Research article

Boletín Geológico, 49(1), 55-65, 2022

Gravity Studies at the Cerro Machín

This work is distributed under the Creative Commons volcano, Colombia
Attribution 4.0 License.

Recieved: October 29, 2021

Estudios gravimétricos en el volcán Cerro Machín, Colombia
Revisión received: May 16, 2022

Accepted: May 30, 2022

Published online: June 30, 2022

Nicolás Felipe Pedraza1, Juan Diego Velásquez1, Indira Molina2, Andrés Pedraza1
1 Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia.
2 Universidad de los Andes. Now at Servicio Geológico Colombiano, Bogotá, Colombia.
Corresponding author: Nicolás Felipe Pedraza, [email protected]

A bstrac t
A gravimetric study was performed at the Cerro Machin volcano (4° 29’ N, 75° 22’ W), Tolima Department, Colombia, to obtain
a density distribution of the volcanic edifice and its basement. This study was divided into three main sections. The first section
consisted of gravimetric measurements on the volcano, which were performed with a Scintrex Autograv CG-5 gravimeter. In the
second section, a complete Bouguer anomaly was obtained by applying gravimetric corrections to the field data, such as instru-
mental drift, latitude, free-air, Bouguer, and topographic corrections. For the third section, we used the GM-SYS extension of Oa-
sis Montaj to obtain a forward model of the subsurface density distribution that allowed us to explain the source of the gravimetric
anomaly. As the main results for this study, we determined that the field-obtained Bouguer anomaly ranged between -87 mGal
and -29 mGal in the study area. The Oasis Montaj density model allowed us to infer an elongated dacitic complex at the top of the
distribution with a mean density of 2300 kg/m3, with the presence of a volcanic conduit of 2400 kg/m3 at the base. The seismicity in
the area suggests that the gravimetric anomaly caused by the dome and its surrounding materials may be related to a large weake-
ned zone at the interface between the volcanic edifice and the metamorphic basement, provoked by fault activity, interaction with
the hydrothermal system and the ascent of hot, fluid material to the surface. This study suggests one interpretation of the Machin
dome volcanic complex and encourages further gravimetric studies and modeling over a wider area.
Keywords: Gravimetry, Gravimetric corrections, Bouguer anomaly, Oasis Montaj, Forward modeling, Geological modeling.

R e sumen
Un estudio gravimétrico fue hecho en el volcán Cerro Machín (4° 29’ N, 75° 22’ W), en el departamento de Tolima, Colombia, para
obtener una distribución de densidades del edificio volcánico y su basamento. El estudio fue dividido en tres partes: la primera
consistió en la toma de datos gravimétricos en el volcán con un gravímetro Scintrex Autograv CG-5. En la segunda se obtuvo la
anomalía completa de Bouguer del área de estudio tras aplicar las correcciones gravimétricas a los datos de campo, como la correc-
ción de deriva instrumental, latitud, aire libre, Bouguer simple y topográfica. En la tercera se utilizó la extensión GM-SYS de Oasis
Montaj para obtener un modelo de distribución geológica que permita explicar el origen de la anomalía gravimétrica, utilizando

Citation: Pedraza, N. F., Velásquez, J. D., Molina, I., & Pedraza, A. (2022). Gravity Studies at the Cerro Machín volcano, Colombia. Boletín Geológico, 49(1), 55-65.
https://doi.org/10.32685/0120-1425/bol.geol.49.1.2022.619

55
 Pedraza / Velásquez / Molina / Pedraza

el método de modelamiento directo. Como resultado principal se obtuvo que la anomalía de Bouguer en campo oscila entre -87
mGal y -29 mGal en la zona de estudio. El modelo de densidad Oasis Montaj permite inferir un complejo dacítico alargado en la
parte superior de la distribución con una densidad media de 2300 kg/m3, y la presencia de un conducto volcánico de 2400 kg/m3
en su base. La sismicidad en la zona mostró que la anomalía gravimétrica causada por el domo y sus materiales circundantes puede
estar relacionada con una gran zona de debilidad en la interfaz entre el edificio volcánico y el basamento metamórfico, a causa
de la actividad de las fallas, la interacción con el sistema hidrotermal y el ascenso de material caliente y fluido a la superficie. Este
trabajo motiva a realizar futuros estudios y modelamientos gravimétricos en un área más grande.
Palabras clave: G
 ravimetría, correcciones gravimétricas, anomalía de Bouguer, Oasis Montaj, modelamiento directo, modelamiento geológico.

