UNIT 1

Science
Science (from the Latin word scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic
enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable
explanations and predictions about the universe.
Observation consists of receiving knowledge of the outside world through our
senses, or recording information using scientific tools and instruments. Any data
recorded during an experiment can be called an observation.
Evidence is anything that you see, experience, read, or are told that causes you
to believe that something is true or has really happened.Evidence is the
information that is used in a court of law to try to prove something. Evidence is
obtained from documents, objects, or witnesses.
Proof is a fact, argument, or piece of evidence which shows that something
is definitely true or definitely exists.

Environmental Science
Environmental science it is a branch of science which brings together the fields
of ecology, biology, zoology, oceanography, atmospheric science, soil science,
geology, chemistry and more in an interdisciplinary study of how natural and
man-made processes interact with one another and ultimately affect the various
biomes of Earth.

Scope of environmental sciences

Principles and approaches of environmental sciences are applicable in several
areas of development. Environmental science has a vast scope since it covers a
wide range of subject matters or issues related to our complex life-supporting
system. Environmental science plays a key role in solving complex
environmental issues of varying scale, including climate change, ozone layer
depletion, energy crisis, desertification, urbanization, population explosion, and
so on.
Major career options related to the subject can be described as follows:
• Industries: environment experts are needed to guide the industries for
adopting clean technologies, controlling pollution, disposing the wastes, and
carrying out environmental audit.
• Consultancy: Environment consultancies are hired by governments,
industries, and NGOs for carrying out different types of laboratory based
analyses or field-based studies, which are often required in environment impact
assessment (EIA) and other compliance processes.
• Research and development (R&D): R&D opportunities in this area include
studying different types of pollution and their causes and effects
• Academics: Environmental science is taught at almost every level of
education, that is, from school to university level. A large number of teachers or
academicians are required to fulfil this need.
• Green marketing: to promote eco-friendly products in market
• Green media: In order to generate awareness about the environment, there is
an immense need for skilled manpower in the field of print and electronic
media.
• Government jobs: A number of conventional jobs are available in
government bodies such as environmental ministry, pollution control boards,
national parks, and biosphere reserves. Etc.

Importance of Environmental science

Today, the world is facing numerous environmental problems, ranging from
local problems such as ground water depletion to global problems such as
climate change. These problems can be solved only when everyone cares for the
environment; for that everyone needs to be informed about the causes,
consequences, and remedial measures of different Environmental problems. In
order to achieve this goal, environmental science is promoted and taught at
different educational levels.
Few important objectives of environmental studies are,
• It guides us to know how our day-to-day activities affect environment and how
we are affected by changes in the environmental conditions.
• It guides us to create a pollution-free environment by adopting different
methods of preventing and controlling pollution.
• It guides us to utilize our natural resources such as water, forest, minerals, and
fossil fuels in an efficient manner by adopting conservation and recycling
strategies.
• It guides common public to live an eco-friendly lifestyle by preventing and
controlling pollution, and utilizing the resources efficiently in day-to-day
activities.
• It guides industries to operate in an eco-friendly mode by installing pollution
control systems. Etc.

