Decks & Porches

35
Section 35.1
Deck Materials

Section 35.2
Planning & Construction

Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter,
you will be able to:
• Name the basic types
of materials used for
decking.
• List the basic elements
of a deck.
• Describe how to lay
out piers.
• Demonstrate how to
plumb a post.
• Summarize the proper
way to handle and cut
preservative-treated
wood.
• Describe two methods
for installing concrete
porch steps.

Discuss the Photo

Decks Decks allow homeowners to enjoy views and the outdoors. At which
stage of construction are decks installed?
Writing Activity: Career Profile
Decks and porches are popular remodeling projects. Contact a
contractor who specializes in these types of projects. Ask him or her what
skills, experience, and training are necessary in order to complete projects
successfully. Summarize your findings in a two-paragraph career profile.

1000 Chapter 35 Decks & Porches

Jim Craigmyle/Corbis
 35
Before You Read Preview
Decks are constructed of several types of materials. Before reading the chapter, use the
knowledge you have gained throughout the textbook to guess which materials are typically
used for decks. After you have read the chapter, review your guess and revise it if necessary.

Content Vocabulary
● deck ● heartwood ● pier ● stoop
● ACQ (Alkaline Copper ● sapwood ● ledger ● precast
Quaternary) ● galvanizing

Academic Vocabulary
You will find these words in your reading and on your tests. Use the academic vocabulary
glossary to look up their definitions if necessary.
■ exposed ■ maintains

Graphic Organizer
As you read, use a chart like the one shown to organize main ideas and supporting details.
Made from wood, Must hold up
synthetic, or composite to weather
materials

Main Idea:
A deck is a freestanding or attached
platform.

Must be strong Structural elements

and safe installed first
Go to glencoe.com for this book’s OLC for a downloadable version of this graphic organizer.

Academic Standards
Mathematics Science
Geometry: Use visualization, spatial reasoning, and Science in Personal and Social Perspectives:
geometric modeling to solve problems (NCTM) Environmental quality (NSES)
Geometry: Analyze characteristics and properties of Science as Inquiry: Abilities necessary to do scientific
two- and three-dimensional geometric shapes and inquiry (NSES)
develop mathematical arguments about geometric Physical Science: Structure and properties of matter
relationships (NCTM) (NSES)
English Language Arts Physical Science: Chemical reactions (NSES)
Industry Standards
Conduct research and gather, evaluate, and synthesize
Framing and Constructing Porches and Decks
data to communicate discoveries (NCTE 7)
Use different writing process elements to communicate
effectively (NCTE 5)

NCTE National Council of Teachers of English NSES National Science Education Standards
NCTM National Council of Teachers of Mathematics

Chapter 35 Reading Guide 1001

 Deck Materials
35.1
Structural Materials deck, shown in Figure 35-1, may have more
than one level.
What are the basic types of decks?
Decks are often built by the carpenters Posts, Beams, and Joists
who framed the house or by contractors who Materials used for the structural elements
specialize in the construction of decks. A porch beneath the decking are chosen primarily for
is another desirable feature. Depending on the their strength and durability. Appearance is
house’s architectural design, a porch may be usually a lesser concern. Preservative-treated
built in various ways. It may resemble a deck wood is durable, inexpensive, and readily
with a roof over it, or it may be more enclosed. available. That is why it is generally used
A deck is a platform made from wood, for structural members. It can also be used
synthetic, or composite materials fastened for decking itself. However, some treatment
with nails, screws, bolts, and metal brackets. chemicals are more corrosive than others.
The primary requirements of a deck are This is a factor that must be considered when
weather resistance, strength, and a safe specifying metal fasteners, connectors, and
design. Because a deck is entirely exposed to other metal hardware that will be in contact
the weather, joints must not trap water and with the wood.
the structure must resist wind uplift forces. Preservatives Prior to 2004, the most common
Deck construction techniques are preservative for lumber was CCA (chro-
straightforward. The structural elements mated copper arsenate). However, studies
are installed first. Deck boards, often called indicated that the arsenic in CCA-treated
decking, are then attached to the structural wood could leach out and contaminate
elements. A railing ensures the safety of
people using the deck, and steps or stairs
allow access from the deck to the yard.
The decking itself is the most visible
portion of a deck project. Many new types
of decking materials have become available
in recent years. These include tropical hard-
woods as well as a wide variety of plastics
and composites.
Types of Decks
There are two basic types of decks. A
freestanding deck, or grade-level deck, is not
attached to the house. It is low to the ground
and does not require a foundation. It is
usually on only one level. An attached deck,
or elevated deck, has at least one side per-
Figure 35-1 An Attached Deck
manently connected to the structure of the
Safety Is Important An attached deck is supported by
house. It is partly supported by the house posts and anchored to the house. A strong and well-
and partly by a network of concrete piers designed railing makes a deck safe to use.
that extend below the frost line. This type of