1. I ntroduction the northwest of the city of Ibagué (Murcia et al., 2008). Ac-
cording to the stratigraphic record, it has produced at least
Geophysical methods have been a useful tool for monitoring six major dacitic eruptions, the last one dated at 900-year B.P.
the activity of different volcanoes worldwide. Vulcanologists (Laeger et al., 2013). This volcano is part of the Northern Vol-
who use these methods have pursued three main objectives: i) canic Zone (NVZ) of the Andean Volcanic Belt, which stretch-
characterization of magma movement through the crust and es up to Ecuador. This belt is the result of the subduction of the
its location within a magmatic chamber, ii) observation of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate (Laeger et al.,
hydrothermal activity associated with a volcano, and iii) moni- 2013). The volcanic arc in Colombia runs parallel to the Co-
toring of the stability of the volcanic edifice (Wynn et al., 2006). lombia-Ecuador Trench, located 300 km west of the arc (Rue-
Gravimetry has been essential for the study of changes in the da, 2005). The arc subdivisions are usually named considering
stress tensor and the temperature gradient at the subsurface due the proximity of the volcanoes to each other (Monsalve and
to intrusions of magmatic bodies. This results in density varia- Pulgarín, 1993). Nonetheless, other authors have established
tions and surface deformations where the body intrudes, which the existence of a sole segment (named the Cauca segment),
can be detected by fluctuations in the vertical vector of gravi- which includes the totality of the Colombian volcanic arc (Rue-
tational attraction (e.g., Vajda, 2016). The monitoring of such da, 2005). This segment is subdivided into three subsegments:
dynamics is especially relevant since it has been demonstrated North, Central, and South. The Cerro Machín volcano is locat-
that these deformations on the volcanic edifice are precursors ed in the southernmost area of the northern subsegment, along
of volcanic eruptions. Thus, their monitoring is fundamental in with other volcanoes such as Nevado del Ruiz, Cerro Bravo,
the evaluation of volcanic hazards (e.g., Vajda, 2016). Nevado del Tolima, and Nevado del Quindío. This subsegment
Our main objective in this contribution is to present a grav- extends for 90 km from the SW to the NE (Hall and Wood,
imetric study of the Cerro Machin volcano and to obtain (using 1985) and is defined by two main fault systems in the region:
data acquired from fieldwork between March 16th and March the Cauca-Patía (east of the Colombian West Cordillera) fault,
19th, 2020) a representative model of the density distribution the Romeral-Dolores fault (west of the Colombian Central
from its crater area at depth. Based on the total Bouguer anom- Cordillera) and the secondary faults associated with both main
aly obtained from the field data, this model was evaluated and faults (Rueda, 2005).
compared with the geology and seismicity of the area, aiming Cerro Machin is located at the intersection of two faults:
to contribute to the general characterization of the processes the Cajamarca fault, with a N 20° E strike and vertical dip, and
associated with the activity of the Cerro Machin volcano. the Machin fault, with a N 42° W strike and normal movement
with a dextral component (Rueda, 2005). Both faults have
2. T
 ectonic-structural setting shown activity during the Holocene since their movements af-
fect only volcanic deposits and paleosols associated with the
The Cerro Machin volcano (2750 m MSL) is located on the activity of the volcano during this period (Rueda, 2005). The
eastern flank of the Colombian Central Cordillera, 17 km to formation of Cerro Machin could be attributed to the existence

56 Boletín Geológico 49(1)

 Gravity Studies at the Cerro Machín volcano, Colombia

Qto

80°W

70°W
75°22'W
a

75°24'W
b
Qto P Providencia
Qto Qto P San Andrés Caribbean Sea

Cajamarca Complex 10°N

P
Caracas

Panama city
P
4°30'N

40°W
75°W
Qto
0°

Qfl P
Bogotá
Malpelo
#
Pacific Ocean
Qto
45°S

TQa
fig1a, 2
0° Quito
P
Ibagué
Ma
ault

chí

Fa
n
rca F

u lt
Qto Source: Esri, Maxar, GeoEye,
Earthstar Geographics,
CNES/Airbus DS, USDA,
ma

USGS, AeroGRID, IGN, and

a
Caj

Cajamarca Complex
0 250 500
km

4°28'N
c
Caldera rim Dome
Cajamarca Complex

Qto

Qfl 0 1 2
km

Defined fault Covered fault Contour level N S

Figure 1. a ) Geological map of the study area extracted from Geology Map 244 of the Servicio Geológico Colombiano (Mosquera et al., 1982), Machin fault from
Méndez Fajury et al. (1996). b) Global and regional location of the Cerro Machin volcano in Colombia. c) N-S Panoramic view of the Cerro Machín volcano