Multidisciplinary nature of Environmental Studies

Environmental Study is a vast subject to be studied upon. It has all the aspects
of various subjects such as anthropology, science, social science, statistics,
economics, computers, geology, health, and sociology etc.
It brings our natural environment and human impacts altogether. It is a
multidisciplinary approach that deals with every issue that affects an organism.
It covers the impacts of environmental science and social aspects of the
environment as well.
Environmental Studies consist of different components. They are listed below:
Anthropology – It is the study of human characteristics, their biological and
psychological wellbeing, their societies and cultures, their development and
evolution. EVS is related to anthropology as it deals with the study of humans
and their environment as well across space and time.
Biology – It is a branch of science that is concerned with the study of living
organisms. It includes their physical structure, chemical processes, molecular
interactions, development, and evolution. EVS is related to biology as it deals
with the natural habitat of the living organisms.
Chemistry – It is a branch of science that studies chemicals and the substances
of which matter is composed of. In EVS, for the understanding of natural
phenomena, we require knowledge of chemistry.
Computers –The Environmental Protection Agency uses computers to maintain
a record and to investigate chemicals that are used in soil and water.
Economics – It is a branch of knowledge that is concerned with the production,
consumption, and distribution of goods and services. To protect the
environment from pollution, global warming, and climate change, various
economic policies have been developed in analysing and finding solutions or
remedies for environmental issues.
Geology – It is the study of physical structures and the substances that are
present on earth, their history, and the processes they go through. EVS also
deals with the study of the earth and the environment.
Physics – It is a branch of science that studies the energy and matter in space
and time and their relationship with each other. Physics works on energy
conservation, atmospheric models, and various issues related to the
environment.
Sociology – It is the study of social life, social change, social causes, and the
social consequences of human behaviour. It also deals with the relationship
between modern societies and the environment.
Statistics – It is the study of collecting, analysing, interpreting, and presenting
quantitative data. It is also used to analyse data to discover patterns and suggest
the best growth of the environment. Etc.

Need of environmental awareness

There is no doubt that human activity is hugely responsible for damaging the
environment. The fact that concentrations of greenhouse gases have increased
by more than a third since the industrial revolution highlights our impact.
Therefore, it is our responsibility to improve our environmental awareness and
change our behaviour.
The rise in greenhouse gas emissions contributes to the enhanced greenhouse
effect, which has caused global temperatures to rise. These gases also cause air,
land and water pollution. Pollution affects the quality of food, which might
cause the ingestion of toxic substances. Poorer air quality also poses severe
risks to human health.
Deforestation is another example of how human activity is impacting the
environment. Forests provide us with raw materials such as food and medicine.
Trees are also help to balance out the concentrations of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere by absorbing it during photosynthesis. With less trees, we are
enhancing the greenhouse effect which means global temperatures are rising.
Issues such as climate change are also putting many species at risk of
extinction as they cannot adapt to the new weather conditions. All ecosystems
are connected, so the extinction of a species that may seem inconsequential has
substantial consequences for humanity. For example, many people aren't aware
of the severe risks associated with the decline of honeybees. They are
responsible for pollinating 35% of the 100 crop species responsible for most of
our food. Therefore, the extinction of honeybees has a direct relationship with
the sustainability of humanity's food supply. This is why it's so important to
take responsibility for protecting the environment wherever we can.

COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT
The basic components of the environment are atmosphere or the air, lithosphere
or the rocks and soil, hydrosphere or the water, and the living component of the
environment or the biosphere.

1. ATMOSPHERE: -
• The thick gaseous layer surrounding the earth.
• It spreads up to 300 km. above the earth’s surface.
• Apart from gases there are water vapour, industrial gases, dust and smoke
particles, microorganism etc.

The different layers of the atmosphere

The atmosphere can be divided into layers based on its temperature. These
layers are the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere and the
thermosphere. A further region, beginning about 500 km above the Earth's
surface, is called the exosphere.
The Troposphere
This is the lowest part of the atmosphere - the part we live in. It contains most
of our weather - clouds, rain, and snow. In this part of the atmosphere the
temperature gets colder as the distance above the earth increases, by about
6.5°C per kilometre. The actual change of temperature with height varies from
day to day, depending on the weather.
The troposphere contains about 75% of all of the air in the atmosphere, and
almost all of the water vapour (which forms clouds and rain). The decrease in
temperature with height is a result of the decreasing pressure.
The lowest part of the troposphere is called the boundary layer .The top of the
troposphere is called the tropopause. This is lowest at the poles, where it is
about 7 - 10 km above the Earth's surface. It is highest (about 17 - 18 km) near
the equator.