1002 Chapter 35 Decks & Porches

Digital Vision/Getty Images
soil and ground water. Beginning in 2004, resistant to decay and insect attack.
CCA-treated wood was no longer allowed Western red cedar is the species used
for use in residential construction. most often for decking. It is medium-
Other non-arsenic preservatives have priced and readily available throughout
replaced CCA in the wood treatment pro- the country.
cess. One that is used extensively is ACQ Preservative-Treated Wood When preserva-
(Alkaline Copper Quaternary). Wood that is tives are forced into softwoods such as
treated with ACQ does not contain arsenic. It Southern yellow pine, the wood becomes
is sometimes brownish in color. Many differ- very resistant to decay and insect attack.
ent softwoods can be treated with ACQ, but
Sizes Softwood decking lumber is specified
Southern yellow pine and Western hemlock-
by its nominal size. The most commonly
fir are common. Preservative-treated lumber
available sizes are 2⫻4 and 2⫻5 (actual
is graded and stamped to indicate its suit-
thickness 15⁄8"). Wider stock is more likely
ability for various uses.
to cup as it weathers. In some areas,
Three levels of preservative treatment can
preservative-treated decking lumber is
be applied. Treatment levels are specified by
also available in an actual thickness of 1¼".
the number of pounds of treatment chemical
Decking lumber is readily available in
used per cubic foot (pcf) of wood.
lengths of 8', 10', 12', and 14'. Softwood
• Above Ground Wood in this category is joist lumber is readily available in sizes
treated at 0.25 pcf. This is the lightest from 2⫻5 through 2⫻12 and in lengths
treatment level. It is used for decking up to 14'.
lumber and other wood that will be
exposed to the weather but not to soil
contact.
• General Use This is a utility grade that Explain What is the difference between a
can be in moderate ground contact. The freestanding deck and an attached deck?
wood is treated at 0.40 pcf.
• Ground Contact The highest standard Grades Grading policies for exterior lumber
treatment level is 0.40 pcf. It is used for
wood that will be in constant contact
with the ground and where maximum
durability is required.
Other treatment chemicals are available
in addition to ACQ. They include CA (cop- Working with wood Preservatives Any
per azole), micronized-copper (MCQ), and wood preservative contains chemicals that
various trademarked formulations. Each can be harmful to workers. Always wear work
treatment chemical imparts specific charac- gloves when handling preservative-treated
teristics to the wood. lumber and wear a dust mask when cutting it.
To prevent chemicals in the sawdust from con-
Softwood Decking taminating the soil, cut preservative-treated
The most popular types of solid lumber wood over a tarp. Dispose of the collected
decking are made from softwood lumber. sawdust as directed by local regulations. Avoid
Three different softwoods are commonly used. sanding preservative-treated wood. Always
wash your hands thoroughly with soap after
Redwood This wood is highly resistant to
working with it, particularly before eating.
decay and insect attack. However, it is fairly
expensive and not readily available in all Go to glencoe.com for this book’s OLC for more on
parts of the country. job safety.

Cedar Several species of cedar are

Section 35.1 Deck Materials 1003

are not uniform. Redwood lumber, for exam-
ple, is available in over 30 different grades.
Cedar lumber is graded with a different
system and preservative-treated wood with
yet another system. In general, however,
Saving Money on Lumber The cost
exterior softwood lumber is graded accord-
of various grades of lumber can vary
ing to certain characteristics. dramatically. To minimize the costs of deck
Appearance This describes the size, type, construction, always choose the grade that
and number of knots permitted in a board. is most suitable for a particular use. The
Other surface flaws may be identified as highest grades of wood should be reserved
well. Wood of the highest appearance grade for places where appearance is important,
is completely free from knots and is some- such as decking and railings. Lower grades
times referred to as clear. This grade is often can be used where they will not show.
used for deck railings and skirt boards and
sometimes for the decking itself.
Strength This describes the lumber’s ability Most hardwood decking ranges from ¾"
to support loads. Higher strength grades are to 1¼" thick. No special tools are required
important for joists and beams. when cutting these woods. However, holes
for nails and other fasteners must be pre-
Moisture Content Deck lumber is often
drilled because the wood is so dense. Also,
kiln-dried to a moisture content of either
some tropical hardwoods are not easy to
19 or 15 percent. This reduces the tendency
finish because of their density.
of the wood to shrink after installation. Some
preservative-treated lumber is kiln-dried Other Decking Materials
twice: once before and once after treatment. Many synthetic decking products are
This grade is stamped KDAT (Kiln-Dried now available, and more are introduced
After Treatment). each year. These products usually require
Decay Resistance The most decay-resistant little maintenance. However, they can be
portion of a tree is called the heartwood. used only for decking, not for the structural
Heartwood is the portion of a tree nearest portions of a deck. Check local codes before
the core. It is dark in color. The least decay- specifying synthetic decking. There are two
resistant part of the tree is the sapwood. basic types of synthetic decking products.
Sapwood is the outer growth layer. It is Plastic Decking These products are made
lighter in color than heartwood. When maxi- entirely of plastic. Products are shaped into
mum decay resistance is required, grades boardlike planks that are hollow or partially
containing larger proportions of heartwood hollow, as shown in Figure 35-2. Chemical
should be used. Because heartwood and additives in the plastic improve its durability
sapwood differ in color, decay resistance also
has some bearing on appearance grading.
The highest grades are the most uniform in
color. For more on the decay resistance of
woods, see Chapter 12.
Hardwood Decking
Many tropical hardwoods, such as mahog-
any, teak, and Ipe, are strong and highly Figure 35-2 Plastic Decking
resistant to decay and insect attack. The trees Special Fastening Plastic decking consists of hollow
grow in Central and South America but are extrusions. Each type uses a fastening system supplied
by the manufacturer.
now readily available in North America.

