplines, sectors, and borders. The knowledge exchanged here is
not only an academic exercise but a call to action for all of us involved in
disaster and development.

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 vii
I sincerely thank our contributors, reviewers, readers, editorial board
members, and our dedicated publication team (especially Dr. Ravinder
Singh, Shri S. K. Tiwari, Shri Shubham Badola and Ms Karanpreet Kaur
Sodhi) and diligent editorial team for their steadfast commitment to this
important field. Your continued engagement with the journal empowers
us to advance the frontiers of disaster risk reduction and work towards a
safer, more sustainable future for everyone.

Surya Parkash, Ph.D.

viii Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Kerala Flood 2018 and the Socio-Economic Deprivation of
Households in Alappuzha District

Lavanya Sivan1 and Anitha V.2

Abstract
Kerala faced unforeseen floods in August 2018, which simultaneously affected natural
and human resources. The impact of floods on households, particularly in the coastal
area of the Alappuzha district, was very high. The main focus of this paper is to assess
the socioeconomic deprivation of households in the Pampa River basin of the Pandanad
panchayat of Alappuzha district. This study discusses the causes and effects of the flood
and the unique recovery strategy of the state. The socio-economic deprivation index
of flood-affected households is estimated by taking the arithmetic mean of the three
indices, such as the health domain index (HDI), the economic domain index (EDI), and
the standard of living index (SDI). Each dimension is calculated based on the general
formula that UNDP used to calculate the Human Development Index. This empirical
study found that most of the households in the study area have come in the high
socio-economic deprivation category in the post-flood scenario.

Keywords: Kerala flood 2018, PARIRAKSHA project, Disaster, Flood recovery strategy of
Kerala, Socio-Economic Deprivation, Deprivation index

1. Introduction
Globally, flooding is the most dangerous disaster for economic loss and human
fatalities. During the last decade of the 20th century, floods washed out 100,00 lives and
impacted more than 1.4 billion people (Jonakman, 2005). A study by Parvin et al. (2016)
among the rural poor in Bangladesh, reveals that the floods increase their vulnerability
leading to joblessness and depletion of their income and resources. Khayyam (2020)

1
Doctoral researcher, Department of Economics, University of Kerala
2
Professor, Department of Economics, University of Kerala

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 1
 Kerala Flood 2018 and the Socio-Economic Deprivation of Households in Alappuzha District

surveyed the northwest region of Pakistan and found that floods significantly impact
the economic and livelihood impact of the rural poor. The flood destroyed their
agriculture and livestock, which led them into poverty syndrome by washing out
their savings and forcing them to borrow money.

The causes behind floods are heavy rainfall in the monsoon period, cyclones, cloud
bursting, tsunamis, outbursts of glacial lakes, urbanisation, unauthorised construction,
river bank erosion, sedimentation of channel beds, inefficient rivers, reservoirs, and
drainage management (Tripathi, 2015; Mohanty et al., 2020; Parida, 2020). Floods
have both social and economic impacts, such as the loss of people’s lives, private and
public property damage and agricultural land and crop destruction (Parida, 2020).

Floods constitute 84% of fatalities among India's 10 most significant disasters from
2005 to 2014. Riverine floods are the most common type of floods in India, followed
by flash floods and coastal floods (Tripathi, 2015). Socio-hydro climatological variables
complicate flood control in India by affecting the severity and frequency of flood
occurrences. Factors like climate change, rising sea levels, and socioeconomic dynamics
hamper flood management, resulting in significant socioeconomic losses and fatalities,
despite substantial expenditure and ongoing flood-control initiatives throughout the
nation (Mohanty et al., 2020). The central and state governments relationship is crucial
for effective disaster management and economic development, as it enhances the
efficiency of funding and support during disasters (Parida, 2020).

Recently the occurrence of floods is common across India (Narayanan, 2022),

particularly in Kerala. After a hundred years, Kerala experienced a severe flood
in 2018. In 2019 also, the state witnessed a flood that affected 1038 villages from
13 districts, 21264 houses were fully or severely damaged, and 125 people lost their
lives (Kerala State Disaster Management Authority, 2019). Flood is a common
phenomenon in coastal areas of the Alappuzha district of Kerala due to its topographical
structure and people adapted to some extent (Santhi & Veerakumaran, 2019). However,
the 2018 flood is unexpected and affects other parts of the state. The socioeconomic
deprivation of people is entirely different as compared to the usual one. This paper
tried to analyse the socio-economic deprivation of households in Pandanad
panchayat of the Alappuzha district in the context of the Kerala flood of 2018.

2 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Lavanya Sivan, Anitha V.

According to the Global Data Lab of Radboud University (2021), the state had the
highest HDI of 0.782 in 2019, comparable to developed countries. The socio-economic
characteristics such as health, education, and living standards helped the state
achieve this top position. The Kerala flood of 2018 severely threatened the state’s
socio-economic and human development. That led Kerala into a socially and
economically worse situation. Human deprivation is a lack of human capabilities,
opportunities, choices, values, and basic needs such as food, shelter, education,
clothing, health etc. (Sivakumar & Sarvalingam, 2010). Natural disasters like floods
severely impact these variables, indispensable to human development. Hence, it
is necessary to assess the changes in the socio-economic variables and the level of
deprivation to develop suitable policies to overcome the future impact of floods.

The paper is organised into different sections. The second section explained the
data and research methods of the study. It is followed by the analysis of socio-economic
effects, government actions, and the recovery strategies of the state of Kerala flood
in 2018. The final section concludes the whole study with policy recommendations.

2. Data and Methods

Among the 14 districts of Kerala, Alappuzha (popularly known as Alleppey) district
is the smallest in terms of geographical area. The district’s geographical speciality is
that it lies on the coastal plain of the Arabian Sea and is the only district without forest
cover. Kuttand, renowned as the ‘Rice Bowl of Kerala,’ is situated in this district and
is the only location globally where farming occurs up to two meters below sea level.
The state has two monsoon seasons: namely, southwest monsoon from June to
September and northeast monsoon from October to November. Alleppey is renowned
globally for its water tourism. The word ‘Alappuzha’ consists of two words: ‘ala’ and
‘puzha’. In Malayalam, ‘ala’ means broad and ‘puzha’ means river. Due to the extensive
network of canals and backwaters, this district is known as ‘the Venice of the East’. The
existence of rivers, lakes and other aquatic bodies makes the region the most susceptible
to flooding in the state (District Disaster Management Authority, Alappuzha, 2015).

The rivers flowing through Alappuzha district are Pampa, Manimala, and
Achankovil. The Thottappilly Spillway in Vembanad Lake receives water from these
rivers. Furthermore, of all the principal rivers, only the Pampa River is regulated

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 3
 Kerala Flood 2018 and the Socio-Economic Deprivation of Households in Alappuzha District

by the Kakki dam. The Pampa River, Kerala’s third longest river, enters Alappuzha
at Chengannur taluk and travels through Pandanad, Veeyapuram, Thakazhi, and
Champakulam regions over a distance of about 177.08 km, and culminates in
Vembanad Lake via multiple branches (District Disaster Management Authority,
Alappuzha, 2015; Santhi & Veerakumaran, 2019).

Both primary and secondary data were used for the study. An extensive household
survey was conducted in Pandanad panchayat, a rural local body, in the Chengannur
taluk of Alappuzha district to gather primary data. A significant portion of the
Pandanad panchayat is located on the banks of the Pampa River. Agriculture is the
main economic activity in this area. Therefore, climate change significantly influences
the livelihood of the people. The total area of the panchayat is 10.45 cm2, and the
density of the population is 1276.74. The total number of households is 4285,
having a population of 13342. In this study, the flood-affected households were the
sampling units. Among the 13 wards in Pandanad panchayat, the most flood-affected
area, ward number two, was selected for the household survey. This ward is situated
along the banks of the River Pampa, and all the households inside it were impacted
by the floods. The strategy of selecting households at regular intervals was deemed
a more effective approach in this context. Out of the 349 households in ward
number two, 50 were selected through systematic sampling.

Secondary data were collected from the Post Disaster Needs Assessment
conducted by UN agencies and various government reports from the Central Water
Commission, Ministry of Earth Science, and Kerala State Disaster Management
Authority.

Floods resulted in the loss of materials, money and lives, which directly affected
socioeconomic deprivation. Deprivation of the households is assessed based on
the socio-economic conditions of the households in connection with floods. The
significant variables used in this study were loss of materials such as food grains,
home appliances, vital documents, vehicles, jewellery, cash, agricultural products, and
poultry, damage to houses and wells, sources of drinking water, occupation before and
after the flood, income, health expenditure, the amount spent to clean the house after
the flood, financial aid from the government and satisfaction level. A few variables are

4 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Lavanya Sivan, Anitha V.

used from the questionnaire on the Eviction Impact Assessment Tool developed by the
Housing and Land Rights Network, which is based on the UN Basic Principles and
Guidelines on Development-Based Evictions and Displacement (2007).

In the context of the measurement of socioeconomic deprivation, the Human

Development Index (HDI) is considered the primary key indicator. The three
dimensions of the deprivation index include health, economic domain, and standard
of living (Pampalon & Raymond, 2000; Sivakumar & Sarvalingam, 2010; Lamnisos
et al., 2019; Kiran, 2021). Here health aspects are measured through mental and
physical health; economic dimensions through income and livelihood of the household;
and standard of living through drinking water, housing, electricity, and assets.

The general formula used by the UNDP for calculating human development is used
to calculate each deprivation index (United Nations, 2021). As such

(actual value-minimum value)

Deprivation Index =
(maximum value-minimum value)

For getting the indices such as health domain index (HDI), economic domain index
(EDI) and standard of living index (SDI), the arithmetic mean of variables under each
dimension is calculated. Then for the socio-economic deprivation index (SEDI), the
arithmetic mean of the three is calculated. That is,

(HDI+EDI+SDI)
SEDI =
3
The values range from 0 to 1, where 0 means the lowest and 1 means the highest
deprivation. High, low, and medium values are below 0.33, 0.34 to 0.66, and 0.67 to 1,
respectively.

3. The Kerala Flood 2018

In 1907 the state of Kerala witnessed the highest rainfall. Till August 2, the rainfall
has been 780 mm which was 150 per cent higher than the normal average. Kerala
experienced the highest rainfall in 1924 (3368 mm), whichever happened before.

Almost all parts of Kerala were flooded due to the high rainfall and more than 1000
people died (Khelkar, 2018; Kondapally et al., 2020). After 1924, Kerala experienced the

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 5
 Kerala Flood 2018 and the Socio-Economic Deprivation of Households in Alappuzha District

worst flood in August 2018. This is because of the rains that have been halted for days.
The rainfall in Kerala is controlled by southwest and northeast monsoons. The annual
average rainfall in Kerala was 3000 mm (Central Water Commission, 2018). According
to Indian Meteorological Department data (2018), from 1st June 2018 to 19th August
2018, Kerala received 2346.6 mm of rainfall instead of the expected 1649.5 mm. The
rainfall over Kerala during June, July, and 1st to 19th of August was 15%, 18% and
164%, respectively, above the normal average. The state possesses 57 large dams.
Major reservoirs in Kerala had above 90 per cent of their capacity in August 2018
(Shaharban & Rathnakaran, 2019). Hence, the release of water from reservoirs was
essential. On August 15th, most reservoirs became near total capacity and 37 dams
were opened (Government of India, 2018; Kondapally et al., 2020).

3.1 Causes of the Flood

The primary causes behind the Kerala flood of 2018 can be divided into natural
causes and anthropogenic causes. The natural factors that influenced the flood were
the low-pressure system which formed in the Bay of Bengal (Hunt & Menon, 2020),
landslides, climate change and global warming (Kumar et al., 2020; Vanamaet al.,
2021). The anthropogenic causes were inefficient dam management (Kondapally
et al., 2020; Sudheer et al., 2019), extensive quarrying and mining in the Western Ghats,
illegal encroachment of forest land, developmental activities on the ecologically
sensitive zones as part of tourism, absence of proper drainage system and unscientific
use of land (Central Water Commission, 2018; Government of Kerala, 2018; Sudheer
et al., 2019). Excessive human encroachments in ecologically sensitive areas like the
Western Ghats worsened the situation. The Gadgil report (Government of India,
2011) highlighted that many reservoirs, especially in the steep valleys, are silting up
prematurely due to the massive encroachment and deforestation of catchments
consequent to dam construction. This report warned about landslides from the
ecologically sensitive areas in the Western Ghats due to the increased mining
and quarrying.

The Special Centre for Disaster Research of Jawaharlal Nehru University submitted a
report citing heavy rainfall, inefficient dam management, environmental degradation,
infrastructural development, and a lack of preparedness as the causes of the 2018
Kerala flood. This report criticised the performance of the Kerala State Disaster

6 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Lavanya Sivan, Anitha V.

Management Authority (KSDMA) on several grounds. The KSDMA was found to

have failed to ensure effective coordination and communication among various
departments, failed to update disaster management plans on time, had a poorly
functioning early warning system, and the fund utilisation was also not effective.
This report also criticised the state government for neglecting the recommendations
of the Gadgil's report. The government focused more on profit-making through
electricity generation than the safety of the people in dam management (Singh
et al., 2018).

3.2 Socio-economic Effects of the Kerala Flood 2018

The unexpected flood and landslides in Kerala affected 5.4 million people, 2 million
people were displaced, and more than 400 people lost their lives. The non-stopped
torrential rainfall leads to 341 landslides in this small state. The worst affected districts
were Idukki, Wayanad, Ernakulam, Alappuzha, Kottayam, Pathanamthitta, and Thrissur.
Due to the flood, close to 14 lakh people evacuated to relief camps as their homes
were flooded. According to the post-disaster needs assessment, the entire economic
loss from the 2018 flood was 26,720 crores of rupees (Government of Kerala, 2018).

Natural disasters have diverse economic impacts across economic sectors

depending on the disaster type and intensity (Panwar & Sen., 2019). The flood and
landslides caused severe damage to houses, and infrastructural facilities like bridges,
railways, roads, communication networks and power supplies. About 13,362 houses
were fully damaged; more than one lakh houses were severely damaged. Nearly 25 lakhs
of electricity connections were disrupted. More than 300 bridges and approximately
50,000-kilometre roads collapsed. Access to drinking water was disrupted for 20% of
the state’s population. Around 3,17,000 shallow wells and over 95,000 latrines
were substantially damaged. In the case of the agricultural sector, about 59,345.37
hectares of crops and livestock were washed away, and 3 lakh farmers were
affected. The total agricultural loss exceeded 1300 crores of rupees. Many private
properties, including business units, shops, showrooms, vehicles, schools and
hospitals, were damaged. The primary workforce in Kerala, such as agricultural
labourers, construction workers and workers in micro, small and medium enterprises,
had a wage loss of 45 days or more (Government of Kerala, 2018).

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 7
 Kerala Flood 2018 and the Socio-Economic Deprivation of Households in Alappuzha District

Over 1.75 lakh buildings have been damaged either fully or partially. The households
in the affected area lose their electronics, clothes, utensils, beds, certificates, property
documents and other valuable things within hours. The children lose their study
materials, bags, and uniforms. Students from classes X and XII are anxious due to the
loss of books and notes, which may affect their learning. Owing to the loss of families,
friends, neighbourhoods and properties, many people faced trauma and stress.
The houses, vehicles, jewellery etc., are the result of many years of hard work for each
one of them. Workers from the informal sector were the worst affected victims of the
flood. Households are the major consumption unit and a source of savings as far
as an economy is concerned. The flood slows the economy for over a month
(Government of Kerala, 2018).

3.3 Immediate Action Taken by the Government

The state government of Kerala immediately responded to the situation with rescue
operations. The mobilisation of forces such as the Coast Guard, National Disaster
Response Force, Kerala Fire and Rescue Services, Army, Navy, Air Force, Central
Reserve Police Force, Border Security Force, and fishing community of the state saved
many lives. About 15 lakh people have been moved to camps and relatives’ houses.
More than 1700 schools, worship centres, colleges, and other institutions were used
as relief camps. More than 10000 camps were opened (Government of Kerala, 2018).

The people of Kerala have overcome the unexpected natural calamity with perfect
determination. The Kerala youth restlessly worked for the rescue of flood victims
without any discrimination in the form of religion, caste, wealth and politics. To
disseminate government instructions and speed up rescue operations, social media
played an important role. The fishermen in Kerala deserve special gratitude for their
timely intervention in rescuing those trapped in flooded areas (Government of Kerala,
2018). The army's rescue team could not reach all flood-affected locations, particularly
in river basins, due to the overflowing of floodwater, whirlpools, large trees, and large
walls. However, the fishermen overcame these challenges to rescue the lives of children,
pregnant women, and the elderly. Because of these courageous actions, the Chief
Minister of Kerala described the fishermen as the ‘Army of Kerala’(Dhanya, 2019).

8 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Lavanya Sivan, Anitha V.

3.4 Recovery Strategy of the State

Under the guidance of the state and the local government institutions, other
organisations and civil society, Kerala conducted a massive drive to clean flood-
affected houses and wells and supply essential commodities and medicines. Various
organisations and individuals helped the flood victims clean their houses to ensure
basic needs like water, food grains, clothing, medicines, footwear etc. About 6,93,287
mud-coughed houses were cleaned, and about 14,657 dead bodies of the creatures
were buried. About 25 lakhs of power supply connections were restored quickly
(Government of Kerala, 2018).

The floodwaters contained sewage, dead bodies of birds and animals, and other
contaminants, which increased the risk of infectious diseases. Nonetheless, no
contagious diseases were reported in Kerala. However, the fact that no epidemics have
been detected in Kerala due to this flood has astounded the entire world. This resulted
from the door-to-door work of the efficient health workers in Kerala (Venu, 2019).

The central government, foreign countries, non-residential Indians, film stars,

business people, various organisations, and many individuals, especially ordinary
citizens, contributed to the chief minister's relief fund (Thummarukudy, 2019).
This support helped the government to speed up post-flood relief activities.

The government of Kerala provides immediate relief in cash and kind. About 7,37,484
flood-affected families received 10,000 rupees immediately as financial support. The
state also allow an additional 5000 rupees to SC/ ST families. The government provided
financial aid to damaged houses in Kerala. Households from the economically backward
class received food grains for three months through supply co. The authorities ensured
interest-free loans up to rupees 1 lakh through Kudumbasree to the flood affected to
refurbish their houses. The flood victims also got relaxation to pay the electricity bill
for four months. The labourers included in the Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme got extra working days of 150 days. About three lakh farmers in
flood-affected areas benefited from 200 crores of rupees as financial support against
losing their crops. Around 21.70 crores of rupees were given to 27363 families who lost
their animals in the flood (Government of Kerala, 2018). Furthermore, the government
immediately provided duplicate certificates, property documents, ration cards, and
identity cards to those who had misplaced them (Venu, 2019).

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 9
 Kerala Flood 2018 and the Socio-Economic Deprivation of Households in Alappuzha District

The psychological impact of the 2018 flood on the people of Kerala was crucial.
The unexpected flood spontaneously washed out their relatives, friends, neighbours,
animals, land, buildings, vital documents and other earnings of a lifetime. Hence, to
recover the flood victims from the mental shock, the state government introduced a
project known as "PARIRAKSHA". This project was designed to support flood-affected
people, especially low-income people. The main focus of this project is to reduce
the long-term psychological impact of the disaster. This project covered two million
people from 93 severely flood-affected panchayats in Kerala. Accredited Social Health
Activists have been used for earlier identification of individuals with psychological
problems in the affected zones. This project started in March 2019, and due to
the outbreak of COVID-19, the activities of PARIRAKSHA have been interrupted
(Kiran et al., 2019).

4. Results and Discussion

Out of the 50 sample households, fifty per cent are Hindus, and fifty per cent are
Christians. It is noteworthy that irrespective of religion and caste, the people of
Kerala faced the flood together without any discrimination. More than 70 per cent
of the respondents said that their interaction with neighbours improved after the
flood. For almost two weeks, they cohabited and assisted one another. The presence
of relatives, friends, political representatives, officials, and neighbours offered
psychological assistance throughout the flood. Due to the overflow of the River
Pampa and the heavy rainfall, more than 75 per cent of the households could not reach
relief camps. For around 14 days, they stayed on the terrace with their neighbours.
During that period, they felt insecurity and stress, among them, few respondents,
especially the aged, had not recovered from the mental stress yet. The average size
of the family is 4.4. The age-wise classification shows that the majority of the people
were adults. They played a significant role in the rescue operations during the flood.
The family’s average monthly income is Rs. 27130.4, and the per capita income is
Rs.73992/- which is less than half of the state per capita income of Rs. 245,323
(Planning Board, 2021). The working population in the study area included fisher
folks, drivers, farmers, sales executives, MNREGA workers, and painters. The flood
affected their working days. On account of the psychological and financial impact
of the flood, they were unable to do work for more than a month.

10 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Lavanya Sivan, Anitha V.

Agriculture is one of the major sources of livelihood for most of the households
in the study area. Fifty-four per cent of the households lost agricultural products,
and 22 per cent lost poultry in flood. The total loss of this sector was Rs. 630200. The
respondents had received compensation from the government, but the amount was
not sufficient for them. Another effect of the 2018 flood is identified in the case of
drinking water. In the pre-flood period, households in the study area depended on the
Pampa River, wells and public taps for drinking water, and they did not spend money
on drinking water. But, during the flood, almost all the wells were submerged in the
floodwaters, and the toilet wastes contaminated drinking water sources. Due to that,
20 per cent of the families started to pay for drinking water.

Following the calamity, the state government provided flood-affected households

with necessary food grain kits worth Rs 500 per month. More than fifty per cent of the
respondents got this kit of food grains for three months. That was excellent support
from the government, particularly to low-income families. Moreover, other
organisations and individuals also distributed essential goods to the flood-affected
people. To replace the damaged home appliances in flood, the State government
developed a plan to provide loans of up to one lakh to each family through
commercial banks. This loan amount was distributed through Kudumbashree.
Among the respondents, 18 per cent of the total households took those loans, and
others were not interested in raising their debt after the flood.

Figure 1: Number of years living in Pandanad

Figure 1 depicts that comparatively, more families have lived in Pandanad panchayat
for 20 to 40 years. Eight per cent of the households have lived here for generations.

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 11
 Kerala Flood 2018 and the Socio-Economic Deprivation of Households in Alappuzha District

In their opinion, this was the first time such a flood had occurred, and they hadn't
had any previous experience facing this kind of disaster. Because of the fear of future
flooding, many of them started thinking about shifting to other regions.

Figure 2 : Loss of household items

Figure 2 shows that the household items commonly lost were utensils, clothes,
furniture, footwear, televisions, and refrigerators. The respondents required more
money to replace these items. In economically backward families, the respondents
lost much of their long-term earnings in the flood. That made the burden of the
flood too severe.

12 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Lavanya Sivan, Anitha V.

Figure 3 : Loss of food Items

Figure 3 reveals that around 66 per cent of the total respondents lost food stuff.
Even before the flood came, households reserved more food items to celebrate the
biggest festival of Kerala, ‘Onam’. During the flood, most of the families in the study
area stayed on the terrace, and they used these items for cooking. The extra stock of
food grains helped them to avoid starving.

Table 1 : Loss of vital documents

Document Number of Total number of

Household Documents

Voter ID 5 8

Ration Card 0 0

Aadhar Card 0 0

Passport 1 1

Birth Certificate 1 1

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 13
 Kerala Flood 2018 and the Socio-Economic Deprivation of Households in Alappuzha District

Driving Licence 1 1

Medical Documents 3 12

Property Documents 3 4

Others 1 2

Total 15 29

From Table 1, it is clear that no respondents left their Aadhar card and Ration card.
Around 70 per cent of the people moved to a safe place with all essential documents.
Owing to the sudden arrival of a flood, others forgot to take their documents.
To collect financial support from the government, households faced some difficulties
in the post-flood period. The government of Kerala issued valid duplicates to those
who lost their documents within months.

Figure 4 : Number of days taken to clean the house

Figure 4 shows that cleaning the houses of respondents took time. After the flood,
the victims' most significant challenge was removing mud from their houses. Local

14 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Lavanya Sivan, Anitha V.

government institutions, various organisations, and individuals helped them to clean

the houses. Those buildings were uninhabitable due to the stench of dirt for months.
These issues affected the physical and mental health of the people too.

Figure 5 : Amount spent to clean the house

Figure 5 shows that more than half of the households did not spend money
cleaning their homes and surroundings. Various groups and individuals helped
them. Some of the victims had washed their houses themselves. Forty per cent of
the respondents spent money on this. Among them, most of the households spent
below 2000 rupees.

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 15
 Kerala Flood 2018 and the Socio-Economic Deprivation of Households in Alappuzha District

Figure 6 : Amount spent to clean the well

Figure 6 represents that 66 per cent of the families spent cash to clean wells.
Those were filthy with mud and other wastes. Government institutions and other
groups helped them to clean the well. For quick reuse, most people spent money to
clean wells. Because of financial problems, 28 per cent of them did not clean their
wells which were damaged in the flood.

Table 2 : Financial aid from the government for damaged house

Percentage of Financial aid from Number of Percentage

damage on house Government households

0-15 10000 15 30

16-29 60000 27 54

30-59 125000 6 12

60-74 250000 1 2

75-100 400000 1 2

16 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Lavanya Sivan, Anitha V.

Table 2 exhibits that one of the households was fully damaged in the flood and had
to rebuild. The government provided financial assistance to the households based
on the damage percentage. More than half of the families got worth of rupees 60,000.
This financial support from the government helped the affected people to make
their houses habitable.

Figure 7 : Satisfaction level of victims to government’s support

The Figure 7 depicts that comparatively more people were not satisfied with
government support. Insufficient compensation and unfair allocation were the
primary reasons for the dissatisfaction.

Table 3 : Monthly income and total economic loss of households

Monthly Income Number of Average Average

( Rs.) households income loss

0- 10000 7 8285.71 141850

10001-20000 11 17000 209671

20001-30000 17 25705.88 180780

30001-40000 10 35476 235531

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 17
 Kerala Flood 2018 and the Socio-Economic Deprivation of Households in Alappuzha District

40001-50000 1 46000 64680

50001-60000 3 59586.66 72887

More than 60001 1 95000 580550

Total 50 27,130.4 1,91,835.8

The flood affected almost all the households in the study area and had a
considerable impact on the socio-economic life of the people. Table 3 shows that the
average direct cost of the flood is Rs 1,91,835.8 that is seven times higher than the
average income of the households.