The Stratosphere
This extends upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km. It contains much of
the ozone in the atmosphere. The increase in temperature with height occurs
because of absorption of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun by this ozone.
Temperatures in the stratosphere are highest over the summer pole, and lowest
over the winter pole.
By absorbing dangerous UV radiation, the ozone in the stratosphere protects us
from skin cancer and other health damage
stratopause—the boundary between the mesophere and the stratosphere.
The Mesosphere
The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere. Here the
temperature again decreases with height, reaching a minimum of about -90°C at
the "mesopause".
The Thermosphere and Ionosphere
The thermosphere lies above the mesopause, and is a region in which
temperatures again increase with height. This temperature increase is caused by
the absorption of energetic ultraviolet and X-Ray radiation from the sun.
The region of the atmosphere above about 80 km is also caused the
"ionosphere", since the energetic solar radiation knocks electrons off molecules
and atoms, turning them into "ions" with a positive charge. The temperature of
the thermosphere varies between night and day and between the seasons,The
ionosphere reflects and absorbs radio waves,
The Exosphere
This is the upper limit of our atmosphere. It extends from the top of the
thermosphere up to 10,000 km

Chemical Composition of Air

Air is a mixture of gases which makes up the Earth’s atmosphere. These gases
are colourless and odourless and hence, we can’t see them but only feel them.
The atmosphere is an ocean of these gases. It consists of 78% nitrogen, 21%
oxygen and 1 % other gases and water vapour.
Other Components of Air
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) – 1.0 ppm
Methane (CH4)2.0 ppm
Nitrous oxide (N2O) – 0.5 ppm
Ozone (O3) 0 to 0.07 ppm
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) – 0.02 ppm
Iodine (I2) 0.01 ppm
Carbon monoxide (CO) – 0 to trace ppm
Ammonia (NH3) 0 to trace ppm

Importance of the Atmosphere

Earth’s atmosphere is a thin blanket of gases and tiny particles: together called
air. All living things need some of the gases in air for life support. Without an
atmosphere, Earth would likely be just another lifeless rock. Earth’s
atmosphere, along with the abundant liquid water at Earth’s surface, are the
keys to our planet’s unique place in the solar system. Much of what makes
Earth exceptional depends on the atmosphere. Let’s consider some of the
reasons we are lucky to have an atmosphere.
  Without the atmosphere, Earth would look a lot more like the Moon.
Atmospheric gases, especially carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2),
are extremely important for living organisms.
 In photosynthesis plants use CO2 and create O2. Photosynthesis is
responsible for nearly all of the oxygen currently found in the
atmosphere.
 Moderates Earth’s Temperature: the atmosphere keeps Earth’s
temperatures within an acceptable range
 The presence of the atmosphere plays a significant role in the water
cycle. It facilitates the formation of clouds which remains suspended until
they are heavy enough to pour down on the earth as rain, hail or snow.
 Protects the life forms of the earth from the harmful UV rays of the sun.
The presence of the ozone layer does this by reflecting the UV rays of the
sun.
 It protects the earth from smaller meteors.
 Contains N2, O2 and other gases which are necessary to support the life
form on the earth.
 Facilitates combustion and without the atmosphere combustion is not
possible.