1004 Chapter 35 Decks & Porches

Arnold & Brown
outdoors. This is important to help the mate- Certification means that the wood comes
rial resist the harmful effects of UV radia- only from well-managed forests or
tion. Plastic cannot be nailed, so various plantations that adopt sustainable and
concealed fastening systems are supplied by ecologically sound forestry practices.
the manufacturers. These secure the decking
to wood joists. Decking ranges from about 4"
to 8" in width.
Composite Decking This material is a blend Recall Which grading characteristic should be of
of recycled plastic and wood dust or fibers. greatest concern when choosing wood for joists
It is denser and heavier than solid wood and beams?
but usually not as stiff. Boards should be
cut with carbide-tipped saw blades. Sizes
include 5⁄4⫻5, 2⫻4, 2⫻5, and 2⫻8 planks.
Hardware
Some composite boards are solid, as shown
What is the most common fastener
in Figure 35-3. Solid products can be
used in deck construction?
attached to wood joists with nails or screws. The parts of a deck are fastened together
However, some types of screws cause the with nails, screws, lag bolts, through bolts,
surface of composite boards to deform and structural metal connectors. Structural
slightly around the screw head. The defor- connections should be made in a way that
mation is sometimes called a volcano. Always maintains the strength of the connections
follow the manufacturer’s recommendations over time. Any joint that tends to trap mois-
when choosing fasteners. Special composite ture against the wood should be avoided.
lumber screws are available. Types of Fasteners
The most common fastener used to assem-
Extensive cutting of ble a wood deck is the nail, but screws and
tropical hardwoods can cause environmental bolts are also commonly used. See examples
damage. To discourage this, programs in Figure 35-4 on page 1006. Connections
have been developed to certify that tropical between posts and beams or joists and rim
hardwoods have been harvested responsibly. joists are often made with metal connectors,
such as brackets or joist hangers. These
provide a stronger connection than nails
or screws alone. They are often required
by code in areas exposed to earthquakes or
severe weather. For more on metal framing
connectors, see Section 14.3.
Hidden Fasteners The traditional method for
attaching decking to joists is face nailing.
This method of attachment is easy and quick,
but many people do not like the appearance
of exposed nail heads. Another problem is
that the nails create paths that allow water
to soak into the wood. Manufacturers
Figure 35-3 Composite Decking have developed a wider range of specialty
Solid or Hollow Composite decking is available in fasteners that avoid these problems. They
various dimensions, shapes, and colors. Skirt boards or are generally called hidden deck fasteners, or
special end caps are used to conceal the open ends of
sometimes blind-nailing systems.
hollow composite decking.
Some hidden deck fasteners are installed as

Section 35.1 Deck Materials 1005

Arnold & Brown
 Figure 35-4 Common Fasteners
Standards These are the types of Machine
fasteners used most often on
deck projects. Bolts
Carriage

Decking
Screws
Lag

Nail Common

continuous metal strips that are screwed to the most common type of corrosion resistance is
underside of the decking, as in Figure 35-5. provided by galvanizing. Galvanizing is the
However, most are attached to the top edge of process of coating the steel with a protective
the joists and to the edge of the deck boards. layer of zinc. The thicker the coating, the
better the protection. There are two methods
Corrosion Resistance
for applying zinc to steel.
Some wood treatment chemicals are
highly corrosive to metal. In addition, the Electroplating This type of galvanizing coats
risk of environmental corrosion is high in the steel with a thin, smooth, and very uniform
many regions. For example, the salty air layer of zinc. It is available on all metal prod-
along the Pacific and Atlantic coasts can be ucts, including metal connectors. Standard
very corrosive. To prevent deck fasteners galvanized deck hardware is electroplated
andconnectorsfromfailing,alwaysusecorrosion- with 0.90 ounce of zinc for every square foot
resistant products, especially when using of metal surface area. This may be referred to
preservative-treated wood. as G90 Zinc. This level is weather resistant but
Galvanized Steel The least expensive and not suitable for use with treated wood. G185

Figure 35-5 Hidden Decking Fasteners

Strong But Invisible A hidden decking fastener can be made of plastic or metal. Some types (A) are fastened to the
underside of decking. Others (B) are fastened to the edge of each deck board.

1006 Chapter 35 Decks & Porches

Arnold & Brown
 Chemical Reactions
Salt and Corrosion Corrosion is an
electrochemical process. Fill two clear
glasses with water. Stir one tablespoon
Using Through Bolts Through bolts
of salt into one glass. Label the glasses
used to make a connection should be
“unsalted” and “salted” with pieces of tape.
approximately 1" longer than the com-
Put a piece of aluminum foil in each glass
bined thickness of the lumber. This ensures
and leave the glasses alone for one day.
that the threads on the nut will be fully
Record your results.
engaged. Always place a flat washer under
each nut. This prevents the nut from crush- Starting Hint Be sure to not get any salt
ing wood fibers and reduces the chance into the unsalted glass with your fingers.
that the connection will loosen over time.

steel does not require galvanizing. Stainless

galvanizing provides 1.85 ounce of zinc per steel is used where maximum corrosion
square foot of steel. It is the minimum recom- resistance is necessary. It is ideal for use
mended for use with treated lumber. in coastal areas, particularly where salt
Hot-Dip Galvanizing Hot-dip galvanizing spray is a factor. Stainless steel hardware is
produces a slightly irregular layer of zinc available in many forms, including through
that is thicker than an electroplated finish. It bolts and framing connectors. However,
offers greater protection but is more expen- stainless steel is much more expensive than
sive than electroplating. However, it is not galvanized steel. Stainless steel structural
used on through bolts because the thicker connectors should always be fastened using
coating clogs their threads. stainless steel nails or screws.
Stainless Steel Hardware made of stainless

35.1
After You Read: Self-Check
1. What supports an attached deck?
2. Name the three basic types of softwood lumber used for decking.
3. What preservative has been phased out of use for residential construction?
4. What is galvanizing?

Academic Integration: Science

5. Sustainability and Certification Certain programs have been developed to certify sus-
tainable building materials. For example, one certification program might certify that only
a certain percentage of trees in an area may have been harvested within a specific time
period. What does it mean to say that a resource is sustainable? Brainstorm examples of
how to increase the sustainability of wood as a building material.
Go to glencoe.com for this book’s OLC to check your answers.

Section 35.1 Deck Materials 1007

 Planning & Construction
35.2
Codes & Layout Building and Zoning Requirements
Why are there various sources for span Decks are governed by local building
information? codes as well as zoning restrictions. Building
The elements of a simple attached deck codes are concerned with such details as:
are shown in Figure 35-6. Decking usually • The span of beams, joists, and decking
runs parallel to the house. However, this is
• The diameter and depth of foundation
primarily for installation convenience and
piers
appearance. It is not a requirement. Deck-
ing is supported by joists and usually runs • The design of railings and steps
perpendicular to them. • The deck’s connection to the house.