4.1 Socio-economic Deprivation of Households

Townsend P. (1987) defined deprivation as “a state of observable and demonstrable
disadvantage relative to the local community or the under society or nation to
which an individual, family or group belongs”. Broadly, it can be classified into two
categories- material and social, indicating a lack of access to the necessities and
social weakness, respectively (Pampalon et al., 2012; Sarkar, 2014). Socio-economic
deprivation means the lack of social and economic advantages that are considered
necessities of a community. The disadvantage of society regarding control access over
material, social or economic resources and opportunities also shows socio-economic
deprivation. It is a multi-dimensional concept (Lamnisos et al., 2019).

Table 4 : Deprivation index of the study area

Income Number of Health Economic Standard of Socio-economic

groups households Domain Domain Living Domain deprivation
(Rs.) Index Index Index index

0- 10000 7 0.848979592 0.82857143 0.842857 0.840136054

10001-20000 11 0.737662338 0.81818182 0.741818 0.765887446

20001-30000 17 0.788571429 0.82285714 0.748 0.78647619

30001-40000 10 0.765714286 0.72857143 0.744 0.746095238

18 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Lavanya Sivan, Anitha V.

40001-50000 1 0.771428571 1 0.82 0.863809524

50001-60000 3 0.857142857 0.76190476 0.786667 0.801904762

More than 1 0.771428571 0.57142857 0.68 0.674285714

60001

Average 0.791561092 0.79021645 0.766192

Total deprivation of the study area 0.782656418

Table 4 exhibits that the highest socially and economically deprived families
belong to between Rs. 0-10000 income groups. Most of the respondents in this group
were daily wage earners, and after the flood, they lost working days for nearly two
months. Compared to the high-income group, the burden of the flood was higher in
this category. The standard of living deprivation is the highest in this income group
due to the adverse impact of the flood on their housing, drinking water, electricity
and accumulation of assets.

The flood highly deprived families in the income group of Rs. 10001 to 20000.
Compared to health and standard of living domains, economic deprivation was
higher. More than half of the respondents in this group worked in the unorganised
sectors. Due to the flood, most of them could not go to work, and working places
like shops and small-scale units collapsed. The people lost more than 45 working
days during this time. Moreover, the flood affected other sources of income,
especially the people's occupational equipment, livestock, and rickshaws.

Thirty-six per cent of the total respondents belong to Rs. 21,000 to 30,000 income
group. The economic deprivation was higher because respondents were taken into
debt and used their savings to maintain houses and vehicles and replace furniture
and electronics. Besides that, the income of the respondents decreased after the flood.
The total deprivation of this category is higher than the previous group.

The flood highly deprived the households with an income of Rs. 31,000 to 40,000.
Among this group, health deprivation was comparatively elevated than economic
and standard of living domains. The flood led to psychological damage like emotional
shock, stress, and trauma among the respondents (UN et al., 2018). The impact of
the flood on people’s psychological health was higher than their physical health.

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 19
 Kerala Flood 2018 and the Socio-Economic Deprivation of Households in Alappuzha District

There was only one family that had an income range between Rs. 40,001 and 50,000.
The noted thing is that this was the only family in the study with the highest economic
deprivation value. The income source of this family was a shop, which entirely
collapsed in the flood. This household lost its savings, and it took debt to reconstruct
the building. That made the family economically more deprived. The economic impact
adversely affected mental health and standard of living. Therefore the socio-economic
deprivation index showed that this family was highly deprived in the 2018 flood.

Among the income group of Rs. 50,001 to 60,000, health deprivation was relatively
high. From the field survey, it is identified that the people's mental health worsened
than the physical health due to the deluge. They had fear about future flooding, and
some of the respondents decided to migrate to other regions. The government of Kerala
implemented a project, “PARIRAKSHA”, in 2018 to reduce the long-term psychological
impact of the flood (Kiran et al., 2020). This category was also highly deprived in flood.

In the sample, only one family had a monthly income above Rs. 60,000. In this
household, the health deprivation and standard of living deprivation were high and
economic deprivation was moderate. The respondent feared protecting his assets from
the continuous future disasters that made them mentally weak and deprived them of
health status. This is the only household in the study which had moderate economic
deprivation. The socio-economic deprivation of this family was just high and close to
a moderate level. The high-income level reduced the financial burden due to the flood.

The total socio-economic deprivation index of the study area (0.78) showed that
the 2018 flood worsened the health, economic and standard of living status of all the
households. This deprivation will lead the economy back from the path of development.

Table 5 : Low, moderate and high deprivation of the study area

Percentage of Households
Low Moderate High
Deprivation Deprivation Deprivation
(0 - 0.33) (0.33 – 0.66) (0.66 – 1)
Health Domain Index - 6 94

20 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Lavanya Sivan, Anitha V.

Economic Domain Index - 4 96

Standard of Living - 28 72
Domain Index

Socio- Economic - 12 88
Deprivation

It is clear from Table 5 that the 2018 flood negatively affected the socio-economic
aspects of all the households in the study area. The condition of no family improved
in health, economic and standard of living after the flood. A few families (12%) were
moderately deprived, especially those above Rs. 30,000 per month. Out of the total
respondents, the standard of living deprivation of 28% families was moderate. Most
of the families in the study were highly deprived in economic terms because the
flood worsened their sources of income and thereby reduced income. A society
characterised by high demand and a low supply of necessities exhibits poor economic
and social status (Pampalon et al., 2000). The overall deprivation showed that most
households were socially and economically deprived in the 2018 disaster.

5. Conclusion and Policy Suggestion

The Kerala flood in 2018 was a big challenge in the development path of the state.
This deluge made a significant change in the health, economic and standard of
living aspects of the people in Alappuzha. Most of the households lost their lifetime
earnings, which pushed down low-income people to be more vulnerable. The study
found that the majority of households in the study area come in the highly deprived
category in the case of the three indices such as health (HDI), economic (EDI) and
standard of living (SDI). No households come in the low level. A comparison of the
three indices shows that EDI is high compared to the other two. The flood affected
their possessions, such as buildings, crops, poultry, livestock, vehicles, shops,
utensils, cloths, electronics. To rebuild and repurchase these items, the households
used their past savings and lent money from both financial and non-financial
institutions. They also lost their working days for over two months. This amplified
the flood’s economic impact on households. The economic burden due to the flood

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 21
 Kerala Flood 2018 and the Socio-Economic Deprivation of Households in Alappuzha District

in the high-income category in the study area is relatively lower than the low-income
households. This demands more financial and livelihood support for the low-
income category.

The study reveals that the Kerala flood of 2018 primarily resulted from abnormal
rainfall. However, the impact of floods was accelerated by inefficient dam
management, a lack of proper early warning system, developmental activities, an
outdated disaster management plan, and the exploitation of river basins. The study
area is located in a coastal district with highly flood-prone lowlands. In the context
of this study, we propose the following recommendations for future policy-making:

• Ensure more accurate weather forecasting in the flood-prone areas.

• It is important to update the early warning system to guarantee timely and

precise distribution of information, thereby mitigating the effects of natural
disasters. Kerala’s high literacy rate facilitates the efficient dissemination of
disaster notifications among the people.

• The government should ensure the protection of river basins and efficient reservoir
management for the safety of people should be ensured by the government.

• Regulate the extensive quarrying, mining and deforestation in the Western Ghats.
These activities cause landslides and increase the destructive capacity of floods.

• Timely updating of disaster management strategies is very important in the

unexpected climate-changing scenario.

• It will be better to ensure the displacement of people from flood-prone areas.

• The government should ensure proper long-term counselling sessions due to high
psychological impact of disasters.

• Provide more flood relief to those with low incomes, as their economic
deprivation as high.

The implementation of these recommendations is important for the existence of

flood-prone areas in Kerala.

22 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Lavanya Sivan, Anitha V.

6. Acknowledgements
We express our sincere gratitude to all the respondents and authorities of Pandanad
panchayath for the data related to the 2018 flood.

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24 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Implications of Cloud Burst and Heavy Precipitation
during the Uttarakhand Disaster (2013) on the
Frontal Dynamics of the Gangotri Glacier

Pooja1, Pawan Kumar1, Surbhi Gaur1

Sanjay Deswal2, Rakesh Saini3, Syed Umer Latief4 and Milap Chand Sharma5

Abstract
The monsoon-dominated north-western region of the Garhwal Himalaya is highly
susceptible to hydro-metrological disasters due to its location, physiography, climate and
high-energy environment. The landform mapping, terrestrial records, and multispectral
satellite data depicted that the glacier in the north-western Garhwal Himalaya region
has been retreating for the last 150 years at varying rates over time and space. On June
16–17, 2013, almost 500 times more precipitation was observed in the north-western
Garhwal Himalayan region due to the fusion of the monsoon trough and western
disturbances. The availability of supra-glacial lakes within the vicinity of the Gangotri
glacier and subsequent heavy precipitation associated with the Uttarakhand disaster
resulted in a retreat of 57±21.23 m on the right flank of the Gangotri glacier due to
either detachment or calving effects. The retreat between May and August 2013 is
almost equal to the retreat between the last thirteen years, from 2000 to May 2013.

Keywords: Uttarakhand Disaster, Cloudburst, Gangotri Glacier, Supra-glacial Lake,

Glacier Retreat

1
Department of Geography, Chaudhary Bansi Lal University, Bhiwani, India
2
Department of Geography, Govt. College Chhara, District Jhajjar, India
3
Department of General and Applied Geography, Dr. Hari Singh Gour Central University, Sagar, India
4
Department of Geography, Amar Singh College, Srinagar, India
5
Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 25
 Implications of Cloud Burst and Heavy Precipitation during the Uttarakhand Disaster (2013) on the Frontal Dynamics of the Gangotri Glacier

1. Introduction
The Himalayan glaciers have been continuously retreating since the end of the Little
Ice Age (LIA) (Bhambri and Bolch, 2009; Deswal et al., 2023; Mayewski et al., 1980;
Raina, 2004). Many Himalayan glaciers have shown rapid retreating patterns
(Bolch et al., 2008), and many glaciers have had stable fronts since 2000 (Bahuguna
et al., 2014; Kulkarni et al., 2007). The aforementioned irregular behaviour of the
Himalayan glaciers in general could be attributed to glacier topography (Oerlemans,
1989), climatic systems of the region (Kargel et al., 2005), glacier hypsometry and
geomorphological characteristics (Furbish and Andrews, 1984), glacial surface
characteristics and supraglacial debris (Scherler et al., 2011) and their morphological
properties(Mehta et al., 2014) and their sizes and response time. However, glaciers are
sensitive to both internal and external factors, high-energy metrological events and
land surface processes, and their dynamics within the vicinity of the glacier terminus
or a combination of all the factors mentioned above have the potential to accelerate or
decelerate the glacier retreat. The high-energy Himalayan environment, metrological
triggering, and topographical factors all together resulted in a massive disaster on
June 16–17, 2013, in the Garhwal region of the western Himalaya, named the
'Uttarakhand Disaster'. Present study accessed the impacts of ‘Uttarakhand Disaster’
on the frontal dynamics of the Gangotri glacier with remotely sensed data and
field-based verification.

2. Study Area
The Gangotri glacier is located in the north-western region of the Garhwal Himalaya
in the western Himalayan region (Figure 1). The Gangotri is the main and largest
glacier of the Bhagirathi Basin; it originates from a narrow and large depression along
the northern slopes of Chaukhamba peaks; and avalanches mainly feed the
accumulation glacier mass.

26 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Pooja, Pawan Kumar, Surbhi Gaur, Sanjay Deswal, Rakesh Saini, Syed Umer Latief and Milap Chand Sharma

Figure 1 : Map of the study area in the Upper Bhagirathi Basin, Uttarakhand

The Gangotri glacier is about 30.2 k.m. long with a glacier-covered area of about
120 km², ranging from 4000 m.a.s.l. to 7036 m.a.s.l. (Raina, 2004). The holy river
Ganga originates from Gaumukh, the snout of the Gangotri glacier, at an elevation of
4050 metres (Figure 1), which is an important source of life and livelihood for
millions of peoples living in mountain and downstream.

3. Data Source & Methods

The distribution of precipitation over time and space during the Uttarakhand Disaster
(short and long duration) has been accessed from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring
Mission (TRMM) data, obtained from the Giovanni portal of NASA. Snout mapping
of the Gangotri glacier has been performed with the help of Multispectral Landsat
Satellite Data from 2000 to 2013, but Sentinal-2A data has been used for snout mapping
since 2017. Further details of the data, sensor, scene ID, acquisition date and spatial

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 27
 Implications of Cloud Burst and Heavy Precipitation during the Uttarakhand Disaster (2013) on the Frontal Dynamics of the Gangotri Glacier

resolution are given in Table 1. Extensive fieldwork was carried out in 2013 (May 17–27,
2013) and 2015 (May 21–June 7, 2015) for the ground truthing, collection of GCP and
terrestrial records of the glacial dynamics in the Gangotri region.

However, the dynamics of the terminus of the Gangotri glacier have been mapped
through manual digitization of the multispectral data. However, the mean retreat was
measured through the overlaid line with a horizontal distance of 50 metres as per
methodology (Bhambri and Bolch, 2009; Bhambri et al., 2011; Chand and Sharma,
2015), as represented in figure 2. The remotely sensed data has been processed,
and glacier retreat length and area have been measured 1with the help of QGIS and
R software.

Table 1: Details of the Satellite Data used for the Present Study

Data Scene ID Acquisition Spatial

Type date Resolution

Landsat
LT05_L1TP_145039_20000923_20201029_02_T1 23.09.2000
5 TM

30 * 30 m
LC08_L1TP_145039_20130522_20200912_02_T1 22.05.2013
Landsat 8
OLI/TRIS
LC08_L1TP_146038_20130801_20200912_02_T1 01.08.2013

1.06.2013

TRMM TRMM_3B42RT_Daily_7 0.25°

10-
17.05.2013

Sentin- S2A_OPER_MSI_L1C_DS_
14.10.2017 10 * 10
al-2A SGS__20171014T104205

28 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Pooja, Pawan Kumar, Surbhi Gaur, Sanjay Deswal, Rakesh Saini, Syed Umer Latief and Milap Chand Sharma

Figure 2 : Glacier outlines delineated from different satellite data and

overlaid line with 50 m horizontal distance

4. Uttarakhand Disaster
The northwest Garhwal Himalayan region is highly vulnerable to Hydro-metrological
disasters due to its geographical location, physiography, orographical forcing,
overlapping dominant regional climatic systems (southwest Indian summer monsoon
and Mid-latitude western disturbances), occasional fusion, high energy environment
and dynamic glacio-fluvial processes (Dimri et al., 2017). As per the India Disaster
Report (2013), the Uttarakhand disaster was caused by torrential precipitation in the
middle of June (between June 14 and June 18, 2013) due to the fusion of the southwest
monsoon trough and western disturbances over the Himalayan region. However,
other studies reveal that the Uttarakhand disaster was caused by the early onset of the

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 29
 Implications of Cloud Burst and Heavy Precipitation during the Uttarakhand Disaster (2013) on the Frontal Dynamics of the Gangotri Glacier

monsoon, heavy downpours, cloud bursts, and subsequent lake bursts, resulting in
massive flash floods and landslides (Allen et al., 2016). Although some research
anticipated that the lake breach was due to ground saturation caused by enhanced
runoff due to rain-on-snow type melting (Dobhal et al., 2013).

Figure 3 : Total Precipitation in the study area from

June 10, 2013 to June 17, 2013

30 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Pooja, Pawan Kumar, Surbhi Gaur, Sanjay Deswal, Rakesh Saini, Syed Umer Latief and Milap Chand Sharma

Figure 4 : Total Precipitation in the study area between May 13, 2013 and July 15, 2013

As per the TRMM 3B42 data, between June 10 and June 17, 2013; more than 350 mm
of precipitation against the average precipitation of 71 mm (as per the IMD record)
occurred in the north-western Garhwal Himalayan region (Figure 3), which was
almost 500 times more than the normal precipitation in the region.

In the Uttarakhand disaster, as per the Uttarakhand state govt. official record
6,054 peoples were either dead or "presumed dead", over 100,000 pilgrims and
tourists were stranded (Martha et al. 2014), and more than 30 hydropower plants
were either destroyed or damaged (Sati and Gahalaut, 2013). The massive impact of

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 Implications of Cloud Burst and Heavy Precipitation during the Uttarakhand Disaster (2013) on the Frontal Dynamics of the Gangotri Glacier

the Uttarakhand disaster in terms of loss of life and livelihood was observed in the
Alaknanda Valley. Further investigation of the TRMM data revealed that more than
1200 mm of precipitation had occurred between May 13 and July 15, 2013, in the
northwest Garhwal Himalayan region. The high energy event also resulted in
significant changes in the geomorphology and climatology of the upper reaches of the
Alaknanda and Bhagirathi rivers.

5. Impact of Uttarakhand Disaster (2013) on the Retreat of the Gangotri Glacier

Glacier behaviour is dynamic; it varies with time, and the retreat rates calculated
are never identical for even a single glacier over time. The Gangotri glacier in the
northwest Garhwal Himalaya is well-documented because of its significance in Hindu
mythology. Well-documented terrestrial records of over 150 years are available for the
Gangotri glacier (Raina, 2009; Raina et. al., 2015). Frontal changes on the Gangotri
glacier can be inferred from the terrestrial records by identifying and interpreting
associated landforms. The signatures from the deglaciated valley in the foreland basin
of the Gangotri glacier revealed that it has been retreating over the last 150 years.
Continuous and comprehensive mapping of the Gangotri glacier has been carried out
by the Geological Society of India since 1935, which reveals that in the last 61 years
(between 1935 and 1996), the Gangotri glacier retreated about 1100 metres with an
average annual retreat rate of 18 metres (Raina, 2004). Bhambri et al. (2012), reported
a total retreat of 819 ± 14 meters of the Gangotri glacier from 1965 to 2006 with a
varying rate of retreat; 5.9 ± 4.2 m/year from 1965 to 1968, whereas the highest rate of
retreat (26.9 ± 1.8 m/year) was observed from during 1968 to 1980. Subsequently, the
glacier retreated at an annual rate of 21.0 ± 1.2 meters between 1980 and 2001. The
Gangotri glacier’s retreat rate declined during 2001–2006, during which the
Gangotri glacier receded with an annual retreat rate of 7.0 ± 4.0, almost 1/3 of the
earlier retreat rate (Bhambri et al., 2012).

32 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Pooja, Pawan Kumar, Surbhi Gaur, Sanjay Deswal, Rakesh Saini, Syed Umer Latief and Milap Chand Sharma

Figure 5 : Retreat of the Gangotri glacier. (A) Sept 2000, (B) May 2013,
(C) August 2013 (D) Oct 2017, (E) Retreat of Gangotri Glacier from 2000 to 2017

However, the Gangotri glacier’s retreat rate was accelerated very drastically between
2006 and 2017, during which Gaumukh retreated at a rate of 21.9 ± 1.9 m per year
(Bhambri et al., 2023). On the contrary, stability was observed on the snout of the
Gangotri glacier between 2001 and 2010 (Bahuguna et al., 2014), meaning the retreat
rate was accelerated from 2010 onwards. The present study also observed a total
retreat of 64.25±21.23 metres of the Gangotri glacier from 2000 to May 2013, with an
annual rate of retreat of 4.94±1.63 m per year (Table 2).

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 33
 Implications of Cloud Burst and Heavy Precipitation during the Uttarakhand Disaster (2013) on the Frontal Dynamics of the Gangotri Glacier

Figure 6 : Field photographs of the Gangotri glacier. (a) Snout of the

Gangotri glacier, May (2013), (b) Supraglacial Lake near the Snout of the
Gangotri glacier (May 2013), (c) Large Supra Glacial Lake on the Gangotri glacier
(May 2013) and (d) Snout of the Gangotri glacier (May 2015)

Table 2 : Total Glacial Retreat and Mean Retreat Rate of the

Gangotri glacier (2000-2023)

Year Total Retreat (m) Retreat rate (m/year)

2000 - 2013 64.25±21.23 4.94± 1.63
2013 (May - Aug.) 57.01±21.23 57.01±21.23
2013 (Aug) - 2017 95.75±15.83 23.98±3.96

Table 3 : Total area vacated and mean area vacated near snout from
2000 to 2023 in m2

Year Total Area Vacated (m2) Vacated mean Area (m2/year)

2000 - 2013 24531±450.71 1887.0±34.67

2013 (May - Aug.) 22344±450.71 22344.0±450.71

2013 (Aug) - 2017 44375±244.59 11093.8±61.15

34 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Pooja, Pawan Kumar, Surbhi Gaur, Sanjay Deswal, Rakesh Saini, Syed Umer Latief and Milap Chand Sharma

However, due to the heavy downpour in the Gangotri region associated with the
Uttarakhand disaster (Figures 3 and 4) and the presence of the large supraglacial lakes
(Figure 6a and c) within the vicinity of Gaumukh during May 2013, those lakes might
have flooded due to heavy precipitation in subsequent months and either resulted
in the detachment of a large section from the right flank of the Gangotri glacier or
accelerated the melting on the right flank due to the strong calving effect, resulting in the
accelerated retreat on the right flank of the Gangotri glacier somewhere between May
and August 2013 (figure 5). During May and August 2013, the Gangotri glacier observed
a total retreat of 57.01±21.23 m within the period of 04 months and subsequently,
the Gangotri glacier retreated with an annual rate of 23.98±3.96 m from 2013 to 2017
(Table 2). From 2000 to 2013, the Gangotri glacier vacated 1887.0±34.67 m2 area
annually and 22344±450.71m2 area between May to August 2013 (Table 3). However,
between 2013 and 2017, the Gangotri glacier vacated11093.8±81.53 m2 area annually.
On the Gangotri glacier, unprecedented retreat has been observed in length and area
between May and August 2013 (Figure 5, Tables 2 and 3). During the fieldwork in May
and June 2015, the retreat on the right flank of the Gangotri glacier was also confirmed
by field and terrestrial records (Figure 6d). The accelerated retreat of the glacier,
coupled with slope instability and sedimentation from the lateral moraines of the
Gangotri glacier near Meru glacier in 2017, caused the Bhagirathi river channel to
shift, leading to the formation of a lake near the snout of the Gangotri glacier
(Figure 5 D and E). This newly formed lake holds the potential to further accelerate
the retreat of the Gangotri glacier in the near future.

6. Discussion and Conclusion

The Uttarakhand disaster in the north-western Garhwal Himalaya, marked by
intense precipitation and a catastrophic cloudburst, triggered significant
geomorphological changes, including the redirection of river courses, severe
landslides, and the devastating loss of life and property. In the case of the Gangotri
glacier, the presence of large supraglacial lakes, coupled with heavy rainfall, played
a key role in accelerating its retreat. This event likely initiated calving and the
detachment of large glacier sections, further intensifying the retreat process.

This study highlights the critical influence of glacier surface characteristics and
extreme hydro-meteorological events, particularly in monsoon-dominated regions, on

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 35
 Implications of Cloud Burst and Heavy Precipitation during the Uttarakhand Disaster (2013) on the Frontal Dynamics of the Gangotri Glacier

rapid glacial retreat. The findings reveal that the retreat rate of the Gangotri glacier is
driven not only by mass balance but also by the interaction between surface processes
and large-scale climatic forces. Notably, the glacier's right flank experienced a retreat
of 57.01 ± 21.23 m between May and August 2013—nearly equal to the retreat recorded
over the previous 13 years. This accelerated retreat is attributed to the combined effects
of supraglacial lakes and intense precipitation, which likely accelerated calving or
led to the detachment of glacier sections.

The study further identifies a significant shift in glacier dynamics, with a relatively
stable retreat rate prior to 2013, followed by a sharp escalation post-disaster. This
shift underscores the critical role of extreme weather events in altering glacier behavior.
The evidence strongly indicates that high-energy climatic events, combined with
specific glacial surface features, can drive accelerated retreat, particularly in monsoon-
affected regions of the Himalaya.

In light of climate change, with the projected increase in extreme precipitation

events, glaciers in the Garhwal Himalaya may experience more rapid retreat, leading
to slope instability and increased mass movements. This, in turn, heightens the risk of
hydro-meteorological disasters for downstream communities and critical infrastructure.
The findings underscore the intricate interplay between local topography, glacial
characteristics, and extreme weather events, carrying significant implications for future
scientific research, climate resilience, and disaster management strategies.

Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge Project No. (PAC - SSS - MCS - DST - 03130316 -725) for
financial assistance for the field work sponsored under the Climate Change Programme
(CCP), Department of Science & Technology (DST), Government of India.

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38 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Community Involvement in Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM)
A Study of Disaster Management Volunteers

Tanushree Verma1 and Sayantani Guin2

Abstract
Communities are always the first to respond in any disaster situation, and they are the
ultimate sufferers. Local communities, as first responders, often become a key stakeholder
in all stages of disaster management. Numerous actors, including governments, technical
and educational institutions, and local communities, need to be involved in the
disaster risk reduction strategy since it is based on an ongoing risk and risk assessment
strategy. Their efforts will need to be combined with planning and development
techniques that empower people and encourage broad dissemination of knowledge.
In this article, the authors aim to understand the involvement of the community in
disaster risk management. The article explores the knowledge and awareness of the
community regarding types of disasters, hazards, vulnerability and involvement of the
community in disaster risk management programmes. The relevance of social work to
ensure community involvement in disaster risk management is also explored in this
article. The article employs both qualitative and quantitative methods to understand
people’s participation in community based disaster risk management plans and the
preparedness of the community. Findings reveal that although communities were aware
regarding types of disasters, hazards, and vulnerability, they were not aware of any
linkage between risk, capacity, and vulnerability. The study revealed the need for greater
involvement of the community in the development of disaster management plans.
The principle of community organization in social work was found to be relevant to
ensuring community participation in disaster risk management.

Keywords: Disaster Management, Community Participation, Community Based Disaster

Risk Management, Social Work

1
Head (Research & Training), Zone4solution, New Delhi
2
Associate Professor, School of Social Work, IGNOU, New Delhi

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 39
 Community Involvement in Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM): A Study of Disaster Management Volunteers

1. Introduction
Disaster Management has undergone a paradigm shift in recent years, beginning from
relief and response to disaster risk reduction (DRR) and evolving into community based
management. Community-focused disaster management is a more proactive way to
address disaster management as compared to the earlier reactive model. Involving
communities in managing their risks – along with necessary stakeholder support, is
not only a moral imperative but also a practical management strategy (Bhagat, 2017),
to leverage the strength of local wisdom, social leadership, collective action, and the
role of social work. The recent scenario of disaster emergence has made it inevitable
for communities across the world to keep themselves prepared for any natural and
even human-made disasters, as the probability of any unexpected disaster may hit
anywhere, irrespective of any previous history, culture, and location.

