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3 LLK First and Follow

The document explains First and Follow sets in the context of LL(1) parsing, detailing how they help determine which production rules to apply in a grammar. It provides examples illustrating the importance of these sets in resolving ambiguities and ensuring correct parsing decisions. Additionally, it outlines the conditions for a grammar to be classified as LL(1), including the absence of left recursion and the necessity for left factoring.

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maherbekdash05
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16 views

3 LLK First and Follow

The document explains First and Follow sets in the context of LL(1) parsing, detailing how they help determine which production rules to apply in a grammar. It provides examples illustrating the importance of these sets in resolving ambiguities and ensuring correct parsing decisions. Additionally, it outlines the conditions for a grammar to be classified as LL(1), including the absence of left recursion and the necessity for left factoring.

Uploaded by

maherbekdash05
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter III

LIV
E

First and Follow sets and LL(K)


parsing
Prepared by Khaled Dassouki
First and Follow sets
• First Set: The First set of a non-terminal contains all the terminal
symbols that can appear at the beginning of any string derived from
that non-terminal. In other words, it tells us which terminal symbols
are possible when expanding a non-terminal.
• For example, if we have a rule like A -> aB | ε, then the First set of A
includes the terminal a, as well as ε, which represents the possibility
of deriving an empty string.
First and Follow sets
• The Follow set of a non-terminal contains all terminals that can
immediately follow it in any derivation of the grammar.
• This means that if a non-terminal appears in the middle of a
sentence, the Follow set tells us what symbol might come right after
it.
• For example, in a rule like S -> AB, the Follow set of A might include
anything that can follow B, depending on other rules in the grammar.
• Follow sets are especially useful for parsers when making decisions
about which rule to apply next and ensuring that we’re interpreting
the structure of a sentence correctly, especially for LL(1) parsers
where we only look one symbol ahead.
Example: Why First and Follow?
Consider the Grammar:
•S→Aa|Bb
•A→ε
•B→ε
If the input string is “a”, the parser starts with S, but when choosing
between A → ε and B → ε, it has no clue which to pick. This leads to
ambiguity.
Example: Why First and Follow?
• FIRST(A) = { ε }
• FIRST(B) = { ε }
• FIRST(A a) = { a }
• FIRST(B b) = { b }
Since FIRST(A a) = { a } and FIRST(B b) = { b }, the parser now knows that
S → A a should be chosen if a is in input.
Example: Why First and Follow?
• FOLLOW(S) = { $, a, b }
• FOLLOW(A) = { a }
• FOLLOW(B) = { b }
FOLLOW ensures that A → ε is used only when “a” follows, and B → ε is
used only when b follows.
Example: Why First and Follow?
•S→AB
•A→ε|x
•B→y
FIRST(A) = { ε, x }
FIRST(B) = { y }
FOLLOW(A) = { y }
If the input is "y", the parser must decide between:
A → ε or A → x
Since y ∈ FOLLOW(A), we choose A → ε, ensuring correct parsing.
Why using First and Follow?
• FIRST helps decide which production to use.
• FOLLOW ensures ε-productions are applied only when necessary.
• Without them, an LL(1) parser may make incorrect or ambiguous
choices.
LL(1) Grammar
An LL(1) grammar is a type of context-free grammar (CFG) that can be
parsed by a recursive descent parser without backtracking.
• L → Left-to-right scanning of the input.
• L → Leftmost derivation of the parse tree.
• 1 → One lookahead token is sufficient to decide which production to
apply.
Conditions for LL(1) Grammar
• A grammar is LL(1) if the parser can determine the correct production
rule based on a single lookahead token.
Conditions for LL(1) Parsers – No left
recursion
The grammar should not have direct or indirect left recursion because
left-recursive rules cause infinite recursion in a recursive descent
parser.

Example of left recursion (not LL(1)):


A→Aα|β
Fixed (by eliminating left recursion):
A → β A‘
A' → α A' | ε
Conditions for LL(1) Parsers – Left Factored
Grammar
If a nonterminal has multiple productions that start with the same
symbol, left factoring is required.
Example (not LL(1)):
A→aB|aC
Fixed (Left Factoring):
A→aX
X→B|C
Conditions for LL(1) Parsers – (FIRST and
FOLLOW Set Condition)
For each nonterminal A, if it has multiple productions:
A→α|β
The grammar is LL(1) if and only if:
{FIRST(α)} UNION {FIRST(β)} = Empty
If one of the productions derives ε, then:
FIRST(α) UNION FOLLOW(A) = Empty

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