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Unit 1 Fundamental Concepts and Principles of Pharmacology 2

Chapter 1
Introduction to Pharmacology and Drug Regulations in Canada

Question 1
Type: MCMA
What key elements are included in the definition of Pharmacology?
Note: Credit will be given only if all correct choices and no incorrect choices are selected.
Standard Text: Select all that apply.
1. Physiological effects of drugs
2. Chemical makeup of drugs
3. Formularies of drugs
4. Approval processes for new drugs
5. Mechanism of action
Correct Answer: 1,2.5
Rationale 1: The definition of pharmacology includes the actual responses produced by the drug
Rationale 2: The study of medicines include how they are made, including their chemical
properties.
Rationale 3: Formularies are a list of drugs and are not an element that defines pharmacology
Rationale 4: Approval processes for new drugs is important understanding but not an element of
the definition of pharmacology.
Rationale 5: How a drug exerts its effect is an element of the defined term pharmacology.
Cognitive Level: Applying
Client Need: Physiological Integrity
Client Need Sub: Pharmacological and Parenteral Therapies
Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Implementation
Learning Outcome: 1-1: Define pharmacology

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc.

Unit 1 Fundamental Concepts and Principles of Pharmacology 3

Question 2
Type: MCSA
While many substances can be considered drugs, which of the following drug definitions is the
most accurate?
1. Any substance that is found in nature or that normally occurs in the body.
2. Any substance that is synthesized and tested in the laboratory setting.
3. Substances that are taken to prevent, cure, or reduce symptoms of a medical condition
4. Substances that can be isolated from natural substances in nature
Correct Answer: 3
Rationale 1: A drug is not a substance that is found in nature or that normally occurs in the
human body.
Rationale 2: A drug is not only a substance that is synthesized and tested.
Rationale 3: A drug is considered to be any substance that is taken to prevent, cure, or reduce
symptoms of a medical condition.
Rationale 4: A drug is not only a substance isolated from natural substances.
Cognitive Level: Understanding
Client Need: Physiological Integrity
Client Need Sub: Pharmacological and Parenteral Therapies
Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Implementation
Learning Outcome: 1-4: Compare and contrast conventional drugs, biologics and natural health
products.

Question 3
Type: MCSA
Pharmacotherapy is a critical intervention for many conditions, and a key part of nursing
intervention. Which statement best describes pharmacotherapy?
1. The study of medicine and drug therapy
2. The application of natural substances to cure diseases
3. The application of drugs for the prevention and treatment of disease and human
suffering
4. The understanding of the difference between trade and generic medications
Correct Answer: 3
Rationale 1: Pharmacotherapy is not just the study of medicine and drug therapy.
Rationale 2: Pharmacotherapy is not the application of natural substances to cure diseases.
Rationale 3: Pharmacotherapy is the application of drugs for the prevention and treatment of
diseases and human suffering.

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc.

Unit 1 Fundamental Concepts and Principles of Pharmacology 4

Rationale 4: Pharmacotherapy comprises more than understanding the difference between trade
and generic drugs.
Cognitive Level: Understanding
Client Need: Physiological Integrity
Client Need Sub: Pharmacological and Parenteral Therapies
Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Implementation
Learning Outcome: 1-3: Compare and contrast therapeutics and pharmacology

Question 4
Type: MCMA
Note: Credit will be given only if all correct choices and no incorrect choices are selected.
Standard Text: Select all that apply.
A student nurse is learning about how drugs are dispensed in her pharmacology class. Which of
the following are considered true in dispensing of prescription drugs when compared to over the
counter (OTC)?
1. May only be obtained by a physician
2. Are easily obtainable
3. Choice of drug is usually more specific
4. Frequency of the drug can be controlled
Correct Answer: 3,4
Rationale 1: Prescription drugs are not only available by physicians, other health care providers
can write prescriptions.
Rationale 2: Prescription drugs are less easily obtainable than OTC, they require an appointment
with a health care provider.
Rationale 3: The choice of drug is considered more specific because the health care provider has
the opportunity to examine the client and come up with a diagnosis.
Rationale 4: The dose and frequency of the drug is controlled through prescription dispensing.
Cognitive Level: Applying
Client Need: Physiological Integrity
Client Need Sub: Pharmacological and Parenteral Therapies
Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Teaching/Learning
Learning Outcome: 1-5: Identify the advantages and disadvantages of prescription and over-the-
counter (OTC) drugs

Question 5
Type: MCMA
Which of the following criteria are assessed in order to market a pharmaceutical drug?

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc.

Unit 1 Fundamental Concepts and Principles of Pharmacology 5

Note: Credit will be given only if all correct choices and no incorrect choices are selected.
Standard Text: Select all that apply.
1. Efficacy
2. Need
3. Cost
4. Safety
5. Quality
Correct Answer: 1,4,5
Rationale 1:The Therapeutic Products Directorate (TPD), a branch of Health Canada authorizes
marketing of a pharmaceutical drug or medical device once a manufacturer presents sufficient
scientific evidence of the product’s safety, efficacy, and quality.
Rationale 2: The need for a particular drug does not influence the marketing of drugs in
Canada. Despite need, all drugs must go through the same degree of rigour in order to promote
safety, efficacy and quality.
Rationale 3: Cost is not considered criteria for marketing drugs.
Rationale 4: The Therapeutic Products Directorate (TPD), a branch of Health Canada authorizes
marketing of a pharmaceutical drug or medical device once a manufacturer presents sufficient
scientific evidence of the product’s safety, efficacy, and quality.
Rationale 5: The Therapeutic Products Directorate (TPD), a branch of Health Canada authorizes
marketing of a pharmaceutical drug or medical device once a manufacturer presents sufficient
scientific evidence of the product’s safety, efficacy, and quality.
Cognitive Level: Understanding
Client Need: Physiological Integrity
Client Need Sub: Pharmacological and Parenteral Therapies
Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Assessment
Learning Outcomes: 1-7: Discuss the role of Health Canada and the Health Products and Food
Branch (HPFB) of Health Canada and its Therapeutic Products Directorate in the drug
approval process.

Question 6
Type: MCMA
Mrs. Morton expresses concern to the nurse about a new drug on the market that has been
prescribed for her health condition; she worries about the safety of the medication. What can the
nurse tell Mrs. Morton about drug regulatory standards in Canada that are intended to protect
patients?
Note: Credit will be given only if all correct choices and no incorrect choices are selected.

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc.

Unit 1 Fundamental Concepts and Principles of Pharmacology 6

Standard Text: Select all that apply.