Several definitions of CBDRM are available that are developed by CBDRM

practitioners based on their perceived experience. Although, in general, some agreed
definition defines CBDRM as a process of disaster risk management that involves
active participation of the community at risk in the identification, analysis,
management, monitoring, and evaluating disaster risk in order to reduce their
vulnerability and increase capacities (Pribadiet. al. 2008). CBDRM is “the efforts in
empowering the community to be able to manage disaster risk with some levels of
involvement of community groups or stakeholders in the planning as well as the use
of local resources for the implementation by the community themselves” (Abarquez &
Murshed, 2004). Others define CBDRM as the framework of inclusive and sustainable
disaster management where the community is involved or facilitated to be actively
involved in disaster management (planning, implementation, monitoring, followed
with an evaluation) with the use of most optimal possible local resources as well as
possibly the least external resources (Delica-Willison, 2003).

The community-based disaster risk management (CBDRM) approach seeks to

actively involve the community in the identification, analysis, implementation,
and monitoring of any disaster risk situation with the aim of reducing their
vulnerabilities and concentrating on enhancing their related capacities. This is
because the community is the first responder in the event of any disaster. Community
participation is therefore very crucial, as it is the primary source of information on

40 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Tanushree Verma, Sayantani Guin

knowledge about local requirements and suitable actions to reduce the risk of
disaster. This enables the community to enhance its capacity to absorb, monitor, and
recover from any disaster (National Institute of Disaster Management, 2021).

The involvement of the concerned community in the management of the risk

of disaster at the regional level is supported by the Community-Based Disaster
Risk Management (CBDRM) approach. This calls for a series of actions and efforts,
including community self-interpretation of hazards and disaster risk, monitoring,
reduction, and evaluation of their performance in disaster risk reduction. Apart
from this, an optimal mobilisation of resources in the community is also essential
(Davies & Murshed, 2006).

CBDRM holds the principle of “leave no one behind,” which means including
everyone irrespective of age, gender, race, religious group, minority group, and
ethnicity. In addition, CBDRM is also seen as a unique process of empowering
communities that lessens stakeholders dependency, especially during disaster
emergencies. The affected community gradually becomes self-reliant and more
capable. Once community capacity is strengthened with reduced vulnerability by
using internal resources, the impact of the external vulnerability is reduced
(Department of Disaster Management, n.d.).

Table 1 below presents CBDRM approaches in comparison with the conventional

disaster management approach. CBDRM ensures sustainability as a result of the
involvement of sufficient internal local stakeholders. The CBDRM approach focuses
on the preparedness of the community to avoid and reduce damage and loss
(United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2015; Helu & Samra, 2015).

Table 1 : Comparison of CBDRM Approach with Conventional DM

S.No Aspect CBDRM Conventional

1. Communication Data and information are Asymmetrical and only
on disaster risk more symmetrical and based on experts’ view
richer; rapid and the knowledge of the
information sharing elite. Risk communication
among stakeholders is top-down

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 41
 Community Involvement in Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM): A Study of Disaster Management Volunteers

2. Transaction Transaction of knowledge Community indigenous

of knowledge is done “peer-to-peer” knowledge is overridden
and practice between the community by experts’ opinion that
and experts/facilitators. is not sensitive to the
Cross-fertilisation of context of local risk
knowledge among
stakeholder take place

3. Time More time investment Profitable at the shorter

effectiveness is necessary at the term but not sustainable
beginning but in the long in the longer term
term it is considered
more sustainable

4. Cost Local resources More cost for longer work

effectiveness (knowledge, labour,
skills, capital) are
made available to the
maximum extent possible

5. Effectiveness Involvement of many Less skilled local actors,

stakeholders result in dependency to external
many more local cadres parties (experts, the
with the skills in local government, NGO)
risk reduction

6. Legitimacy Community perceives Low participation,

program in a more resulting in low legitimacy
friendly way. The root due to marginalisation of
causes of vulnerability the highly vulnerable of
and risk such as gender the marginalised
inequality, age, and class
can be reduced with
participation because it

42 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Tanushree Verma, Sayantani Guin

opens up the space for the

marginalised

7. Equality Equality is a not Lack of vision on reduction

negotiable. The level of of vulnerable groups and
risk distribution and the not capable of reducing
most vulnerable is root causes of vulnerability
the target

(Note: Adapted from Community-Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM)

Guidelines, pg. 21, by Lassa et al., 2017, MPBI)

Understanding of the CBDRM process is essential as the community living with

hazards is the ultimate sufferer. Ignorance towards such understanding will result
in an unsustainable disaster risk reduction implementation at the basic level. Thus,
disaster risk management plans must emerge with the awareness of local community
capacity and community priority, only then implemented efforts remain destined
sustainable (National Disaster Management Authority, 2019). CBDRM plans should
also include social workers at micro, mezzo, and macro levels during preparedness,
response, recovery, and mitigation (Javadian, 2007). Globally, communities are
constantly facing new challenges, and most of the disasters are imposed as a threat
to development plans, poverty reduction strategies, and the achievement of
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (United Nations, 2023).

In India, the National Disaster Management Plan was prepared in 2015 in

consonance with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, a global
blueprint for disaster losses (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2016).
In Delhi, effort towards Community Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM)
has included collaboration of the Delhi Government with the National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA) and the National Institute of Disaster Management
(NIDM) to develop community based strategies. A Common Alerting Protocol based
on an integrated alert system has been initiated by the National Disaster Management

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 43
 Community Involvement in Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM): A Study of Disaster Management Volunteers

Authority for the dissemination of targeted alerts to people in multiple languages

through SMS. Emergency Response Support System through State EOC is now
managing incidents with geo-tagging support to locate the incident site so the nearby
Emergency Support Functionaries can immediately respond. Under the Apda Mitra
scheme, the NDMA is providing training to volunteers for effective disaster response
search and rescue. Apart from the Delhi Government, NGOs and voluntary organizations
are also actively involved in capacity building, generating awareness, and conducting
training sessions to empower local communities. Posters, leaflets, and manuals are
used for awareness generation. The disaster preparedness planning is being done at all
levels of the community, especially in schools where a large number of children
are available. (National Disaster Management Authority, 2024a; National Disaster
Management Authority, 2024b; NIDM, 2021).

The efforts of the government would remain limited without the active participation
of the community members. Studies indicate that community members including
professionals, housewives, retired persons, members of the Resident Welfare
Associations, and students- both school students, college and university students
were unaware of the disaster plan and the authorities responsible for implementation
of such a disaster plan in Delhi. Members were also ignorant about their role during
pre- and post disaster and the importance of training for disaster (Gautam & Tewari,
2020). A similar study reported unsatisfactory knowledge and practices regarding
disaster preparedness (Chetry, et.al, 2013).

Although several international and national institutional frameworks provide

platforms for integration of CBDRR at the community level, these provisions would be
effective only when specific local needs are met. The involvement of all sections of the
community is essential for the effective implementation of the already available disaster
risk management plans. Thus, the present study attempts to explore the involvement
of the community volunteers in disaster risk management programmes in Delhi.

2. Objectives
The broad objective of the study is to understand the involvement of the community in
disaster risk management programmes.

The specific objectives of the study are the following:

44 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Tanushree Verma, Sayantani Guin

1) To explore knowledge regarding hazards, vulnerability, and awareness regarding

types of disasters;

2) To examine the involvement of the community regarding disaster risk management

programme; and

3) To understand the relevance of social work to ensure community involvement in

disaster risk management.

3. Research Methodology
Both quantitative and qualitative methods were employed to study the community
involvement in CBDRM. Employing stratified and random sampling techniques,
quantitative data were collected from civil defense volunteers, NYKS, NSS volunteers,
school students, school authorities, RWA representatives, village Pradhan, etc.
using an interview schedule from 220 respondents (20 from each of the 11 districts).
A qualitative method was applied to understand the relevance of social work in
CBDRM. Respondents for qualitative data were selected using the purposive sampling
method. Qualitative data were collected by employing an interview guide consisting
of open-ended questions to facilitate in-depth interviews with 15 practitioners from
the fields of disaster management and social work. 5 FGDs were conducted in total.
The sample size of FGDs was 75 (5x15).

For the present study, the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi was selected.
As the research was based in Delhi, eleven revenue districts were selected for the
study based on hazard profiles using stratified random sampling.

Primary data gathered through the interview schedule, field note, and observation
were coded and classified. Data analysis was done using an Excel spread sheet, an
advanced excel tool, as well as SAS software for theme-based graphical representation
of data. Qualitative data were analysed by looking for similarities and differences, under
different themes, and finally developing categories as per the research objectives.

4. Results and Discussion

To assess the impact and effectiveness of the CBDRM programme in various districts
of Delhi, a detailed interview schedule was prepared for a total of 220 volunteers who

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 45
 Community Involvement in Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM): A Study of Disaster Management Volunteers

had engaged in Community Based Disaster Management activities at the field level
such as civil defense volunteers, NYKS, NSS volunteers, school students, school
authorities, RWA representatives, village Pradhan, etc.

4.1 Concern Regarding Disaster Affecting the Community

In order to map the sensitivity index of the study participants towards any emergency
or disaster that may affect the community, four questions were asked to the
respondents on how much concerned they were about emergency/disaster affecting
their community. The received sensitivity index is illustrated in the graph (Figure 1)
below. Half of the respondents (50%) indicated that they were concerned below any
emergency disaster that may affect their community, 35% of the participants claimed
that they were not concerned, 14% showed a neutral approach.

55.00
50.50
45.00
35.00
35.00

25.00

15.00
14.50
5.00
Not very concerned Neither concerned Very concerned Not concerned
nor unconcerned

Figure 1 : Sensitivity index of the community

It is pertinent to mention here that the local community can be extremely

important in terms of disaster readiness, response capabilities, and disaster mitigation,
including advocacy. For this reason, a disaster management programme may be
created in collaboration with the affected communities while keeping in mind the
existing socio-economic realities. It can put the community on a path of sustainable
development with the inclusion of several cross-cutting issues such as gender,
environment, and social cohesion to measure the social impact of recovery action
in India (National Research Council, 2006).

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4.2 Knowledge and Awareness Regarding Disaster

4.2.2 Awareness Regarding Types of Disaster
A total of 220 study participants were asked questions on the basic knowledge regarding
the types of disasters. The observed results are illustrated in Figure 1. Among all the
responses received, an almost equal proportion of participants were aware of manmade
disasters (39%) and natural disasters (38.50%).13.50% were aware of both natural and
manmade disasters, 8.50% were not aware of any of the disasters and, 0.50% of study
participants did not respond to the question. The following figure (Figure 2) represents
a graphical representation of the awareness of respondents regarding types of disasters.

Figure 2 : Awareness regarding types of disasters

It is important to have knowledge and awareness about disasters because local

communities, as first responders, can play a crucial role in disaster preparedness,
mitigation, response, and recovery. The potential of local communities to deliver on this
expectation has been recognized in global and national frameworks (United Nations,
2023; Ministry of Law and Justice, 2005). Thus, appropriate awareness, adequate
preparedness, and effective mitigation strategies at the local level involving the most
vulnerable communities are imperative for minimizing the impact of any disaster at
the local level. District Disaster Management Authorities of Delhi must organise more
community-level programme for creating awareness about disaster management.

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4.2.3 Knowledge Regarding Hazard and Vulnerability

In order to assess the knowledge of the study participants regarding hazard, and
vulnerabilities associated with the disaster, respondents were asked the following four
statements:

• Hazards turn into disasters.

• Hazards are everywhere.

• If prepared well, we can avoid the impact of hazard and

• There is no connection between risk, capacity, and vulnerability.

The majority of the participants (45.50%) agreed hazards are everywhere, 14.50%
agreed to the fact that “if prepared well, we can avoid the impact of hazards” as a correct
statement. 39.50% of the respondents were not able to develop linkages between risk,
capacity, and vulnerability, whereas 0.50% avoided giving any response (Figure 3).

Figure 3 : Concept of Hazard and Vulnerability

Although the term ‘vulnerability’ is usually used in the context of natural hazards
and disaster situations, it has got varying meanings in different disciplines involved
in risk research (Fuchs et.al., 2012). Knowledge regarding hazard, and vulnerability

48 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Tanushree Verma, Sayantani Guin

enables preparedness, response, and recovery from a disaster (Du et. al. 2015). Also,
understanding regarding risk and vulnerability is an important component of the
pre-disaster phase of the hazard and disaster management cycle (Berry, 2009).

4.3 Involvement of Community in Disaster Risk Management (DRM) Programme

The importance of awareness of the community about the disaster risk management
programme was observed in the responses received from the study volunteers.
While almost 45% of the study participants confirmed that they were aware of the
DRM programme around 55% indicated that no such programme was conducted in
their community and they were not aware of any such programme. According to the
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (2023), reducing
the impact of local hazards requires raising community awareness on disaster
risk reduction in accordance with the local hazard context, and on the basis of the
findings of vulnerability capacity assessment (VCA) in target communities.
Preparedness and capacity building of local communities are essential for effective
response (National Disaster Management Authority, 2009).

4.3.1 Involvement of Community in The Process of Disaster Management and Awareness of Potential
Hazards
To envisage the information about the community’s involvement in the process of
disaster management development plan and their awareness about the associated
potential hazard, respondents were asked questions on whether they were involved
in creating community awareness on potential hazards and disaster management
plan. The majority of respondents (54%) confirmed that communities were aware
and involved themselves in the process of disaster management development plans,
and they were also aware of the associated potential hazard. Only 14% of the study
participants felt that communities were not well aware about the associated hazards
and were not involved themselves in the development of DM plans, whereas 32% did
not respond to the present question as they were not aware of any such programme
being conducted by District Disaster Management Authorities in the communities.
Observations are depicted in the Figure 4 below:

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 Community Involvement in Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM): A Study of Disaster Management Volunteers

Figure 4 : Awareness of Community towards potential hazard and

involvement in process of DM plan

To provide disaster risk information through the involvement of community-based

organizations and nongovernmental organizations, the United Nations Office for
Disaster Risk Reduction (2015) emphasizes community mobilization and improving
collaboration among individuals at the local level. It also talks about conducting
public and community consultations and assigning concrete roles and
responsibilities to community representatives, as necessary. Decision-making is
done through appropriate legal frameworks.

4.3.2 People’s Participation in Community Based Disaster Risk Management Plans

The compiled data below presents the responses received from the study participants
about people’s equal participation in CBDRM plan development. Respondents were
asked to respond on the effectiveness of the people's participation in the CBDRM plans.
Most of the respondents (around 50%) agreed that equal participation of the people is
essential for effective CBDRM plans, while 14% of the study volunteers disagreed with
that. 21% of the participants gave neutral responses and 15% of respondents strongly
disagreed. The responses have been depicted in the table below through the Likert scale:

Table 2 : People’s Participation in CBDRM Plan

People’s participation Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly

in CBDRM Programme disagree
Respondents’ views 50% 21% 14% 15%

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In order to lessen vulnerability and increase capacity, CBDRM seeks to actively

involve the community in the identification, analysis, assessment, monitoring,
implementation, and evaluation of disaster risks. Such an approach aims to address
local issues, difficulties, and problems from the perspective of individuals experiencing
it every day. Thus, for an effective CBDRM programme, equal participation of
communities in the planning and decision-making process may be ensured
(Department of Disaster Management, n.d.).

4.3.3 Importance of Disaster Management in Community-Based Risk Reduction

The following figure (Figure 5) depicts the views of the respondents regarding the
importance of the Disaster Management Programme for Community-Based Disaster
Risk Management. Although the majority (39%) of the participants agreed that the
disaster management programme was important for CBDRM, almost an equal
number of participants (37%) were unable to decide for the claimed statement.
10% of the study participants strongly disagreed that a disaster programme is
important for CBDRM, 14.50% participants disagreed with the significance of the
disaster management programme in CBDRM.

Figure 5 : Importance of Disaster Management Programme in CBDRM

It is now acknowledged that the role of communities during disasters is not limited
to first responders but key stakeholders in managing risk and building long-term
resilience to disasters. Based on the experiences and learning, the Disaster Risk

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Management programme was found to be very effective in CBDRM at all levels

(Myanmar Red Cross Society, 2013).

4.3.4 Preparedness for Disaster

The next question was formulated to gain an insight into the level of preparedness
and confidence for taking action during a disaster and how it had impacted the
overall disaster management process at the community level. The results of the
observations are illustrated below in Figure 6:

Figure 6 : Preparatory steps taken by trained volunteers for probable disaster

While 15% planned to take some steps, a negligible number (2%) didn’t do
anything. The majority of the trained study volunteers (83%) were unable to take
any preparatory steps for probable disasters. It is observed that although most of the
respondents were trained in the basics of disaster management skills, they were not
able to take any preparatory steps at their respective communities for minimizing
the impact of any probable disasters.

CBDRM is a comprehensive process of participation, partnership, inclusiveness,

and ownership of the communities. CBDRM primarily focuses upon mobilizing the
community to prepare and respond to extensive risk events. However, due to the lack
of its effectiveness at the community level in addressing underlying risk factors of
the community falling in various districts of Delhi, ownership of the programme has
not been created.

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It is noteworthy to mention here that community participation and self-

help groups (SHGs) by women have been instrumental in drought mitigation
programmes, as indicated by the National Disaster Management Guidelines on
Management of Drought (National Disaster Management Authority, 2010a). Some
of the important tasks undertaken by the SHGs involved rainwater harvesting,
running Public Distribution System, and overseeing water distribution (National
Disaster Management Authority, 2010b).

4.3.5 Preparedness of the Community

The final agreement of the study participants was analyzed with respect to linking
the preparedness of the community and the safety of the community. Respondents
were asked if a prepared community is a safe community. While a majority of the
respondents (47%) agreed, almost an equal number of participants could not give any
response, and 7.50% of study participants gave neutral responses.

Table 2 : People’s Participation in CBDRM Plan

A prepared community is a safe community Percentage

Agree 47.00
Can't Say 45.50
Neutral 7.50

The response to Cyclone Phailin in India serves as a reminder of how enhanced

community readiness to the changing impact of catastrophe hazards can lead
to a notable decrease in fatalities. This has been possible because of ten years of
preparedness training, disaster management planning exercises, raising awareness,
and several structural and non-structural measures (including the construction of
multi-purpose cyclone shelters) by multiple stakeholders, including state and national
governments, UN agencies, NGOs, etc. However, the extensive damage caused to
livelihoods, shelter, and other assets, as well as challenges to the long-term recovery
of those affected, highlight the need for a systematic approach to building the
resilience of communities (Parida etal., 2018).

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4.4 Relevance of Social Work in CBDRM

4.4.1 Role of Social Workers in CBDRM
To assess the varied roles of social workers in disaster risk management, respondents
were asked the following questions regarding the role of social workers:

a) Mobilizing people;
b) Providing awareness and training;
c) Supporting in the development of Disaster Management Plan;
d) Organising mock drills; and
e) All of these.
While a majority (40.50%) of respondents felt that social workers will be able to
mobilize affected people, 37.50% of participants confirmed all the enlisted significant
roles to be played by social workers in the CBDRM process, and 7.50% of participants
confirmed that the role of social worker involved providing awareness and training.
None of the participants felt that social workers only will provide a supporting role in
the development of a disaster management plan. Figure 7 provides the details of the
response below:

Figure 7 : Roles of Social Workers in CBDRM

54 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Tanushree Verma, Sayantani Guin

Qualitative data revealed that all the experts from the field who were interviewed
and the present study participants agreed that social workers play a significant role
in the process of community-based disaster risk management. A pool of volunteers
from organizations like AAPDA MITRA, NSS, NYKS, etc. contributed towards
mitigating the impact of disasters at the community level. All these local facilitators
including volunteers, leaders, CSOs, and NGOs, are an important aspect of the
CBDRM process. However, all these volunteers need to get trained at regular
intervals frequently on all significant aspects of CBDRM in order to support the
community. Equal participation of the local community and volunteers is significant
in the risk reduction process. Transparency and partnership are two significant
components of CBDRM, which may be ensured with the support of local social
workers and volunteers.

Social workers engage in a wide range of activities and collaborate with varied
groups and organizations, including those involved in disaster response and also
those focused on readiness. Thus, social workers can help in lowering the risk of
disasters. Social workers play a crucial role as educators, community workers, and
disaster planners during disaster preparedness and prevention; counsellors, case
managers, and administrators of social protection during disaster response; and as
advocates, monitoring and evaluation officers, and development facilitators during
disaster recovery (Dickson et al., 2022).

4.4.2 Importance of Participatory Tools to Ensure the Participation of People in the Disaster
Management Process
In order to ensure the participation of the people in the disaster management
process, respondents were interviewed regarding the inclusion and implementation
of any participatory tools. The collected responses are represented in Table 4 below.
While 39.50 % of respondents agreed that participatory tools by social workers
ensure the participation of people in the DM process, almost 45.50% of the
participants disagreed, and 5% gave neutral responses for the same.

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Table 4 : Use of Participatory Tools by Social Workers

Participatory tools by social workers Percentage

may ensure participation of people in
the DM process
Agree 39.50
Disagree 45.50
Neutral 15.00

Participatory approach, wherein all members are encouraged to participate in

decision-making, is vital in fostering effective community ownership. A participatory
approach involves coordination and cooperation among various stakeholders of the
community through mutual learning and voluntary participation. Social workers can
encourage disaster risk reduction and preparedness by acting as a facilitator, enabler,
and resource provider. They can play an important role in facilitating participatory
disaster risk assessment by involving local people, community leaders, and subject
experts.

Qualitative data revealed the following tools that may be used by social workers for
ensuring people’s participation:

- A Seasonal Calendar may be developed with the support of local people in the
community meeting. The timeline and historical profile show when hazards occur
and when livelihood activities and other significant events take place.

- Venn Diagram : A Venn diagram may be used to assess the needs of the community.
The size of the circle represents the importance, significance, and impact of various
felt and perceived needs of the community.

- Interview Method : Individual, group, and key informant interviews may be used to
get historical data of disasters, develop resource inventory, and do hazard mapping.

Focus Group discussion: Focus Group Discussion may be employed to ensure the
perspectives and experiences of all stakeholders in the community across class,
caste, and strata.

- Transect Walk : A systemic walk could be done within the community with a

56 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Tanushree Verma, Sayantani Guin

semi-structured format to learn more about hazards, vulnerabilities and

exposures of the potentially affected people.

Qualitative data revealed the relevance of the principle of community organization to

CBDRM. Community Organisation is a means and not an end. Fact-finding, and needs
assessment, identification, mobilization, and utilization of the available resources,
participatory planning, community rights for self-determination, etc. are essential
in community organisation. The notion of community organization developed when
a variety of institutions and organizations came together to meet the basic needs of
the community.It is a strategy that focuses attention on the needs of the community,
fosters a sense of community integration, and facilitates interpersonal cooperation
(Siddiqui HY, 1997). Most of the participants confirmed that some of the common and
overlapping principles include ownership, partnership, and participation.

The most common principles of community organization and development include the
following :

1. Community Participation encourages everyone in the community to participate

at any level and welcome their valuable contribution. At all organizational levels,
volunteers and community members play a crucial role in planning, decision-
making, provision, participation, direction setting, and evaluation.

2. Community Ownership means members of the community actively participate in

decision-making and also own all the activities.

3. Inclusive Approach : It is necessary to mainstream women, children, especially

abled persons, aged in all government schemes and policies wherever possible
and promote disaster management plans inclusive with defined Standard
Operating Procedures for these vulnerable sections. A dual approach is required
to strengthen the disability induced disaster response in the country by building
the capacity of local and state level actors, including health practitioners,
grassroots organizations, and social workers.

The fundamental principle of community-based disaster risk management

(CBDRM) and community organization involves the development of bottom-up
processes arising from the communities themselves. Social workers prefer to use three

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 57
 Community Involvement in Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM): A Study of Disaster Management Volunteers

primary methods, viz. casework, group work, and community organisation during
natural hazards. They provide psychosocial counselling, and perform different roles of
educator, counsellor, and broker, and work with other stakeholders during and after
the occurrence of a natural hazard (Matlakalaetal., 2022).

5. Conclusion
This study attempted to understand the involvement of community volunteers
in disaster risk management programmes. As evident from the result, half of the
participants were concerned about the occurrence of any emergency disaster, and it
is apparent to mention here that more concern of the community is essential towards
any disaster affecting their community. This will ensure greater participation of people
in the planning of disaster management programmes. The study indicated that the
awareness of the community regarding the types of disasters was significant, with an
equal proportion of participants being aware of both natural and man-made disasters.
Although the majority of the study participants agreed about the presence of hazards
everywhere, a significant proportion of respondents were not able to develop any link
between risk, capacity, and vulnerability. It is imperative to conclude that the awareness
of the community regarding types of disasters and knowledge regarding hazards, and
vulnerability is essential in planning any disaster management programme. The study
also explored the involvement of the community regarding disaster risk management
programmes, and it was found that a significant percentage of the study population
(32 percent) were not aware about programmes being conducted by the District
Disaster Management Authorities in the communities. Just half of the study
respondents agreed for the need of people’s participation in community-based
disaster risk management plans. Similarly, a significant proportion of respondents
(37 percent) couldn’t decide on the importance of disaster management in
community-based disaster risk reduction programmes and a majority of study
participants reported being unable to take any preparatory steps for minimizing
the impact of any probable disasters in their respective communities. It may be
concluded that although there is a well placed mechanism in the prevention and
management of disasters in India, the involvement of the community remains
limited. The Community should be made aware of the presence of the disaster

58 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Tanushree Verma, Sayantani Guin

management programme for more involvement and participation. Ensuring people’s

participation and envisaging their role in CBDRM plans is the need of the hour for
making the community better prepared for any future occurrence of disaster. This
study highlighted the relevance of social work and its methods, especially community
organization, in ensuring greater community involvement in CBDRM programmes.
A majority of the study participants reported that social workers are better equipped
in mobilizing affected people. Tools of social work, viz. preparing a seasonal
calendar, Venn diagram, interview method, focus group discussion, and transect
walks may be used for ensuring people’s participation. Community participation,
community ownership, and an inclusive approach are some of the common principles
in social work and CBDRM that may ensure greater involvement of the community
in disaster risk management programmes.