Railing

Ledger
Railing post

Decking
Joist
Post base
Blocking Stringer

Beam

Concrete pier

Figure 35-6 A Basic Deck

Outdoor Floor An attached deck is supported on at least one side by the house. Joists, beams, and concrete piers
complete the support system.

1008 Chapter 35 Decks & Porches

 Construction details for the deck should be Locating Piers
included in the construction drawings for the Unlike the house, a deck does not require
house. The location of the deck would show a continuous concrete foundation. Instead,
up in a plan view. Assembly details would it rests on piers. A pier is a concrete column
be included on a detail sheet. Check these that supports a concentrated load, such as
details carefully, particularly in regions of a post. It is a type of foundation. Piers are
high winds or frequent seismic activity. Deck typically cylindrical due to the method in
construction in these areas calls for additional which they are formed. However, the shape
measures to prevent deck collapse. of the pier is less important than its ability to
Zoning ordinances affect deck location. support loads. The bottom of a pier is gener-
These restrictions differ from community ally wider than the rest of the pier in order
to community. However, they specify the to distribute loads to the soil. In this sense it
minimum allowable distance between the serves as a footing and should be approxi-
deck and such features as streets, lot lines, mately 6" below the frostline. The frostline
septic systems, wells, and utility easements. is determined by local climate and its depth
They may also limit the height of a deck. can be found in local building codes.
Deck Planning Unlike a house, a deck is The approximate location of piers is deter-
typically planned from the top down. Once mined by the shape of the deck as well as the
the overall shape and size of the deck has location of beams and posts. It is specified on
been designed, each deck material chosen building plans. However, it is up to the deck
determines the size and spacing of the sup- builder to determine the precise location of
porting materials. For example, the type and each pier based on measurements taken at
dimension of deck boards determines their the site.
maximum span. Their span determines how An exact location for each pier can be
closely spaced the joists must be. The maxi- determined by using the 3-4-5 method to
mum span of the joists determines where ensure a right-angle layout in relation to the
beams must be located, and their location house (see Chapter 9). When the centerlines
determines where the posts and piers must of the outermost piers have been deter-
be positioned. Depending on the materials mined, string lines can then be used to locate
chosen, span information may come from the centerlines of other piers as shown in
various sources, including the following: Figure 35-7 on page 1010.
• code books Once the string lines are in place, the exact
• trade associations, such as the California location of individual piers can be deter-
Redwood Association or the Southern mined. This requires the use of a tape mea-
Forest Products Association sure and a plumb bob as shown in Figure
• manufacturers of specific decking 35-8 on page 1010. A small stake or marker is
products. placed at the center point of the pier location
to identify it for excavation.
The process of building the deck proceeds
from the bottom up. Once all the elements
of the deck’s structure have been double-
Deck Construction
checked to ensure that they meet or exceed What factors might affect the height
building codes, construction begins with chosen for a pier?
the piers. When the basic layout of the deck is
complete, string lines can be removed and
excavation can begin. The tools used to
excavate holes for piers will depend on the
Summarize Why do most decks run parallel to depth and diameter of the pier, as well as
the house? how many are required. Hand-digging with

Section 35.2 Planning & Construction 1009

 Location of Centerline of piers
string line
Batter boards

Figure 35-7 Locating Piers

Determining Square The outermost string line should
be parallel to the wall of the house. Use the 3-4-5
method to check other string lines for squareness.
Wall of house

shovels and post-hole diggers is sufficient Installing Piers

where piers are shallow or only a few are Forms for piers can be made of remove-
necessary. Power equipment such as the able steel or fiberglass sections. However, the
tractor-mounted auger in Figure 35-9 is most common method is to use inexpensive
generally preferred in other cases. Augers of cylindrical single-use forms such as the one
various diameters are available. shown in Figure 35-10. These products are

String line

Plumb bob

Figure 35-8 Positioning Piers

Exact Position After string lines have
been set up, use a tape measure and
a plumb bob to locate the center point Location of pier
of individual piers.

1010 Chapter 35 Decks & Porches

 Once a form has been cut to length and
placed in an excavated hole, it must be sup-
ported by temporary support braces at the
desired height. The braces also keep the form
steady. Once the form has been plumbed,
it can be backfilled just enough to hold it in
position. Immediately after the concrete has
been placed, a metal post anchor should be
embedded in the top. Check local codes to
see if reinforcing bar must also be inserted.
Some form manufacturers provide online
volume calculators to help builders deter-
mine how much concrete to order for a given
diameter and length of pier. Another way to
calculate concrete volume for a cylindrical
form is to consult Table 35-1 on page 1012.

Figure 35-9 Excavation Posts

Quick and Precise The use of heavy equipment to drill Posts should be made of solid lumber
holes for piers improves their accuracy and speeds the graded for structural use. Common dimen-
work when many holes are required. sions are 4⫻4, 4⫻5, and 6⫻5. Most often posts
are made from preservative-treated lumber,
made of multiple layers of recycled paper- but redwood is common in some areas of the
board laminated with adhesive. The interior country. The bottom of a post must be secured
surface is very smooth, and the outside by a metal post anchor embedded in a pier.
surface has a moisture-resistant coating. It Once a post has been plumbed, it can be
comes in various lengths and diameters that secured to a beam in various ways. In some
range from 6" to 60". Forms are typically 12' cases, it can be sandwiched between a pair of
long but can easily be cut to shorter lengths. joists that serve as a beam. In this case, holes

Post anchor

24 support

Duplex nail

Stake

Figure 35-10 Forming a Pier

Keep It Plumb Formwork for footings Frostline
must be braced properly to prevent it from or below
moving when concrete is placed.

