CHAPTER 3: THERMODYNAMICS 1

Thermodynamics is the study of heat, energy, and how they move or change in a
system. It helps us understand how engines work, why ice melts, or how a refrigerator
cools your food.

It has its roots in the early 19th century, during the Industrial Revolution, when scientists
and engineers began studying how steam engines converted heat into mechanical
work. Early pioneers like Sadi Carnot, Rudolf Clausius, and Lord Kelvin laid the
foundations by developing key principles about heat, energy, and efficiency.

Originally, thermodynamics was all about improving the performance of steam engines,
but over time, its applications expanded to all kinds of systems — from power plants
and aircraft engines to refrigerators and even biological processes.

Today, thermodynamics is a core subject in mechanical engineering because it helps

us understand and design systems that transfer energy efficiently, conserve fuel, and
reduce waste. Its principles are essential in many fields like energy, aerospace,
automotive, HVAC, and renewable technology — making it not only a subject to study
but also a tool to solve real-world engineering problems.
System and Its Surroundings

 System – refers to the part of the universe being studied (e.g., gas in a
piston).
 Surroundings – is everything outside the system that can interact with it.
 Boundary – the imaginary or real surface that separates the system from
the surroundings.

Image from Burrows, T. J. (n.d.). 3.1 Thermodynamic systems. UCF Physics 1: Classical Mechanics. University of
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Types of Systems

 Open System: Allows both energy and mass to enter/leave.

e.g., turbines, pump

 Closed System: Allows energy but not mass to enter/leave.

e.g., gas in a sealed container

 Isolated System: No interaction with surroundings (no energy or mass

transfer).

Properties of Steam

 Intensive Properties: Independent of mass

e.g., temperature, pressure

 Extensive Properties: Depend on mass

e.g., volume, internal energy

 Specific Properties: Extensive properties per unit mass

e.g., specific volume, specific enthalpy
State, Process, and Cycle

 State: A snapshot of the system defined by properties like temperature

and pressure.
 Process: A change from one state to another (e.g., heating, expansion).
 Cycle: A series of processes that return the system to its original state.

Equilibrium

A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium when all forces,

temperatures, and pressures are balanced — no unbalanced potential to change.

Energy Forms

 Internal Energy (U): Energy due to molecular activity.

 Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion.
 Potential Energy: Energy due to position.
 Heat (Q): Energy transfer due to temperature difference.
 Work (W): Energy transfer due to a force acting through a distance.

STATE PROPORTIES

1. Density - is a fundamental property of matter that tells us how much mass is

packed into a given volume.
m
ρ=
V
Where:
ρ = Density (kg/m³)
m = Mass (kg)
V = Volume (m³)

2. Specific Volume - describes how much space a unit mass of a substance

occupies.
V
v=
m
Where:
v = Specific Volume (m³/kg)
m = Mass (kg)
V = Volume (m³)
3. Specific Weight - a property of a substance that tells us how much weight it has
per unit volume.
W
γ=
V
Where:
γ = Specific weight (N/m³)
W= Weight (N)
V = Volume (m³)

Since

W = mg

Then

γ = ρg

Where:
ρ = Density (kg/m³)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s²)

4. Pressure – describes the force exerted by a substance per unit area. it plays a
key role in analyzing energy systems, especially in engines, compressors, and
other mechanical systems involving fluids.
F
P=
A
WhereP = Pressure (Pa)
F = Force (N)
A = (m2)
Also,
W
Since F=W and from γ = , thus by cross-multiplying
V

Where, V = area x height = A ⋅h

W =γV

Thus,
W γAh
P= =
A A
P=γ ⋅h
P= ρgh
 Absolute Pressure (Pa)
 Measured relative to a perfect vacuum.
 Used in thermodynamic calculations.
 Always positive.

Gage Pressure (Pg)

 Measured relative to atmospheric pressure.

 Commonly used in pressure gauges (e.g., tire pressure).
 Can be negative (if below atmospheric).

Atmospheric Pressure (Patm) - The pressure exerted by Earth's atmosphere at

sea level.

The standard value is 101.325 kPa

Vacuum Pressure - Pressure below atmospheric pressure, and usually

expressed as a negative gauge pressure.

Relationship:

P|¿|=P guage +P atm ¿

The Change in Pressure:

ΔP=γΔh ΔP=S . G . ρ water gΔ h

ΔP=ρgΔ h ΔP=S . G . γ water gΔ h

 5. Temperature - It is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in
a substance — meaning, it tells us how hot or cold something is.