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17. Ministry of Law and Justice (2005). The Disaster Management Act, 2005 (No. 53 of 2005). Government of India.
Retrieved on August 30, 2023 from https://ndma.gov.in/sites/default/files/PDF/DM_act2005.pdf
18. Myanmar Red Cross Society. (2013). Manual on Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction. Retrieved on August
30, 2023 from https://www.rcrc-resilience-southeastasia.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/CBDRR-Manual-
ENG-WEB.pdf
19. National Disaster Management Authority. (2024a, September 28). Aapda Mitra. https://ndma.gov.in/Capacity_
Building/Admin_Coordination/Aapda-Mitra
20. National Disaster Management Authority. (2024b, September 28). Common Alerting Protocol Integrated Alert
System. https://sachet.ndma.gov.in/
21. National Institute of Disaster Management (2021). Fundamentals of Community Based Disaster Risk Reduction
and Management [Report Summary of Webinar]. https://nidm.gov.in/pdf/trgReports/2021/November/
Report_18November2021sk.pdf
22. National Disaster Management Authority. (2009). National Policy on Disaster Management. Retrieved on August 30,
2023 from https://nidm.gov.in/PDF/policies/ndm_policy2009.pdf
23. National Disaster Management Authority. (2010a). National Disaster Management Guidelines Management of
Drought. Retrieved on August 30, 2023 from https://nidm.gov.in/PDF/pubs/NDMA/13.pdf
24. National Disaster Management Authority. (2010b). National Disaster Management Guidelines Management of
Urban Flooding. Retrieved on August 30, 2023 from https://nidm.gov.in/pdf/guidelines/new/management_
urban_flooding.pdf
25. National Disaster Management Authority. (2019). National Disaster Management Plan. Retrieved on August 30,
2023 from https://ndma.gov.in/sites/default/files/PDF/ndmp-2019.pdf
26. National Institute of Disaster Management. (2021). Report Summary of Webinar on, Fundamentals of Community
Based Disaster Risk Reduction and Management. Retrieved on August 28, 2023 from https://nidm.gov.in/pdf/
trgReports/2021/November/Report_18November2021sk.pdf
27. National Research Council. (2006); Facing Hazards and Disasters: Understanding Human Dimensions. Washington,
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28. Parida, B.R., Behera, S.N., Oinam, B., Patel, N.R. & Sahoo, R.N. (2018). Investigating the effects of episodic Super-
cyclone 1999 and Phailin 2013 on hydro-meteorological parameters and agriculture: An application of remote
sensing. Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment. 10. 128–137 DOI: 10.1016/j.rsase.2018.03.010
29. Pribadi, K.S., Kusumastuti, D., &Rildova D.K. (2008). Learning from Recent Indonesian Earthquakes: An overview to
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60 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Target Analysis of Sendai Framework for
Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030: Kerala Flood, 2018

Neenu S. Pillai1

Abstract
The UN World Conference in Sendai, Japan, endorsed the Sendai Framework for
Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) 2015-2030, recognizing the necessity for an all-hazards
approach to disaster risk management. The framework prioritizes improved disaster
risk governance, accountability, preparedness, stakeholder recognition, risk-sensitive
investment mobilization, health infrastructure resilience, global collaboration, and
donor policies and programs. The 2018 Kerala flood was terrible, killing 433 people,
displacing 5.4 million people, and uprooting 1.4 million. The flood also wreaked havoc
on physical and social infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, electrical lines,
communication networks, and educational institutions. Kerala’s Post Disaster Need
Assessment was a participatory strategy that included discussions with impacted
communities and stakeholders. The State Government and international organizations
undertook post-disaster needs assessments, prioritizing social sectors. Early warning
systems and disaster risk information are critical for preparing for and recovering from
hazard events. The media is critical in disseminating catastrophe risk information.
Response and recovery are critical steps in reducing disaster-related injuries, fatalities,
property loss, and environmental impact. The National Disaster Response Force,
Indian Army, state-led volunteers, fishermen, women volunteers, non-state actors, and
technical advancements all responded well to the Kerala floods. The Kerala government
initiated the 'Rebuild Kerala Initiative' (RKI) to address the root causes of the floods
and prepare for future catastrophes.

Keywords: Disaster risk, Rebuild Kerala Initiative, Response, Sendai Framework,

Volunteers

1
M. Plan (Urban & Regional Planning) Student, Parul Institute of Architecture & Research, Parul University,
Vadodara, Gujarat, India

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 Target Analysis of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030: Kerala Flood, 2018

1. Introduction
Among the most destructive natural catastrophes, floods affect millions of people
all over the world. Many factors can contribute to flooding, such as sudden flooding,
which is frequently associated with hydrologically small regions. Although it doesn't
last long, the condition can cause serious harm. The frequency of floods has increased
recently. Policies for sustainable development may be determined by using certain
geographical parallels and differences found in flood-prone areas. (Sharma D.D, 2006).

The Third UN World Conference in Sendai, Japan, approved the Sendai Framework
for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) 2015–2030 as the outcome of stakeholder
discussions and intergovernmental negotiations aided by the UN Office for Disaster
Risk Reduction. The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005-2015, which was designed
to further the work being done around the world in accordance with the International
Framework for Action and the Yokohama Strategy, is being replaced by the Sendai
Framework (UN, SFDRR, 2015-2030). It also aimed to promote a more coordinated
approach to risk reduction and resilience building (UN. IOM, 2018). The Sendai
Framework acknowledges the need for an all-hazards approach to managing disaster
risk, including enhanced disaster risk governance, accountability, preparedness,
recognition of stakeholders, mobilization of risk-sensitive investment, the resilience
of health infrastructure, global cooperation, and donor policies and programs
(Rishma Maini, 2017).

The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are the worldwide objectives for
2030 that were created by the UN; in fact, every SDG incorporates elements of the
Sendai framework. Risk is starting to take on a more systemic meaning. In order to
lower risk, it is also need to integrate our methods more fully: working together across
and within institutions, cooperating across sectors, and making sure that policies and
actions are in line. The first widely recognised policy agenda in history to support the
idea that development that takes risks can be sustained was the Sendai Framework.
Direct economic losses from catastrophes have grown by almost 150% over the past
20 years, with vulnerable developing nations bearing a disproportionate share of the
costs. The accomplishment of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the
Sendai Framework are both products of interrelated social and economic processes.

62 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Neenu S. Pillai

As a result, there is a great deal of overlap between the two policy instruments (Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, United Nations, 2015).

The Great Flood of '99 in 1924 caused a significant flood in Kerala, with over
3,368 mm of rain recorded. This was the heaviest recorded rainfall to date and
64% greater than the average. In 2018, Kerala faced the worst floods in its history, with
42% more rainfall than usual. The floods led to over 400 deaths and devastated seven
districts. Rapid urbanization changed the drainage pattern, causing landslides in hilly
areas. Kerala was unprepared for major disasters due to insufficient policies, inadequate
institutional frameworks, urban sprawl, poorly managed construction, exclusion of
disaster risk preparedness in socioeconomic sectors, weak institutional capacity to
foresee and respond to extreme events, and constrained financial resources.

The progress of the SFDRR target is analyzed in the study with the data collected
from secondary means. For the same purpose, the 7 targets of the framework are being
analysed and how it is framed in the study area of Kerala state, especially addressing
the 2018 Kerala floods.

2. Study Area

Figure 1 : Location Map

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 Target Analysis of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030: Kerala Flood, 2018

3. Methodology

Figure 2 : Methodology

Analysing the Target Action of SFDRR by United Nations in the context of 2018
Kerala flood.The concept of risk is becoming more systemic. Here the 7 target of Sendai
Framework on Disaster Risk Reduction is analysed based on the context of Kerala
flood 2018. There are 4 targets which is needed to substantially reduce the impact from
the past events to achieve the goal while 3 targets needed to improve or substantially
increase to reduce the after effect and for a proper mitigation. The existing state of
these targets is analysed based on the 2018 Kerala flood event.

4. Sendai Framework Target Analysis (7 Targets)

Global aims and indicators that are successful must be motivating, easily understood,
limited in number, ambitious but doable, and measurable. It's important for metrics
and targets to be consistent with other worldwide programmes. Indicators created
by the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Sustainable Development Goal Indicators,
which are closely integrated with the Sendai Framework, have recently been confirmed
by the UN Statistics Division. By gathering data on these factors, UN Member States
can gauge their success in reducing catastrophe risk by 2030 (Rishma Maini, 2017).
The designation of seven global targets, the expectation that disaster risk will decrease, a
goal centered on preventing new risk, decreasing current risk, and enhancing resilience,
along with a set of guiding principles, represent the most fundamental changes in
disaster risk management (UN, SFDRR, 2015-2030).

The 7 global targets are being analyzedin state level as wells in local level to get
an idea of the functioning of the achieving capacity of the targets in the Kerala State.

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 Neenu S. Pillai

Basically, the targets are classified into two different groups. One as the targets need
to be substantially reduced and the other is to increase the substantial potentiality.
The first four targets come in the category of the reducing group and the final three
comes in the increasing group.

4.1 Mortality
The 2018 Kerala flood hits catastrophically over the region which washes out so many
lives in a few days. That was such an unexpected experience for the people of Kerala
who were not supposedly experienced such previous incidents. Extreme rainfall
resulted in disastrous floods and landslides that killed 433 people, affected 5.4 million
people, and uprooted 1.4 million people. According to information that has been made
public, the tragedy had some impact on 1,259 of the 1,664 communities dispersed over
the state's 14 districts. According to the information available, among the 433 people
that died, 14 (3.2%) Adivasis and 44 (10%) Scheduled Castes. Alappuzha, Ernakulam,
Idukki, Kottayam, Pathanamthitta, Thrissur, and Wayanad were the seven worst
affected districts (CSSC, 2018). The mortality rate due to disastrous event like flooding
in the study area is reduced comparatively. The Kerala State Disaster Management
Authority already reported in their recent study.

4.2 People Affected

In Sendai framework, number of people affected by a hazard like flood is needed
to be substantially reduced by taking actions based on the previous events. While
The Economic Times stated that 33,000 people were saved, over 489 people perished,
15 are missing, and 140 are hospitalized. To house the flood victims, over 3,274 relief
camps were built in various areas. A total of 1,247,496 persons are said to have taken
shelter in these camps. Numerous communities were impacted, thousands of homes
were damaged or destroyed, and an estimated 10,000 km (6,200 km) of highways were
devastated (Kerala Flood Case Study, 2019).

The local body, disaster management authority, officials and people work together
to make the situation better during the flooding time and later they help the people to
build a resilience capacity. It is very important for people to overcome from the shock
even if it is physical or mental. Later in 2019, 2020, 2021 and also in 2022 a continuous

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 Target Analysis of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030: Kerala Flood, 2018

hit of the flood is faced this by various regions of Kerala but not to the extent and
intensity of 2018 flood situation. But the people who were affected by the very next
events were comparatively very less in number and because of the preparedness and
mitigation methods taken the impact in both physical, social and economic means
were substantially reduced.

4.3 Economic Loss

According to research by the Associated Chambers of Commerce & Industry of India
(Assocham), the severe floods in Kerala may have resulted in losses of between
Rs 15,000 and 20,000 crore (India Today, 2018). With 96% more rain than normal in
August 2018, Kerala had one of its worst floods since 1924, leading to significant flooding
in most areas. Significant losses occurred in the areas of housing, fishing, animal
husbandry, agriculture, and natural flora and wildlife. 330 landslides were recorded
by the State Land Revenue Department, and the estimated economic damage topped
INR 31,000 crore. Over 300 acres of coffee and tea plantations were damaged, and over
100 individuals lost their lives. This was just the after effect of the floods which is
resulted in the form of top soil erosion or landslide (Chinnasamy, 2020)

The agriculture industry has suffered enormous losses as a result of the

exceptionally severe rains, storms, and floods. It should be emphasized that small- and
medium-sized farmers make up the majority of the population in Kerala. Only small
and marginal farmers (SMF) file damage claims through NDRF/SDRF. Because of this,
a damage estimate and claim are only provided for the SMF part. The relief assistance
paid for land and agricultural loss by the government in total each district was
12,200/ha. The loss from the commercial sector is not clearly recorded and self-
employed people also suffer from such a situation (KSDMA, 2018).

In order to evaluate damage and loss and determine recovery needs, the Government
of Kerala commissioned a post disaster needs assessment (PDNA). Participants in the
process, as well as the people in the impacted areas, were consulted. The Joint Rapid
Damage and Needs Assessment (JRDNA), which concentrated on infrastructure
sectors, served as the foundation for the PDNA. The PDNA included a recovery strategy,
an examination of the impact of macroeconomic factors on human development, and

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15 sectors and cross-cutting issues (Ajinder Walia, 2020). As per the target of SFDRR,
the economic loss is carefully analyzed and gave relief assistance to the needful.

4.4 Damage to Critical Infrastructure & Services

Damages that occur to critical infrastructures during a flood is needed to be reduced to
attain the target of SFDRR. During the Kerala flood in 2018, all the physical and social
infrastructure was mostly damaged all over the state. Especially the road network is
closed, bridges collapsed, power connection was destructed, the communication
network was damaged, and educational institutions were affected and closed for many
days. Many camps were set up in those schools and large auditoriums. Health institutions
were affected tremendously, not because it is drowned during the flood but the need of
medical facilities were huge during flood time. Emergency services were completely
blocked. Especially in the state many health institutions including government
hospitals and PHC were affected by the flood. Basically, they are geographically located
in the flood-prone regions. The same goes for educational institutions as well.

This damage occurring to the critical infrastructure and services also needed to be
substantially reduced. So those will be the helping element for people during flooding.
Restoring power and water connections was most important in the critical infrastructure.
The damage and recovery needs from infrastructure sectors of transport, power, water
resources and irrigation were taken into more consideration after the event and the
government also makes accessibility of those infrastructures to people as soon after
the event.

4.5 Disaster Risk Reduction Strategies

Disaster risk reduction strategies are something which is needed to be understood
importantly because it is the way to mitigate the disaster event. In SFDRR, strategies
to reduce the disaster risk is needed to be improved even in the local body level. That
is the only way to make the situation better. In the case of many districts in Kerala,
the district disaster management plan was last prepared before the flooding event so
it is needed to be updated for the improvisation of strategy making. The state disaster
management authority of Kerala and the district disaster management authority
is under the control of the preparation of strategies, plans, early warning and alerts.

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The disaster risk reduction strategies from (Kerala Sate Disaster management Plan,
2016) includes,

• To lessen the severity of floods, the Kerala Conservation of Paddy Land and
Wetland Act 2008 must be put into effect.

• Pond and open well preservation as well as rainwater collection on slopes lower
than 20 should also be carried out.

• Competent organizations should also follow SOPs for varying rainfall levels.

• The Proceedings of Chairman, DDMA, Thiruvananthapuram No. H1-33275/15

(2) dated 2-05-2015, which was upheld by the High Court of Kerala, provides an
example of flood mitigation.

• It is mandatory for government local bodies to put up with local-level disaster

management plans.

• Before obtaining environmental clearance, make sure to study disaster

management plans and hazard susceptibility maps and include suitable risk
reduction measures in project proposals.

• From lower primary through professional education, make an effort to include

subject-specific and general concepts of disaster risk reduction in the curriculum
and syllabus.

• Help DDMAs run training sessions and spread awareness of disaster risk
reduction using audio, video, and print marketing.

• Now it is mandatory for preparing masterplans to involve risk information

regarding any natural and manmade hazard and plans need to be prepared.

4.6 International Cooperation

International cooperation is something which is needed to be boosted up to get
better from any disastrous circumstances. A participatory approach, the Kerala PDNA
included talks with affected communities and stakeholders. Following the floods,
detailed damage and loss assessments of both direct and indirect losses were
conducted by both the State Government and foreign organisations as part of the

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post disaster needs assessment (PDNA), which placed a priority on social sectors. A
renowned International NGO worked in order to offer survivors in relief camps with
food, hygiene kits, toiletries, soaps, water containers, cutlery, bedsheets, blankets,
clothing, water purifiers, and other necessities, Rise Against Hunger India (RAHI) and
Save the Children India (SCI) worked together. Children's psycho-social well-being
was also supported by Save the Children India through educational and recreational
opportunities. The Central Ministry of Agriculture received a project proposal for $745
million, which included financing assistance of $500 million from the "International
Fund for Agricultural Development." This assistance was received by the entire
state during and after the 2018 flood and the fund allocations and support were
tremendously helpful for the purpose of “Rebuild Kerala”(Ajinder Walia, 2020).

4.7 Early Warning System & Disaster Risk Information

A hazard, vulnerability, and risk assessment (HVRA) is the process of quantifying the
spatiotemporal return probabilities of various hazards, the expected level of damage
to which a given element or set of elements-at-risk is exposed, and the expected
financial losses when a given area is exposed to hazards within a given time period.
It assists community members in preparing for reaction to and recovery from hazard
events, addressing vulnerabilities, reducing hazards, and making risk-based decisions.
To allow enough time for evacuation and the implementation of emergency plans
on the eve of a disaster, early warning systems can be created and implemented in
areas designated as possible danger hotspots. IMD and SOEC are the main agency
that gives update about weather events and give alerts to all departments and public
about disaster. Media also played a crucial role in giving disaster risk information to
public. The significance of delivering early warnings and actionable alerts, the method
of transmitting the alert message, and the information's content are the three key
elements. The general people were unaware of the full meaning of the color-coded
signals in the absence of awareness campaigns and readiness exercises during the past
flood event occur. Ironically, the public and the media downplayed the coded signal,
and social media posts even expressed concern about the shutters not opening in the
event of a decrease in rainfall. but now the situation changed, and people are now aware
of the significance of colour coded alerts and early warnings. Other than these weather

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 Target Analysis of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030: Kerala Flood, 2018

alerts now the KSDMA’s official website also declares alerts regarding water level
increases in dams, rainfall intensity and so on (Ajinder Walia, 2020).

5. Response & Relief

It's important to keep disaster-related injuries, fatalities, property damage, and
environmental harm to a minimum. It involves evacuating people, animals, and cattle
in addition to giving survivors refuge, food, clothes, and medical care. Stakeholders
including the NDRF, Indian Army, state-led, community volunteers, fishers, women
volunteers, non-state actors, and technological innovations efficiently responded to
the Kerala floods. The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) dispatched 57 teams,
435 boats, five paramilitary, military, and coast guard companies, 40 helicopters,
20 aircraft, two ships, ten columns, and ten Engineering Task Force teams. Red Cross
and Airbus Foundation collaborated to travel farther, and 4537 fishermen deployed
669 boats to save at least 65,000 lives.

6. Community Participation In Disaster Risk Reduction

The Sendai Framework recognized the crucial role that the community plays in disaster
risk reduction. Community, as well as local government, join their hands during any
hazardous situation simply to reduce the impact of the situation and for resilience
building. Disaster risk management uses this paradigm to determine the decrease
in catastrophic risk. It offers numerical measurements for damages at the local and
national levels. Our understanding of the effectiveness of disaster risk reduction
strategies is improved through the compilation and evaluation of disaster damages
under the Sendai Framework (Gacu, 2022). The cognitive sense of people is taken
into action when a disaster hits. The community themselves become the first
responders against such catastrophic events.

Kudumbashree units are self-help groups organized for empowering women.

Simply during flood time the activities of this unit are said to be as women in response.
In total, 1,13 lakh residential buildings, 3,100 public spaces, and 11,000 impacted
individuals received psychological treatment from Kudumbashree Workers in Kerala.
From the first days of the disaster, Kudumbashree employees worked hard to provide
boxed meals to those in need. The work done by these groups during those times,

70 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Neenu S. Pillai

particularly in Pathanamthitta, was outstanding, and they are still such active
volunteers today. They are the people who were living as one among the affected
community and they even participated in the volunteer work.

Community Volunteers, Kerala's response to the floods was the consequence of

a sense of community and a desire to help that transcended political, religious, and
class boundaries. The planning of rescue and relief operations was done by mass
organizations, trade unions, volunteers, students, regular farm laborers, carpenters,
electricians, and plumbers from all over Kerala. Thousands of volunteers, including
medical professionals, cooked food, unloaded supplies of relief items, took care of the
old or sick or looked after children at the relief camps. Students, regular agricultural
laborers, carpenters, electricians, and plumbers from around Kerala visited each
home to clear the muck, repair the water and power connections, and replace broken
doors or windows.

Fishermen, were considered as the actual rescue teams which comes in time for the
local community. They single-handedly carried out the rescue mission and came
forward to help based on their own will.

Role of technology, Kerala floods made clear how crucial information technology
is to rescue and relief efforts. To identify victims, find camps, and sign up volunteers,
Kerala Rescue.in, a web-based program, social media, and conventional information
broadcast methods were used. A significant number of volunteers were recruited
for one-time cleaning tasks through the use of social media.It served as a tool for
connecting with those who were in need.

7. Rehabilitation & Recovery

Utilizing public funds, the Kerala government started an immediate recovery
programme. The government's major departments all got to work on the restoration and
recovery initiatives, which are expected to cost 4,000 crores. The majority of Keralans
returned to their homes within a week of the flood waters receding, demonstrating
the incredible resiliency of the local population. The 'Rebuild Kerala Initiative' (RKI)
was launched by the Kerala government to address the underlying causes of floods
and make plans for any future disasters. The RKI aims to enhance the lives and

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livelihoods of its citizens by implementing higher standards for recovery and

reconstruction infrastructure and by building ecological and technological
protections so that the restructured assets may better endure floods in the future.

8. Conclusion
Floods result in extensive property, crop, and environmental damage, as well as a
higher risk of diseases including cholera and dysentery. Due to their lower levels of
readiness, economic resilience, and health, the poorer people are more vulnerable.
Flooding can have more negative non-economic repercussions than negative
economic ones. Local governments can help with disaster response since they have
a personal understanding of a community's social, economic, infrastructure, and
environmental needs.

The analysis based on SFDRR for Kerala is scrutinized with the help of 7 global
targets which are locally achieved or the level of achievement of those global targets
at a local body level. The lack of availability of recent data can be considered as a negative
part of the analysis so many targets achieved only a partial level of success. The Sendai
Framework introduced the notion that risk-averse development is sustainable as the
first well-known policy agenda in history. Direct economic losses from catastrophes
have climbed by more than 50% in the previous 20 years, with vulnerable developing
nations bearing a disproportionate share of the costs. The achievement of the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Sendai Framework are both outcomes
of interconnected social and economic processes. As the matter of Kerala state the
flooding incidents that ocuur after 2018 not much severe in the previous case but
still progressed to achieve the global targets of SFDRR to a great extent. The reason
behind this achievement is the proper strategic planning that they implemented
after the face to the great floods. Not just the government is being a part of risk
reduction in the state but also the community itself is being engaged in any mitigation
and preparedness activities voluntarily. It proves that the human cognitive sense can
change the existential reality.

By pointing out more effective mitigation measures, real-time data on flood-prone

people and areas can help with emergency planning, land use, river basin management,
and policy development. This work may be used to provide accessible flood effect

72 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Neenu S. Pillai

information for decision-makers and the general public by being integrated into
virtual reality settings or transformed into a web-based geospatial analytical system.
The unique economic and human ramifications of mitigation methods can augment
the advantages of community and property measures.

References
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3. CSSC. (2018). Retrieved from Centre for Studies in Social Sciences Calcutta: www.cssscal.org
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Health Fit in? International Journal of Disaster Risk Science.
10. UN, SFDRR. (2015-2030). Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. Retrieved from UNDRR:
https://www.undrr.org
11. UN. IOM. (2018). Retrieved from International Organization for Migration | IOM, UN Migration: https://
www.iom.int/

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74 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Assessment of Fire Safety Knowledge, Perception, and
Practices Among Healthcare Workers in Srinagar City, India

Ashiq Hussain Rather1, Javeed A Rather1, Shahid Saleem1 and Anil Kumar Gupta2

Abstract
Fire safety knowledge, perception, and practices among healthcare workers are
fundamental for ensuring the safety of patients, staff, and infrastructure within hospital
settings, especially in areas like Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, which are susceptible to
natural calamities. Notably, Srinagar has experienced a high incidence of fire events
in recent years, resulting in significant loss of life and property damage. This research
emphasizes the necessity of evaluating fire safety awareness and preparedness among
healthcare professionals. The methods employed in this research encompassed a cross-
sectional survey design, utilizing structured questionnaires to assess fire safety knowledge,
attitudes, and behaviour among healthcare workers. The results of the study revealed
significant gaps in fire safety knowledge and preparedness among healthcare workers in
Srinagar. Despite a positive perception of the importance of fire safety, there was a notable
lack of awareness regarding fire prevention strategies, emergency response protocols, and
proper utilization of firefighting equipment. Implications of these findings underscore the
urgent need for targeted interventions aimed at improving fire safety training programs
and raising awareness among healthcare workers in Srinagar City. Enhanced education
and training initiatives should focus on fostering a culture of safety, enhancing emergency
response capabilities, and promoting interdisciplinary collaboration to mitigate fire
hazards effectively within hospital settings. Future research should include longitudinal
studies to evaluate the impact of training interventions, qualitative research to identify
factors affecting fire safety practices, and the creation of specific guidelines and protocols
that address the distinct challenges of hospitals in Srinagar and similar environments.

1
Department of Geography and Disaster Management, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of
Kashmir, Srinagar, 190006
2
Environment & DRM Division, International Cooperation, National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM), New
Delhi, 110042

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 75
 Assessment of Fire Safety Knowledge, Perception, and Practices Among Healthcare Workers in Srinagar City, India

This study contributes to improving fire safety practices in healthcare facilities, ensuring
the safety of patients, staff, and infrastructure in Srinagar and comparable regions.

Keywords: Fire safety, Healthcare workers, Perception, Practices, Emergency preparedness,

Srinagar City

1. Introduction
Fire is a chemical reaction involving rapid oxidation, producing heat, light, and flames
at the ignition point. It is classified into five types based on fuel. Class A includes
combustible solids, Class B includes flammable liquids, Class C includes flammable
gasses, Class D includes combustible metals and Class K includes cooking oils. A fire
hazard in buildings refers to the potential risk of accidental or intentional fires that
pose a threat to life, structural integrity, and property safety. As global development
accelerates, fire hazards in buildings have evolved significantly in both severity and
complexity, becoming an increasing concern in recent years. Between 1993 and 2015,
there were 86.4 million recorded fire incidents, resulting in over one million fatalities
(Brushlinsky et al., 2017). Fire safety refers to a set of practices aimed at preventing or
minimizing the occurrence of fires and controlling their spread and impact, with the
goal of keeping potential losses within acceptable limits. In modern buildings, fire safety
measures are implemented by adhering to the guidelines outlined in building codes
of practice (Kodur 2014; Martin et al., 2016). Fire can make homes unsafe. Homes can
become dangerous after a fire. It may result in property destruction, house collapses, or
even fatalities (Supermedia, 2011). The study by Chandrakantan Subramanian (2004)
titled “Human Factors Influencing Fire Safety Measures” focuses on the human factors
affecting fire safety in India. Ramachandran (1999) analyzed the impact of fires, noting
they cause fatalities, injuries, and material damage to buildings, along with indirect
losses like reduced production and unemployment. G.B. Menon, in his handbook on
building fire codes, emphasized the need for updated fire protection measures due
to technological advancements and increased fire hazards. Studies, including one by
Ramesh Holla et al. (2016) in Karnataka, India, and another by Khademian et al. (2019)
in Iran, found healthcare workers had adequate general knowledge of fire safety but
lacked specific knowledge about fire extinguishers and hazard response.