Air circulation - Polar, Ferrel and Hadley cells

The movement of air across the planet occurs in a specific pattern. The whole
system is driven by the equator, which is the hottest part of the Earth. Air rises
at the equator, move to low pressure area of planet. Large cells of air are created
in this way.
The Hadley cells occur next to the equator. The Polar cells occur next to the
North and South Poles. In between the two are the Ferrel cells.
Global atmospheric circulation creates winds across the planet and leads to
areas of high rainfall, like the tropical rainforests, and areas of dry air, like
deserts.
The Hadley cell
The first cell is called the Hadley cell. At the equator, the ground is intensely
heated by the sun. This causes the air to rise which creates a low-pressure zone
on the Earth's surface. As the air rises, it cools and forms cloud. The air
continues to rise up to the upper atmosphere, and the following then happens:
 The air separates and starts to move both north and south towards the
poles.
 When it reaches about 30° north and south, the air cools and sinks
towards the ground forming the subtropical high-pressure zone.
 As the air sinks, it becomes warmer and drier. This creates an area of
little cloud and low rainfall, where deserts are found.
 The Hadley cell is then complete. The air completes the cycle and flows
back towards the equator as the trade winds.
 In the northern hemisphere, the winds flow to the right and are called
northeast trade winds. In the southern hemisphere the winds flow to the
left and are called the southeast trade winds
 The Ferrel cell
 The Ferrel cell occurs at higher latitudes (between 30 degrees and 60
degrees N and 30 degrees and 60 degrees S):
 Air on the surface is pulled towards the poles, forming the warm south-
westerly winds in the northern hemisphere and north-westerly winds in
the southern hemisphere.
 These winds pick up moisture as they travel over the oceans. At around
60 degrees N and 60 degrees S, they meet cold air, which has drifted from
the poles.
 The warmer air from the tropics is lighter than the dense, cold polar air
and so it rises as the two air masses meet.
 This uplift of air causes low pressure at the surface and the unstable
weather conditions that are associated with the mid-latitude depressions
The Polar cell
At the poles, air is cooled and sinks towards the ground forming high pressure,
this known as the Polar high. It then flows towards the lower latitudes. At about
60 degrees N and S, the cold polar air mixes with warmer tropical air and rises
upwards, creating a zone of low pressure called the subpolar low. The boundary
between the warm and cold air is called the polar front. It accounts for a great
deal of the unstable weather experienced in these latitudes.

2. HYDROSPHERE
The hydrosphere includes all water on or near earth surface and includes
oceans, lakes, rivers, wetlands, icecaps, clouds, soils, rock layers beneath
surface etc.71%of planet surface is covered with water

Importance of Water
Importance of Water in Living Organisms
 Water is the medium through which all essential vitamins and minerals
are transported in the bodies of living organisms
 Water also plays a vital role in facilitating the work of enzymes in living
organisms.
 Water helps maintain body temperatures in plants and animals
  Water is an integral part of photosynthesis. Without it, autotrophic plants
would not be able to produce their own food.
 Water serves as a habitat for more than 50% of all life on Earth.
Importance of Water in Human Beings
 Insufficient water content in the human body results in severe
dehydration, which is often accompanied by kidney failure, seizures, and
swelling in the brain.
 Water helps improve the circulation of oxygen throughout the body.
 It also plays a crucial role in the digestion of food.
 Water is a very important component of saliva
 The excretion of waste in the human body requires water
Other Important Uses of Water
 If not for the high specific heat of water, the temperature of the Earth’s
surface would be much lower. This would make it difficult for life to
survive.
 The water in the Earth’s oceans absorb heat from the sun during the day
and help maintain the temperature during the night.
 Water is necessary for the irrigation of crops and is, therefore, an integral
part of agriculture.
 It is widely used in cooking
 Humans make use of water for a wide range of domestic activities such as
washing and cleaning.
 Water also serves as a medium for the transportation of cargo. Many
goods are transported between the Earth’s continents via ships.

Hydrologic cycle or Water Cycle

The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, is the continuous
movement of water from the earth’s surface to the atmosphere and then back to
the ground. It is a continuous process. Hence, it does not have a starting or an
ending point. Thus, the water present on earth has been in circulation since the
evolution of the earth. There are several factors that assist the water cycle, the
sun, air currents to name a few.
The stages involved in a complete water cycle are:
Stage I: Evaporation and Transpiration: the sun’s energy heats up the lakes,
rivers, oceans, swamps and other water bodies which subsequently increase the
temperature of the water present in them. Consequently, some water evaporates
as vapour into the air. Plants and trees also lose water to the atmosphere in the
form of vapour which rises up in the sky.
Stage II: Condensation: As the vapours rise high, the cooler temperatures
make them cool down and turn back into liquid – condensation. Wind and air
currents move the moisture around, leading to the formation of clouds.
Stage III: Precipitation: Wind movements cause the clouds particles to collide.
As they become water laden, they develop into rain bearing clouds and fall back
onto the earth’s surface by the process known as precipitation. This may occur
in the form of rain, hail, snow or sleet depending upon the temperature
conditions.
Stage IV: Runoff and Infiltration: The precipitation either runs off into
oceans, rivers and ground surface or is absorbed into the soil (infiltration).
Post the last stage, water is again ready to be evaporated and resume stage I.
This is how the water cycle has been going on for billions of years, thus
bringing fresh water to people, animals and plants, helping them survive all
around the earth.