of a pull-apart structure (with undefined dimensions) generat- continental arc magmatism that occurred in the region during
ed by the lateral movement of the previously mentioned faults the Jurassic (Laeger et al., 2013).
of the region. This rifting structure could have facilitated the The actual volcanic edifice is formed by a dacitic dome and
ascent of magmatic material that led to the formation of the various pyroclastic flow deposits resulting from the last and
volcano (Rueda, 2005). previous eruptive activities of the volcano (Laeger et al., 2013).
These deposits are grouped in a unit called “Anillo”, which is
2.1. Geological setting divided into five lithofacies types generated from different py-
The volcano formed on top a set of metamorphic rocks known roclastic flow density currents of high turbulence and low den-
as the Cajamarca Complex (Figure 1), which is the central core sity currents whose formation could involve water (Piedrahita
of the Colombian Central Cordillera (Piedrahita et al., 2018). et al., 2018). Furthermore, this and other differentiated units
These rocks are characterized by low-pressure regional meta- from previous recognizable eruptions have been grouped into
morphism with a predominance of green schist, quartz-seric- a single stratigraphic unit named the Machin Formation, di-
itic phyllites and quartzites generated from mafic lava flows, vided into five subunits, each associated with eruptive volca-
pyroclastic material, and sedimentary rocks of different com- nic activity (Rueda, 2005). Their composition consists mainly
positions and grain sizes. These rocks were deposited in the of tephra and pumice, as well as pyroclasts and distal depos-
Triassic during rifting between North and South America and its related to the lahars formed during the eruptive events
subsequently underwent different anatexis events due to the (Méndez, 2002).

Servicio Geológico Colombiano 57

 Pedraza / Velásquez / Molina / Pedraza

3. M
 ethods

75°24'W

75°23'W
4°30'N

The study was divided into three sections:

3.1 Data collection campaign at the Cerro Machin A

volcano
B B'
Gravimetric and GPS data were obtained during a field cam- 2761 m

paign conducted from March 16th to March 20th, 2020. Forty

measurements were taken, mostly inside the crater of the vol- 4°29'N
A'
cano around the Machin dome (Figure 2), with two measure-
ments made on the two summits of the dome, using a Scintrex
Autograv CG-5 gravimeter. For the base station of the grav-
ity survey, the absolute gravity value (gA) and its coordinates
were provided by the Servicio Geológico Colombiano (SGC)
(gA: 977480.179 mGal; latitude: 4.48537; longitude: -75.38008;
0 0,25 0,5 1 Esri, HERE, Garmin, Foursquare, METI/NASA, USGS,
height: 2526.2 m). It was used to calculate the absolute gravity Qu
eb km
US Census Bureau; Esri, NASA, NGA, USGS

ra
at each station.

da
Stations W-E Transect (B-B')

Co
N-S Transect (A-A')

r ra
le
Figure 2. M
 ap showing the contour level map showing the measurement sta-

s
3.2 Data processing and Bouguer correction tions throughout the volcano crater and the transects used on the 2D density
models on Oasis
For the processing of the data obtained during the campaign,
we prepared an Excel spreadsheet. Here, the appropriate gravi-
metric correction equations were applied to the data as follows: initial and final daily measurements at the base. Subsequently,
we either added this value, if the measurement at a station was
L2B1 − L1B1
ΔgD = t2B1 − t1B1 * Δt (mGal) (1) lower than that at the base, or subtracted this value, if the mea-
surement at a station was larger than that at the base, from the
Δglat = 0.000812 * sin (2λ) * l (mGal) (2) relative gravity data obtained. This value was then added to the
absolute gravity at the base (provided by the Servicio Geológi-
ΔgFA = 0.3086 * h (mGal) (3) co Colombiano) and repeated to tie each station by adding the
value of the relative gravity measured at each station with the
ΔgBP = 2πGρh (mGal) (4) value obtained at the base. This total variation in gravity was
finally added to the absolute gravity at the base to obtain the
where L1B1 and L2B1 are the gravity measurements taken at the measured gravity at each station.
base station at the beginning and at the end of the day, respec- The latitude correction (Δglat) was calculated using Equa-
tively; t1B1 and t2B1 are the times at which these measurements tion 2, for which we considered the latitude coordinate of every
were performed, respectively; Δt is the difference between the station and its distance to the base. The free air correction (ΔgFA)
time at which a measurement was taken at the station and at was obtained using Equation 3, taking the difference in height
the base on a given day; λ is the latitude coordinate of the mea- between the station and the sea level, considered as the refer-
surement station; l is the linear distance between the measure- ence. We then applied Equation 4 to calculate the Bouguer plate
ment station and the base; h is the height of the measurement correction (ΔgBP), for which we needed the difference in height
station relative to the datum; G is the gravitational constant between the station and the reference level, as well as the exist-
(6.672 * 10−11 N m2/kg2); and ρ is the plate density (in kg/m3). ing mass between both points; thus, an optimal density for this
To calculate the instrumental drift correction (ΔgD), we ap- mass was obtained. An average crustal density of 2670 kg/m3
plied Equation 1. Using the data collected at the base at the (Hinze, 2003) was implemented. Finally, for each point, we cal-
beginning and at the end of each day, we obtained a drift rate, culated the free air correction to obtain the simple Bouguer
which was then multiplied by the time interval between the anomaly, which can be expressed by the following equation:

58 Boletín Geológico 49(1)

 Gravity Studies at the Cerro Machín volcano, Colombia

ΔB = gs + 0.3086h − 2πGρh (mGal) (5) were carried out using Oasis Montaj software and its GM-SYS
extension. To do so, the process consisted of i) the interpo-
where gs is the relative gravity at the station in relation to the lation and generation of the topographic and total Bouguer
reference point, ℎ is the height of the measurement station (in anomaly maps and ii) the forward modeling of a test configu-
meters), and ρ is the density used for the calculation of the ration of the density distribution of the volcano at depth using
Bouguer plate correction (in kg/m3). GM-SYS.
Finally, a topographic correction (ΔgT) was applied to the The forward modeling was carried out with the GM-SYS
data collected at all stations. This correction considers the ir- extension of Oasis Montaj. This modeling type involves the
regularities of the surface in the vicinity of the stations. These generation of a hypothetical density model where the physical
irregularities may exert an upward pull on the gravimeter for parameters (such as the density and geometry of the model)
an excess of mass or a downward pull for a lack of mass in are adjusted by the interpreter until a match is obtained be-
the area, which may affect the gravimetric measurements. The tween the computed response of the model and the observed
topographic correction at each measurement point was calcu- data. This is an iterative process that requires the model and
lated by using a computational method in MATLAB provided both the observed and computed responses to be displayed
by Palacios (2017). This implementation required the use of a graphically so that the results can be assessed by the interpret-
digital elevation model (DEM) extracted from the Copernicus er (Dentith and Mudge, 2014, p. 74). GM-SYS is a modeling
DEM (OpenTopography, 2021), which was used as an input program that allows an interactive manipulation of the geolog-
for the calculation. Another script from Palacios (2017) trans- ical model and real-time calculation of the gravity response.
formed the topography provided by the DEM into polyhedra The methods used in this program to calculate the gravity and
of different sizes and two distinct shapes (squared and triangu- magnetic model responses are based on the methods devel-
lar prisms) and divided the area covered by the DEM into six oped by Talwani et al. (1959) and Talwani and Heirtzler (1964)
concentric, square-shaped sections centered on the base sta- and make use of the algorithms described in Won and Bevis
tion. Over 5 million polyhedra were created with this method. (1987) (NGA, 2004).
Thus, the correction values for each station depended on the GM-SYS uses a two-dimensional, flat-Earth model for
polyhedra where they were located. gravity and magnetic calculations; that is, each structural unit
All aforementioned calculated values were combined to or block extends to plus and minus infinity in the direction
obtain the total Bouguer anomaly for each station using the perpendicular to the profile. The Earth is assumed to have to-
following equation: pography but no curvature. The models also extend by default
plus and minus 3 × 104 kilometers along the profile to elimi-
ΔB = (gA ± g0 ± ΔgD) + (Δglat ± ΔgFA ± ΔgBP + ΔgT) − gth (mGal) (6) nate edge effects (NGA, 2004).

where is the absolute gravity, is the gravity value obtained with 4. R

 esults
the gravimeter, and is the theoretical gravity for each location,
which was obtained using the International Gravitational For- 4.1 Field-obtained Bouguer anomaly
mula (Dentith and Mudge, 2014): Figure 3 shows the results after the application of the gravi-
metric corrections to the field-obtained data (see Table 1 in
9.7803253359 * 1 + 0.00193185241 sin2λ
gth (λ) = (7) Supporting Information). The resulting Excel spreadsheet was
√1-0.00669437999014 sin2λ
imported into Oasis Montaj, which was used to generate the
where is the latitude coordinate of the station. Bouguer anomaly map (Figure 3a) of our study area. The lo-
cations of the recorded earthquakes in the study area (León,
3.3 Generation of the 2D forward models using Oasis 2019) were included in the Bouguer anomaly map, as one of
Montaj the main objectives of our work was to identify the possible
The processing of the gravity and topographic data (gridding origins of the observed anomaly. The transects where the 2D
and imaging) and the forward modeling of the gravity data depth profiles were obtained are also included in Figure 3b.

Servicio Geológico Colombiano 59

 Pedraza / Velásquez / Molina / Pedraza

a b
Bouguer Anomaly Bouguer Anomaly
75.394° E 75.391° E 75.389° E 75.386° E 75.383° E 75.380° E 75.378° E (mGal) 75.394° E 75.391° E 75.389° E 75.386° E 75.383° E 75.380° E 75.378° E (mGal)
4.476° N