Gravel

Section 35.2 Planning & Construction 1011

Jason Lindsey/Alamy
 Table 35-1: Estimating Concrete for
Cylindrical Forms
Form Diameter Concrete Required per Lineal
(inches) Foot (cubic yards) Stripping Forms Most portions of a
6 .0073 single-use form are biodegradable and
8 .0129 eventually disintegrate. Portions above
grade may be stripped off after the
10 .0202 concrete has cured for at least 24 hours,
12 .0291 though most builders wait longer. How-
ever, do not wait longer than five days to
14 .0396 strip above-grade portions of the forms.
16 .0617
18 .0654
2⫻8, 2⫻10, or other dimension lumber. The
for through bolts would be drilled through layers should be spiked or bolted together.
each joist and the top of the post. Another Built-up beams are sometimes preferred
method to secure posts is to use a metal post because they are assembled in place. This
connector, as shown in Figure 35-11. makes them easier to position. Another
advantage is that a built-up beam can be
Beams any length. One disadvantage of a built-up
Beams and girders may be solid wood or a beam is that water can be trapped between
built-up assembly of 2⫻ lumber. Solid beams the pieces of stock. This can cause rot. To
come in limited lengths. Nominal beam eliminate this problem, two-layer beams are
depths of 6" and 8" are common. Built-up often assembled with an airspace between
beams are made of two or three layers of the pieces. This can be done by inserting

Beam

Post

Figure 35-11 Post Connectors

Strong Connection Post caps come in various shapes. Always use the number and type of fasteners recommended by the
post cap manufacturer.

1012 Chapter 35 Decks & Porches

 Plumbing a Post An out-of-plumb post puts unnecessary stresses on the deck structure.
Plumb posts with a 3' level or by using the following method:
Step 1 Tack a small wood block to the side of the Step 4 Nail a temporary brace to the post to hold it
post at its top. Then place a plumb line over the block in position. Repeat Steps 1, 2, and 3 on an adjacent
so that it hangs alongside the post. face of the post. When this face is plumb, secure a
second brace.
Step 2 At the bottom of the post, measure the
distance from the post to the line. If the distance is Step 5 Double-check the post on two adjacent faces.
not the same as the thickness of the block, the post is If they are both plumb, the post is plumb.
not plumb.
Step 3 Tilt the post as needed until the distance
from the post to the line is exactly the same along the
entire length of the line.

Go to glencoe.com for this book’s OLC for additional step-by-step procedures, applications, and certification practice.

treated-wood spacers or stacked washers not strong enough to prevent the ledger from
between the pieces as they are nailed or pulling away. Instead, use lag bolts or through
bolted together. bolts connected to studs, plates, or rim joists,
Whatever the type of beam, it should be as shown in Figure 35-12 on page 1014. Do not
straight and made of structural-grade wood. rely on any connections made to the sheathing
If the beam will be visible when the deck alone. Such connections do not provide suf-
is complete, its appearance should also be ficient strength. Metal flashing prevents water
considered. The cut ends of solid or built-up from rotting the siding, the sheathing, or the
beams should be coated with a water repel- structural framing of the house.
lent to increase their durability. A number of decks have failed in recent
years due to inadequate ledger connections,
and in some cases people on the deck were
killed in the collapse. That is why a great
Recall How are the tools chosen for excavating deal of research is being devoted to this sub-
holes for piers? ject, including full-scale laboratory testing of
ledger connections. Specific recommenda-
The Ledger tions for ledger installation may become part
One of the most important but least of the International Residential Code in the
understood parts of a deck’s substructure near future.
is the ledger. The ledger is the length of To avoid problems with ledger connec-
lumber that connects the deck to the house, tions, some builders avoid ledgers entirely.
as shown in Figure 35-6 on page 1008. Instead of connecting the deck to the house,
Proper installation of the ledger is critical. they install an extra row of concrete piers
If not attached properly, the ledger can rip along the house wall to support the deck
away from the house when stressed. This can independently of the house. A slight gap
cause the entire deck to collapse. Never secure between the house siding and the deck
a ledger to a house with nails alone. Nails are allows water to drain between them.

Section 35.2 Planning & Construction 1013

 Siding

Sheathing

Stud wall Metal flashing

Waterproof
membrane

Ledger
Rim joist

1/2" through bolt

1/2" spacer
Sill plate

1/2" lag screw

Figure 35-12 Ledger Details

A Strong Connection Lag screws
and through bolts should be used Foundation wall
to secure a ledger to the house.
What is the purpose of the metal
flashing?

Joists at every joist connection when installing 2⫻4

Deck joists are laid out and installed much decking. Use two nails when installing 2⫻5
like floor joists (see Chapter 15). They are decking.
usually spaced 16" OC but may also be 12", 20", Galvanized or stainless steel screws make
or 24" OC. When synthetic decking is used, a stronger connection than nails. Screws
always consult the manufacturer’s instructions made especially for attaching decking have a
for joist requirements. Some types of synthetic slender shaft, a sharp self-drilling point, and
decking are not as stiff as wood, and thus joists a fairly small head that sinks flush with the
may have to be closer together. surface of the decking. They should be long
Joists are generally connected to other struc- enough to penetrate at least 1" into the joists.
tural elements using metal joist hangers, brack- When installing synthetic decking, follow
ets, or by toe-nailing joists to support beams. manufacturer’s instructions carefully for
Continuous solid blocking is often required using nails or screws.
between joists that are more than 8" in depth.
Spacing Gaps between deck boards ensure
Decking that water will drain freely. Generally this
Softwood decking with a nominal 2" thick- space is about 1⁄8". If hardwood, composite,
ness is often surface-nailed with 10d galva- or kiln-dried decking is used, gaps must be
nized or stainless steel nails. Decking that is created as the boards are installed. However,
1¼" thick is nailed with 8d nails. Use one nail when installing preservative-treated lumber,