1. All drugs go through a 3 step approval process before marketed for human use.
2. The first phase of clinical trials involves testing on 1000-3000 individuals with the
target disorder.
3. Once a drug is considered safe on animals, the manufacturer applies for clinical trials.
4. Health Canada continues to monitor the safety of drugs even after initial marketing
Correct Answer: 3,4
Rationale 1: Drugs go through a 7 step approval process from pre-clinical trials to the
monitoring of drugs after marketing.
Rationale 2: The first phase of clinical trials involves a small group of healthy individuals.
Rationale 3: After the preclinical trials, an application for Clinical trials is submitted to Health
Canada.
Rationale 4: Health Canada monitors the efficacy of the drug and any safety concerns after it has
been marketed. This is done by regular inspection, notices, newsletters, and feedback from
consumers and healthcare professionals.
Cognitive Level: Remembering
Client Need: Physiological Integrity
Client Need Sub: Pharmacological and Parenteral Therapies
Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Implementation
Learning Outcome: 1-6 Identify key Canadian Drug regulations that help to ensure the safety
and efficacy of medications.

Question 7
Type: MCSA
In clinical trials, a new drug is tested on healthy individuals.Which of the following is a reason
for this step in the process?
1. To determine adverse effects.
2.To identify how a drug is metabolized
3. To determine drug incompatibilities.
4. To maximize a drugs effectiveness at different doses.
Correct Answer: 2
Rationale 1: Adverse effects would be determined during pre-clinical trials.
Rationale 2: Clinical investigators perform tests on 20 to 100 healthy volunteers to determine
dosage and to assess how the drug is absorbed, metabolized, and excreted by the body.
Rationale 3: This occurs during the last phase of clinical trials.
Rationale 4: This occurs during pre-clinical trials.

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc.

Unit 1 Fundamental Concepts and Principles of Pharmacology 7

Cognitive Level: Remembering

Client Need: Physiological Integrity
Client Need Sub: Pharmacological and Parenteral Therapies
Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Assessment
Learning Outcome: 1-8: Describe the stages of approval for therapeutic and biologic drugs in
Canada.

Question 8
Type: MCSA
Which of the following characteristics are true of a a biologic?
1. A biologic is an ingredient extracted from plants.
2. Insulin is an example of a biologic.
3. Biologics have no adverse effects.
4. Biologics do not require a prescription.
Correct Answer: 2
Rationale 1: Natural health products (nhps)( not biologics) may include natural plant extracts,
Rationale 2:Biologics are agents naturally produced in animal cells; Examples of biologics
include hormones,( hormone) monoclonal antibodies, natural blood products and components,
interferon, and vaccines.
Rationale 3: Biologics are therapeutics that can produce adverse effects if not given according to
proven treatment regimes.
Rationale 4: Biologics are not available over the counter.
Cognitive Level: Understanding
Client Need: Physiological Integrity
Client Need Sub: Pharmacological and Parenteral Therapies
Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Assessment
Learning Outcome: 1-4: Compare and contrast conventional drugs, biologics, and natural
health products.

Question 9
Type: MCSA
Mr Brisbois is in the pre-operative assessment clinic for consults before his knee replacement. .
The pharmacist asks him about prescription, OTC and herbals remedies that he is currently
taking. Mr Brisbois asks him why information on herbals is important. What is the best
response?
1. Herbal remedies may be ordered to enhance recovery.
2. Herbals can be substituted for prescribed drugs because of their decreased incidence
of adverse effects

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc.

Unit 1 Fundamental Concepts and Principles of Pharmacology 8

3. Some herbals may contain the same ingredients as prescription drugs in different
forms.
4. Herbals may be ordered instead of prescription drugs to control costs
Correct Answer: 3
Rationale 1: While herbals may be used to enhance recovery, they are normally not ordered by a
physician. It is most important that the health care providers know about all medications to
decrease incidence of receiving multiple forms of the same drug and herbals that may counteract
ordered medications necessary for recovery.
Rationale 2: Herbal medications can have adverse effects and can interact with prescribed drugs.
Rationale 3: To ensure that the client does not receive two different forms of the same drug or
drugs that may counter- act the home remedy.
Rationale 4: There is no evidence to support that herbals would be substituted for thoroughly
studied medications, ordered for a specific effect.
Cognitive Level: Remembering
Client Need: Physiological IntegrityClient Need Sub: Pharmacological and Parenteral Therapies
Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process-Implementation
Learning Outcome: 1-4: Compare and contrast conventional drugs, biologics, and natural
health products.

Question 10
Type: MCSA
A new drug has been approved by Health Canada for the treatment of psoriasis. What determines
when a health care provider will be able to order it for his clients?
1. Once approved by Health Canada, medications are available in all provinces and
territories.
2. Medication will be available after the 4 level provincial testing is completed
3. Following direct to consumer advertising to determine market need.
4. Following.a Common Drug Review to provide a formulary listing recommendation.
Correct Answer: 4
Rationale 1: Each territory and province decides on whether to include newly approved drugs in
their formularies.
Rationale 2: There is no specific testing completed at the provincial level.
Rationale 3: Direct to consumer marketing of prescription medications is not allowed in Canada.
Rationale 4: A common Drug Review is completed after Health Canada’s approval process to
expedite jurisdictional review for provinces and territories.
Cognitive Level: Understanding
Client Need: Physiological Integrity
Client Need Sub: Pharmacological and Parenteral Therapies
Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Implementation

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc.

Unit 1 Fundamental Concepts and Principles of Pharmacology 9

Learning Outcome: 1-8 Describe the stages of approval for therapeutic and biologic drugs in
Canada.

Question 11
Type: MCSA
How is information collected for Health Canada regarding adverse drug reactions after
administration of a new drug on the market?
1. Voluntary reporting to local Health Authority.
2. Mandated reporting to the Institute for Safe Medication Practices.
3. Direct reporting to Health Canada.
4. Voluntary reporting to Canadian Adverse Drug Reaction Monitoring Program.
Correct Answer: 4
Rationale 1: Reporting to only the Health Authority would be insufficient in identifying adverse
reaction trends nation wide.
Rationale 2: Reporting adverse reactions is voluntary. While the ISMP mandates safe
medication practices, they are more concerned with medication errors.
Rationale 3: Reporting is to the CADRMP, not directly to Health Canada.
Rationale 4: The CADRMP collects data from health care professionals and consumers
regarding adverse drug reactions. These are then listed in the Canadian Adverse Drug
Monitoring Information System( CADMIS) a database used to compile data on reported
reactions from drugs.
Cognitive Level: Applying
Client Need: Physiological Integrity
Client Need Sub: Pharmacological and Parenteral Therapies
NLN Competencies: Knowledge and Science: Relationships between knowledge/science and quality
and safe patient care
Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Assessment
Learning Outcome: 1-6: Identify key Canadian drug regulations that help to ensure the safety
and efficacy of medications.