4.476° N
−32.00 −32.00

−36.00 −36.00

−40.00 −40.00
4.476° N

4.476° N
−44.00 −44.00

−48.00 −48.00

−52.00 −52.00

−56.00 −56.00
4.476° N

4.476° N
−60.00 −60.00

−64.00 −64.00

−68.00 −68.00

−72.00 −72.00
4.476° N

4.476° N
−76.00 −76.00

−80.00 −80.00

−84.00 −84.00
4.476° N

4.476° N
N N

Scale 1:5000 Scale 1:5000

4.476° N

4.476° N
100 0 100 200 300 100 0 100 200 300

(meters) (meters)
SIRGAS 2000 / UTM zone 18N SIRGAS 2000 / UTM zone 18N

Figure 3. a ) Bouguer map calculated using Equation 6 in the study area. b) Bouguer anomaly map, overlapped with the earthquakes shown by black dots, and the
N-S and W-E transects for the depth models shown in Sections 3.3 and 4.2

The field-obtained anomaly showed a range of values For this distribution, we assumed the volcanic edifice to be sur-
ranging between approximately −87 and −29 mGal (see val- rounded by host rock with an average crustal density of 2670 kg/m3,
ues in the Supplementary Data). The lowest anomaly values which is represented by the green layers in Figure 4. Within the
were found in the area above the topographic highs of the study area, we set 3 layers named volcanoclastic sequences that
dome (Figure 2). Figure 3b also shows that the earthquakes sit over the metamorphic basement, cut by the dacitic complex
were mostly located southwest of the volcano. The locations that connects with deeper magmatic chambers. The density of
of the earthquakes, all of which were associated with activity the fragmented part of the dome, which we set up between the
below the Machin dome, support the idea of the existence of an topographic relief and a depth of 0 km, is 2300 kg/m3, while vol-
anomaly in this area. In addition, the data processing designat- caniclastic sequence layers vary between 2500 kg/m3 (uppermost
ed a region where the anomaly was less negative (−29 mGal) volcaniclastic sequence layer) and 2670 kg/m3 (deeper volcaniclas-
over the entire study area. This measurement was located at tic sequence layer). Ultimately, the metamorphic complex density
the southernmost station at a low elevation near a hot spring at was established at 2900 kg/m3, close to the dacitic complex in the
2412 meters. northwestern regions of the volcano and tilting downward toward
the southeast. It is important to note the presence, below the frag-
4.2 Oasis Montaj 2D forward modeling mented dome complex, of a weakened section, modeled as a sim-
To better understand the way the density distribution of the plified unit that includes a complex system of dikes and volcanic
geological bodies affected the observed gravity, N-S and W-E conduits, with a density of 2400 kg/m3. This distribution allowed
depth profiles, shown in Figure 2, were analyzed. The result- us to obtain the best adjustment to the observed anomaly. We as-
ing models suggest the following distribution: a dacitic dome sociate this fragmentation with the activity of the faults in the area
complex at the top and a weakened section below (simplified (especially the Cajamarca fault, trending NE-SW) and with the
as a single unit that comprises a complex system of dikes and presence of the hydrothermal system of the volcano that may in-
volcanic conduits) embedded over the edifice, which compris- clude the infiltration of meteoric waters, the ascent of waters stored
es volcanoclastic sequences from the previous eruptive activity, in the metamorphic complex or from the magmatic reservoir of
whose density increases with depth. the volcano, which is much deeper and outside the study area.

60 Boletín Geológico 49(1)

 Gravity Studies at the Cerro Machín volcano, Colombia

a N−S Transect
stated that the hydrothermal system of the Cerro Machin
A A'
volcano is characterized by the interaction of meteoric water
−75.00
that infiltrates from the surface to the basement, as well as by
Gravity (mGal) mGal)

−80.00
endogenous waters coming from a deep magmatic reservoir.
The transport of these waters is favored by the permeability of
−85.00 the existing rocks (especially recent lava flows) and the frac-
• = Observed, ― = Calculated, ― = Error 0.196
D = 2.67
tures associated with the activity of the Cajamarca fault, which
−3.00
D = 2.45 D = 2.6 D = 2.38
Dacitic dome complex
D = 1.98 D = 2.4 D = 2.85 suggests the presence of different “mixing zones” between all
these types of water. One of these zones stands out, located just
D = 2.5 D = 1.77
0.00 Pyroclastic flow
Depth (km)

D = 2.67
D = 2.6 D = 2.5
D = 2.6 Volcanic sucessions (inferred)

below the area of the Cajamarca fault (see Figure 33 of Cerpa,

D = 2.4 Fragmented weakened volcanic condui(s) D = 2.67

3.00

2018). This suggests that fracturing and infiltration of hydro-

Metamorphic complex
D = 2.9 D = 2.5
6.00

VE = 0.08 Distance (meters)

900.00 thermal fluids in the lower part of the Machin dome consid-
Scale = 6410
erably affected its density, which is reflected in the observed
Bouguer anomaly.
b N−S Transect
Last, the higher values of the Bouguer anomaly in the south-
B B' ern part of the study area (Figure 3b) can also be explained
−75.00 by the hydrothermal processes associated with the volcano.
Gravity (mGal) mGal)

This point is close to two thermal springs, named “Piscinas”