1014 Chapter 35 Decks & Porches

butt boards tightly during installation. As Stairs
the boards shrink across their width, suitable Most decks will require at least a few steps
gaps will eventually open up between them. down to grade level. In the case of low decks,
The thickness of a 12d or 16d nail can be such as the one in Figure 35-14 on page 1016,
used to gauge gaps between decking boards. the steps can be constructed simply. Instead
Drive a nail through a small scrap of thin of supporting the treads on stringers, as in
plywood to create a spacing jig, as shown standard stair construction, they are often
in Figure 35-13. This prevents the nail from supported by a box-like assembly made of
slipping through the gap as the board is framing lumber. This is called platform stair
positioned. Use several of these reusable construction.
devices to maintain a uniform gap thickness. Elevated decks require steps as well as
Always follow the manufacturer’s spacing stair railings. The steps are supported by
recommendations when installing plastic or stringers made of preservative-treated
composite decking. lumber or a naturally decay-resistant wood
such as redwood. These stringers are laid out
just as those for interior stairs (see Chapter
Stairs, Railings, 25). However, the degree of finish work is
& Porches not as great. This is because stairs to a deck
are exposed to the weather.
Why do stairs for decks require less Exterior stairs may be of the cut-stringer
finishing work than interior stairs? type or the cleat-stringer type. Both types are
All elevated decks require stairs and rail- discussed in Chapter 25. Stringers can be cut
ings. Because these elements play a large role on site, but pre-cut pressure treated stringers
in the safety of a deck, local codes should be are also available. This ensures that treat-
followed carefully. ment chemicals will protect the cut edges

Figure 35-13 Spacer for Decking

Inexpensive Spacer Use this site-made jig to ensure consistent spacing between deck boards.

Section 35.2 Planning & Construction 1015

 Figure 35-14 Platform Steps
Simple Construction A low-level deck sometimes incorporates steps that form a border around the deck. This deck
features composite decking and a railing system made of composites.

of the stringer. Stringers are often attached The need for a good support or founda-
to adjacent structures using metal framing tion for outside steps is often overlooked.
connectors. If the steps are located over backfill or
An exterior stair often does not have disturbed ground, the bottom end of the
risers. This allows water to drain quickly
and snow to be removed with relative ease.
To aid drainage, each tread can slope up to
two percent. For example, for a tread with a
depth of 12½", the back of the tread would
be ¼" higher than the front. All hardware
Maintaining Connections Wood
used to assemble exterior stairs must be exterior stairs are often assembled using lag
weather resistant. bolts or through bolts. As the wood weath-
The basic layout of exterior stairs gener- ers, it shrinks somewhat. This can cause
ally follows that of interior stairs. However, threaded fasteners to loosen over time.
building codes applicable to exterior stairs Fasteners should be tightened securely
differ in some respects and should be during construction. They should then
checked. For example, there may be more be tightened again later. Tightening such
flexibility in the dimensions of treads and bolts should be a part of the homeowner’s
risers when laying out porch steps or the annual maintenance for an exterior stair.
approaches to low-level decks.

1016 Chapter 35 Decks & Porches

Steven S. Miric/SuperStock
stringers should rest on concrete piers or on the top of the decking, this weakens the post
a small concrete support slab. In any case, and should generally be avoided.
stair stringers should never rest directly on
the ground because this will encourage rot.
Such placement would also allow the stair to
move up and down slightly during weather Recall When is platform stair construction used?
cycles of freezing and thawing.
Porches
Railings A porch is a roofed structure that is
The primary purpose of a railing is safety. attached to a house. It is often open on the
It should be installed on both sides of a sides or front. To aid drainage, the flooring
stairway, as well as around elevated decks. is often installed like decking, with a gap
Local codes determine the minimum height between each board. If the porch flooring
of the railing and the spacing of balusters. is made of tongue-and-groove boards, the
However, height generally ranges from 32" surface must be sloped slightly away from
to 38" above the decking. the house to aid drainage. Be sure to use a
A typical railing consists of a handrail, or rot-resistant wood.
cap, a series of support posts, and balusters. A porch often serves as the main entry
The railing posts provide strength for the to a house, as shown in Figure 35-15. Con-
system, so they must be solidly screwed or struction often involves wall framing, roof
bolted to the deck structure. Though some framing, roofing, and concrete slab methods
builders notch the bottom of posts to fit over described elsewhere in this book.

Figure 35-15 Full-Length Entry Porch

Double Duty This porch fits the architectural style of the house. It serves as a protected main entry. It is also large enough
to use as a sitting area.

Section 35.2 Planning & Construction 1017

Arnold & Brown
 Consider the following when building Concrete Steps and Stoops
a porch: Many porches, particularly those that
• Porches supported on continuous serve as the main entrance, feature concrete
foundation walls should have a clearance steps and a stoop. A stoop is an enlarged
of at least 8" between the exterior finish landing at the top of the steps. Concrete is
grade and the nearest wood. Floor joists a durable, low-maintenance material that
and beams should have a clearance of is ideal for this use. Horizontal concrete
18" or more from the bottom of the joists surfaces should be sloped to promote runoff
to the grade, unless preservative-treated of water.
lumber is used. Many builders prefer to install precast
steps and stoops, shown in Figure 35-17.
• Porch columns should be designed to Precast refers to any concrete object that
avoid any details or joints that might is cast in a factory, cured under controlled
trap water. Treated structural posts conditions, and then delivered to the job site.
are often cased with untreated finish They are lifted into place by a small crane
lumber for better appearance, as shown mounted on the delivery truck. Precast units
in Figure 35-16. are hollow to reduce their weight. They are
• It is important to protect the end grain of available in various sizes but are usually 48"
finished trim wood at joints, because this wide. Precast units rest on footings or piers.
area absorbs water easily and is prone Porch steps may instead be cast in place.
to rotting. The ends of porch flooring This work is done by masons or carpenters
should be brushed, dipped, or soaked in who build the formwork for risers and
a water-repellent preservative. treads on site. After the concrete is placed

Preservative-treated post

Casing

Porch decking Molding

Edge of flashing
turns up behind wood

Allow space
under base
Figure 35-16 Porch Post Details Flashing
Durable Details This construction prevents water
from being absorbed by the wood. Note that the
base does not rest directly on the flashing.