Question 12
Type: MCSA
The nurse is teaching a class about over-the-counter (OTC) medications at a senior citizen
centre. Which statement by a participant indicates the teaching was effective?
1. "Over-the-counter medications are safe, as long as we don't take them at the same time
as our prescription medications."
2. "Over-the-counter medications are safe; otherwise, they would require a prescription."
3. "We should inform our primary health care provider of any OTC drugs used because
of the potential of interacting with our prescription medications."

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc.

Unit 1 Fundamental Concepts and Principles of Pharmacology 10

4. "We must read all the label directions before taking any over-the-counter medications."
Correct Answer: 3
Rationale 1: Some OTC medications can be taken with prescription medications; others cannot.
Rationale 2: Although they have a high margin of safety, OTC medications are not without
risks.
Rationale 3: Elderly clients often take multiple medications and should consult with their health
care provider before taking any over-the-counter medication or supplement to ensure there are no
risks for drug interactions.
Rationale 4: It is important for clients to read all directions on the label, but this will not protect
them if there is a contraindication with another medication they are taking; therefore, they must
consult their primary health care provider before taking any OTC medications.

Cognitive Level: Applying

Client Need: Physiological Integrity
Client Need Sub: Pharmacological and Parenteral Therapies
Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Evaluation
Learning Outcome: 1-5: Identify the advantages and disadvantages of prescription and over the
counter drugs.

Question 13
Type: MCSA
Nursing students are studying how foods and health products are regulated and approved for sale
in Canada. Which of the following products is regulated through the Therapeutic Products
Directorate?

1. Biologics
2. Food supplements
3. Medications
4. Herbal Supplements
Correct Answer: 3

Rationale 1: Biologics are approved through Biologics & Genetic Therapies Directorate
Rationale 2:.Approval for food supplements is not covered by the Therapeutic Products
Directorate
Rationale 3: The Therapeutic Products Directorate (TPD) authorizes marketing of a pharma-
ceutical drug or medical device once a manufacturer presents sufficient scientific evidence of the
product’s safety, efficacy, and quality as required by the Food and Drugs Act and Regulations.
Rationale 4: Herbal supplements are approved through the Natural & Non- prescription Health
Products Directorate.

Cognitive Level: Applying

Client Need: Physiological Integrity
Client Need Sub: Pharmacological and Parenteral Therapies
Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Implementation

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc.

Unit 1 Fundamental Concepts and Principles of Pharmacology 11

Learning Outcome: 1–7: Discuss the role of Health Canada and the Health Products and Food
Branch (HPFB) of Health Canada and its Therapeutic Products Directorate in the drug approval
process.

Question 14
Type: MCMA
Which statements regarding the 4 phases of clinical research of drug development are true?
Note: Credit will be given only if all correct choices and no incorrect choices are selected.
Standard Text: Select all that apply.

1. 90 % of drugs do not proceed past the 2nd phase because they are found to be
ineffective.
2. In the second phase, clients with the disease or condition that the drug will treat are
given the drug to determine doses and side effects
3. The clinical stage of research involves extensive testing on animals in the laboratory to
determine if the drug will cause harm to humans.
4. Absorption, metabolism and excretion of a drug is determined in the first phase of
clinical trials
5. A clinical trial will not be suspended until 2000-3000 people with the affected disease
or condition have trialled the drug .
Correct Answer: 1,2,4
Rationale 1: Most drugs do not reach the third phase of clinical trials if there is concern that the
drug is ineffective, worsens the condition it is intended to treat, or affects one type of client more
than others.
Rationale 2: The second phase of clinical trials involves testing the drug on individuals who
have the disease or condition that the drug will treat. At this phase, dosage is determined and side
effects monitored.
Rationale 3: Preclinical, not clinical involves extensive testing on human, microbial cells, and
animals to determine drug action and to predict whether the drug will cause harm to humans.
Rationale 4:.A small population of healthy individuals ( 20-100) is given the drug to determine
the drug’s absorption, metabolism and excretion.
Rationale 5: This is incorrect. A clinical trial can be abandoned at any time that there is
sufficient evidence that a drug is causing harm.

Cognitive Level: Applying

Client Need: Physiological Integrity
Client Need Sub: Pharmacological and Parenteral Therapies
Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Implementation
Learning Outcome: 1–6: Identify key Canadian drug regulations that help to ensure the safety
and efficacy of medications.

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc.

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 Fig. 291.—The Fructification of Chara fragilis.

A. Portion of filament containing “antheroids”; B. A group of

antheridial filaments, composed of a series of cells, within each of
which antherozoids are formed; C. The escape of mature
antherozoids, with whip-like prolongations, about to swim off; D.
Antherid supported on flask-shaped pedicle; E. Nucule enlarging,
and seen to contain oospores; F. Spores and elaters of Equisetum;
G. Spores surrounded by elaters of Equisetum.

The reproductive process of Chara is effected by two sets of bodies,

both of which are placed at the base of the branches (Fig. 291, E
and D) either on the same or different plants, one set known as
globules or antherids, and the other as nucules, containing the
oospores or archegones. These are often of a bright red colour, and
have covering plates, or shields (B and E), curiously marked, and the
central portion is composed of a number of filaments rolled up (as in
E) or free (as seen at B), projecting out from the centre of the
sphere. The antherid is supported on a short flask-shaped pedicle,
which projects into the interior. At the apex of each of the eight
manubria is a roundish hyaline cell, termed a capitulum, and at its
apex again six smaller or secondary capitula. The long whip-shaped
filaments are divided by transverse septa into a hundred or more
compartments, every one of which is filled with an antherozoid (as
at A), consisting of a spiral thread of protoplasm packed into two or
three coils; these escape and become free (as seen at C), each
having two long fine flagella. The young antherozoid swims off with
a lashing action, and the whole field appears for a time filled with
life. They swim about freely, but their motion gradually ceases, and
soon they arrive at a state of inaction.

Nitella appears to have a somewhat different mode of fructification

to that of its congener. It puts forth a long filamentous branch from
one of its joints, which, on reaching the surface of the water,
terminates in a whitish fruit-like cluster. It is even a more delicate
and less robust algal than chara, and every care should be taken to
imitate the still water in which it grows. It delights in shady woods
and in calcareous open pools.

Similar care is requisite with regard to Vallisneria; and a more equal

temperature is better suited to the growth of this aquatic plant. It
should be planted in the middle of the jar or aquarium, about two
inches deep in mould, closely pressed down, then gently fill the jar
with water. When the water requires changing, a small portion only
should be run off at a time. It appears to thrive in proportion to the
frequency of changing the water, and taking care that the water
added rather increases the temperature than lowers it.