In thermodynamics, temperature (T) is the property that determines the

direction of heat transfer between two bodies.

If two objects are placed in contact:

“Heat flows from the object with higher temperature to the one with lower
temperature, until thermal equilibrium is reached.”

Units of Temperature:

Scale Symbol Common Use

Kelvin K SI unit, used in calculations

Celsius °C Everyday use, metric system

Fahrenheit °F Common in the U.S.

Absolute scale (used in some U.S. engineering

Rankine °R
applications)

Conversion Formulas:
T(K)=T(°C)+273.15
9
T ( ° F )= T ( ° C )+32
5
T ( ° R )=T ( ° F ) +460

Conservation of Mass

Which states that:

“Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a closed system — it can only be
rearranged or transferred.”

In simpler terms, whatever mass goes into a system must either stay inside or come
out, but it can’t just disappear.

For Incompressible Fluids, the mass flow rate is:

 ṁ=ρAV

Where ṁ=¿ Mass flow rate (kg/s)

ρ = Density (kg/m³)
A = Cross-sectional area (m2)
V = Velocity of the fluid (m/s)

And the quantity of fluid passing through a section is:

Q̇= AV

Where Q̇=¿ Volume flow rate (m³/s)

A = Cross-sectional area (m2)
V = Velocity of the fluid (m/s)

Example:
A pipe carries water into a tank at a rate of 10 kg/s, and 7 kg/s leaves through
another pipe. The change in stored mass inside the tank is:
kg
Δm=10−7=3
s
So, the mass in the tank increases by 3 kg every second.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

The First Law of Thermodynamics

The Law of Energy Conservation states that:

Energy cannot be created or destroyed — only transferred or transformed.

1. Potential Energy (PE) - the stored energy an object has because of its position or
condition — typically related to its height in a gravitational field.

PE = mgh

Example:

A 10 kg object is 5 meters above the ground:

PE=10 ⋅9.81 ⋅5=490.5 J

2. Kinetic Energy (KE) - the energy an object has because of its motion. The faster it
moves or the heavier it is, the more kinetic energy it has.

1 2
KE= m v Example:
2

A 2 kg object moving at 10 m/s:

1 2
KE= ( 2 ) ( 10 ) =100 J
2

3. Internal Energy (U) - the total energy stored within a substance due to the motion
and interaction of its molecules.

ΔU = Q – W
4. Work (W) - energy transferred when a force moves an object or when a system
changes volume under pressure.

2
W =∫ pdV
1

In a P-V diagram, the area under the curve represents the work done.

Work is:
- Positive if it is DONE BY the system (out)
- Negative if it is DONE ON the system (in)

5. Flow Work (Wf) - the work needed to move the fluid against the surrounding
pressure.

Wf = P⋅v

6. Heat (Q) - energy transferred between a system and its surroundings due to a
temperature difference.

Q is positive when heat is ADDED to the system.

Q is negative when heat is REJECTED by the system.

STEADY FLOW

It refers to a process where the fluid properties at any given point in the system do not
change with time.

Energy Balance

Energy entering the system = Energy leaving the system

PE1 + KE 1+U 1+ W f 1 +Q=PE2+ KE 2 +U 2+W f 2 +W

Q= Δ PE+ ΔKE+ ΔU + Δ W f +W

ENTHALPY - property that represents the total heat content of a system.

It combines two forms of energy:

Enthalpy (H) = Internal Energy (U) + Flow Work (P·V)

H = U+ PV

Thus, the steady flow energy balance becomes:

PE1 + KE 1+ H 1+Q=PE2+ KE 2+ H 2 +W

Q= Δ PE+ ΔKE+ ΔH +W

THE IDEAL GAS

An ideal gas is a theoretical gas that perfectly follows a simple equation of state (the
Ideal Gas Law). It assumes that:

 Gas molecules have no volume.

 There are no intermolecular forces.

 Collisions between molecules are perfectly elastic.

PV =mRT
1. Boyle’s Law (Constant Temperature):

P1 V 1=P2 V 2

At constant temperature, pressure is inversely proportional to volume.

2. Charles’s Law (Constant Pressure):

V1 V2
=
T 1 T2

At constant pressure, volume is directly proportional to temperature.

3. Gay-Lussac’s Law (Constant Volume):

P 1 P2
=
T1 T 2

At constant volume, pressure is directly proportional to temperature.