1018 Chapter 35 Decks & Porches

and has partially cured, the forms are sloped forward slightly to encourage drain-
removed. Formwork may be made of lum- age, as shown in Figure 35-18. Risers are
ber, but reusable forms called edge forms are sometimes slanted inward toward the next
typically made of metal. Wood formwork lower tread. Like the nosing of a wood step
calls for a high degree of craftsmanship (see Chapter 25), this provides clearance for
to ensure that the forms are strong and using the step.
properly designed. For example, each tread
and the stoop must be level side-to-side but Edge forms Side forms

Figure 35-17 Precast Steps Figure 35-18 Forming Concrete Steps

Ready to Use Precast step units are hollow to reduce Careful Craftsmanship The risers are leveled from
weight. However, they are still heavy enough to require side to side and positioned so the back of each tread is
placement by crane. ¼" higher than the front.

35.2
After You Read: Self-Check
1. Name two advantages that built-up beams have as compared to solid beams.
2. What step should be taken with the cut ends of built-up or solid beams to increase their
durability?
3. When installing a ledger, what factors should be kept in mind?
4. How are porches designed to allow for proper drainage?

Academic Integration: Mathematics

5. Estimating Concrete Use the formula for the volume of a cylinder to estimate the amount
of concrete needed for 6 piers that are 12" in diameter and 4 ft. long. Round your answer
up to the nearest ¼ cubic yard. Then show how to check your work using Table 35-1.
The volume of a cylinder is found by first finding the area of the circular
opening, then multiplying by the length of the cylinder. V ⫽ πr2h.
Step 1: Find the volume of one pier. Use 3.14 for π.
Step 2: Multiply the result by 6 piers. Express your answer in cubic yards.
Step 3: Round up to the nearest ¼ cubic yard. Check your work using Table 35-1.
Go to glencoe.com for this book’s OLC to check your answers.

Section 35.2 Planning & Construction 1019

Arnold & Brown
 Review and Assessment
35
Section Chapter Summary
35.1 In addition to traditional softwoods, decking materials include hardwoods, plastic
decking, and composite decking. Decking materials should be weather and decay resis-
tant. The hardware used to install decking must be corrosion resistant.
Section
35.2 Construction of a deck calls for several layers of structural support. All construction
details must be installed to minimize the decay caused by trapped water. A ledger, the
length of lumber that connects the deck to the house, is a very important element of an
attached deck. It must be installed with great care. Porches are built with framing, roof-
ing, and concrete-slab work that are similar to parts of a house.

Review Content Vocabulary and Academic Vocabulary

1. Use each of these content vocabulary and academic vocabulary words in a sentence or diagram.

Content Vocabulary
• deck (p. 1002) • galvanizing (p. 1006) Academic Vocabulary
• ACQ (Alkaline Copper • pier (p. 1009) • exposed (p. 1002)
Quaternary) (p. 1003) • ledger (p. 1013) • maintains (p. 1005)
• heartwood (p. 1004) • stoop (p. 1018)
• sapwood (p. 1004) • precast (p. 1018)

Like a Pro Review Key Concepts

Technical Terms 3. Identify the basic types of materials used
for decking.
2. Work with a classmate to define the follow-
ing terms used in the chapter: decking 4. Recognize the basic elements of a deck.
(p. 1002), freestanding deck (p. 1002), 5. Demonstrate how to lay out piers.
attached deck (p. 1002), volcano (p. 1005), 6. Show the proper method to plumb a post.
platform stair construction (p. 1015), edge
forms (p. 1019). 7. Tell how to handle and cut preservative-
treated wood safely.
8. Summarize the process of installing
concrete porch steps.

1020 Chapter 35 Review and Assessment

Critical Thinking Research what happens to galvanized
nails in exterior wood during the corro-
9. Explain Why are porch steps sloped when sion process. Describe your findings.
they are cast in place?
Starting Hint Look for information
Academic and Workplace about rust and how it occurs.

Applications
12. Career Skills: Public Speaking As the
10. Planning a Deck How many support newest member of a safety committee,
posts are needed for a 12 ft. ⫻ 15 ft. deck, your first assignment will be to give a five-
attached to the house along its 12 ft. length, minute talk to a group of carpenters about
if the posts are laid 3 ft. OC? the dangers of working with wood preser-
vatives. The main objective of your talk will
Use the problem solving be to highlight safety guidelines for work-
strategy “Draw a Picture” when solving ing with wood preservatives. To prepare for
problems involving the use of space. your talk, write an outline on what you will
Step 1: Draw a rough plan of the deck. say to the group of carpenters. Share your
Place a post at each unattached corner. talk with the class.

Step 2: Divide the length of each unat-

tached side by the desired spacing between
the posts.
Step 3: Subtract 1 from each side because
the corner post is already placed. True/False
Directions Read each of the following
Step 4: Add the number of side posts and
statements carefully. Mark each statement as
corner posts. either true or false by filling in T or F.
Step 5: Check your work by completing T F 13. Posts are rarely made from
your drawing showing the location and preservative-treated wood.
spacing between the support posts.
T F 14. Materials used for the structural
elements beneath the decking
are chosen primarily for their
11. Corrosion An ion is an atom or molecule strength and durability.
which has lost or gained one or more
electrons, making it positively or nega- T F 15. One problem with precast steps
is that they are only available in
tively charged. When a solution contains one size.
free ions, it is called an electrolyte. When
two metals come into contact in the pres-
ence of an electrolyte, corrosion occurs.
Analyze multiple-choice questions carefully. Note
Corrosion of metal fasteners used to hold
key terms. Use your knowledge and anticipate what
a deck together was less of a problem the answer should be. Find an answer choice that
with CCA, the pressure treated lumber looks like the one you predict.
no longer used in residential construction
* These questions will help you practice for national
because of its arsenic content, than with certification assessment.
newer preserved lumber such as ACQ.