3. LITHOSPHERE
The lithosphere is the rocky outer part of the Earth. It is made up of the brittle
crust and the top part of the upper mantle. The lithosphere is the coolest and
most rigid part of the Earth

Elementary composition of rocks

Most rocks are composed of minerals. Minerals are defined by geologists as
naturally occurring inorganic solids that have a crystalline structure and a
distinct chemical composition. Of course, the minerals found in the Earth's
rocks are produced by a variety of different arrangements of chemical elements.
A list of the eight most common elements making up the minerals found in the
Earth's rocks are
 Chemical Percent Weight in
Element
Symbol Earth's Crust
Oxygen O 46.60
Silicon Si 27.72
Aluminum Al 8.13
Iron Fe 5.00
Calcium Ca 3.63
Sodium Na 2.83
Potassium K 2.59
Magnesium Mg 2.09

Over 2000 minerals have been identified by earth scientists. The above
table describes some of the important minerals, their chemical composition, and
classifies them in one of nine groups. The Elements Group includes over one
hundred known minerals. Many of the minerals in this class are composed of
only one element. Geologists sometimes subdivide this group into metal and
non-metal categories. Gold, silver, and copper are examples of metals. The
elements sulfur and carbon produce the minerals sulfur, diamonds,
and graphite which are non-metallic.

Types of Rocks
The three main types, or classes, of rock are sedimentary, metamorphic, and
igneous and the differences among them have to do with how they are formed.

Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed from particles of sand, shells, pebbles, and other
fragments of material. Together, all these particles are called sediment.
Gradually, the sediment accumulates in layers and over a long period of time
hardens into rock. Generally, sedimentary rock is fairly soft and may break
apart or crumble easily. You can often see sand, pebbles, or stones in the rock,
and it is usually the only type that contains fossils.

Examples of this rock type include conglomerate and limestone.

Metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic rocks are formed under the surface of the earth from the
metamorphosis (change) that occurs due to intense heat and pressure
(squeezing). The rocks that result from these processes often have ribbon like
layers and may have shiny crystals, formed by minerals growing slowly over
time, on their surface.

Examples of this rock type include gneiss and marble.

Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are formed when magma (molten rock deep within the earth)
cools and hardens. Sometimes the magma cools inside the earth, and other times
it erupts onto the surface from volcanoes (in this case, it is called lava). When
lava cools very quickly, no crystals form and the rock looks shiny and glasslike.
Sometimes gas bubbles are trapped in the rock during the cooling process,
leaving tiny holes and spaces in the rock.

Examples of this rock type include basalt and obsidian.

Process of soil formation

The whole process of soil formation is generally divided in to two stages
Weathering: breakdown of bigger rocks in to fine, smaller mineral particle
Pedogenesis: Soil formation or pedogenesis is the process of evolution of soil
under the influence of various physical, biological, climatic, and geological
factors.

Weathering
Weathering can be a physical, chemical or biological process:

1. Physical weathering—breakdown of rocks from the result of a

mechanical action. Temperature changes, abrasion (when rocks collide with
each other) or frost can all cause rocks to break down.
Types of physical weathering
Wetting-drying: The frequent wetting of the rock through any and all
precipitation, coupled with drying by wind and sun, makes weathering by a
process of wetting and drying highly likely.
Heating –cooling: a rock is heated and cooled repeatedly if exposed to the
elements. This rock is exposed to sunlight, gradually heating the rock and
causing it to expand. As the temperature drops overnight, the rock begins to
cool and contract. This lead to weathering
Freezing: During the day when temperatures are higher, the snow melts and
water enters the cracks in the rock. When the temperature drops below 0°C the
water in the crack freezes and expands by about 9 per cent. This makes the
crack larger.
Glaciation: larger masses of snow and ice glaciers, while falling may cause
physical weathering through grinding process
Solution: some components of rocks such as calcium chlorides, sulphates etc.
are simply removed by water
Sand blast: in arid conditions, the rocks are disrupted by the action of wind,
sand, etc.