The natural habitat of the Frog-bit, another water-plant of much

interest, is found on the surface of ponds and ditches; in the autumn
its seeds fall, and become buried in the mud at the bottom during
the winter; in the spring these plants rise to the surface, produce
flowers, and grow throughout the summer. Chara may be found in
many places around London, and in the upper reaches of the
Thames.
Anacharis alsinastrum.—This remarkable plant is so unlike any other
water-plant that it may be at once recognised by its leaves growing
in threes round a slender stem. It is also known as “Waterthyme,”
from a resemblance it bears to that plant.

The colour of the plant is deep green; the leaves are nearly half an
inch long, by an eighth wide, egg-shaped at the point, with serrated
edges. Its powers of increase are prodigious, as every fragment is
capable of becoming an independent plant, producing roots and
stems, and extending itself indefinitely in every direction. The
specific gravity of it is so nearly that of water, that it is more
disposed to sink than float. A small branch of the plant is
represented, with a hydra attached to it, in a subsequent chapter.

The special cells in which the circulation is most readily seen are the
elongated cells around the margin of the leaf and those of the
midrib. On examining the leaf with polarised light, the cells are
observed to contain a large proportion of silica, and present a very
interesting appearance. A bright band of light encircles the leaf, and
traverses its centre. In fact, the leaf is set, as it were, in a
framework of silica. By boiling the leaf for a short time in equal parts
of nitric acid and water, a portion of the vegetable tissue is
destroyed, and the silica rendered more distinct, without changing
the form of the leaf.

It is necessary to make a thin section or strip from the leaf of

Vallisneria for the purpose of exhibiting the circulation in the cells, as
shown in Fig. 290, No. 4. Among the cell granules, a few of a more
transparent character than the rest, are seen to have a nucleolus
within.

The phenomenon of cell cyclosis occurs in other plants beside those

growing in water. The leaf of the common plantain or dock,
Plantago, furnishes a good example, the movement being seen both
in the cells of the plant and hairs of the cuticle torn from the midrib.
Cell-division.—In order to study the process of cell-division the hairs
on the stamens of Tradescantia should be taken. Remove one from a
bud on a warm day and let a drop of a one per cent. sugar solution
fall upon it, and cover it with a thin glass cover. Place it for a short
time in a moist-chamber (Fig. 256), and then examine it with a
magnifying power of 500 diameters. The nucleus of the cell will be
seen, near its terminal position, to gradually elongate in the direction
of the longer axis of the cell and become more granular, while the
protoplasm moves towards the extreme end; the nucleus at the
same time will present a striated appearance, with the fibrilla
arranged parallel to the longer axis of the nucleus, and at length
approach each other at the poles. A nuclear spindle will now be
produced, and the fibres ruptured in the equatorial plane, so that
two nuclei will be found in place of the one. The best preparations of
nuclei are obtained by making thin longitudinal sections of actively-
growing plants (young rootlets of Pinus, for example), and staining
them with hæmatoxylin in the manner described in a former chapter.

Desmidiaceæ and Diatomaceæ.

The two groups of Desmidiaceæ and Diatomaceæ differ so little in
their general characters that they may be spoken of as members or
representative families of microscopic and unicellular algæ alike in
their remarkable beauty and bilateral symmetry, and of such peculiar
interest as to call for special notice. Desmids differ from diatoms
chiefly in colour, in lacking a non-silicious skeleton, and in their
generative process, which for the most part consists in the
conjugation of two similar cells. Diatoms, on the other hand, have
dense silicious skeletons and a general absence of green colouring
matter. Ralfs, in his systematic monograph, enumerates twenty
genera of desmids. The limiting membrane is alike firm and flexible,
since it exhibits some elasticity and resistance to pressure, and is not
readily decomposable. Traces of silica are found in only a few of the
desmids, while the frustule of the diatom is chiefly composed of this
substance; both have an external membranous covering, so
transparent and homogeneous in structure as to be in danger of
being entirely overlooked, unless some staining material is used,
together with a high-power objective possessing considerable
penetration. In some species, however, the mucous covering is more
clearly defined, as in Staurastrum and Didymoprium Grevelli.
Openings occur in the outer membrane of other species, as the
Closterium.

PLATE X.

DESMIDIACEÆ.
Many species of desmids have a power of motion, the cause of
which must be due either to cilia or a flagellate organ. This,
however, is denied by some observers, who regard their movements
as due to an exudation of the mucilaginous contents of the cell, to
exosmose, or diffusion, neither of which hypotheses will at all help
us to understand the gliding movements of the Oscillariæ or the
sharp jerky movement of the Schizonema. The movements of
desmids are especially exerted when in the act of dividing, and by
sunlight, towards which they are always observed to move. The
force with which some diatoms move about is very great, and this
can only be satisfactorily explained by admitting a specialised organ.

The appearance of the Desmidiaceæ (Plate X.) is much modified by

their eminences, depressions, and processes, as well as that of the
surface, the margin of the fronds, and the depth and width of the
central constriction. The surfaces may be dotted over irregularly, the
dots themselves being elevated or depressed points in their
structural character. The margins of some have a dentate
appearance, as in Cosmarium. In the elongated forms, such as
Penium, the puncta are disposed in lines parallel to the length. In
several these lines are either elevations or furrows, it is not always
easy to say which; they are peculiar, however, to the elongated
forms of Closterium. When the lines are fine they produce a striation
of the surface, but in order to discover this the fronds should be
viewed when empty and by a fairly good power. The modification of
surface in several genera seems to be due, not to mere simple
appendages, but to expansion of the limiting membrance into
thickened processes, and which may terminate in spines, as in
Xanthidium and Staurastrum (Plate X., Nos. 8-19 and 22). A general
distribution over the surface is characteristic of the former, but in
Euastrum the surfaces are very irregular, and therefore described as
“swellings or inflations.” Micrasterias has its margin deeply incised
into lobes, which in some have a radiating arrangement; when the
lobes on the margin are small they constitute crenations or
dentations. The fronds of Euastrum binatum are bicrenate on the
sides, as are those of Desmidium and Hyalotheca and other species.
Another variety of margin exists, known as undulating or wavy, while
the general concavity or convexity of the margins furnish other
specific characteristics.