Chapter 35 Review and Assessment 1021

 UNIT 7
Hands-On Math Project
Professional Green Painting
Your Project Assignment The Math Behind the Project
You will spruce up a room at your home or school The traditional math skills for this project are geom-
with new paint this weekend. You will choose a paint etry and algebra. Remember these key concepts:
and estimate how long the job will take.
Square Footage
• Measure the square footage of the walls and ceiling Estimating a paint job requires calculating the
of the room you will paint. number of square feet to be painted. First calculate
the square footage of the walls and ceiling. For walls,
• Research paints certified multiply length by height. For the ceiling, multiply length
by Green Seal for quality and safety. by width. Then measure the square footage of the areas
• Select a paint and calculate how many gallons you you will not paint or that will require a different paint,
will need based on the room’s size and the paint’s such as doors, windows, and trim. Subtract these areas
spread rate. from the total. To calculate how many gallons of paint
you will need, divide the square footage to be painted by
• Estimate the time needed for the job based on the
the paint’s spread rate. For example, if you are painting
manufacturer’s recommendations and the forecast
480 square feet and your chosen paint has a spread rate
temperature and humidity.
of 350 square feet per gallon, you will need 1.37 gallons.
• Create a three- to five-minute presentation. You will therefore need to buy two gallons.
Applied Skills Algebra
Some skills you might use include: At 75°F and 50% percent relative humidity, flat latex
paint usually dries to the touch in about one hour.
• Compare the features and advantages of various
Eggshell and satin latex paint usually dry in about two
brands of paint.
hours. High humidity and low temperature slow the
• Explain why temperature and humidity are drying process. Consult the weather forecast for the day
important factors in planning a paint job. you plan to paint. For this project, we will assume one
• Determine the square footage of walls and ceilings added minute of drying time for every 1% of humidity
minus doors, windows, and trim. above 50% and one added minute of drying time for
• Calculate the time required to complete a multi-step every 1° of temperature below 75°F. You do not need
any extra drying time if the temperature is above 75°F or
project.
the humidity is below 50%.
• Describe the steps in making a time estimate.
We can use algebra to express this relationship as an
equation. Let m represent additional minutes of drying
time, let t represent forecast temperature, and let h
represent forecast humidity. The equation is: m ⴝ (75  t)
ⴙ (h  50). If the forecast indicates 52°F and 69%
humidity, we would solve for m using the following steps:
Number and Operations: compute fluently and make
1. Set up the equation
reasonable estimates m  (75  52)  (69  50)
with the stated values.
Algebra: represent and analyze mathematical situations and
2. Complete the
structures using algebraic symbols
operations within m  (33)  (19)
Geometry: use visualization, spatial reasoning, and geomet- parentheses.
ric modeling to solve problems
3. Calculate the total. m  52
NCTM National Council of Teachers of Mathematics You will need to let the paint dry for 52 minutes
(≈1 hour) beyond the standard drying time.

1022 Unit 7 Construction Specialties

 Green Seal
Mission: To safeguard the environment and transform
the marketplace by promoting the manufacture,
purchase, and use of environmental responsible
products and services.
Go to glencoe.com for this book’s OLC for more
information on this organization.

Project Steps
Research
• Choose a room to paint. Create a sketch that • Use the forecast temperature and humidity to
calculate any necessary additional drying time.
represents the three dimensions of the room and
indicates the position of windows and doors. • Create a total time estimate for the paint project.
• Determine an appropriate color and finish (flat,
Present
eggshell, satin, semi-gloss, or gloss).
Prepare a presentation combining your research and
• Research interior latex calculations using the checklist below.
paints certified by Green Seal. Compare at least
three paint brands on color selection, spread rate, PRESENTATION CHECKLIST
scrubbability, durability, toxicity, ease of application, Did you remember to…
and price. Choose one that meets your needs. ✓ Describe how you chose a paint brand, color, and finish?
• Locate the forecast temperature and humidity for ✓ Determine the number of paint coats needed?
your planned painting day. ✓ Demonstrate how you calculated any extra drying time?

Plan ✓ Use a spreadsheet for your cost and time calculations?

• Select a paint brand, color, and finish.

• Determine how many coats of paint you will need to Evaluate
apply based on the paint and the surface.
Assess yourself before and after your presentation.
• Measure the walls, ceiling, windows, and doors. Label
your sketch with these measurements. 1. Did you measure and calculate square footage?
• Calculate the total square footage to be painted. 2. Was your research thorough?
Multiply the total by the number of coats required. 3. Was your paint choice suitable for the room?
• Read the label to determine how long each coat of 4. Did you take temperature and humidity into account?
paint will need to dry. 5. Was your presentation concise and easy to follow?
Apply Go to glencoe.com for this book’s OLC for an
evaluation rubric and Academic Assessment..
• Determine how many gallons of paint you will need
by dividing the square footage by the spread rate of
your chosen paint.
• Calculate the total price of the paint.
• Estimate how long it will take to apply a single coat.
• Multiply your time estimate by the number of coats
required. Allow for the recommended drying time Go to glencoe.com for this book’s OLC to read
between each coat. an article titled “Case Study: Plaza Apartments”
to learn more green housing projects. Write a
summary of this article.

Unit 7 Construction Specialties 1023