76 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Ashiq Hussain Rather, Javeed A Rather, Shahid Saleem and Anil Kumar Gupta

The NCRB Report 2022 states that there were 7,566 fire accident instances reported
in India during year 2022, resulting in 7,435 fatalities and 329 injuries. The location-wise
analysis of fire incidents showed that in the year 2022, residential/dwelling buildings
accounted for 53.5% of all reported fatalities (3,979 out of 7,435). Approximately 25,000
people in India lose their lives to fires and associated incidents/causes each year.
India has seen a number of significant fires, according to India Risk Surveys 2022,
which is why the country's fire risk was placed third in the year 2012 and fifth in the
year 2013. Subsequently, it fell to the lowest position in the year 2014. It grew gradually
until 2018, when it once more secured the third position. It fell to tenth place once
more in 2019. However, in 2021, it surged to the fourth position once more. A fire
outbreak puts operations and business continuity at risk. India ranks third in the
world for fire occurrences, with the majority of them occurring in the country's
northern and western regions. Most of the fire seen in the hospital areas is due to
the gaseous and chemical substances. Thus, fire safety precautions and measures
are essential for preventing fires or other worsening complications of existing fires. A
crucial element and prerequisite of constructing infrastructure planning is fire safety.
Even in hospitalized areas, the provision of fire safety measures like as emergency
exits, various kinds of fire extinguishers, safe assembly areas, and fire hydrant systems
is required. In Japan, General Provisions, Building Codes, and Zoning Codes make up
the Building Standard Law (BSL), which also include fire safety standards. The BSL was
established in 1950 and has had multiple amendments since then. The most recent
fire safety reform placed a strong emphasis on the adoption of globally recognized fire
test procedures as well as the potential for performance-based fire rules. The year June
2000 saw the implementation of the Enforcement Order and Notifications outlining the
specifics of the new fire classification system. The cone calorimeter test ISO 5660-1 is the
primary test technique used in the new Japanese fire classification system. It is applicable
to all classes of materials referred to as fire preventative products. Providing adequate
fire protection for property and ensuring life safety are the main objectives of fire safety
regulations. To achieve this objective, requirements for structures, building materials,
evacuation arrangements, and relative location of buildings are set to define how
building should be designed and constructed for their respective use. The requirement
is related to prevention of ignition and fire spread, limitation of fire growth, evacuation
provision, load-bearing capacity of structures, and prevention of spread of fire between

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 Assessment of Fire Safety Knowledge, Perception, and Practices Among Healthcare Workers in Srinagar City, India

buildings. Most fires can be prevented by a few simple precautions and maintenance of
fire safety measures. These measures can be incorporated in to buildings either during
construction or renovation works. In addition, well trained staff with their knowledge,
perception and appropriate attitude can play an equally important role in preventing
and tackling fires.

The World Bank and US Geological Survey estimated that economic losses
worldwide from natural hazards in the 1990s could be reduced by $280 billion if
$40 billion were invested in preparedness, mitigation and prevention strategies (Dilley
and Heyman, 1995). Understanding the knowledge, perception, and practices of
healthcare workers regarding fire safety is crucial for effective risk management and the
prevention of fire-related incidents, Rather et.al (2019), Perception of fire safety among
healthcare workers also plays a significant role in shaping preparedness and response
efforts. A study by Nguyen et al. (2017) in Vietnam revealed that while healthcare
workers perceived fire safety as important, there was a lack of confidence in their
ability to effectively respond to fire emergencies. This discrepancy between perceived
importance and perceived competency underscores the need for targeted training and
education programmes to bridge the gap between awareness and action. In terms of
practices, studies have shown varying levels of adherence to fire safety protocols among
healthcare workers. A study by Gershon et al. (2019) in the United States found that
while the majority of healthcare workers reported receiving fire safety training, there
were inconsistencies in the application of safety practices, particularly during high-
stress situations such as emergencies. Similarly, research by Al Thobaity and Plummer
(2016) in Saudi Arabia identified deficiencies in fire safety practices among healthcare
workers, including inadequate fire drills and evacuation procedures.

In the context of Srinagar City, Jammu & Kashmir, there is a paucity of research
specifically addressing fire safety knowledge, perception, and practices among
healthcare workers. Given the unique socio-economic and environmental factors
present in the region, such as and extreme weather conditions, understanding the
preparedness of healthcare facilities for fire-related emergencies is essential for
safeguarding both personnel and patients.

This study aims to fill the gap by accessing perception, and practices among
healthcare workers regarding Fire hazards gap by assessing the fire safety knowledge,

78 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Ashiq Hussain Rather, Javeed A Rather, Shahid Saleem and Anil Kumar Gupta

perception, and practices among healthcare workers in selected hospitals of Srinagar

City. By identifying areas of strength and weakness, the findings of this research can
inform targeted interventions and policy recommendations to enhance fire safety
preparedness within the healthcare sector, thereby reducing the risk of fire-related
incidents and minimizing their impact on public health and safety.

2. Method and Materials

2.1 Need of the Study
Several hospital fires in India have exposed critical gaps in fire safety. The 2011 AMRI
Hospital fire in Kolkata killed over 90 people due to inadequate safety protocols
(Chatterjee, 2011), and a 2021 fire at Vijay Vallabh Hospital, Maharashtra, claimed 13
lives (PTI, 2021). In the study area, a 2018 fire at Jammu's Government Medical College
Hospital and a 2022 fire at a Baramulla district hospital led to evacuations but no
casualties (Mir, 2018). In Srinagar, a fire at SMHS Hospital in 2019 caused significant
damage, emphasizing the need for better fire safety in hospitals (Raina, 2019).
These incidents underscore the importance of improving fire safety knowledge and
preparedness in healthcare settings (Holla et al., 2016; Khademian et al., 2019). Based
on official data from the Directorate of Fire and Emergency Services, J&K, there were
448 fire occurrences in the summer capital (Srinagar), which is more than any other
district of the Kashmir Division of the UT of J&K, in which five individuals died and
12 persons were injured as a result of the fire, which is the second-highest number
of casualties across the district in Kashmir Division. Property in Srinagar valued at
Rs. 26.32 crore was also damaged in these fire incidents. Several cases of fire incidences
have been witnessed in various hospitals of Srinagar City. On 04.03.2022 at 21.25 hours
fire had broken out in the only State Level Orthopedic 250 beded Hospital under the
name of Bone & Joints Hospital Burzulla, Srinagar. The U-shaped IPD Block sprawled
over an area of more than 300 sq. meters in which 113 orthopedic patients were
admitted in the hospital at the time of the incident. Some patients were operated
upon three hours before and these patients were not in a position to move. The second
floor of the hospital comprising of Operation Theatre and In-patient Wards was fully
involved in fire. Besides pressing into dozens of Fire Tenders and imported portable fire
pumps, Hydraulic Platform (Bronto Sky Lift) played a vital role in aerial extinguishing
the fire from the rooftop of the hospital which made rescue operation possible. The

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 Assessment of Fire Safety Knowledge, Perception, and Practices Among Healthcare Workers in Srinagar City, India

rescue team was able to launch the rescue operation and the prompt and effective
firefighting and rescue operation simultaneously resulted in saving the life of hundreds
of trapped patients without any harm or injury to them during the rescue operation.
In another incident, the fire broke out in the 1st floor of Ward 16 store room of the
SMHS Hospital, Srinagar, however, no injuries were reported, patients and attendants
including the hospital staff were rescued to safer places.

This study was conducted in response to concerns over fire safety and readiness
that were raised by many, widespread fire incidents that were reported in different
hospitals throughout the city of Srinagar. Thus, the goal of this study was to find
out how healthcare staff in the various buildings perceived, knew about, and were
prepared for fire risks. The study's conclusions and recommendations can help the
City Administration of Srinagar, hospital administrators and owners and occupiers by
providing them with knowledge that will help them redefine and improve fire safety
on their properties and raise public awareness. The scope of the study was reduced to
include just hospitals and healthcare facilities.

2.2 Objectives of the Study

i. To assess the fire Safety knowledge among Health Care Workers in Srinagar city.

ii. To assess the levels of perception of satisfaction of health care workers on fire
preparedness and mitigation measures in Hospitals of Srinagar city.

2.3 Data Base and Methodology

The Study Area
Spread across 294 square kilometers, Srinagar City is situated at an elevation of 1585
meters located between 34o5/ N and 74o 47/ E. Srinagar City is situated on both
banks of the Jhelum River, also known as Vyath in Kashmir. The river flows past the
city and into the valley, where it meanders before deepening into Dal Lake. Srinagar
has a humid subtropical climate (Saleem, S. et al.,2021; Mushtaq, S. et al.,2024; Saleem,
H. et al.,2024), much cooler than what is found in much of the rest of India, due to
its moderately high elevation and northerly position. Srinagar city has a population
of 1273312 as per census January 2011. The population density of Srinagar city is

80 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Ashiq Hussain Rather, Javeed A Rather, Shahid Saleem and Anil Kumar Gupta

8523/Km2. The sex ratio is 888/1000. According to the January 2011 census, Srinagar
city has a literacy rate of 71.45%, while the national average has 74.04%. Approximately
12% of the entire population lives in the city and the metropolitan agglomeration as
children. The population is made up of 47% females and 53% males.

Figure 1: Location Map of Srinagar City

Both primary and secondary sources of data were used in the present study.
The Census of India manual, Jammu and Kashmir Series, the Directorate of Fire and
Emergency Services, J&K, Srinagar, journals, books, etc. are the sources of the secondary
data. The information has been compiled and analyzed using various statistical
methods. The study's target population for primary data consisted of medical staff
from a few chosen hospitals in Srinagar City. Due to the limited time and financial
resources available for the study, a sample size of 160 respondents was chosen as a
representative of all healthcare personnel working in Srinagar City hospitals who were
accessible at the time of study.

Two data collection instruments consisting of two kinds of questionnaires

(including both closed and open-ended questions) and an observation schedule were
constructed in order to investigate the objectives, hypotheses, and relevant literature.
The questionnaires served as a schedule for the interviews as well. Conducting an
interview facilitated additional questioning to get additional details. The questionnaire
was chosen as the primary data collection tool because it saved time and made it

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 Assessment of Fire Safety Knowledge, Perception, and Practices Among Healthcare Workers in Srinagar City, India

possible to get information from a wider range of people. Important research

components that were actually visible were documented using the observation
schedule. These included the fire safety precautions that the buildings had in place,
such as the availability of escape routes, fire assembly locations, the presence of
detecting equipment, and other firefighting supplies. To guarantee a high return rate,
the researcher physically administered each instrument, which asked for specific
information from the respondents.

Data Analysis Techniques

To ensure correctness, consistency, and completeness, the compiled data was modified.
After then, Microsoft Excel was used to cross-tabulate the data so that statistical analysis
of the responses was possible. The compiled Data was analyzed using descriptive
statistics and displayed using charts and graphs, as well as percentages and means.
Tables, percentages, charts, and graphs were used to analyze the objectives based on
the questionnaire replies. The responders were asked to check the appropriate response
or responses out of the available options given. Additionally, space was also given for
the respondent to express any opinions they may have regarding the suitability of
the response selections. The majority of respondents' recommendations were tallied
against the frequency and percentages. Microsoft Excel was used for data analysis.

Figure 2 : Methodological Flow Chart

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 Ashiq Hussain Rather, Javeed A Rather, Shahid Saleem and Anil Kumar Gupta

3. Results and Discussions

Fire Risk Profile: Srinagar City; Fire risk profiles are essential tools for understanding
the vulnerabilities and potential hazards within a specific geographic area. In the
case of Srinagar City, several factors contribute to its unique fire risk profile. Overall,
Srinagar City's fire risk profile is characterized by a combination of urban density,
environmental factors, socio-political dynamics, and cultural practices. Understanding
these factors is crucial for developing effective fire prevention and mitigation
strategies to protect lives, property, and infrastructure in the city. The Directorate of
Fire and Emergency Services, J&K, reports that from 2016 to 2021, there were 2288
fire incidents in the summer capital (Srinagar), which is more than any other district
in the Kashmir division. During that time, 1568 structures were involved in fires.
The total property (in crores) involved in fire for the said period was 1693.91 crores, out of
which 79.94 crores were damged and 1613.97 crores were saved. According to sources and
data on fire incidents, the fire resulted in 29 fatalities, the highest number of casualties
across the district Srinagar in Kashmiri division. 43 other persons were injured in fire
incidents throughout Srinagar, according to the data. It is now become necessary to
implement comprehensive fire hazard planning for mitigation and preparedness
measures in order to reduce the fire hazard risks associated with the study area,
particularly in the down town area of Srinagar City, as a result of the alarming fire
incidents in the city, as revealed by the fire statistical data.

Table 1 : Fire Statistical Data from the Year 2016-2021 of Srinagar City

Year No. of Fire Structures Property Property Property

Calls involved Involved Damaged Saved
in fire
2016 485.00 344 476.56 23.03 444.53
2017 469.00 324 340.07 21.455 314.11
2018 488.00 326 203.57 19.88 183.69
2019 389.00 279 173.27 10.55 162.72
2020 478.00 265 2.13 0.16 1.97
2021 448.00 354 838.38 26.32 812.06
Source: Directorate F&ES, J&K, Srinagar

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 Assessment of Fire Safety Knowledge, Perception, and Practices Among Healthcare Workers in Srinagar City, India

Figure 3 and 4 : Show Fire call, structures involved property values affected and
saved in crores from 2016 to 2021

3.1 Distribution of Respondents by Socio-economic Characteristics

Understanding the demographic profile of the respondents facilitated identification of
the age cohorts active within the hospital premises and their awareness levels regarding
fire safety. Participants were requested to specify their socio-economic characteristics.

Table 2 : Distribution of Respondents by Socio-economic Characteristics

S. No Demographic variables Frequency %

1 Age in years i. Below 30 (18-30) 51 31.87
ii. 30 to 40 45 28.12
iii. 41 to 50 39 24.38
iv. Above 50 25 15.63
2 Gender i. Male 88 55
ii. Female 72 45
3 Profession i. Nurse 61 38.12
ii. Doctor 49 30.63
iii. Class IV workers 27 16.88
iv. Others 23 14.37

84 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Ashiq Hussain Rather, Javeed A Rather, Shahid Saleem and Anil Kumar Gupta

4 Work experience i. 1 to 10 years 97 60.62

ii. 11 to 20 years 43 26.88

iii. Above 20 years 20 12.50

5 Educational i. Illiterate 0 0
qualifications
ii. SSC 23 14.37

iii. HSC 19 11.88

iv. Graduate 84 52.50

v. Post Graduate 34 21.25

6 Fire safety i. Yes 120 75

training attended
ii. No 40 25

Table 2 provides the frequency and percentage distributions of demographic

variables among healthcare workers. The largest proportion of the sample, comprising
51 individuals (31.87%), fell within the age range of below 30 years (18-30). Additionally,
the majority of the sample, accounting for 88 individuals (55%), were male. Furthermore,
61 individuals (38.12%) reported nursing as their profession, while 97 individuals
(60.62%) indicated having work experience ranging from 1 to 10 years. Moreover, a
significant majority of the sample, totaling 120 individuals (75%), had participated in
fire safety training. Lastly, 84 individuals (52.50%) possessed a graduate-level
educational qualification.

3.2 Fire Safety Measures, its Availability and Knowledge

The respondents were asked to identify the firefighting equipment that is available in
the buildings where they work. Out of the 160 respondents surveyed, 101 said that dry
chemical extinguishers were present in the buildings where they worked, whereas 46
respondents said they were not.

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 Assessment of Fire Safety Knowledge, Perception, and Practices Among Healthcare Workers in Srinagar City, India

Table 3 : Fire Safety Measures and Responses

Fire Equipment Exists Do Not Exist Not sure Total

Dry chemical extinguishers 101 46 13 160

Halon extinguishers 10 135 15 160
(vaporising liquids)
Foam cylinders 11 135 14 160
Carbon dioxide extinguishers 95 55 10 160
Sprinklers/Hose reels 50 103 07 160
(pressurised water
extinguishers)
Wet chemical 03 146 11 160
Fire blankets 09 144 07 160
Any other (specify) 0 160 0 160
Source: Field Survey, 2022

Figure 5 : Illustrate Fire Safety Measures and Responses

86 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
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According to the responses gathered from the study, it was revealed that there are
notable disparities in the reported presence of various types of firefighting equipment
within buildings. Among the surveyed respondents, a substantial proportion, consisting
of 135 individuals, asserted the absence of halogen extinguishers in buildings. Conversely,
merely 10 respondents confirmed the existence of such extinguishers, indicating a stark
contrast in perceptions regarding their prevalence. Likewise, research revealed that
135 respondents claimed that foam cylinders were not present in structures.
Moreover, ninety-five respondents claimed that most buildings had carbon dioxide
extinguishers. Wet chemical extinguishers and fire blankets, on the other hand, were said
to be absent from most buildings as stated by 146 and 144 respondents, respectively).
Remarkably, only a negligible number of respondents, specifically 3 and 9 individuals,
respectively, confirmed the presence of wet chemical extinguishers and fire blankets.

Additionally, when queried about the existence of any other fire equipment in
their respective buildings, none of the respondents indicated its presence, with 160
individuals confirming the absence of any additional fire equipment. Conversely, a
noteworthy proportion of respondents, comprising 103 individuals, supported the
existence of sprinklers or hose reels within their buildings. The study findings suggest
that only two types of firefighting equipment, namely dry chemical extinguishers and
carbon dioxide cylinders, were commonly reported as present in the surveyed buildings.

3.3 Perception of Availability of Fire Equipment

The study sought to gauge the perceptions of respondents regarding the availability
of firefighting equipment within their respective environments. Among the 160
participants included in the analysis, a notable majority of 55 individuals, constituting
65.62% of the sample, expressed dissatisfaction with the current state of fire equipment
availability. Conversely, 55 respondents, comprising 34.38% of the sample, conveyed
satisfaction with the existing firefighting resources. These findings suggest a prevalent
sentiment of dissatisfaction among the surveyed individuals regarding the accessibility
and adequacy of fire equipment. The observed high level of dissatisfaction underscores
potential concerns regarding the effectiveness of current fire safety measures and the
perceived preparedness for fire incidents within the surveyed environments.

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Table 4 : Perceptions on Availability of Fire Equipment

Perception Satisfied Not satisfied Total
Respondents 55 105 160
Percentage 34.38 65.62 100

3.4 Proficiency to Operate Fire Equipment

The responders were questioned about their proficiency to use any of the firefighting
apparatus that was currently in use. Table 5 shows the respondents' proficiency
levels and possible training needs in using the firefighting equipment already in use.
Figure 6 presents a comprehensive breakdown of respondents' responses to the inquiry,
revealing in their capabilities across various types of firefighting apparatus. It becomes
apparent that a considerable proportion of respondents expressed difficulty in
operating specific types of firefighting equipment. Notably, 127 respondents indicated
their inability to operate dry chemical extinguishers, while an even larger cohort of
152 individuals reported similar challenges with halon extinguishers. Conversely, a
modest number of respondents, 30 and 38, respectively, demonstrated proficiency in
operating dry chemical and carbon dioxide extinguishers.

Table 5 : Proficiency to Operate Fire Equipment

Fire Equipment Able to Not able to Not Total
operate/use operate sure
Dry chemical extinguishers 30 127 3 160
Halon extinguishers 5 152 3 160
(vaporising liquids)
Foam cylinders 7 151 2 160
Carbon dioxide extinguishers 38 120 2 160
Sprinklers/ Hose reels 0 146 2 160
(pressurized water extinguishers)
Wet chemical 0 146 2 160
Fire blankets 0 147 1 160
Any other (specify) 0 0 0 0

Field Survey, 2022

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Figure 6 : Shows the Proficiency of Respondents to Operate Fire Equipment

Furthermore, the analysis unveils substantial impediments in respondents'

aptitude to handle foam cylinders, sprinklers/hose reels, wet chemicals, and fire
blankets. Specifically, 151, 146, and 146 respondents conveyed their inability to operate
foam cylinders, sprinklers/hose reels, and wet chemicals, with a marginal number of
respondents expressing uncertainty regarding their handling. Similarly, a significant
majority of 147 respondents expressed their incapacity to utilize fire blankets effectively,
with a lone respondent indicating uncertainty in this regard. Interestingly, the
absence of any specified proficiency in operating additional fire equipment highlights
potential gaps in respondents' training or familiarity with broader firefighting
apparatus beyond those explicitly queried. This observation underscores the need
for comprehensive training programs to equip healthcare professionals with the
requisite skills to navigate diverse fire safety scenarios effectively. The findings
suggest that while a subset of respondents demonstrates proficiency in operating
available firefighting equipment, their capabilities are predominantly limited to
apparatus that are currently accessible. Moreover, the distribution of proficiency
across different types of equipment appears varied.

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3.5 Perception of the Proficiency to Operate Fire Equipment

Table 6 : Perceptions on the Proficiency to Operate Fire Equipment

Perception Satisfied Not satisfied Total

Respondents 32 128 160
Percentage 20 80 100

The respondents when questioned about their proficiency using the firefighting
apparatus at workplace, the responders answered in the affirmative. The responses
to the question are displayed in Table 6 above. When asked how satisfied they were or
not with their competence to operate fire equipment, 32 (20%) respondents said they
were, while 128 (80%) said they were not. The study's findings indicate that the majority
of these medical professionals lack the knowledge or skills necessary to operate the
firefighting equipment that was p1ut in place in the buildings in which they worked.

3.6 Preparedness to Fire Disasters

The respondents were questioned about their knowledge of the fire preparedness
measures that were in place at their place of employment. The answers to the query
are displayed in Table 7. The study revealed noteworthy insights into respondents'
awareness and preparedness regarding fire safety protocols within their respective
environments. The findings shed light on the presence of emergency communication
systems, maintenance practices for fire equipment, training in fire emergency
services, and the existence of fire assembly points. A substantial majority of
respondents, totaling 148 individuals, demonstrated awareness of the existence of an
emergency communication system in the event of a fire incident. Further exploration
elucidated that these systems encompassed fire alarm mechanisms that enabled
individuals to swiftly alert firefighting personnel, complemented by access to an
emergency contact number, notably 101. Conversely, findings concerning the regular
inspection and maintenance of fire equipment unveiled a concerning trend, with
a significant majority of 125 respondents indicating a lack of awareness regarding
such practices.

90 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Ashiq Hussain Rather, Javeed A Rather, Shahid Saleem and Anil Kumar Gupta

Table 7 : Preparedness to Fire Disasters

Preparedness Yes No Not Total

Sure
Being aware of an emergency communication 148 0 12 160
system (alarm, phone, cell number, etc.)
in the event of a fire
Frequent regular inspection and maintenance 20 125 15 160
of firefighting equipment
Training on emergency services in case of 40 107 13 160
fire outbreak
The structure has an emergency shelter or fire 110 36 14 160
assembly point in case of a fire
The structure is equipped with an emergency 100 47 13 160
fire disaster kit.
Fire hydrants’ efficiency and accessibility 12 135 13 160
during fire outbreaks.
Existence of Emergency population 48 106 6 160
warning methods in the building.
Conducting of Regular fire drills 10 146 4 160

Other preparedness strategies 0 - - 0

Field Survey, 2022

Merely 20 respondents reported awareness of regular inspection and maintenance

procedures, while a meagre 15 respondents expressed uncertainty regarding the
implementation of these protocols. Regarding training in fire emergency services,
the study revealed a notable gap, with a majority of 107 respondents asserting a lack
of training in this domain. Conversely, only 13 respondents indicated uncertainty
regarding their training status, highlighting potential deficiencies in fire safety
education and preparedness initiatives among the surveyed cohort. In terms of
infrastructure, responses regarding the existence of fire assembly points varied. While a
substantial number of buildings were reported to have designated fire assembly points,

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with 110 respondents affirming their presence, a notable proportion of 36 respondents

indicated the absence of such facilities within their buildings. Additionally,
14 respondents remained indifferent to the presence or absence of fire assembly
points, suggesting potential inconsistencies in fire safety infrastructure across surveyed
environments. In addition, when asked if their building had an emergency fire
disaster kit, the majority of respondents (100) said that it did. Of the total responders,
47 admitted that it didn't exist. 13 respondents were indifferent. When asked how
easy it is to reach fire hydrants in the event of a fire, the majority of respondents
(135) believed that they are difficult to reach, ineffective, and typically remain non-
functional. Just twelve people said it was easily accessible to get there. Thirteen
respondents had no opinion. Subsequent investigation revealed that the fire
hydrants, which are primarily run by the local authorities, were ineffectual in past fire
breakouts in and around the study areas because they were empty at the time.

When asked whether emergency population warning systems were in place at their
work places, 48 respondents said they were, while 106 said they weren't. There were
only six who had no opinion. Casual observation showed that the most typical
population warning sign was “No Smoking” sign and was in written on the walls.
Additionally, the respondents were questioned about whether or not fire drills were
conducted in the buildings and if so, how frequently. Ten (10) of the respondents said
they had ever been present for or participated in a fire drill. Four (4) respondents
expressed indifference, while the majority of respondents (146) said it had never
been done. From the study it can be concluded that health professionals are mostly
aware of emergency communication system, warning signs and fire assembly points.

3.7 Perceptions on Level of Preparedness in the Buildings

Table 8 : Perceptions on Level of Preparedness in the Buildings

Perception Satisfied Not satisfied Total

Respondents 47 113 160

Percentage 29.37 70.63 100

92 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Ashiq Hussain Rather, Javeed A Rather, Shahid Saleem and Anil Kumar Gupta

The table displays the responses to the question about respondents' perceptions of
the preparedness level in their buildings. 47(29.37%) of the total respondents said that
they were satisfied, while the majority (70.63) said they were not. The study's findings
indicate that the majority of these respondents knew insufficiently about fire safety
precautions.