−80.00
and “Estatuas” by Inguagiatto et al. (2016). The first of these
−85.00
sources is characterized by relatively high concentrations of
• = Observed, ― = Calculated, ― = Error 0.144 chlorides and silica, while the second is mainly distinguished
−3.00
D = 2.6 D = 2.15 D = 2.22 D = 2.5 D = 2.15
by the presence of large amorphous silica concretions along a
Dacitic dome complex

zone of structural discontinuity through which hydrothermal

D = 2.22
D = 1.95
D = 2.5 Pyroclastic flow
0.00 D = 2.6
D = 2.7 D = 2.5
Depth (km)

Pyroclastic sucessions (inferred)

D = 2.7

Fragmented weakened volcanic condui(s) fluids ascend (Inguagiatto et al., 2016). Based on the presence
3.00 D = 2.4
Metamorphic complex
D = 2.9
of these concretions, we infer that due to the large accumula-
6.00
tion of silica precipitated from the infiltrated fluids and consid-
0.00 900.00 1800.00
VE = 0.08
Scale = 10815
Distance (meters)
ering that this new material fills the spaces left by the original
porosity of the deposited rocks, there might have been a slight
Figure 4. Tested 2D models for a density configuration of a) the N-S transect
and b) the W-E transect. See Figure 4b for profile location over the Bouguer increase in the average density of the subsoil in this sector. The
Anomaly
Red dots: Block model editing vertices.
effects of these concretions, nonetheless, should be further in-
vestigated due to the lack of evidence or studies regarding this
matter both in the study area and in other similar tectonic en-
vironments.
5. D
 iscussion
5.2 Geological interpretation of the Oasis Montaj
5.1 Geological interpretation of the Bouguer anomaly models
Based on the analysis of the Bouguer anomaly and the 2D Figure 5a and 5b show that the earthquakes located within
forward models, we determined that the dome sector is less our study area overlapped with those over the Oasis Montaj
dense than its surrounding subsoil. This can be explained by models. The earthquake locations were provided by the Servi-
alterations caused by the hydrothermal system associated with cio Geológico Colombiano and correspond to the period from
the Cerro Machin volcano and the interactions between its dif- 2004 to 2019. The obtained densities for all modeled units co-
ferent parts. Piedrahita et al. (2018) suggested the presence of incide with what has been reported in the literature for similar
aquifers in the Cajamarca Complex, which, given the levels of types of volcanoes (dacitic to andesitic stratovolcanoes with
shearing and fracturing of these rocks, would allow the move- domes) outside Colombia and the Cerro Machin. For example,
ment and storage of confined water. Likewise, Cerpa (2018) Kueppers et al. (2005) made density measurements for sev-

Servicio Geológico Colombiano 61

 Pedraza / Velásquez / Molina / Pedraza

eral dry rock samples from the deposits that were generated a N−S Transect

A A'
during the 1990-1995 eruptive cycle of Mount Unzen in Japan.
The authors found a bimodal density distribution with peaks −75.00

Gravity (mGal) mGal)

of 2000 ± 100 kg/m3 and 2300 ± 100 kg/m3 and reported that
−80.00

the density values could vary between 1400 and 2400 kg/m3.
Similarly, Hoblitt and Harmon (1993) found a bimodal den- −85.00

• = Observed, ― = Calculated, ― = Error 0.196

sity distribution for the dacitic rocks from the 1980 eruption D = 2.67

of Mount St. Helens, with peaks of 1600 and 2300 kg/m3. Fur- −3.00
D = 2.45 D = 2.6 D = 2.38 D = 1.98 D = 2.4 D = 2.85
Dacitic dome complex

thermore, Acosta (2019) calculated the bulk density for several 0.00 D = 2.5 D = 1.77
Pyroclastic flow

Depth (km)
D = 2.67
D = 2.6 D = 2.5
D = 2.6 Volcanic sucessions (inferred)

rock samples associated with the activity of three volcanoes in 3.00

D = 2.4 Fragmented weakened volcanic condui(s) D = 2.67

Colombia (Azufral, Doña Juana and Cerro Machin). For the Metamorphic complex
D = 2.9 D = 2.5
6.00
Cerro Machin samples, the author found bulk density values 900.00
VE = 0.08 Distance (meters)

between 2000 and 2300 kg/m3. Scale = 6410

The above studies show that the chosen range of densi-

b
ty values is plausible with the common geology that is asso- N−S Transect

B B'

ciated with the activity of dacitic volcanoes similar to Cerro

−75.00
Machín. It also opens the opportunity for future investigations
Gravity (mGal) mGal)

and modeling regarding the density of rock samples within the −80.00

study area to obtain more complete data and more detailed

constraints for the models. This is important considering the −85.00

• = Observed, ― = Calculated, ― = Error 0.144

following: 1) the nonunique solution principle, which indicates −3.00

D = 2.22

that different geological distributions can be the best fit for a set D = 2.6 D = 2.15 D = 2.5 D = 2.15
Dacitic dome complex
D = 2.22
D = 1.95
D = 2.5 Pyroclastic flow
0.00 D = 2.6

of gravimetric data, and 2) even though there is a coincidence D = 2.5

Depth (km)