Pediastreæ (Plate X., Nos. 24-29).—The members of this family

formerly included the Micrasterias and Arthrodesmius of Ehrenberg.
From their arrangement of cells in determinate numbers and definite
forms, it has been thought by some observers that they should be
removed from the desmids to a special or sub-family. The points of
difference consist in the firmness of the outer covering, in the
frequent interruptions on the margin of the cells, and in the
protrusion of “horns,” or rather a notch more or less deep. It is true
that the cells are not made up of two symmetrical halves, and that
they are in aggregation, which is not (except in the Scenedesmus, a
genus that distinctly connects this group with desmids) in linear
series, but in the form of discoidal fronds. They, however, divide into
8, 16, or 32 gonidia, and these move about for some time before the
formation of a new frond. It was Nägeli who first instituted a sub-
genus of Pediastrum, under the designation of Anomopedium, the
chief characteristic of which is the absence of bilobed peripheral
cells. In Cœlastrum the cells are hexangular, the central ones very
regularly so; in Sorastrum they are wedge-shaped, or triangular, with
rounded-off angles. Viewed laterally the cells appear oblong. The
cells of Pediastrum are considerably compressed, so that when
aggregated they form a flattened tubular structure; in figure they
are polygonal, frequently hexagonal, a shape owing, in all
probability, to mutual lateral pressure during growth. There is a
pervading uniformity in the contents of the cells of the different
genera, which consist of protoplasmic endochrome. At first the
colour is pale green, but it becomes deeper with full maturity, while
the decaying cells are seen to change to a deep reddish-yellow or
brown. The protoplasm is also clear and homogeneous, but in time
granules appear, enlarge, and multiply in number; moreover, each
cell presents a single bright green vesicle, around which are
collected clear circular spaces or globules, recalling those of
Closterium, and varying in number from two to six or more, their
position not being regulated by the partition wall as in Palmellæ, but
by the centre of the entire frond. Oil globules are also contained in
the cells; their presence is indicated by the addition of a drop of
tincture of iodine. On one occasion Nägeli saw in Pediastrum
boryanum the endochrome disposed in a radiating manner, an
arrangement which often obtains in algals and in other vegetable
cells with a central nucleus. The cells of Pediastreæ are always
united together in compound fronds, as represented in Plate X., Nos.
24 and 29.56

The differences pointed out in no way constitute a claim to remove

Pediastreæ from among Desmidiaceæ, certainly not to rank as a
distinct species.

Reproduction of Desmidiaceæ.—A true reproductive act is presented

by the conjugation or coupling of two fronds, and by the resulting
development of a sporangium and subsequent interchange of the
contents of the two cells. At another time self-division is frequently
seen to take place in all respects as in the cells of other algæ. The
proceeding is varied in some essential particulars by the form of the
fronds and by other circumstances; as in fission of Euastrum, for
instance (seen in Plate X., Nos. 1, 2, and 12), when the narrow
connecting bands between the two segments of the fronds are
rapidly pushed aside by growth and finally divide. Two modes of
conjugation of fronds are represented in Plate X., Nos. 25 and 33, in
Closterium and Penium. The act of conjugation admits of variations
in character, as shown in Staurastrum and Microsterias; the contents
of both fronds are discharged into a delicate intermediate sac; this
gradually thickens and produces spines (Plate X., Nos. 8 and 19). In
Didymoprium the separate joints unite by a narrow process pushed
out from each other, often of considerable length, through which the
endochrome of one cell is transferred to the other, and thus a
sporangium is produced within one of two cells, just as in the
conjugatæ (No. 5). In Penium Jennereri the conjugation takes a
varied form; the fronds do not open and gape at the suture, but
couple by small but distinct cylindrical tubes (No. 27).
Among those enumerated, the compressed and deeply constricted
cells of Euastrum offer the more favourable opportunities for
studying the manner of their division; for although the frond is really
a single cell, in all its stages it appears like two, the segments being
always distinct, from the earliest stage. The segments, however, are
separated by a connecting link, which is subsequently converted into
two somewhat round hyaline bodies. These bodies gradually
increase and acquire colour, and as they grow the original segments
are further divided, and at length become disconnected, each taking
a new segment to supply the place of that from which it is
separated. It is curious to trace the progressive development of the
newer portions, which at first are devoid of all colour; but as they
become larger a faint green tint is observed, which gradually
darkens, and then assumes a granular appearance. Soon the new
segments attain their normal size, while the covering in some
species shows the presence of puncta. In Xanthidium, Plate X., Nos.
9, 10, and Staurastrum, Nos. 15-18, the spines and processes make
their appearance last, beginning as mere tubercles, and then
lengthening until they attain their perfect form and size, armed with
setæ; but complete separation frequently occurs before growth is
fully completed. This singular process is repeated again and again,
so that the older segments are united successively, as it were, with
many generations. When the cells approach maturity, molecular
movements may be at times noticed in their contents, precisely
similar to what Agardh and others aptly term “swarming.” Meyen
describes this granular matter as starch.57 Closterium, early in the
spring, when freshly secured and exposed to light, presents a
wonderful appearance, these bodies being kept continually in motion
at both ends of the frustule by the ciliary action within the cell, and
the whole frond is seen brilliantly glittering with active cilia. When a
gleam of stronger light is allowed for a moment to fall on the frond,
the rapid undulations of the cilia produce a series of most delicate
prismatic Newton’s rings. The action and distribution of the cilia,
together with the cyclosis of the granular bodies in the frond, are
better seen by the aid of Wenham’s parabola or a good condenser
with a central stop. One of the wide angular objectives shows the
circulation around the marginal portions of the whole frond. The
stream is seen to be running up the more external portion, internal
to which is another stream following a contrary direction; this action,
confined to the space between the mass of endochrome and the
outer portion of the cell-wall, is seen to pass above or around the
space in which cyclosis of the spores is taking place.

During the summer of 1854, the late Rev. Lord Sidney Godolphin
Osborne and myself became much interested in the remarkable
family of Closteria. Fig. 292 is a highly magnified view of Closterium
lunula which I drew by the aid of the camera-lucida at the time.
There could be no doubt about the ciliary action within the frond: it
was in every way similar to that of the branchiæ of the muscle, the
same wavy motion, which gradually became slower as the death of
the desmid drew near. This was brought about earlier when the cell
was not kept supplied with fresh water.

Fig. 292.—Closterium lunula.

In diagram A, line b points to a cluster of ovoid bodies; these are

seen at intervals throughout the endochrome within the investing
membrane. These bodies are attached to the membrane by small
pedicles, and are occasionally seen in motion about the spot, from
which they eventually break away, and are carried off, by the
circulating fluid, to the chambers at the extremities of the frond;
there they join a crowd of similar bodies, in constant motion within
the chambers, when the specimen is quite fresh. That the action of
these free granules or spores is “Brownian,” as surmised by some
writers, is in my opinion entirely fallacious. It is doubtless in a
measure due to the current brought about by the ciliary motion of
the more fluid contents of the cell.

The circulation, when made out over the centre of the frond, for
instance at a, is in appearance of a wholly different nature from that
seen at the edges. In the latter the matter circulated is that of
granules, passing each other in distinct lines, but in opposite
directions; in the circulation as seen at a, the streams are broad,
tortuous, of far greater body, and passing with much less rapidity. To
see the centre circulation, use a Gillett’s illuminator and a 1⁄8th or a
1⁄10th immersion; work the fine adjustment so as to bring the centre
of the frond into focus, then almost lose it by raising the objective;
after this, with great care, work the milled head until the darker
body of the endochrome is clearly brought out.