4. Conclusion
In conclusion, the study examined the preparedness and satisfaction levels of
healthcare workers regarding fire safety measures in selected hospitals in Srinagar
City. This had to do with the fact that numerous other installations had experienced
fires that resulted in property loss and fatalities. As a result, Srinagar City's fire
authority could be able to take action based on this information and implement the
necessary preventative and preparation measures. At this regard, it was crucial to
take into account the different precautions implemented at a number of carefully
chosen hospitals that may guard against potential fire hazards and prevent them
from happening. After evaluating the fire safety protocols and equipment used by the
hospital owners/administrators in the chosen hospitals, the study found that the
majority of buildings only had carbon dioxide and dry chemical extinguishers. In
order to increase preparedness, additional equipment must be installed or supplied by
those being responsible, because different types of fires require different types of fire
extinguishers. Similarly, it was discovered that relatively few inhabitants could operate
the two regularly encountered types of equipment; as a result, training is required to
ensure that they are prepared to handle any emergency involving a fire. The purpose
of this study was to evaluate the healthcare personnel's degree of fire preparation.
These are the individuals using these spaces to conduct their daily emergency business.
The results clearly demonstrate that the level of preparedness is still below expectations,
as the majority of respondents only demonstrated knowledge of the fire assembly
point and an emergency communication system. For this reason, it is essential that
the relevant authorities take the necessary steps to raise the level of preparedness,
such as regular inspections, fire drills, emergency services training, and the availability
of fire disaster kits. The study also aimed to find out how health care workers were
satisfied with the degree of preparedness and mitigation. The study found that the
majority of healthcare professionals were not entirely content. In this instance, the

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 Assessment of Fire Safety Knowledge, Perception, and Practices Among Healthcare Workers in Srinagar City, India

tenants suggested that, in order to increase their level of satisfaction, they must receive
frequent training in fire safety and that warning signs be positioned in a way that makes
them visible to patients, guests, and building attendants. They also want exits to be
well indicated. On their part, healthcare professionals sought routine inspections of fire
apparatus. Collaboration among building administrators/owners, property managers,
and occupants is therefore essential in raising their level of satisfaction and firefighting
proficiency. Since hydrants serve as a backup source of water supply in the event of
a fire, the study also aimed to ascertain the opinions of healthcare professionals
regarding the functionality of the hydrants in the city. The investigation found that
although there were fire hydrants in the city, they were either broken or inefficient.

5. Recommendations
This present study investigated the level of Knowledge, Perception and Practices of
Health Care Workers, besides the fire risk preparedness and mitigation in selected
hospitals in Srinagar City. Following the analysis of the data from respondents, it is
recommended that there is need to inspect the firefighting infrastructure in existence
in buildings in all the health institutions of Srinagar City with a view of upgrading
them to an acceptable standard. Programs for emergency procedures and evacuation
drills, routine fire safety inspections, upkeep and servicing of fire apparatus, staff and
trainee training, informing building occupants, maintaining records, and emergency
situations should all be implemented to improve fire safety measures. The effectiveness
and functionality of the fire hydrants in the urban area need to be inspected. The
authorities and owners/property managers of the medical facilities should invite fire
professionals to speak to the residents of their buildings about fire safety and the actual
application of firefighting and safety equipment.

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36. Saleem, S., Ahmed Hajam, F., Rather, J.A., 2021. Spatio-temporal Analysis of land use land cover changes in Sind
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96 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Multi-criteria Based Assessment of Coastal Vulnerability Along
Biodiversity Rich Tropical Coastline in Karnataka

Vamshij Joseph1, Kanaya Dutta2, Mahendra R S3 and Hashim Mohammed S4

Abstract
Sea level rise, climate change, and coastal deforestation significantly impact coastal
environments, posing threats to unique ecosystems and rich biodiversity. Thorough
monitoring and assessment of coastal regions are essential to mitigate economic losses.
Satellite imagery offers improved spatial and temporal resolution compared to in-situ
data collection. However, detailed spatial datasets are still lacking for the extensive and
resourceful Indian coastlines. Additionally, comprehensive vulnerability assessments,
considering both single parameters and clusters, are needed to understand future
threats. This study computed and mapped the coastal vulnerability index by integrating
conventional and remote sensing data. The analysis utilized 46 years of dynamics
for eight significant parameters along the west Indian coast, with a 10 m resolution
mapping. Results indicated that 37.42 km (27% of the total area) exhibited high or very
high vulnerability, with the Karwar shoreline in the north being particularly susceptible
across seven out of the eight characteristics. To safeguard this crucial coast for future
development, recommended measures include building regulation, urban growth
planning, integrated coastal zone management, strict implementation of the Coastal
Regulation Zone Act of 1991, and ongoing monitoring and research.

Keywords: Sea level rise, Coastal morphology, Vulnerability assessment, Remote sensing

1
National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru, Karnataka – 560012, India
2
National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru, Karnataka – 560012, India
3
ESSO - Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services, Hyderabad -500090, India
4
National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru, Karnataka – 560012, India

Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024 97
 Multi-criteria Based Assessment of Coastal Vulnerability along Biodiversity Rich Tropical Coastline in Karnataka

1. Introduction
Coastal areas are incredibly dynamic settings. Dissimilar geospheres intermingle
here to produce unique ecologies. Various such biodiversity hotspots are currently
at risk as the global sea level is rising at an accelerated rate. A new record high of
97 mm (above 1993 sea levels) was observed in 2021 (Climate Change: Global Sea Level
2022). Sea level rise and associated wave activities can result in erosion, increased
storm impact, accretion, reshaping of the coasts, flooding, creation of continental
shelves and even drowning of river valleys (Management 2013). This changing morpho-
dynamics is likely to have sensitive impacts on the environment (Hegde 2015). Scott et
al. (2012), estimated inundation of 29% of the coastal resort properties in the Caribbean
with one meter sea level rise (SLR). The island of Maui in Pacific experienced beach
erosion in over 78% of the region due to SLR and associated wave actions. It has hence
become pertinent to monitor coastal morphology at regular intervals and in a detailed
quantitative fashion. The well-being of coastal residents and protection of valuable
coastal ecosystems thoroughly depend on reliable information on the vulnerability
of coastal regions. Conventional methods like beach surveys and in situ geographic
positioning system shorelines do not offer continuous and frequent data coverage
for entire coastlines. However, the emergence of computer science tools, such as
Geographic Information Systems (GIS), has greatly facilitated the identification and
analysis of coastal areas. Recent advancements in photogrammetry, topographic data
collection, and digital image-processing techniques have enabled precise shoreline
detection methods (Esteves et al., 2000; Bio et al., 2015).In order to evaluate the danger
faced by coastal locations, a variety of predictive methods have been used, including
historic rates of erosion, static inundation, erosion caused by sea level rise, and the
use of sediment dynamics (Burningham, 2017). The Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI)
is one of the techniques that is most frequently used in every country for assessing
coastal risk (McLaughlin & Cooper, 2011; Koroglu et al., 2019; Pantusa et al., 2022). The
approach combines the coastal system's tendency for change with its inherent ability
to adapt to shifting environmental conditions. In order to offer a relative assessment
of the system's innate sensitivity to the effects of sea level rise, the CVI ranks various
variables according to their physical contribution to shoreline change. By weighing
several variables according to their physical impact on shoreline change, the CVI gives
a relative estimate of the system's sensitivity to the effects of sea level rise.

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 Vamshij Joseph, Kanaya Dutta, Mahendra R S and Hashim Mohammed S

India, having a very long coastline of around 7500 km, is vulnerable to potential
loss of natural and man-made resources (Hossain et al. 2022; Princy et al. 2023). In
India, even up to this point of time this issue of vulnerability assessment is paid little
attention though it costs much less compared to the huge investments on early warning
systems.Other nations which experience similar population growth and urban sprawl
have an increasing number of densely built settlements, ports, cities growing along the
coasts. Accurate prediction of shoreline retreat, beach loss, cliff retreat, and land loss
rates is essential for effective coastal zone management planning. These predictions
have the potential to enhance the assessment of biological impacts resulting from
habitat change or destruction. To support territorial planning and decision-making
processes, it is important to incorporate spatial data based on multiple criteria.
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) offers a valuable approach in this regard,
allowing for the integration of measures to control socio-economic development
patterns, mitigate natural hazards, and conserve natural resources. By adopting
ICZM, coastal areas can benefit from a comprehensive and coordinated approach
that addresses various aspects of sustainable coastal management.

This study aimed to create a comprehensive inventory of location-based data on

hazard zones and multi-criteria based maps along a specific segment of the Indian
coastline. The objectives included assessing parameters such as shore change rate, tidal
range, significant wave height, coastal elevation, coastal slope, sea level changes, and
coastal geomorphology. Coastal Vulnerability Indices (CVIs) were calculated and used
to map the relative vulnerability of the coast to future sea-level rise. To capture a broader
range of coastal behaviors, a secondary level of investigation using cluster analysis was
proposed. By improving the quantitative understanding of shoreline indicators and
their spatial relationship with the land-water boundary, this research contributes to
the knowledge of coastal management strategies.

2. Significance of the Study Area

The study was carried out over the northern coast of Karnataka in Uttara Kannada
district. The study area extends from 13.9254°N to 14.8992°N latitude and 74.0921°E
to 74.5822°E longitude. The coastline stretches over185 km in length. The location and
extent of the area is shown by Figure 1. This coastal region is of immense significance due

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 Multi-criteria Based Assessment of Coastal Vulnerability along Biodiversity Rich Tropical Coastline in Karnataka

to the presence of rich biodiversity. The Western Ghats or the Sahyadri mountains run
here from north to south nearly parallel to the coast. Between the Sahyadri and the sea
there is a narrow coastal strip which is known as the Payanghat. This zone varies from 8
m to 24min width. The brackish water present in these estuaries is a mixture of salt and
fresh water and it provides valuable nutrients for marine life. Several backwaters and
coastal wetlands also help various species to thrive. The study area is home to fourteen
coral species, four sponge species, the protected small giant clams, hundred and fifteen
zooplanktons, three threatened Mollusca species, five species of star fish and many
more (Karnataka Biodiversity Board, 2010).

Figure 1 : Extent and location of the study area

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 Vamshij Joseph, Kanaya Dutta, Mahendra R S and Hashim Mohammed S

Any change in the coastal landscape is likely to disrupt irreplaceable ecologies. Apart
from the environmental significance, the coast also has major settlements and numerous
tourist attractions. So, submergence or loss of coastal strips will affect economy and
human activities in various ways. Hence, detailed monitoring, risk assessment and
creation of quantitative databases for future analysis is mandatory for this region.

3. Datasets Description
A set of remote sensing data was used in the study ranging between the years 1973
and 2019.Landsat data from Multispectral Scanner (MSS), Thematic Mapper (TM),
Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM), Operational Land Imager (OLI) and Thermal
Infrared Sensor (TIRS) sensors were obtained from U.S. Geological Survey (USGS).
The list of the data along with other details is shown by Table 1.

Table 1 : List of Landsat data used in the study

Sl. No. Satellite Sensor Path / Row Date Spatial

resolution (m)
1 Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS 146/050 14.01.2019 30
2 Landsat 7 ETM+ 146/050 29.12.2018 30
3 Landsat 7 ETM+ 146/050 05.01.2010 30
4 Landsat 7 ETM+ 146/050 11.02.2006 30
5 Landsat 5 TM 146/050 14.03.2000 30
6 Landsat 5 TM 146/050 19.11.1989 30
7 Landsat 1-5 MSS 157/050 02.03.1973 30

Several studies (Yang et al., 2022; He et al., 2022) have indicated changes in
rainfall patterns during and following the Covid-19 lockdown. Given that the coastal
regions are significantly influenced by Indian monsoon rainfall, precautions were
taken to avoid any abnormal trends or outcomes in the data. Therefore, data collection
was limited to 2019 and did not include the subsequent two years. In addition to
Landsat images, various other datasets were utilized to derive specific parameters.
They are shown in Table 2.

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Table 2 : List of Additional Data for Generating Various Parameters

Sl. No. Parameter Data

1 Shoreline Change Rate Landsat-ETM+

2 Geomorphology Digital Globe QuickBird

3 Coastal Slope GEBCO

4 Coastal Regional Elevation SRTM

5 Beach Width Digital Globe QuickBird

6 Tidal Range WX-Tide

7 Significant Wave Height simulated waves using mike-21

8 Sea Level Change PSMSL

*GEBCO = General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans; SRTM =

Shuttle Radar Topography Mission; PSMSL = Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level

ERDAS IMAGINE, ArcGIS, Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) and WXtide-32
software were utilized to pre-process and process the remote sensing data.

4. Methodology
The primary objective of the work was to assess coastal vulnerability with CVI
while incorporating the relative contributions and interactions of eight risk variables.
The overall methodology of the work is shown by a flowchart in Figure 2

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 Vamshij Joseph, Kanaya Dutta, Mahendra R S and Hashim Mohammed S

DIGITIZE LANDSAT IMAGES

MERGE VETOR FILES (WITH DATES) BUFFER 500m

Define Transect Convert feature

Parameters to line
• Spacing : 50m
• Length : 1000
SHORELINE BASELINE
• Orientation:
Offshore
• Smoothing
• Distance : 50

Manual
CAST TRANSECT
Adjustment

Select

CALCULATION OF STATISTICAL
RATES

Join Conversion
Tables To point
LRR Transect Transect point
Data

Convert

THEISSEN POLYGON

Intersect

SHORELINE SHORELINE CHANGE RATE

Figure 2 : Layout of the current work

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 Multi-criteria Based Assessment of Coastal Vulnerability along Biodiversity Rich Tropical Coastline in Karnataka

4.1 Creating Spatial Layers of the Risk Variables

4.1.1 Coastal Geomorphology (G)
The parameter in question represents the erosivity risk associated with the coastal
area. The Uttara Kannada coast exhibits various geomorphology types, such as very
low rocky head, rocky beach, low vulnerable mud flat, moderate vulnerable rocky
beach, and highly vulnerable areas like sandy beach, ports, or sea walls. The
classification of these different geomorphologic regions along the coast was
accomplished through a visual interpretation technique utilizing interpretation
keys. Subsequently, these segments were grouped into different risk rate classes and
assigned linear rankings before computing the Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI).

4.1.2 Shoreline Change Rate (SCR)

The measure used to assess the historical tendency of a shoreline to either retreat or
advance in response to sea level rise was employed. Shorelines exhibiting accretion
were classified as low-risk categories, while those experiencing erosion were assigned
correspondingly higher risks. Vector layers representing the shorelines for the years
1973, 1990, 2000, 2006, 2010, 2018, and 2019 were created using ArcGIS software. To
analyze the data, the Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS), an add-in software
developed by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), was utilized. The Linear Regression
Rate (LRR) method, as described by Thieler et al. (2009), was applied to quantify the
rate of shoreline change over the 45-year period. Subsequently, the shorelines were
categorized into risk classes ranging from very high to very low based on their relative
values (Thieler et al., 2009).

4.1.3 Sea Level Change (SLC)

The sea level was defined as the average height of the ocean's surface between high
tide and low tide. To determine this parameter, the primary source of information
utilized was the tide gauge data set from the Global Sea Level Observing System
(GLOSS) spanning the past century. Additionally, a secondary dataset consisting of
monthly mean tide gauge data recorded by Indian tide stations was selected to estimate
sea level trends. In order to standardize changes in tides and wave conditions over
time, an average was taken. This allowed for the identification of sea level changes and

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the measurement of land height above the sea level, referred to as the still water level.
Based on the observed values along the shoreline of the study area, they were
subsequently classified into five risk categories.

4.1.4 Tidal Range (TR)

This parameter has risks of both continuous and intermittent inundation. Wide
intertidal zones with little relief are characteristic in coastal areas with large tidal
waves, making them susceptible to ongoing flooding from sea level rise. Additionally,
when storm surges coincide with high tides, these places are more vulnerable to
sporadic flooding brought on by storm surges. Tidal range information for January 2018
was gathered for the current study from the WX Tide programme. For several coastal
areas in India, the base data and maximum amplitudes of the tide were determined,
and risk rates were assigned according to the corresponding values.

4.1.5 Coastal Regional Elevation (E)

Understanding the possible effects of future sea level rise depends heavily on coastal
regional elevation, which is the average height of a given area above mean sea
level. It helps to identify places that could be impacted by rising sea levels. Data on
coastal elevation are useful for evaluating the amount of land accessible for wetlands
migration in reaction to sea level rise and determining how sea level rise would affect
urban settings. In this project, a coastal regional elevation model was created using data
from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM). Theisen polygons were created
after the data was transformed into point data. The elevation data was then intersected
with the current shoreline using these polygons. Higher elevation coastal locations
were thought to be less vulnerable, but lower elevation places were thought to be
extremely exposed to the effects of sea level rise.

4.1.6 Coastal Slope (S)

The rate of shoreline retreat and how susceptible a coast is to flooding are both
influenced by the coastal slope. The relative susceptibility to flooding and the possible
speed of coastline retreat are both determined by the slope. Using the General

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Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) data, the slope tool of the QGIS programme
was used in this work to calculate regional slope values. Regions with lower slope
values were categorised as higher risk zones (Rao et al., 2008). The slope values
were expressed in degrees.

4.1.7 Beach Width (W)

This was obtained as the horizontal measurement of the beach. High beach width
values represented the lower risk rates or accretion, and the lower beach width values
depicted that the risk rates or erosion were high. The width was determined from the
Google Earth Pro software. A path file was created along the beach horizontally i.e.,
perpendicular to the coast. These paths were exported into ArcGIS as vector layers.
Their respective lengths were then calculated, and they were converted into point
files first and then into Thiessen polygons. The polygons were then intersected
with available shoreline information. In the case of sea walls, ports, headlands or
rocky beaches the beach width value was zero.

4.1.8 Mean Significant Wave Height(H)

The average significant wave height is a useful indicator of wave energy, which plays
a key role in coastal sediment transport. Significant wave height refers to the average
height of the one-third highest waves over a 12-hour period, measured from trough
to crest. This parameter directly influences the amount of beach material that can
be transported offshore, potentially leading to permanent removal from the coastal
sediment system. As wave height increases, wave energy also increases, resulting in a
higher risk of land loss due to increased erosion and inundation along the shoreline.
Therefore, coastal areas characterized by greater wave heights were considered more
vulnerable, while those with lower wave heights were deemed less vulnerable.

4.2 Risk Rating

The five risk classifications of extremely low, low, moderate, high, and very high were
applied to all eight criteria. The following table displays the ranges used to group the
risk rates for all parameters.

106 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
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Table 3 : Categorization and Risk Rating of Input Parameters

Data Range Very low 1 Low 2 Moderate 3 High 4 Very high 5

Shoreline >0.5 ±0.5 -0.5 to -4 -4 to -8 <-8

change rate
(m/y)

Sea Level <1.25 1.25 to 1.27 to 1.29 to >1.31

Change Rate 1.27 1.29 1.30
(mm/y)

Geomorphology Rocky Rocky Headland Seawall Sandy

Head Beach & Port Beach

Tidal Range (m) <2.13 2.13 2.17 to 2.23 to >2.27

to2.17 2.23 2.27

Elevation (m) >80 60 to 80 40 to 60 20 to 40 <20

Slope (degree) >1.3 1.1 to 1.3 1.1 to 0.7 0.4 to 0.7 <0.4

Beach width (m) >120 80 to 120 40 to 80 10 to 40 <10

Significant wave <1.479 1.479 to 1.484 1.489 to >1.494

Height (m) 1.484 to1.489 1.494

4.3 CVI Computation

The Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI), which provides a measure of the comparative
vulnerability of a shoreline to physical changes brought on by future sea level rise,
enables a measurable relationship among the factors mentioned above. The total
research area's 1-minute grid cells were used to get the composite index value. Four
general levels of susceptibility were determined using a macro-synoptic scale (at a
ratio of 1:100,000): very high, high, medium, and low vulnerability. When calculating
the CVI, this classification was used. The CVI was then calculated as the square
root of the ranked variables, divided by the total amount of variables, by allocating
vulnerability values to each individual data variable.

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( G×SCR×SLC×TR×E×S×W×H)/
CVI= √
8

It was ranked from 1 to 5 on a linear scale basis indicating the vulnerability level due
to shoreline change. Vector Algebraic techniques were applied on the risk values
assigned to input parameters to calculate the index values for coastal segments.
This was executed with ESRI Arc Map software.

4.4 CVI Ranking

The final mapping of CVI ranks was performed with percentile values. CVI incorporated
aspects of both geology and structure along the coast (Kumar & Kunte 2012; Mujabar
& Chandrashekhar 2013). The percentile values for CVI were calculated as,

(CVI-minimum)
CVI to percentile= ×100
(maximum-minimum)

Thus, the actual values were converted to a 0 to 100 range. The CVI values ranging
from 0 to 25 are lower risk rates. Values ranging from 25 to 50 are Moderate risk areas.
High risky areas range from 50 to 75 and the values from 75 to 100 are the areas which
are highly vulnerable areas which are prone to severe damage. The categorization of
CVI percentiles is shown by the Table 4.

Table 4 : Ranking CVI for Risk Assessment

Data Range Low Moderate High Very High

1 2 3 4
CVI Percentile Rank 0 to 25 25 to 50 50 to 75 75 to 100

5. Results and Discussion

The parameters indicating coastal vulnerability were first assessed and also compared
in terms of risk rates. In the later section, the obtained CVI results were evaluated.

5.1 Coastal Geomorphology

As for coastal geomorphology, the highly vulnerable sandy beaches dominated the

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study area. These zones' spatial distribution is displayed by Figure 3. Beaches like
Murudeshwar, Belekeri, Belambar, Honnavar, Shirali, Bhatkal which in total extends
102.20 km came under the highly vulnerable category. Alternately, parts of the northern
coast with seawalls and ports have lower risk rates. In the Uttara Kannada coastline,
the sea walls and ports together covered a stretch of around 15.80 km. The rocky
beaches and rocky headlands dominated this part of the coastline constituting only
21% of the study area.

Figure 3 : Coastal geomorphology risk rate categories

5.2 Shoreline Change Assessment

The dynamic nature of shoreline along the study area over forty-six years is shown by
Figure 4. The results depicted that only 0.87 km stretch of the coast was under very

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high-risk class; 0.42 km shoreline was under high-risk class. A considerable stretch of
35.2 km was under moderate risk class. This zone extended over the coasts of Karwar,
Ankola, Murudeshwar. The erosion rate in the study area is low and limited to very few
pockets. This has happened due to elevated coasts, pocket beaches adjoining rocky
headlands, etc. The low-risk areas covered the majority of the Uttara Kannada coast
extending for about 76.48km. A long stretch of 73.03 km of the study area was found
to be under very low risk classes. Overall, the current study proved that during these
46 years from 1973 to 2019 the majority of the coast is facing accretion than erosion.

Figure 4 : Shoreline change risk rate categories

5.3 Sea Level Change

The relative distribution of the risk class along the Uttara Kannada Coastline for the sea
level changes is shown through Figure 5. Only around 5.11 km length of the study area

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belonged to the low sea level change risk rate category. This was solely concentrated
near Karwar in the northern most parts. The value of sea level rise was around
1.237 mm/year over here. On the other hand, the study showed the coasts starting
from the southern parts like Bhatkal, Bengre, Murudeshwar, Honnavar up to the north
like Ankola, Todur were prone to much higher risk. The sea level change rate was
around 1.340 mm/year over these regions.

Figure 5 : Sea level change risk rate categories

5.4 Mean Tidal Range

A greater tidal range was observed at the northern parts of the region. Around 51.41
km of the present study area extending mostly over the coasts of Karwar came under
very high-risk zone in terms of the mean tidal range values. The value was noted to

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be more than 2.17m. The risk rates gradually dropped towards southern sections. Near
Gokarna the coastline indicated moderate risk rate stretching for around 31.61 km.
A length of 18.21 km between Kumta and Honnavar reflected lower risk rate. An extensive
54.23 km coastline between Bhatkal and Honnavar belonged to the very low risk rate.
The location based tidal risk categories are shown in the following Figure 6.

Figure 6 : Mean tidal range risk rate categories

5.5 Coastal Elevation

A vast majority of the study area reflected very high risks in terms of coastal elevation.
The region with low-risk rates constituted only 1% of the total coastline. The low-risk
areas were mostly the cliffs and rocky beaches from northern parts. Only 8.08 km length
depicted moderate risk and 3.49 km showed low risk rates. These low to moderate
risk category areas spread throughout the coast in patches. The remaining stretch of

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the coast mostly came under very high-risk class. This class covered 86% of the area,
extending up to 157.51 km length. A stretch of 16.88 km came under high-risk zones.
So, based on this parameter it can be concluded that the study area is greatly under
threat due to low lying zones. The variation in spatial pattern of coastal elevation
risks is shown by Figure 7.

Figure 7 : Coastal elevation risk rate categories

5.6 Coastal Slope

The results depicted that slope values for the current study region ranged between
0.046° to 8.877°. The very high coastal slope risk rate category was dominant extending
up to a length of 169.31 km. This class was primarily present between Bhatkal and
Karwar. Further 4.78km of the study area was dominated by the high coastal slope risk

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rate category. On the contrary, very low, low and moderate risk zones as per coastal
slope only covered 8.79 km, 1.75 km and 1.35 km respectively. Higher slope and low
risk were observed at the southern parts of the shoreline. The spatial distribution of
various risk zones as per the coastal slope is shown by Figure 8.

Figure 8 : Coastal slope risk rate categories

5.7 Beach Width

A considerable stretch of 82.76 km of this study area had very narrow beaches and
hence was under the very high-risk rate category. The areas with such low beach width
were prominent along the coasts of Karwar and some parts of Bhatkal. Another 49.11
km area came under the high-risk rate class. These zones also laid along the coasts of
Karwar and Bhatkal. The moderate risk rate category was spreading for about 41.05 km

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of coastal length. Only 13.07 km of the study area expected low risk rate in terms of
beach width. Here, the beaches were nearly 100 m wide. Overall, only a few parts of
the region have accretion and led to the development of broad beaches. The spatial
pattern of the above mentioned zones is shown by the following Figure 9.