2. Chemical weathering—breakdown of rocks through a change in their

chemical makeup. This can happen when the minerals within rocks react with
water, air or other chemicals.
Types of chemical weathering
Hydration: Hydration is a form of chemical weathering in which the chemical
bonds of the mineral are changed as it interacts with water
Hydrolysis: Water can add to a material to make a new material, or it can
dissolve a material to change it. In hydrolysis, the acid in the water works to
dissolve minerals within specific rocks.
Examples of hydrolysis in action include turning feldspar into clay and making
sodium minerals into saltwater solutions.
Oxidation: Oxidation is another kind of chemical weathering that occurs when
oxygen combines with another substance and creates compounds called oxides.
When rocks, particularly those with iron in them, are exposed to air and water,
the iron undergoes oxidation, which can weaken the rocks and make them
crumble
Carbonation: Carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in rainwater and becomes
weakly acidic. This weak “carbonic acid” is able to dissolve limestone as it
seeps into cracks and cavities.
Chelation: The chemical removal of metallic ions from a mineral or rock by
weathering can provide their combination with organic compounds. The
decomposition of dead plants in soil may form organic acids which, when
dissolved in water, cause chemical weathering.

3. Biological weathering—the breakdown of rocks by living things.

Burrowing animals help water and air get into rock, and plant roots can grow
into cracks in the rock, making it split.

Pedogenesis
Pedogenesis (from the Greek pedo-, or pedon, meaning 'soil, earth,' and genesis,
meaning 'origin, birth') is the process of soil formation as regulated by the
effects of place, environment, and history. This lead to the development of
layers, termed soil horizons, distinguished by differences in color, structure,
texture, and chemistry. These features occur in patterns of soil type distribution,
forming in response to differences in soil forming factors
The final composition and structure of a soil depend on the following factors:
 The parent rock (or lithologic matrix), i.e. the original material (rocks,
clays, limestones, etc) of the soil;
 the climate, which is considered as the main responsible for the formation
and definition of soil characteristics and properties;
 water and temperature, which influence the majority of physical,
chemical and biochemical processes that are important for the
development of mature;
 soil sun exposure;
 the activity of biotic entities (vegetation, micro and macro fauna e flora);
 the height, defined by land altitude and inclination;
 The length of time
 Human activity etc.
Importance of soil
Soil is our life support system. Soils provide anchorage for roots, hold water
and nutrients. Soils are home to micro-organisms that fix nitrogen and
decompose organic matter, and organisms as earthworms and termites. We
build on soil as well as with it and in it.
Soil plays a vital role in the Earth’s ecosystem. Without soil human life would
be very difficult. Soil provides plants with foothold for their roots and holds the
necessary nutrients for plants to grow; it filters the rainwater and regulates the
discharge of excess rainwater, preventing flooding; it is capable of storing large
amounts of organic carbon; it buffers against pollutants, thus protecting
groundwater quality; it provides Man with some essential construction and
manufacturing materials, we build our houses with bricks made from clay, we
drink coffee from a cup that is essentially backed soil (clay); it also presents a
record of past environmental conditions.
Soil functions are general capabilities of soils that are important for various
agricultural, environmental, nature protection, landscape architecture and urban
applications. Six key soil functions are:
1. Food and other biomass production
2. Environmental Interaction: storage, filtering, and transformation
3. Biological habitat and gene pool
4. Source of raw materials
5. Physical and cultural heritage
6. Platform for man-made structures: buildings, highways