At B is an enlarged sketch of one extremity of the frond. The arrows

within the chamber pointing to b denote the direction of a strong
current of fluid, which can be occasionally followed throughout. It is
acted upon by cilia at the edges of the chamber, the greater impetus
appearing to come from the centre of the endochrome. The fluid is
here acting in positive jets, that is, with an almost arterial action;
and according to the strength with which it is propelled at the time,
the loose floating bodies are sent to a greater or less distance from
the end of the frustule; the fluid is thus impelled from a centre, and
kept in activity by the lateral cilia, that create a rapid current and
give a turning motion to the free bodies. The line—a, in this
diagram, denotes the outline of the membrane which encloses the
endochrome; on both sides cilia can be seen. The circulation exterior
to it passes and repasses in opposite directions, in three or four
distinct courses; these, when they arrive at—c, seem to encounter a
stream making its way towards an aperture at the apex of the
chamber; then they appear to be driven back again by a stronger
force. Some, however, do occasionally enter the chamber, but very
rarely will one of the bodies escape into the outer current, and
should it do so, is carried about until it becomes adherent to the side
wall of the frond.

With regard to the propagation of the C. lunula, I have never seen

anything like conjugation; but I have repeatedly seen self-division
(shown at D a a). This act is chiefly the work of one half of the
frond. Having watched for some time, one half is seen to remain
passive, while the other has a lateral motion from side to side, as if
moving on an axis at the point of juncture; the motion increases, is
more active, until at last with a jerk one segment separates itself
from the other, as seen at E. It will be noticed that each end of the
segment is perfectly closed before separation finally takes place;
there is, however, only one perfect chamber, that belonging to the
extremity of the original entire frond. The circulation continues for
some time previous to and after subdivision, in both fronds, and by
almost imperceptible degrees increases in volume. From the end of
the endochrome symptoms of elongation of the frond take place, the
semi-lunar form gradually changes, elongates, and is more defined,
until it takes the form and outline of the fully-formed frustule at the
extremity. The obtuse end—b of the other portion of frond is at the
same time elongating and contracting, and in a few hours from the
division of the one segment from the other the appearance of each
half is that of a nearly perfect frustule, the chamber at the new end
is complete, the globular circulation exterior to it becomes affected
by the circulation from within the said chamber, and, shortly
afterwards, some of the free bodies descend, and become exposed
to the current already going on in the chamber. E is a diagram of
one end of a C. didymotocum, in which the same process was well
marked, and completed while it was under observation.
It will appear to most observers that if the continuation of the
widely-spread family of Desmidiaceæ was wholly dependent upon
conjugation and subdivision of their frustules, a process requiring
several hours for its completion, the whole species must have long
ago disappeared. It may be presumed then that some other mode of
reproduction must prevail. In the fresh-water algæ the two more
general methods of multiplication are clearly governed by the
conditions of the seasons; the resting-spores securing continuity of
life during the winter, the swarm-spores spreading the plant
profusely during the warmer portion of the year, when rapid growth
is possible. I therefore regard the actively swarming bodies seen in
continuous motion at the two extreme portions of the frustule of
Closterium lunula as being either oospores or zoospores, by means
of which reproduction takes place.

Diatomaceæ, commonly called brittleworts, Plate XI., are chiefly

composed of two symmetrical valves, narrow and wand-like,
navicular, miniature boat-shaped, hence their name Navicula (little
ship). Hitherto they have excited the deepest interest among
microscopists because of their wonderfully minute structure, and the
difficulty involved in determining their exact nature and formation.
Each individual diatom has a silicious skeleton, spoken of as a
frustule, frond, or cell, having a rectangular or prismatic form, which
mostly obtains in the whole family, the angles of the junction of the
two united valves being, as a rule, acute, and enclosing a yellowish-
brown endochrome. Deeply-notched frustules, like those of the
Desmidiaceæ, do not occur, and the production of spines and
tubercles so common in that family is rare in the Diatomaceæ. Great
variety of outline prevails, so much so that no rule in this respect can
be formulated.

The frustules, however, are usually composed of two equal and

similar halves, but exceptions to this are found in the Actinomtheæ,
Cocconcidæ, and one or two other families. The extremities of some
species, e.g., Nitzshia and Pleurosigma, are extremely elongated,
forming long, filiform, tubular processes; in Biddulphia and
Rizoselenia, short tubular processes from their margins. Great
variety of outline may prevail in a genus, so considerable indeed that
no accurate definition can be given, the characteristics shading off
through several species until the similarity to an assumed typical
form is much diminished, which may again be modified by accidental
circumstances that surround the development of the silicious
frustule. It must not be forgotten that the figure is greatly modified
or entirely changed by the position of the valves, whether seen in
one position or another, as already explained in connection with
“Errors of Interpretation.” Again, in the genera Navicula, Pinnularia
(Plate II., Nos. 33, 38, and 40), and others, the frustules are in one
aspect boat-shaped, but in the other either oblong with truncated
ends, or prismatic. In the genus Triceratium (Plate XI., No. 10), the
difference of figure is very remarkable as the front or side view is
examined.

The sudden change in appearance presented to the eye as the

frustule is seen to roll over is rather peculiar. As a rule, therefore, we
must examine all specimens in every aspect, to accomplish which
very shallow cells should be selected, say of 1⁄100th of an inch deep,
and covered with glass 1⁄250th of an inch thick. A good penetrating
objective should be used, and careful illumination obtained. The
Diatomaceæ are perhaps more widely distributed than any other
class of infusorial life; they are found in fresh, salt, and brackish
water; many grow attached to other bodies by a stalk (Plate II., No.
33, Licmophora and Achnanthidium); while others, as Pleurosigma,
No. 40, swim about freely.

PLATE XI.
 DIATOMACEÆ, RECENT AND FOSSIL.

There are a considerable number of Diatomaceæ which, when in the

young state, are enclosed in a muco-gelatinous sheath; while others
are attached by stipes or stalk to algæ. It would be vain, in a limited
space, to attempt a description of this numerous and extensive
family. Nägeli and other observers describe a “mucilaginous pellicle
on the inner layer of the valves,” while, as Menghine observes, “an
organic membrane ought to exist both inside and outside, for the
silica could not become solid except by crystallizing or depositing
itself on some pre-existing substance.” The surface of the frustules is
generally very beautifully sculptured, and the markings assume the
appearance of dots (puncta), stripes (striæ), ribs (costæ), pinnules
(pinnæ), of furrows and fine lines; longitudinal, transverse, and
radiating bands; canals or canaliculi; and of cells or areolæ; whilst all
present striking varieties and modifications in their form, character,
and degree of development. Again, the fine lines or striæ of many
frustules are resolvable into rows of minute dots or perforations, as
occur in Pleurosigma angulatum, delineated in the accompanying
microphotograph (Fig. 294), taken for the author purposely to show
the markings on this especially selected test diatom.