Figure 9 : Beach width risk rate categories

5.8 Significant Wave Height

The distribution of risk levels along the coast in terms of wave height is shown by Figure
10. The coasts of Karwar were notably vulnerable due to waves reaching up to 2m height.
High-risk rate classes also extended along Karwar and parts of Ankola. This category
stretched up to 36.95 km. Coastal regions of Gokarna mostly depicted the presence of
moderate risk rate covering 24.33 km of the coastline. Uttara Kannada coast had lower

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wave height and hence was less prone to be a vulnerable coast. The wave heights have
gradually decreased from north to south. Around 76.51km of the study area, particularly
towards the southern side of the coast, had low risk rates. Such low vulnerability
was especially notable along the coastal regions of Honnavar and Bhatkal.

Figure 10 : Significant wave height risk rate categories

5.9 Comparative Analysis of Various Parameters

The percentage of risk areas varied considerably from one parameter to the other.
These divisions are shown by the following pie charts in Figure 11. Results suggest
that out of all the parameters, the study area was most vulnerable in terms of sea level
change, coastal slope and coastal elevation. On the other hand, very low percentage
area was vulnerable in terms of shoreline change rate. In case for factors like

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geomorphology, tidal range, beach width and significant wave height, the study
area had mixed nature covering all the risk category zones.

Figure 11 : Percentage risk areas for various parameters

5.10 Coastal Vulnerability Index

The total coastal vulnerability was calculated taking into account all of the input
variables. The following illustrates how the four risk zone categories are distributed.
Figure 12 shows the percentages of the four risk classes' coverage. As per the final CVI

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values, about 5% of our total study area was facing very high risk. The northern parts of
Uttara Kannada, especially the Karwar coast depicted very high vulnerability for a stretch
of around 6.35 km. About 22% of the total study area was under the high vulnerability
category. This category extended up to 31.07 km of and was also seen along the coasts
of Karwar. Some places of Gokarna coast were additionally part of high-risk zones as
per the CVI. Urgent preventive measures and sustainable planning should be applied
on these critical areas. Around 34% of the total study area was under moderate risk
category. Moderate risk coasts ranged up to 60.02 km of Uttara Kannada. This category
was dominant along the Gokarna and Ankola coasts. Low risk values were primarily
observed in the southern coasts of this region. Parts of the coastline from Bhatkal to
certain stretches of Gokarna and also some parts of Ankola coast were recorded with low
vulnerability. Very few patches of Karwar coast reflected low risk. The low vulnerability
category covered nearly 39% of the study area, with a length of 88.55 km.

Figure 12 : Spatial depiction of Coastal Vulnerability Index

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6. Conclusions
The study successfully carried out the coastal vulnerability assessment of Uttar
Kannada Coast in India. The separate analysis of multiple significant parameters along
coastline have created a much needed spatial database for the Indian coast. Useful
insights were provided for upcoming morphological changes. The southern parts
of the study area were comparatively less vulnerable than the northern parts. The
relative potential of coastal damage was very high for parameters like, geomorphology,
coastal elevation, slope and sea level change rate. As per the CVI, 34% of the study
area came under moderate risk while 22% and 5% area were under high and very high
risk respectively. The most severely affected area was one of the main developing
cities of the Uttara Kannada district, Karwar. The region consists of residential areas,
public infrastructure, agricultural sectors, recreational areas, fishery facilities, ports
and also natural ecosystem hotspots. Long-term sustainable development necessitates
an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) strategy. A spatiotemporal dataset
based on many criteria is required for this strategy. The information and methods
employed in this investigation were appropriate for this goal and provide a framework
for subsequent assessments of coastal risk.

Acknowledgement
I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Shivanna and Dr. R. S. Mahendra for their
guidance during my dissertation at INCOIS. Thank you to Dr.Shenoi Satheesh Chandra
for providing this opportunity and to Dr. Francis P.A. for their assistance. Special
thanks to Prof. H Gangadhar Bhat and the teaching staff at Mangalore University.
I am also thankful for the support of my family and friends throughout my project.

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 Local Perception of Flood Risk: Evaluating Risk Awareness and
Indigenous Knowledge Among Flood-Prone Communities in the
Trans-Himalayan Valley, Leh District

Isha Kaushik1 and Tsering Dorjay2

Abstract
The incidence of flash floods has demonstrated a consistent upward trend since the
catastrophic events of 1999 in the Leh district. Notably, every settlement in Ladakh
occupies floodplains within the river valley, which have been shaped by historical river
erosion, deposition activities, and significant flood occurrences. The encroachment
of urbanization into flood-prone areas has heightened the vulnerability of local
populations to flooding events. Often, susceptibility to floods is exacerbated by a lack of
awareness regarding one's natural surroundings. Central to the research is an analysis
of risk perception, encompassing individuals' risk awareness, emotional responses, and
behavioural patterns towards flood risk. Recognizing risk perception as a key determinant
of vulnerability, the study seeks to evaluate local perceptions of flood risk. This involves
examining risk awareness and indigenous knowledge, as well as assessing administrative
readiness for flood events. Additionally, the research endeavours to provide a retrospective
overview of historical flood occurrences in Leh, offering crucial contextual insights into
the region's flood risk landscape.

Keywords: Ladakh, Risk perception, Risk awareness, Indigenous knowledge, Ladakh

flood, Vulnerable houses

1
Assistant Professor, PGGC, Sec 11 Chandigarh
2
Research Scholar, Panjab University, Chandigarh

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1. Introduction
Ladakh, characterized by its mountainous terrain, is encompassed by three trans-
Himalayan Mountain ranges: the Karakoram, Ladakh, and Zanskar. Noted for its
diverse geological formations, tectonic structures, minerals, and geological history
spanning from the Archean period (approximately 3.5 billion years ago) to the recent
past (10,000 years BP) (Mir, Dar, and Ahmad 2023). Leh, the principal urban settlement
in the area, typically witnesses an annual precipitation ranging from 80 to 100 mm
(Spate et al., 1976), with considerable increases during the summer monsoon months
of July and August. Environmental conditions in Ladakh are notably arid, and the area is
vulnerable to natural disasters such as floods, avalanches, earthquakes, and landslides.
Among these, flood disasters, particularly cloudbursts and flash floods, are prevalent in
hilly regions (Sharma et al., 2020) causing significant damage and fatalities in Ladakh.
Studies indicate that during the Quaternary period approximately 2.56 million years
ago, Ladakh experienced considerable glaciation, as evidenced by (Owen et al., 2006).
The unique topography of Ladakh owes much to the pervasive influence of glaciers,
which have been dynamically active across various geological epochs, shaping the
landscape through erosion and deposition. This geological process has yielded a
diverse array of landforms, including valleys, low-slope valleys, aretes, cones, and
thang between hills (Mir et al., 2023). However, the escalation of global temperatures
has triggered snowmelt, resulting in the formation of U- and V-shaped valleys that have
further eroded mountains and given rise to plains. Subsequently, large-scale floods and
sporadic glacier melts have occurred, contributing to the creation of floodplains and
other landforms. Presently, every settlement in Ladakh is situated on these floodplains
within river valleys, which bear testament to past instances of regular flooding.

Notably, in the Nubra Valley, approximately 80% of settlements are situated on

alluvial fans, characterized by their triangular sand deposits formed as a consequence of
flood occurrences. Thus, whenever instances of natural calamities such as cloudbursts
or glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) arise, floods inherently follow their course,
engulfing settlements in their trajectory. In Ladakh, a yearly flood disaster incident,
specifically a cloudburst, happens, bringing devastation to the communities located
near the river. The vulnerability to floods in certain areas of Ladakh has been on the
rise due to encroachments into flood-prone zones. The process of urbanization in

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 Isha Kaushik, Tsering Dorjay

contemporary times has often disregarded environmental indicators of flood risk,

such as those delineated in sedimentary records of various streams (Ziegler et al.,
2016). Encroachment into flood-prone areas has been identified as a contributing
factor to the escalating flood vulnerability globally, particularly as urban areas expand
and intensive land use near floodplains proliferates (Chang et al., 2009; Jalis & Abbasi,
2016). Following the year 1974, coinciding with the growth of the economy and tourism,
Leh town and surrounding villages witnessed a rapid and unplanned urbanization
trend. This trend saw the establishment of hotels, home stays, and residential areas in
close proximity to the river, reflecting a departure from environmental determinism
towards a perspective rooted in possibilism.

In the major flood incident that occurred in Leh district in 2010, 224 fatalities
were reported, and approximately 9,000 individuals were affected by the cloudburst
event, the imperative of understanding the risk perception within flood-impacted
communities has been underscored. This recognition dates back to the seminal
publication of Gilbert White's "Human Adjustment to Flooding" in 1945 (Whyte, 1986),
a work that has significantly influenced discourse on flood risk management. Within
contemporary flood risk management paradigms, risk perception stands as a crucial
facet of subjective risk analysis (Schanze, 2007). A nuanced comprehension of citizens'
perceptions of flood risk is essential for informing policy decisions, shaping effective
flood mitigation strategies, and facilitating decision-making processes. Indeed, the
perception of flood risk among community members not only aids in understanding
vulnerability to floods and their potential ramifications but also plays a pivotal role in
determining the efficacy of flood impact mitigation efforts (Filatova et al., 2011; Shen
X, 2010). Research has highlighted that neglecting public risk perceptions in flood
management endeavours, even if technically sound, can result in suboptimal outcomes
and may foster maladaptation. Risk perception serves as a critical factor in gauging
the vulnerability levels of individuals or social groups to environmental hazards (Neil,
1999). (Mileti, 1980) defines risk perception as the cognitive assessment or belief in the
severity of the threat posed by an environmental extreme, coupled with the subjective
estimation of the likelihood of encountering such detrimental environmental events.
Understanding risk perception is integral to anticipating and comprehending public
responses to hazards, setting priorities, efficiently allocating resources, and effectively

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communicating risk information to both laypersons and experts. Therefore, the

objective of this study is to evaluate local perceptions of flood risk through an
examination of risk awareness and indigenous knowledge, as well as assessing the
preparedness of the administration for flood events. Additionally, the research aims to
provide a historical retrospective of flood events in Leh for contextual understanding.

2. Research Objectives
a. To examine how riverfront communities perceive flood risk and to assess their
awareness and indigenous knowledge regarding flooding.
b. To evaluate the historical frequency of flood occurrences in the Leh district.

3. Methods
The methodology employed in this study entailed a multistage purposive sampling
approach, focusing on riverfront households as the primary units of investigation.
Selection criteria were established based on the identification of villages and rivers
delineated as high-risk areas in the District Disaster Management Plan Leh (DDMP),
with particular emphasis placed on households situated in close proximity to the
riverbanks. Leveraging Geographic Information System (GIS) technology, 36 villages
adjacent to 29 rivers, identified as risk sites by the DDMP, underwent digitization in
the software. Subsequently, 20 village households located along the riverbanks were
identified, with 7 villages demonstrating a notable concentration of such riverfront
residences. From these targeted areas, a total of 48 households were identified,
dispersed across Choklamsar (23), Kharu (2), Nang (3), Tia (3), Tingmosgang (4), Nimoo
(5), and Saboo (8).

During September 2023, the second author conducted face-to-face interviews

schedule with occupants of 48 riverfront households. These interviews employed both
structured and unstructured questionnaires to assess the participants' perceptions
of flood risk. Each interview was conducted with a representative of the household,
typically the head of the family. The age range of the participants spanned from 35 to
66 years, and the gender distribution included 36% male and 64% female respondents.

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The collected data were subsequently analyzed using thematic analysis, facilitated by
the use of computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS), specifically
ATLAS.ti. This approach enabled the identification of key themes and patterns in the
participants' responses, providing a nuanced understanding of flood risk perceptions
among the surveyed households. In addition to interview data, historical information
on early flood events in Leh district was collected through news articles and the
District Disaster Management Plan (DDMP) of Leh district. This secondary data was
also analyzed using ATLAS.ti, further enriching the analysis by providing contextual
insights into the region's historical flood events.

Figure 1 : The map illustrates the study region, highlighting the selected villages and
river within it. (PNG has been used for the physiography visualisation)

4. Result and Discussions

4.1 Early settlement and Flood Events in Leh district: Historical Retrospective
During the early settlement period, the town of Leh was strategically situated close to
higher elevations adjacent to mountains as a means of flood protection. Notably, each

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community featured a Buddhist monastery erected atop a hill, with human habitation
largely confined to the areas surrounding these monasteries (Suri, 2018a). For
instance, it is believed that the earliest permanent villages in present-day Leh city were
established around 1400 AD in the marshy offshoot of the Chubi settlement, situated
behind Tsemo Hill. Subsequently, in the seventeenth century, the construction of the
Leh Palace on the hilltop marked a significant development. Consequently, the entire
settlement gradually relocated to the softer south-facing slope of the hill, providing
natural protection against floods originating in the Leh Valley, as outlined by (Morup
& Chodon, 2018). With the increase in population towards the end of the nineteenth
century, Leh experienced significant urban expansion, characterized by an unplanned
growth pattern (Jest & Sanday, 1983). This surge in population was attributed to
migration from rural areas of Ladakh (Dame et al., 2019), such as the Changthang,
Nubra Valley, and Sham regions, with settlers dispersing along the valleys. The opening
of Ladakh to tourists in 1974 further accelerated the process of urbanization in Leh.

Figure 2 : A satellite image of the Phyang River reveals evidence of

past flooding and erosion scars, (sourced: Google Earth)

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Despite the entire Leh valley being populated at present, it remains vulnerable to
the threat of flash floods, capable of causing widespread devastation. The Nimoling
Valley during the 2010 flood event serves as a poignant illustration of an unorganized
or unplanned settlement. The examination of historical catastrophic events offers
valuable insights for strengthening flood risk mitigation strategies by cultivating a
heightened awareness of risk (Cœur & Lang, 2008). Analysis of flood river marks along
various watercourses has uncovered evidence of significant past flood occurrences
in numerous villages, including Nymoo, Phyang, Saspol, Ney-Basgo, and others (see
Figure 2). The potential recurrence of a flood event of similar magnitude in the future
could result in the complete devastation of entire settlements. Moreover, given the
dynamic shifts in climate patterns, the likelihood of large-scale and potentially
catastrophic floods occurring in this region is significantly heightened.

4.2 Historical Flood Events

In 1833, a glacial flood swept through the Shyok Valley, resulting in the destruction
of every settlement from Nubra to Skardo that lay in its path. Similarly, major glacial
flooding in 1841 devastated most communities along the Shyok River. A Glacier
Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) in 1907 engulfed the Leh Valley in mud. Local accounts
from the 1930s recall the Kumdan Glacier Lake Outburst Flood, originating from the
Kumdan glacier in Tibet, which caused widespread devastation, impacting the entire
Nubra Valley from Khardong to Turtuk village (Suri, 2018a). In 1971, Nymoo Village
experienced extensive destruction due to a GLOF, resulting in 13 to 16 reported
fatalities (Ikeda et al., 2016). Subsequently, a flood in 1999 ravaged homes, farms,
and claimed numerous lives in the Leh Valley. Flash floods in Ganglas and Gompa
caused minimal impact in Leh, although some fields in Sankar were covered in mud,
attributed to the rupture of a glacial meltwater lake on Khardung-la. Domkhar Village
witnessed a GLOF in 2003 (Narama et al., 2011). Flooding occurred in Phyang and Leh
in 2005, followed by flooding in Igu, Phyang, Khalsar, and Tsati Village in 2006,
resulting in damage to several homes. Flood events were also recorded in Stok
Village in 2008 and Uleytokpo in 2009 (DDMA, 2011).

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Table 1 : Showing the Historical Flood Events in Leh District

Year of flood Area of Flood

1833 Glacial flood down the Shyok valley. Destroyed every village in its
path, from Nubra to Skardo
1841 Major glacial flood. Hit most of the villages along the Shyok
1907 Flood in Leh valley (GLOF)
1929 Great flood, Shyok river (Famine induced by flood)
1930 (GLOF) Hunder Valley
1932 Major flood, Shyok
1933 Major flood, Shyok
1971 Houses and fields at Neymo were destroyed by a cloudburst
1999 Flash floods, in Gompa and Ganglas. Not much impact in Leh,
though some of the fields of Sankar were covered with a thick layer of
mud. This was caused by the bursting of a dam impounding a lake of
glacial meltwater on Khardung-la
2003 GLOF in Domkhar
2005 Flood in Leh and Phyang
2006 Flood in Leh, Igoo, Khardong(Rongju) and Phyang, Khalsar, Tsati
2008 Flood in Uleytokpo
2009 Flood in Stok
2010 Flash flood in Nimoo, cloudburst around Leh, GLOF in Nidder
2014 Flood in Gya and Markha valley
2015 Flood in Wakha river, GLOF in Phugtal and Nubra valley
2017 Flood in Achinathang
2018 Flood in Saboo, Shey(Stakmo) and Tirisha
2019 4 houses damaged in Nubra valley and 5 houses from Durbuk block
2020 8 houses damaged in Nubra valley and two house from Leh tehsil

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 Isha Kaushik, Tsering Dorjay

2021 11 from Kharu village, 92 from Nubra valley, 2 from Khaltse and
2 from Durbuk block
2022 10 from Nyoma block, 2 from Leh tehsil, 8 from Khaltse block and
1 from Nubra valley
2023 37 from Khaltse block, 3 from Likir, 3 from Kharu, 14 from Nubra,
8 from Durbuk, 2 from Nyoma, 74 from Leh tehsil

In the aftermath of the 2010 cloudburst in Ladakh, the term "cloudburst" likely
entered the lexicon of local inhabitants for the first time (Suri, 2018a). According to the
administration of the Union Territory of Ladakh, the disaster resulted in the loss of

Figure 3 : The figure depicts a chronological timeline detailing flood

occurrence within the Leh district.

224 lives and affected 9000 individuals. Public properties suffered extensive damage,
estimated at 133 Cores, impacting 71 villages. Among the worst-affected areas were
Leh town, along with Taru, Nymoo, Basgoo, Stakna, Shey, Arzoo, Thiksey, Kungyam,

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 Local Perception Of Flood Risk: Evaluating Risk Awareness And Indigenous Knowledge Among Flood-Prone Communities In The Trans-Himalayan Valley, Leh District

Anlay, Nidder, Achinathang-Lungba, Skurbuchan, Rezong, Ulley, Tia, Tingmosgang,

and Tyakshi in the Turtuk area (DDMA, 2011). In Choglamsar, a particularly hard-hit
locality, debris flow resulting from the cloudburst swept away 40 houses, expanding
up to 2 km after traveling approximately 10 km from the epicentre near Saboo (Khattri,
2012). Within the Shaksaling stream's catchments, debris flow travelled approximately
3 kilometres from an elevation of 3800 meters to 3410 meters. The Sonam Norboo
Memorial Hospital, radio station, Nimoling settlements, Bus Stand, and BSNL mobile
communications centre were among the devastated infrastructure. The disaster
resulted in 424 injuries, 224 fatalities, and 79 individuals still unaccounted for
(DDMA, 2011). In 2014, the community of Gya experienced flooding due to a Glacial
Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF), while Nubra Valley faced flooding in 2015. Achinathang
village witnessed a flood on August 4, 2017, resulting in the deaths of four individuals,
including three non-local labourers and one native resident. Subsequent floods
occurred in August 2018 in Saboo, Shey, Stakmo, and Tirisha (Suri, 2018b) following
that Minor flooding incidents were observed in Ladakh during the years 2019, 2020,
2021, and 2022. In July 2023, a cloudburst triggered a flash flood during the night in the
Chok-hang, Chubi, Khalshal, Katpa, and Lamdon areas of Leh town. This event led to the
rush of debris into market areas, resulting in damage to several houses, vehicles,
and shops. Since the flood event of 1999, there has been a noticeable increase in the
frequency of flooding incidents. Consequently, the months of July and August have
become periods of heightened flood risk, prompting concerns among both the public
and administrative authorities. Particularly, residents living near the river express
heightened apprehension regarding potential flood hazards.

4.3 Local Perceptions of Flood Risk: Examining Risk Awareness and Indigenous
Knowledge within Community Contexts
The ability to perceive and mitigate adverse environmental conditions is essential for
the survival of all organisms. Furthermore, the capacity to encode and learn from past
experiences contributes significantly to survival. Human beings possess an additional
capability to both adapt their environment and respond to it, thereby introducing
both potential hazards and opportunities for risk mitigation (Slovic, 1987). Various
academic fields, including geography, sociology, political science, anthropology, and
psychology, have made significant contributions to our current understanding of

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 Isha Kaushik, Tsering Dorjay

risk perception. Originally, geographic research focused on comprehending human

behaviour in natural hazard contexts, but it has since broadened to encompass
technological hazards as well (Beckinsale, 1979). Sociological and anthropological
investigations (Douglas & Wildavsky, 1982) have emphasized the role of social and
cultural factors in shaping risk perception and acceptance. An essential step in defining
the risk management process is identifying the factors that expose individuals to
flood risks. Frequently, susceptibility to flooding is associated with a lack of awareness
about one's natural surroundings (Mondino et al., 2020a). The examination of risk
perception entails delving into individuals' awareness, emotional responses, and
behavioural tendencies toward hazards. Originating from the nuclear discourse of the
1960s (Sowby, 1965; Starr, 1969), this field of study has expanded into various domains,
including flood risk management (Messner & Meyer, n.d.). Understanding the factors
contributing to individuals' vulnerability to flooding is essential for informing effective
risk management strategies, with flood vulnerability often linked to a lack of awareness
regarding one's natural surroundings (Mondino et al., 2020b). In the literature on natural
hazards, risk awareness and risk perception are frequently used interchangeably across
diverse disciplines such as psychology, geography, medicine, sociology, anthropology,
and political science (Bera & Dank, 2018). However, while closely related, these terms
possess subtle distinctions. Risk awareness pertains to the acknowledgment of a risk's
existence, whereas risk perception encompasses a broader concept of "intuitive risk
judgment" (Slovic, 1987). Consequently, while interconnected, the level of awareness
and the perception of a hazard are not interchangeable. Risk perception emerges as
a crucial factor in determining individual or societal vulnerability to environmental
hazards (Neil, 1999).

4.4 Risk Perception and Risk Awareness

The perception of risk holds significant sway over residents directly affected by
flooding (Rahimizadeh et al., 2024), influencing their awareness, knowledge, and
understanding of the associated hazards (Lara et al., 2017). The majority of respondents
(78%) living near rivers have experienced flooding firsthand, yet none anticipated
a flood of the magnitude witnessed in 2010, which caused extensive damage to both
lives and properties. Notably, individuals' perception of their personal exposure to
flooding assumes a pivotal role in shaping overall risk perception (Bosschaart et al.,

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 Local Perception Of Flood Risk: Evaluating Risk Awareness And Indigenous Knowledge Among Flood-Prone Communities In The Trans-Himalayan Valley, Leh District

2013). Interestingly, when asked to explain cloudburst phenomena, all riverfront

residents described clouds as akin to water-filled balloons that burst upon collision
with mountains or sudden lightning strikes, releasing their contents. This perception
highlights the local use of "cloudburst" and "cloud blast" interchangeably. And
Regarding flood risk awareness, 62% of respondents acknowledged the vulnerability
of their residences to flooding and the potential for functional damages, while 38%
believed their properties to be immune to such consequences. Residing in close
proximity to rivers, respondents displayed varied perceptions concerning the potential
damage inflicted by flooding upon their residences. Specifically, 48% of respondents
perceived flooding as a significant threat to their homes if it were to recur, whereas
38% regarded it as non-threatening. Additionally, 42% expressed uncertainty regarding
the extent of potential damage. This divergence in viewpoints can be attributed to the
spatial distribution of residences in relation to the river, with those situated closer to the
riverbank exhibiting heightened concern compared to those positioned farther away.
Analogously, respondents' overall sense of safety residing near rivers reflected a similar
pattern. Notably, 46% of respondents conveyed feeling entirely unsafe, 42% expressed
uncertainty, and only 12% reported feeling secure in their residential proximity to
rivers. Moreover, residents within the village exhibited a cognizance regarding the
elevated flood risk associated with residing near a river, along with an understanding
that homes situated along the river's edge were particularly susceptible to flooding.
This understanding was substantiated by the response of 88 percent of respondents
who expressed a belief that a flood could significantly imperil the residences situated
in close proximity to the village river. However, despite possessing pertinent knowledge
or experiences conducive to heightened awareness, certain respondents disclosed a
lack of personal concern regarding their own exposure to flood hazards. For instance,
some participants acknowledged being well-versed in the flood risks prevalent in
their vicinity, citing instances of familial or communal properties being repeatedly
inundated. Nevertheless, they appeared to selectively discount this knowledge when
assessing their individual vulnerability to flood risks (Burningham et al., 2008).
As posited by (Thaler & Levin-Keitel, 2016) the absence of recent flood occurrences
within a given region can potentially impede the cultivation of community participation
in flood management initiatives. This hindrance may stem from a decline in individuals'
awareness of flood threats and their corresponding interest in engaging with flood

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 Isha Kaushik, Tsering Dorjay

management efforts. Furthermore, flood risk awareness is intricately linked with the
collective human memory of past flood events. Consequently, the temporal gap since
the last significant flood event may contribute to a decline in individuals' recollection
of flood-related hazards. Consequently, this lapse in flood memory may inadvertently
lead to the resettlement of individuals in flood-prone areas. Such resettlement actions,
particularly evident in locales like the Choklamsar area, could precipitate substantial
damage in the event of future flood occurrences.

4.5 Rural vs Urban Risk Perception, Awareness and Indigenous Knowledge

Differences in the inclination towards resettlement in flood-prone regions are observable
between rural villages and urban centres within the Leh district (see Figure 4). In
villages, inhabitants exhibit a heightened awareness of historical flood occurrences,
often inheriting this knowledge through intergenerational transmission or discerning
it from visible indicators such as flood marks, which dissuade them from establishing
residences near rivers susceptible to inundation. In the Nubra Valley, villages are
predominantly situated on alluvial fans, exposing residents to the frequent occurrence
of flash floods. Take, for example, Hunder, the village with the largest catchment area in
the Leh district spanning 527.3 square kilometres. Due to the considerable catchment

Figure 4 : Illustrating the spatial distribution of settlements influenced by

environmental determinism and possibilism within rural and
urban regions of Ladakh (source: google earth)

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 Local Perception Of Flood Risk: Evaluating Risk Awareness And Indigenous Knowledge Among Flood-Prone Communities In The Trans-Himalayan Valley, Leh District

area and the heightened risk of flash floods in this region, inhabitants have strategically
chosen to maintain a significant distance from the river. This settlement pattern reflects
a broader phenomenon observed across all villages in the Nubra Valley, such as Tirith,
Sumur, Tiricha, Kuri, Shukur, Taksha, Hundri, Skuru and Udmaru etc, illustrating the
influence of environmental determinism on settlement practices. Conversely, urban
areas witness a predominant demographic influx from rural locales, with settlers
primarily driven by the pursuit of economical land acquisition, often disregarding
the inherent risks of flooding. This pattern of settlement typifies the development of
new urban sectors across Leh.