4. Combined Gas Law:

P1V 1 P2V 2
=
T1 T2

Example:

A 2 kg mass of air is compressed from 0.1 m³ to 0.05 m³ at 300 K. Find

the final pressure.

kJ
R=0.287
kgK

Solution:

P1 V 1=mRT
 mRT 2 ( 0.287 )( 300 )
P 1= = =1722kPa
V1 0.1

P1 V 1=P2 V 2

P1 V 1 1722 x 0.1
P 2= = =3444 kPa
V2 0.05

SPECIFIC HEAT

The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of a

substance by 1 degree Celsius (or 1 Kelvin).

Symbol: C

Unit: kJ/kg⋅K

1. Specific Heat at Constant Volume (cv)

 Used when the volume is constant (no boundary work done).

 All heat goes into changing the internal energy.

Q = mcvΔT

2. Specific Heat at Constant Pressure (cp)

 Used when the pressure is constant (common in open systems).

 Heat goes into both internal energy and flow work (enthalpy).

Q = mcpΔT

For an Ideal Gas

Internal Energy

ΔU = mcvΔT
 Enthalpy

ΔH = mcpΔT

ENTROPY

A measure of disorder, randomness, or energy dispersal in a system.

In thermodynamics, it tells us how energy is spread out and whether a process is

reversible or irreversible.

Symbol: S

Unit: kJ/kg⋅K

dQ
ΔS =∫
T

Temperature and Entropy

Q=∫ TdS

ISOTHERMAL PROCESS

A thermodynamic process that occurs at a constant temperature throughout.

In simple terms:

"Iso" = same, "thermal" = temperature → Same temperature process

Because the temperature stays constant, the internal energy of an ideal gas also
remains unchanged.

ISENTROPIC PROCESS

A thermodynamic process in which entropy remains constant.

In simpler terms:
"Iso" = same, "entropic" = entropy → A process with no change in entropy

It is also known as an ideal adiabatic process (no heat transfer + reversible).

GAS CYCLES

A Gas Cycle is a sequence of thermodynamic processes where gas is used as the

working fluid, and the system returns to its initial state at the end of the cycle.

Ideal Gas Cycles Actual Gas Cycles

Assume no losses (perfect conditions) Include friction, heat loss, inefficiencies

Easy to calculate and model More complex and realistic

Useful for analysis/design Closer to real-world performance

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

The Law of Increased Entropy

States that:

Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter body.

In any real process, the total entropy (disorder) of a system and its surroundings always
increases.

CARNOT CYCLE

The Carnot Cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle that shows the maximum
possible efficiency any heat engine can achieve. It was proposed by Sadi Carnot, the
"father of thermodynamics."
PROCESS

1. Isothermal Expansion (Heat Absorption)

 The gas expands slowly at a constant high temperature TH
 It absorbs heat QH from the hot reservoir.
 Work is done by the system.

2. Adiabatic Expansion
 The gas continues to expand, but now no heat is exchanged.
 The temperature drops from hot to cold temperature.

3. Isothermal Compression (Heat Rejection)

 The gas is compressed slowly at constant low temperature TC.
 It releases heat QC to the cold reservoir.

4. Adiabatic Compression
 The gas is compressed further without heat exchange.
 The temperature rises from TC back to TH .

Process Type Heat Exchange Temperature

1→2 Isothermal Exp. Absorbs QH Constant TH

2→3 Adiabatic Exp. No heat exchange Drops to TC

3 → 4 Isothermal Comp. Releases QC Constant TC

 Process Type Heat Exchange Temperature

4→1 Adiabatic Comp. No heat exchange Rises to TH

Analysis:

Heat Added:

Q A =T 1 (S 2−S 1)

Heat Rejected:

Q R=T 3 (S 4 −S 3 )

Work:

W =Q A−QR =(T 1−T 3)(S 2−S 1)

Efficiency:

T 1−T 3
η=
T1
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A spherical tank is full of water that has a mass of 19000 kg. The outside
diameter of the tank is found to be 3.5 m. How thick is the tank’s wall?

m m
ρ= V=
V ρ

19000 kg 3
V= =19 m
kg
1000 3
m

3 3
4π r 3 4 πr
V= 19 m =
3 3

r =1.66 m

d=2 ( 1.66 m )=3.32 m

D−d 3.5 m−3.32 m

t= = =0.09 m=90 mm
2 2

2. Given the following information about a system, calculate specific enthalpy (in
Btu/lbm).

3. At what temperature in which the reading in Fahrenheit scale is the same as the
Centigrade scale?
4. A Pressure gage at elevation 8 m on the side of the tank containing a liquid reads
57.4 kPa. Another gage at elevation 5 m reads 80 kPa. Compute the specific
weight and density of the liquid.
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