Fig. 293.

1. Pleurosigma attenuatum; 2. Pleurosigma angulatum; 3.

Pleurosigma Spencerii. Magnified 450 diameters.

The nature of the markings on the diatom valves is one of

considerable interest, and attempts have been made to produce
them artificially, but without success.
 Fig. 294.—Pleurosigma angulatum, magnified 4500 diameters.

(From a microphotograph taken by Zeiss with the 2 mm.

aprochromatic objective, 1·30 numerical aperture, and projection
eye-piece, No. 4.)

Professor Max Schultze devoted a great amount of time to the

investigation of the subject, and has recorded in a voluminous
paper58 the results of his observations. He says, “Most of the species
of the Diatomaceæ are characterised by the presence on their outer
surface of certain differences of relief, referable either to elevations
or to depressions disposed in rows. The opinions of microscopists
with respect to the nature of these markings are still somewhat
divided. Whilst in the larger forms, and those distinguished by their
coarser dots, the appearance is manifestly due to the existence of
thinner spots in the valve, we cannot so easily explain the cause of
the striation or punctation in Pleurosigma angulatum and similar
finely-marked forms.”

Dr. R. Zeiss some time ago furnished me with a microphotograph of

a frustule magnified 4500 diameters that seemed to confirm Mr. T. F.
Smith’s view of the structure of these valves. Dr. Van Heurck has
also made a study of this diatom, and concludes that the valves
consist of two membranes of thin films, and of an intermediate layer,
the outer being pierced with openings. The outer membrane is, he
believes, “so delicate that it is easily destroyed by acid or by friction,
and the several processes employed in cleaning and preparing it for
microscopical examination. When the openings or apertures of the
internal portion are arranged in alternate rows they assume the
hexagonal form; when in straight rows, the openings are seen to be
square or oblong.” A description hardly in accord with Fig. 294.

Movements of Diatoms.
The late Professor Smith, in his “Synopsis of Diatoms,” refers to their
movements in the following terms: “I am constrained to believe that
the movements observed in the Diatomaceæ are due to forces
operating within the frustule, and are probably connected with the
endosmotic and exosmotic action of the cells. The fluids which are
concerned in these actions must enter, and be emitted through the
minute foramina at the extremities of the silicious valves.” Schultze’s
researches, which were made at a later date, carried this debatable
question somewhat further. He is of opinion “that a sarcode
(protoplasmic) substance envelops the external surface of the
diatoms, and its movements are due to this agent exclusively.” His
investigations were mainly confined to P. angulatum, and to the
larger P. attenuatum (Fig. 293, 1 and 2), as the transverse markings
on the frustule do not impede to so great an extent the observation
of what is going on within. The living specimen of P. angulatum
under the microscope usually has its broad side turned to view, with
one long curved “raphe” uppermost, and the other in contact with
the glass cover (Fig. 293). Within the frustule the yellow colouring
matter, “endochrome,” fills the cavity more or less completely. In the
broader part of the frustule these bands of endochrome describe
one or two complicated windings. It is only possible in those
specimens in which the bands are narrow to properly trace their
foldings, and determine their number. The next objects which strike
the eye on examining a freshly-gathered Pleurosigma are numerous
highly refractive oil-globules. These are not, however, all in the same
place, and one globule appears nearer the observer than the other;
their relative position is best seen when a view of the narrow side of
the frustule can be obtained, so that one raphe is to the left and the
other to the right. The blue-black colour which is assumed by these
globules after treating with acid demonstrates their oleaginous
nature. The middle of the cavity of the frustule is occupied, in the
larger navicula, by two large oil-globules (seen in the diagrammatic
Fig. 295), and by a colourless finely granular mass, whose position in
the body is not so clearly seen in the flat view as in the side view.
Besides the central mass, the conical cavities at either end of the
frustule are seen to enclose granular substance, and two linear
extensions from each of three masses are developed, closely
underlying the raphæ. In the side view, therefore, they appear
attached to the right and left edges of the interior of the frustule.
This colourless granular substance carries in its centre, near the
middle part of the diatom, an imperfectly developed nucleus which is
not very easy to see, but may be demonstrated by the application of
an acid. The colourless substance is protoplasm, and encloses
numerous small refractive particles; this, on adding a drop of a one
per cent. solution of osmic acid, is coloured blue-black, and proves
to be fat. It is, however, exceedingly difficult to determine the exact
limitations of the protoplasm, on account of the highly refractive
character of the silicious skeleton, and the obstruction to the light
presented by the endochrome.
At a short distance the protoplasm reappears, contracted into a
considerable mass, within the terminal ends of the frustule. Schultze
observed in this part of the protoplasm a rapid molecular movement,
“cyclosis,” such as occurs in Closterium, and also a current of the
granules of the protoplasm along the raphe. “Pleurosigma angulatum
‘crawls,’ as do all diatoms possessing a raphe, along this line of
suture. To crawl along, it must have a fixed support.” “There is
obviously,” adds Schultze, “but one explanation; it is clear that there
must be a band of protoplasm lying along the raphe, which causes
the particles of colouring matter to adhere, and gives rise to a
gliding movement. For there is but one phenomenon which can be
compared with the gliding motion of foreign bodies on the
Diatomaceæ, and that is, the clinging to and casting off of particles
by the pseudopodia of the rhizopod, as observed, for instance, on
placing a living Gromia or Miliolina in still water with finely-powdered
carmine. The nature of the adhesion and of the motion is in both
cases the same. And since, with diatoms as unicellular organisms,
protoplasm forms a large part of the cell (in many cases two
distinctly moving protoplasms), this implies that the external
movements are referable to the movements of the protoplasm.” It is
quite evident to those who have studied the movements of diatoms
that they are surrounded by a sarcode structure of a more pellucid
character than that of Amœba. Six years before Schultze’s
observations were published, I wrote in a third edition of my book,
page 307, “The act of progression favours the notion of contractile
tentacular filaments—pseudopodia—as the organs of locomotion and
prehension.”