D = 2.7 Pyroclastic sucessions (inferred)

Fragmented weakened volcanic condui(s) D = 2.7
D = 2.4

between what is reported here and what was reported in pre- 3.00
Metamorphic complex

vious studies, there are some other studies where much lower 6.00
D = 2.9

densities were found for the volcanoclastic sequences. For ex- VE = 0.07
0.00 900.00
Distance (meters)
1800.00

Scale = 10815
ample, Rueda et al. (2013) reported density values that ranged
from 920 to 960 kg/m3 for the volcanoclastic products of a 31
Figure 5. Tested 2D profiles, including the seismicity provided by the Servicio
ka Plinian–sub-Plinian eruption at Tláloc Volcano in Mexico. Geológico Colombiano. a) Model for the N-S transect and b) model for the
W-E transect
Similarly, Arce et al. (2005) reported samples from a volcano- Black dots: Projection of the location of seismic events recorded by the Servi-
clastic deposit associated with a 12.1 ka Plinian–sub-Plinian cio Geológico Colombiano during 2004-2019. Red dots: Block model editing
vertices.
eruption of Volcán Nevado de Toluca (Mexico), whose density
variation was established from 700 to 820 kg/m3.
These results coincide with the model proposed by Lon-
doño (2011). By performing seismic P-wave velocity tomog- dome, which were produced by the hot, fluid material coming
raphy to obtain the internal structure of Cerro Machin down from the magmatic reservoir attempting to reach the surface.
to a depth of 4 to 5 km, this author determined that the dacitic This would explain the fracturing in these sectors and, there-
dome reached a depth up to 3 km (from topographic relief), fore, the general seismic environment.
which explained why the seismicity was generally located at Taking these results into account, we built a general 2D
these depths. Furthermore, Londoño found that although the W-E geological schematic model (Figure 6). For this, we ex-
inner parts of the dome were compact enough to avoid fractur- trapolated the density distribution that we obtained with the
ing and thus the circulation of fluid material to the shallowest gravity forward models. The depth in which this extrapolation
parts of the system, two zones extending E and SW of the dome reaches was decided based on the resolution depth that we cal-
featured lower P-wave velocities. This behavior was associated culated using the equation given by Musset and Khan (2000)
with the genesis of weakening zones in the deepest part of the for obtaining the depth of an anomalous irregular body. This

62 Boletín Geológico 49(1)

 Gravity Studies at the Cerro Machín volcano, Colombia

equation relates the maximum gravity anomaly and the max- from the surface, we infer a transition to a more compact,
imum slope of the gravimetric profile; therefore, we used the less fragmented, slightly denser zone of the dacitic complex,
one that we obtained when modeling the W-E forward mod- just above the Cajamarca metamorphic complex, where the
el for our calculation. Taking this into account, we obtained seismic activity associated with the volcanic activity is locat-
a depth of approximately 6.2 km, which is the limit that we ed. This transition corresponds to altered materials affected
defined for our forward models. The schematic model reaches by the different geological processes described in this study.
10 km, which we inferred based on the seismic and geological Thus, we associate the existence of this sector with the exis-
data available for the Cerro Machin volcano, indicating that tence of a weakened zone provoked by the general fault activ-
there may be a magmatic reservoir outside our study area at the ity associated with the Cajamarca fault, the interaction with
selected depth (León, 2019; Londoño, 2011). the hydrothermal system of the volcano and the ascent of hot
A dacitic dome complex occupies the uppermost part of fluid material that may have risen to the surface through less
our model. This dome is located over a series of layers associ- compact material (as Londoño, 2011). This ascent would have
ated with the volcaniclastic sequences that were formed during been through a system of dikes and fractures that connects this
the reported volcanic activity of the Cerro Machin volcano and sector with a magmatic reservoir located to the SE of our study
whose density may have been diminished due to weathering area and at a much deeper depth (Londoño, 2011). The con-
produced by infiltration of meteoric waters. At a depth of 3 km trast between the volcaniclastic sequences and this weakened
zone is what we infer to be the origin of the gravity anomaly.
−3000
This general test configuration model offers valuable re-
B B'

sults as a starting point for future investigation projects in the

−2000
area. The obtained results may have been slightly affected by
−1000 the limited quantity of acquired data, which negatively impacts
the resolution of the models explicitly defining the origin,
0
spatial distribution and magnitude of the gravimetric anom-
1000 aly related to the Cerro Machin volcano. We suggest, for fu-
ture research, to focus on improving the data resolution of the
2000

study area, minimizing the distance between stations/points.