The entirety of the Skampari area, the vicinity surrounding the Nimoling bus
station, the Army Hospital in Skara, and the CSD depot area near the airport have
been densely populated within the expansive catchment area of the valley. Following
the severe devastation caused by the 2010 cloudburst in the Nimoling bus station
area, the Leh administration allocated land behind the existing housing colony for the
relocation of affected individuals. Despite being designated as a high-risk zone by the
administration, resettlement efforts led to the re-establishment of residences in this
area. A similar scenario unfolds in Choklamsar, where dwellings are once again erected
in close proximity to riverbanks. Moreover, the diminished level of risk awareness
prevalent in urban settings is multifactorial, encompassing factors such as lower
educational attainment, limited exposure to flood events, fading collective memory
of past floods due to temporal distancing, insufficient engagement in risk awareness
initiatives, unplanned urbanization, and the absence of comprehensive disaster
risk mapping.

Additionally, the respondents advocate for proactive measures aimed at mitigating

potential flood-related damages. These measures include: a) the clearance of riverbeds
to enhance hydraulic conveyance, b) the construction and maintenance of robust
riverbank defences to mitigate flood impacts, c) the implementation of effective
warning and communication systems to alert residents to impending flood hazards, d)
the enforcement of regulations prohibiting development within flood-prone zones or
adjacent to river basins, and e) the implementation of surveys to monitor and regulate
residential development within vulnerable areas. These initiatives are perceived as

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 Isha Kaushik, Tsering Dorjay

essential preparatory measures to minimize the adverse consequences of flood events

within the region. As articulated by (Newell & Wasson, 2002), there is a notable concern
regarding the current flood mitigation practices in certain parts of Ladakh, particularly
evident in the construction of small protective retention walls alongside streams such
as Choglamsar's Sabu Stream. These measures, implemented in anticipation of future
cloudbursts, may inadvertently instil a false sense of security among residents. This
concern is corroborated by (Thayyen et al., 2013), who note the inadequacy of these
diminutive protective walls in effectively mitigating flood risks. They highlight that
during the 2010 flood event, which experienced depths of 2-3 meters in certain areas,
the protective walls currently being constructed were significantly lower in height.
Such findings underscore the urgent need for reassessment and enhancement of flood
mitigation strategies in Ladakh to better align with the region's susceptibility to extreme
flood events. The residents of Choklamsar in Ladakh have reported experiencing
heightened apprehension during the summer months of July and August, characterized
by a notable rise in water levels accompanied by ominous sounds, instilling fear of
potential flooding throughout the night. Some individuals have reportedly evacuated
their homes on such occasions, seeking refuge elsewhere as a precautionary measure.
Furthermore, in the aftermath of the cloudburst event that occurred in Leh on August
6th, 2010, inhabitants of the Leh valley responded swiftly by relocating to the nearest
elevated terrain, primarily the surrounding hills. These hillsides quickly became
populated with makeshift tents, as residents opted to reside there for approximately
a week to ensure their safety. Notable locations included the hills adjacent to
Housing Colony, Shanti Stupa Hill, and Tsemo Hill. The decision to seek refuge on
higher ground was influenced by indigenous knowledge passed down through
generations, which led residents to perceive elevated areas as safer havens during
periods of flood risk. Such adaptive measures underscore the Ladakhi people's ingrained
indigenous knowledge of safety precautions, particularly evident in their practice
of relocating to higher ground during flood-prone periods. This tradition reflects
a longstanding cultural adaptation strategy tailored to the unique environmental
challenges of Ladakh, where extreme weather events such as cloudbursts pose
significant risks to local communities.

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Figure 5 : The image displays a low flood protection wall along

the Choklamsar River (captured by Tsering Dorjay in Sept, 2023)

4.6 Administration Preparedness

The consideration of public perception is paramount within the top-down
communication framework between authorities and the lay population concerning
the management of risks associated with natural hazards (Pagneux et al., 2011). The
success of public participation in flood risk management is contingent upon the
understanding, competence, and confidence of local stakeholders, as well as the
transparency of governmental processes (Thaler & Levin-Keitel, 2016). (Pearce, 2003)
emphasizes the importance of involving local communities in risk management

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endeavours, as their engagement can significantly influence decision-making at

the local governmental level, thus enhancing the likelihood of successful outcomes.
All respondents expressed a willingness to actively participate in community-
based programs aimed at reducing flood damage and recognized the significance of
local public involvement in governmental flood risk management. For instance,
governments in South and Southeast Asia have advocated for the establishment of flood
management committees with clearly defined compositions, responsibilities, and tasks
both pre- and post-disaster (Prasad, 2005). Urban communities in the Philippines have
played an integral role in identifying and categorizing post-disaster aid, facilitating
its distribution to affected areas (Carcellar et al., 2011). Similarly, in Cuttack, India,
collaborative efforts between the community and government have been pivotal in
conducting comprehensive risk assessments (Lara et al., 2017). Hence, community
preparedness becomes imperative to furnish an efficient response to flooding,
thereby attenuating its adverse consequences (Syarif et al., 2022).

According to Sub-section (2) of Section 30 of the Disaster Management Act of

2005, it is mandated that a Disaster Management Plan (DMP) be established for each
district (DDMA, 2011). In the aftermath of the significant cloud-burst event of 2010
in the Leh district, which resulted in extensive property damage and loss of life, the
Leh administration promptly issued its inaugural district disaster management
plan (DDMP) in 2011. The DDMP (2011) outlined a commitment to annual updates;
however, no subsequent disaster management plans have been observed since 2011.
On October 31, 2019, Ladakh transitioned to a union territory status. Subsequently,
the administration initiated the development of new disaster plans for the periods of
2019-20 and 2022-23. These plans remained in draft form according to administrative
records. The 2023-24 plan is reported to be nearing completion in its final stages,
as asserted by the administration. Oversight of Disaster Management, Relief,
Rehabilitation, and Reconstruction (DMRRR), along with the union territory disaster
rescue force (UTDRF), is led by the Deputy Commissioner of Leh, who heads the
UT District Disaster Management Authority (UTDDMA). The DDMP adopts an
integrated strategy that ensures the active participation of local communities,
governmental agencies, the military, and various other relevant organizations.

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5. Conclusion
This study examines local perceptions of flood risk, risk awareness, and the indigenous
knowledge of communities residing in the valleys of the Trans - Himalayan Mountain
range in the Leh district. It highlights historical flood events and their implications for
settlements, underscoring the importance of these findings for the District Disaster
Management Authority (DDMA) of Leh and the local planning department.

The findings indicate that individuals residing in close proximity to rivers are
cognizant of their exposure to flood risk and acknowledge the potential for significant
functional damage. Despite this awareness, they express feelings of insecurity about
residing in these areas. Conversely, those residing farther away from rivers perceive
lower levels of risk and feel safer, yet recognize the vulnerability of homes situated
on the riverbank. The indigenous practice of seeking refuge on higher ground during
floods is observed to be highly effective, particularly in mountainous regions of Leh,
where villages are situated in the floodplain of river valleys.

Rural villages demonstrate a stronger awareness of historical flood risks, leading

to more cautious settlement patterns, such as avoiding flood-prone areas near rivers.
In contrast, urban centers, driven by economic factors, see increasing resettlement
in high-risk zones despite the dangers. This contrast underscores the importance
of integrating indigenous knowledge into urban planning to mitigate flood risks
effectively. Addressing the growing urban vulnerability requires improved risk
awareness and land-use management. The months of July and August pose heightened
flood threats to communities residing near rivers, a pattern evident across various
villages such as Choklamsar, Saboo, Timosgang, Nymoo, Ney, Sakti, Igoo, Shara,
Domkhar, and Tykshi, where settlements lie within 20 meters of the riverbanks.

Given the increased frequency of floods since the significant event in 1999, which
has been linked to climate change, there is an urgent need for the administration to
conduct targeted flood risk awareness campaigns directed at vulnerable communities
(Bogdan et al., 2024). Furthermore, it is recommended that the planning department
establish a policy prohibiting new settlements within a 20-meter buffer zone along
riverbanks. Such measures are essential for reducing potential flood damage and
avoiding unnecessary expenditures in the aftermath of flood events. Additionally,

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strengthening collaborative efforts between the planning department and the DDMA
is crucial for minimizing disaster-related damage and loss of life, ultimately enhancing
the resilience of communities facing climate-induced flooding.

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 Challenges of Development-Induced Hazards on
Tribal Livelihood in Singrauli, Madhya Pradesh: An Empirical Study

Shreyash Dwivedi1, Roosen Kumar2 and Anamika Sharma3

Abstract
Energy generation has been the cornerstone of the human socio-technical system since
the inception of civilization. Thermal Energy generated from coal is the most abundantly
used means of energy generation and the process of development as historically defined
is largely tied with coal-based fossil fuel energy generation. The study explores the
various hazards and livelihood challenges associated with coal mining on the local
population. The study area is rich in coal reserves and has witnessed extensive mining
operations by various companies, leading to significant disruptions in the lives of local
tribal populations. The selected population is mainly tribal and they reside in the forest.
These forest dwelling communities are culturally, economically and socially tied to the
forest land and its endowments for survival, existence and identity assertion. Due to
mining activities, the population goes through numerous unseen challenges such as,
health risks from coal dust, structural damage from mine blasting, water scarcity by
groundwater depletion, reduced agricultural productivity due to soil contamination and
many more. This research paper delves into the few clearly visible hazards and challenges
faced by tribal communities in Singrauli District, Madhya Pradesh, due to coal mining
activities. The paper also discusses the marginalization of local tribal communities in
the labor market, and lack of skill development opportunities. Lastly, the paper proposes
strategies to enhance tribal livelihoods, including agricultural interventions, skill
development initiatives, and advocacy for fair labor practices. By addressing these
challenges and promoting sustainable development practices, the paper advocates
for the holistic advancement of tribal communities in coal mining regions.

1
Technical Assistant, National institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)
2
Research Scholar, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi
3
Research Scholar, Delhi School of Social Work, University of Delhi

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 Challenges of Development-Induced Hazards on Tribal Livelihood in Singrauli, Madhya Pradesh: An Empirical Study

Keywords: Coal mining, Environmental Hazards, Development, Livelihood, Socio-

economic Impacts, Local Resources, Tribal People, Energy Demand

1. Introduction
Energy generation has been the cornerstone of the human socio-technical system
since the inception of civilization. Thermal Energy generated from coal is the most
abundantly used means of energy generation and the process of development as
historically defined is largely tied with coal-based fossil fuel energy generation.
Modern energy services are a powerful engine of economic and social development.
As a fast-growing country India also has a large demand of energy in various fields
for rapid growth. India is the third largest country in terms of power generation and
consumption as well as the second largest coal producing country in the world1,
which is the major source of Indian thermal energy. About 57% of the electricity
consumed in India is generated by thermal power plants in which 50% is generated
through coal. (CEA 2023). Energy consumption of the country has multiplied since the
year 2000 and despite government emphasis on renewables, thermal energy produced
by coal will play the most important role and is expected to grow by 6-7% annually in the
next few years to reach about 1.5 billion tons in 2029-30.2 (PIB, 2023)

Singrauli, comprises one of the most important coalfields in India both in terms of
reserves and productions. Large scale mining activities have generated a great deal of
environmental stress not only on the Land use, Land Cover but also on ecosystems in
this region (Greenpeace 2008; Singh et al. 1997). Mining sites, primarily located in forest
areas inhabited by tribal families for decades. It poses complex challenges of livelihood
and displacement. Singrauli emerges as a battleground between land oustees and
proposed projects. (Singh, 2009) Due to an increase in mining activities, social networks
of local communities get disturbed and have a negative impact on health. Agricultural
production and forest areas are decreasing day by day. Ultimately, local communities
have to leave their lands and move to other places. However, most of the time the socio-
economic, cultural and environmental costs are ignored while discussing mining.
It is observed that the poor had closer livelihood and consumption linkages with
environmental resources (Niti Aayog, 2000). There are few major issues associated with
1
www.statista.com/statistics/265638/distribution-of-coal-production-worldwide/
2
Ministry of Coal, Enhanced Coal Demand & Production Posted On: 18 DEC 2023 5:13PM by PIB Delhi

142 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Shreyash Dwivedi, Roosen Kumar and Anamika Sharma

the context of coal mining impacts such as, how does it force indigenous people to
leave their own, cultural and traditional way of living? To what extent it impacts the
livelihoods and what impact does it have on the health of vulnerable populations
especially women and children? With these questions in mind, the present a Study of
Hazards and Challenges of Coal Mining on Tribal Livelihoods in Singrauli District of
Madhya Pradesh.

2. Study Area
District Singrauli extends between latitude 23o 49’ and 24o 42’ North and longitudes
81o 18’ and 82o 48’ East in the north eastern part of Madhya Pradesh. Total geographical
area of the district is 5675 sq. Km and it ranked 28th in the state. The district is divided
into 3 Tehsil (Deosar, Chitrangi and Singrauli) and 3 development blocks (Deosar,
Chitangi and Waidhan). The area is covered with many opencast coal mines operated
by various companies like - NTPC, Reliance, Essar, DB Power etc. Only Northern Coal
Limited (NCL) operates more than 10 coal mines alone in that area. Population share
of Schedule Tribes (ST) in Singrauli is 32.6% of the total population of the district, which
has increased by 0.3% from the previous 2001 census. The major tribes of the district are
Baiga, Kol, Gond, Pal, and Agriya. 3The 80-90 % population belongs to the ST community
who live inside the forest and majorly depend on them for daily survival.

Figure 1 : Study Area (Prepared by Author)

3
www.statista.com/statistics/265638/distribution-of-coal-production

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 Challenges of Development-Induced Hazards on Tribal Livelihood in Singrauli, Madhya Pradesh: An Empirical Study

3. Methodology
This study is based on empirical data collected through field visits conducted by the
author in two panchayats, "Tendhua" and "Bandha," encompassing nine villages. A total
of 114 samples were selected for the study. Data collection employed a combination of
methods, including questionnaires, interviews, and focus group discussions, allowing
for a comprehensive understanding of how mining activities have impacted the
livelihoods and well-being of local tribal communities. The challenges were observed
and documented. A mixed-method approach was used for analysis. The quantitative
component draws from both primary and secondary sources, including censuses,
government portals, annual reports from various ministries, and data gathered
through questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussions, and participatory rural
appraisals (PRAs). This provided a detailed factual overview. The qualitative component
focuses on understanding the behavioral and psychological effects of mining on
the tribal communities, particularly in terms of the loss of livelihoods and exposure
to hazardous activities.

• Selection of District & Panchayats

SAMPLING • Selection of Villages: 9 villages total
TECHNIQUE • Sampling Units: Individuals, households,
community representatives

QUANTITATIVE • Surveys: Structured

DATA questionnaires administered to households,
COLLECTION community members.
MIXED-METHODS
APPROACH
COMBINING
QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE • Interviews: In-depth interviews
METHODOLOGIES. DATA • Focus Group Discussions
COLLECTION (FGDS): Group discussions with
• Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRAS)

DATA • Quantitative Analysis

ANALYSIS • Qualitative Analysis

Figure 2 : Methodology and framework (Prepared by Author)

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 Shreyash Dwivedi, Roosen Kumar and Anamika Sharma

4. Results and Discussion

In the name of development, massive challenges of livelihood and sustainability are
being imposed on the tribal populations, who have traditionally been dependent upon
their local ecosystems for survival. In the energy capital of India (Singh et al., 1997),
while energy production is crucial for the country's growth, it also raises significant
concerns. These include environmental degradation, health issues, reduced agricultural
productivity, groundwater depletion, accidents, and the impact on the survival of
tribal communities.

Singrauli is home to several prominent coal mining blocks, serving as vital sources of
fuel for the region's thermal power projects. Notable among these are the NCL
Coal Mines, supplying coal to NTPC's Shaktinagar plant established in 1977 with a
capacity of 2000 MW, and the Nigahi mines, providing coal to NTPC's Vindhyachal
plant established in 1987, boasting a capacity of 4760 MW.

Table 1 : Coal Mining Fields in Singrauli District, Singrauli District

S.No. Company Name / Year of Area Coal Production

Coal Field Allocation
1 Northern Coalfields Limited
a. Jhingurda Project 1965 235 Ha. 22.66 MT (Last 5 year)
b. Dudhichua 1975 2400 Ha. 15.500 MT (2017-18)
Opencast mine
c. Block – B 2004 1339 Ha. 4.475 MT (2014-15)
d. Amalhori 1982 9.28 Km.² 11.105 MT (2017-18)
e. Jayant 1976-77 3.8 Km.² 11.850 MT (2014-15)
f. Kakari 1982-83 - 2.8 MT (2017-18)
g. Nigahi 1980 - 15.52 MT (2016-17)
2 Mahan Coal Block De-allocated
3 M.P. Jaypee Minerals 2006 729 Ha. 250 MT Reserve

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 Challenges of Development-Induced Hazards on Tribal Livelihood in Singrauli, Madhya Pradesh: An Empirical Study

a. Amelia 4.2 MTPA (Peak Cap.)

b. Dongarital
4 THDC India Ltd. 2016 (Allo- 1905 Ha. 393.59 (Net Geological
(Amelia) cated) Reserve)

*Source - NCL Website, Coal Ministry Report, Jaypee Group and THDC India Ltd.
** MT – Metric tonnes , MTPA – metric tonnes per annum

These coal mining blocks play a major role in defining the geographical and sociological
characteristics of the region. Various hazards and challenges directly or indirectly
associated with the coal mining in the region is discussed below:

5. Hazards and Challenges:

a. Coal Dust
The dust caused by an explosion in mines and the transportation of coal has a
negative effect on human health, arable land and crops etc. (Figure 3). Particles smaller
than 2.5 microns go into human lungs and become the cause of deadly diseases like
lung cancer. The dust from coal mines spreads on agricultural land and affects its
fertilizer capacity and water storage capacity. Other than this, dust settled on crops
and trees restrict their growth and also hinders the process of photosynthesis, which
ultimately affects the production capacity.

Figure 3 : Dust on Road Figure 4 : Mining Site

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 Shreyash Dwivedi, Roosen Kumar and Anamika Sharma

b. Blasting at Mines
Daily blasting for coal extraction in the mines creates vibrations akin to earthquakes
in the surrounding areas. The majority of residents in these coal mining zones are
tribal communities, often dwelling in mud houses nestled within forested regions, their
roofs covered with makeshift materials. These vibrations cause structural damage, roof
breakage and in severe cases complete collapse, endangering lives and exacerbating
property loss.

Figure 5 : Effects of blasting in the region Figure 6 : Broken leg

c. Water Issues (Quality, Availability & Groundwater Depletion)

Deep mining operations exacerbate groundwater depletion, as subterranean water
channels through the mines, leading to a significant decline in the local groundwater
table. Consequently, a substantial portion of the district grapples with acute water
scarcity during the summer months, amplifying the challenges faced by these
communities. Mining activities also trigger a series of interconnected challenges for
the affected communities. The displacement of borewells due to blasting in coal mines
disrupts access to essential water sources, compounding the already acute water
scarcity issue. Additionally, seepage of groundwater from open-cast mine sites further
exacerbates the problem, diminishing the available water resources in the vicinity.
Moreover, the presence of coal dust layers reduces groundwater porosity, hampering

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 Challenges of Development-Induced Hazards on Tribal Livelihood in Singrauli, Madhya Pradesh: An Empirical Study

natural filtration processes and further limiting water availability. Consequently, water
quality deteriorates as the depletion of water levels creates open ponds contaminated
with coal dust, posing health risks and exacerbating the challenges faced by these
communities.

Figure 7 : Wells are not in use Figure 8 : Rust due to poor quality of water

Figure 9 : Dried pond Figure 10 : Water to home

d. Agriculture Productivity
Limited groundwater and coal dust on crops make agricultural activities difficult.
There's not enough water for irrigation, and when crops are harvested, they get dirty
with coal dust, which lowers their quality and value. Also, farmers struggle because they
don't have modern tools, good seeds, or fertilizers, and they can't afford to buy them.
In addition, the area doesn't get much rain. All these things together make it tough for
farmers to grow enough food and make a good income.

148 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Shreyash Dwivedi, Roosen Kumar and Anamika Sharma

Figure 11 : Agricultural land use

e. Forest as Major Livelihood Source

Local population mostly relies on the forests for their sustenance and livelihoods.
They depend on a variety of resources found within the forest, including essentials
like Mahua, Tendu Leaves, Honey, Fuel, Fodder, and Medicines. Of these, Mahua fruits
and tendu leaves are particularly crucial as they serve as key sources of income for
the community. Tendu leaves, for instance, are used in bidi making, providing a
significant source of revenue. Additionally, firewood collected from the forests serves as
a vital source of fuel for cooking and heating needs.

Figure 12 : Tendu leave Figure 13 : Mahua leave Figure 14 : Firewood

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 Challenges of Development-Induced Hazards on Tribal Livelihood in Singrauli, Madhya Pradesh: An Empirical Study

The forests also serve as important grazing fields for their livestock, ensuring their
animals have access to food and sustenance. Moreover, the forests also offer
opportunities for small-scale activities such as mining of White Stone for mud house
painting and honey collection, further contributing to the community's economic well-
being. In essence, the forest plays a central role in meeting the diverse needs of the
tribal community, serving as both a source of sustenance and economic opportunity.

f. Other Livelihood Sources

Opencast mining takes up a lot of land. It clears away the top layer of land, including
forests. This affects tribal people because they often rely on the forest for their livelihoods.
Since many tribal people lack extra skills, technology knowledge, or education, they
struggle when the forest is destroyed. They lose their jobs and struggle to survive.
Local people often work in jobs like making furniture, which relies on materials from
the forest. But when the forest is cleared, these jobs disappear too. It's ironic that in
mining areas, most of the workers actually come from places like Bihar or Chhattisgarh,
not from the local tribal communities.

The local tribal groups usually have less education and skills for higher-paying jobs,
so they end up doing labor work. But even in these jobs, they often don't get hired
much, they have a high competition with migrant laborers from other neighboring
states. There's a big problem with the low number of local people working in the mines.
In many coal mining areas, laborers are hired through brokers. These brokers take a
big cut of the wages, leaving the workers with very little. This means they don't get the
fair wages they deserve.

With the above analysis and findings, it is clear that the mining activities can have
a number of negative socio-economic and ecological impacts. The mining associate
hazard and challenges are very high for the tribals living in surrounding areas.

Figure 15 : Furniture work Figure 16 : Brick work

150 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
 Shreyash Dwivedi, Roosen Kumar and Anamika Sharma

Table 2 : Major Hazards and Associated Impacts in the Study Area

Coal mining Impact on Life

Associated Hazard
Mine Blasting Damages in Houses (both in kutcha & pucca), Displacement of
borewell machine, Accidents and Loss of life.
Coal dust Causes respiratory problems such as chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD), silicosis, and pneumoconiosis
(black lung illness), Decreased agricultural productivity due
to dust settlement on soil and leaves. Open ponds also get
polluted.
Groundwater Due to excessive and deep mining water continuously starts
Depletion flowing from mining and it impacts the ground water level of
the surrounding area.
Loss of livelihood Loss of essential resources such as fuel, fodder, timber, fruit,
and other commercial products that tribal communities rely
on for their livelihoods and have honed specialized skills to
utilize.
Degradation of Ecological disbalance, human wildlife conflict, loss of species
environment and biodiversity.
Failure of agriculture When coal dust falls on crops, it harms crop health, and
reduces agricultural output. Mining-related chemical spills
pollute water and soil, making land unusable and damaging
crops and livestock.

Livelihood Question Allocation of Power Plants

and Coal Mines In - Migration
for Local

1. Energy Generation
2. Infrastructure Development
Out - Migration 3. Job Opportunities

Rehabilitation / 1. Poor Land, Water, Air Quality

Resettlement No In-Situ 2. House destruction risk
of Local Impacts 3. Short and long-term health risks
Population

1. A loss of land
2. Spiritual as well as cultural uncertainty
3. Loss of civil and human rights
4. Food insecurity
5. Social disarticulation
6. Loss of income
7. Homelessness
8. Loss of access to common resources
9. Short and long-term health risks

Figure 17 : Framework of mining induced issues and their

interconnectivity (Prepared by Author)

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 Challenges of Development-Induced Hazards on Tribal Livelihood in Singrauli, Madhya Pradesh: An Empirical Study

6. Conclusion
The study showcased that coal mining in Singrauli, Madhya Pradesh, has caused
serious problems for the tribal communities living in the area. These issues include
environmental damage, health risks and the loss of their traditional ways of making a
living. While coal mining is important for India’s energy production, the negative effects
on these vulnerable communities cannot be overlooked.

The tribal people in Singrauli depend heavily on the forest and natural resources
for their livelihood. Creating sustainable livelihood options is key to helping these
communities. This could include offering skill development programs and promoting
eco-friendly farming practices. It is also important to involve the local people in decision-
making, especially when it comes to mining operations and their rehabilitation.

Protecting the environment is equally important. Mining companies should be held

accountable for reducing pollution, managing water resources properly, and helping
restore agricultural land. In conclusion, solving the challenges faced by the tribal
communities in Singrauli requires a balanced approach. We need to rethink current
policies, support the local people in finding new ways to earn a living, and ensure
that economic growth doesn’t come at the cost of their well-being and environment.
By doing so, we can achieve sustainable development that benefits everyone.

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152 Disaster & Development, Vol. 13, Issue 01, January to June 2024
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7. Referencing and index citations should be as per American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines.
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f. Individual document/report/web page authored by an organization and available on organization
Web site, no publication date:
Accreditation Commission for Programs in Hospitality Administration. (n.d.). Handbook of accreditation.
Retrieved from http://www.acpha cahm.org/forms/acpha/acphahandbook04.pdf

8. Authors receive proofs of their articles, soft copy of the published version and a soft copy of the journal.

9. Authors are responsible for obtaining copyright permission for reproducing any illustrations, tables,
figures or lengthy quotations published elsewhere.
 Design & Print : [email protected]

National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)

(Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India)

Plot No. 15, Block B, Pocket 3, Sector 29, Rohini, Delhi 110042
Resilient India - Disaster free India Website : https://nidm.gov.in