Since my former observations on the movements of diatoms, I have

given much attention to two forms, P. angulatum and Pinnularia. The
powers used were Hartnack’s No. 8, and Gunlack’s 1⁄16-inch
immersion; Gillett’s condenser illumination, with lamp flame edge
turned to mirror and bull’s-eye lens; a perforated slide with a square
of thin glass ·006 cemented to it, and a cover-glass of ·005. So far
as I could satisfy myself, no terminal space, as in the Closteria, could
be seen, otherwise the course of the gemmules is as freely traced as
in that form. They are more minute than the Closterium lunula
granules, more steadily or slowly seen to pass up and down one half
the frustule towards the extremity, one half of the current seeming
to turn round upon its axis and descending towards the other. The
granules were thickly scattered at the apex, but gradually became
fewer, and the ascending and descending current tapered away
towards the central nodule, which became more filled up or closed
in.
 Fig. 295.—Outline sketches of Pinnulariæ, showing vesicles.

Fig. 296.—Gomphonema constrictum. (From a microphotograph.)

This beautiful sight was not confined to one frustule, but was
exhibited in all that were in a healthy condition. I examined several,
and watched them for a long time. The phenomenon described
depends much upon the healthy condition of the frustule at the
time; as the movements of the diatoms became sluggish, the
circulation gradually slackens and then ceases altogether. I also saw
a somewhat similar action in the more active specimens of P.
hippocampus and Navicula cuspidata, but the coarser markings and
thickness of the wall of these diatoms seemed to place greater
difficulties in the way of observation than the finer valves of the P.
angulatum. One thing I believe is certain, that the circulation
described is precisely similar to that seen in the Closteria, or, on a
much larger scale, in Chara and the leaf of the Anacharis, bearing in
mind also that in the Closterium the cell is divided by a transverse
suture, and in P. angulatum by a longitudinal one (Plate II., Nos. 38-
40). About the same time some very lively specimens of the
Pinnulariæ were sent to me, and the movements of these frustules
were more closely observed. One or two of the more active would
attack a body relatively larger than itself, it would also force its way
into a mass of granular matter, and then recede from it with a jerky
motion. In more than one instance a cell of Palmoglæa was seized
and carried away by the Pinnularia, the former at the time being
actively engaged in the process of cell division. Other diatoms
present among my specimens were also in an active condition, and
the circulation of granular matter in all was distinctly visible. In the
Pinnulariæ two large colourless vesicles were seen on either side of
the median nodule, each having a central nucleus, as represented in
the accompanying sketch, made while under observation in two
positions. The central portion of each frustule was closely packed
with a rich yellowish-brown coloured endochrome, interspersed with
a few fat globules. The phenomenon of cyclosis was not seen in any
of these diatoms, but I have satisfied myself, by staining, of the
presence of a delicately fine external protoplasmic covering in many
diatoms. That their movements resemble the gliding movements
exhibited by the Amœba can scarcely be doubted. Numerous forms
of Diatomaceæ are found growing on or attached to water-plants or
pieces of detached stalks, which, although generally simple, are
sometimes compound, dividing and subdividing in a beautiful ramous
manner. Pinnulariæ, Nitzschia, &c., are seen adherent by one
extremity, about which they turn or bend themselves as on a hinge.
By the process of cell-division, groups of Synedræ become attached
by a point, in a fan-like form. The fan-like collection of frustules is
said to be flabellate, or radiate. In Licmophora, Achnanthes and
other species (Plate II., Nos. 29-33) the double condition of union of
frustules and of attachment by a pedicle are illustrated. When a stipe
branches it does so normally in a dichotomous manner, each new
individual being produced by a secondary pedicle. This regular
dichotomy is seen in several genera: Cocconema and Gomphonema,
the latter more perfectly in Fig. 296, from a microphotograph, in
which a branching, or rather longitudinal, rupture of the pedicle
takes place at intervals, and the entire organism presents a more or
less complete flabella, or fan-like cluster, on the summit of the
branches, and imperfect or single frustules irregularly scattered
throughout the whole length of the pedicle.

Isthmia enervis (Fig. 297).—The unicellular frustule of this species is

extremely difficult to define, owing to the large areolations of the
valves; it has a remarkable internal structure. The olive-brown cell
contents are found collected, for the most part, into a central mass,
from which radiating, branched, granular threads extend to and
unite with the periphery. When viewed by a magnifying power of
600 or 700 diameters, these prolongations are seen to be composed
of aggregations of ovate or spindle-shaped corpuscles, held together
by protoplasmic matter. These bodies are sometimes quiescent, but
more often travel slowly to and fro from the central mass. The
general aspect under these conditions so nearly corresponds to the
characteristic circulation in the frustules of unicellular plants and of
certain rhizopoda, that it is difficult to realise that the object when
under examination is an elegant marine diatom.

There is a large section of diatoms in which the frustules are diffused

throughout a muco-gelatinous envelope in a definite manner.
 Histologically this is
homologous with the pedicles
and connecting nodules thrown
out during the act of self-
division, and in some species
(Cocconeis, Fragillaria, &c.) it
often persists after that act is
complete.

Fig. 297.—Isthmia enervis.

Microphotograph.

Diatomaceæ, Recent and Fossil.

Fig. 298.—Fossil Diatoms from Springfield (Barbadoes).

1, Achnanthidium; 2, Diatoma vulgare, side view and front view; 3,

Biddulphia; 4, 5, 6, 7, Amphitetias antediluviana, front view, with
globular and oval forms; Gomphonema elongatum and capitatum.
Fossilised Diatomaceæ.—Dr. Gregory was of opinion that a large
number of diatoms separated into species are only transition forms,
and more extended observations have proved that form and outline
are not always to be trusted in this matter. Species-making is a
modern invention, and can hardly apply to the indestructible
fossilised forms of the frustules of Diatomaceæ, with their beautiful
sculpturings and geometrical constructions, which have not been
materially changed since they were first deposited. Startling and
almost incredible as the assertion may appear to some, it is none the
less a fact established beyond all question, that some of the most
gigantic mountain-ranges, as the mighty Andes, towering into space
25,250 feet above the level of the sea, their base occupying vast
areas of land; as also massive limestone rocks; the sand that covers
boundless deserts; and the soil of many wide-extended plains, are
each and all principally composed of Diatomaceæ. And, as Dr.
Buckland once observed: “The remains of such minute animals have
added much more to the mass of materials which compose the
exterior crust of the globe than the bones of elephants,
hippopotami, and whales.”

In 1841 the late Mr. Sollitt, of Hull, discovered the beautiful

longitudinal and transverse striæ (markings) on the Pleurosigma
hippocampus. A curved graceful line runs down the shell, in the
centre of which is an expanded oval opening. Near to the central
opening the dots elongate crossways, presenting the appearance of
small short bands.

In the vicinity of this town many interesting varieties of Diatomaceæ

have been found, the beauty of the varied forms of which are
constantly under investigation; at the same time some of them are
highly useful, as forming that class of test objects which are better
calculated than many others for determining the excellence and
powers of certain objectives. Mr. Sollitt carefully measured the
markings on some of the frustules and found they ranged between
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