3000
Further measurements, such as seismic tomography and rock
Depth (km)

4000
sampling, would provide precise density value information
over the study area.
5000

6000 6. C
 onclusions
7000
Based on observed gravity data acquired between March
8000 16 and March 19th, 2020, we studied the local gravimetric
th

anomalies in the Cerro Machin volcano. The minimum obser-

9000
vations ranged from -87 mGal in the Machin dome area and
10 000
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
reached up to −29 mGal in a measurement zone near hydro-
Distance (km)
thermal sources in the southern area. These results allowed
Legend
us to obtain a geological configuration with volcaniclastic se-
Eartquakes Pyroclastic succesions (Inferred)
quences whose density values varied between 2500 kg/m3 and
Dacitic complex Metamorphic complex
2600 kg/m3 and a dacitic complex with an average density of
Weakened volcanic conduit Magmatic reservoir
2300 kg/m3 over a less altered volcanic conduit with a suggest-
Pyroclastic flow
ed density of 2400 kg/m3 between the Machin dome and the
Figure 6. F
 inal proposed test model of the geological distribution based on the metamorphic basement (Cajamarca Complex). These density
GM-SYS modeling results
The red dashed line represents the vertical limits of the study. Seismic hypo- values coincide with what has been reported for similar vol-
centers were furnished by the Servicio Geológico Colombiano (Manizales).

Servicio Geológico Colombiano 63

 Pedraza / Velásquez / Molina / Pedraza

canoes in other parts of the world and for Cerro Machin. We plinian eruption of Nevado de Toluca in Central Mexico.
interpret our results with a general weakening of the dacitic Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 147(1-2),
dome complex due to weathering caused by infiltration of me- 125-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2005.03.010
teoric waters in the uppermost section, the ascent of hot fluid Cerpa, A. C. (2018). Caracterización del potencial geotérmico
material, as well as the activity of the faults located in the study a partir de análisis geoquímicos de fuentes termales, en el
area (particularly the Cajamarca fault), and the hydrothermal volcán Cerro Machín, Colombia [Undergraduate thesis].
system associated with the Cerro Machin volcano. All these Universidad EIA.
factors contributed to the generation of a weakened zone in Dentith, M., & Mudge, S. T. (2014). Geophysics for the Mineral
the deepest part of the Machin dome at the interface between Exploration Geoscientist. Cambridge University Press.
the volcanic edifice and the metamorphic basement. Through Hall, M. L., & Wood, C. A. (1985). Volcano-tectonic segmen-
a system of dikes and fractures, this weakened zone may be tation of the northern Andes. Geology, 13(3), 203-207.
connected to another reservoir (the Cerro Machin magmatic https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1985)13<203:VSOT-
reservoir) located to the SE of our study area and at deeper NA>2.0.CO;2
depths (Londoño, 2019). Hinze, W. J. (2003). Bouguer reduction density, why 2.67? Geo-
For future studies, we would like to extend our study area physics, 68(5), 1559-1560. https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1620629
beyond the Machin dome zone and have a broader record of the Hoblitt, R. P., & Harmon, R. S. (1993). Bimodal Density Dis-
gravimetric anomaly in the influence zone of the Cerro Machin tribution of Cryptodome Dacite from the 1980 Eruption of
volcano and a better understanding of the associated geology. Mount St. Helens, Washington. Bulletin of Volcanology, 55,
This study allowed us to obtain an initial model providing a 421-437. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00302002
first glimpse at the geological distribution associated with this Inguagiatto, S., Londoño, J. M., Chacón, Z., Liotta, M., Gil, E.,
volcanic system. This represents a starting point for further un- & Alzate, D. (2016). The hydrothermal system of Cerro
derstanding this volcano and its associated processes. Machín volcano (Colombia): New magmatic signals ob-
served during 2011–2013. Chemical Geology, 469, 60-68.
7. A
 cknowledgment http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2016.12.020
Kueppers, U., Scheu, B., Spieler, O., & Dingwell, D. B. (2005).
This work was supported by the FAPA project (Fondo de Field-based density measurements as tool to identify
Apoyo para Profesores Asistentes) No. INV-2019-63-1702 pre-eruption dome structure: set-up and first results from
from the Universidad de los Andes, Colombia. Unzen volcano, Japan. Journal of Volcanology and Geother-
mal Research, 141(1-2), 65-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
8. S
 upplementary data jvolgeores.2004.09.005
Laeger, K., Halama, R., Hansteen, T., Savov, I. P., Murcia, H. F.,
Supplementary data for this article can be found online at Cortés, G. P., & Garbe-Schönberg, D. (2013). Crystalliza-
https://doi.org/10.32685/0120-1425/bol.geol.49.1.2022.619 tion conditions and petrogenesis of the lava dome from the
~900 years BP eruption of Cerro Machín Volcano, Colom-
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Servicio Geológico Colombiano 65