ADJECTIVES (GRADABLE / NON-GRADABLE)

Read about adjectives (gradable / non-gradable) and do the exercise.

Adjectives can be either gradable or non-gradable
Gradable
Gradable adjectives are adjectives like ‘cold’ ‘hot’ and ‘frightened’. You can be
very cold or a bit cold. Gradable adjectives show that something can have different
degrees.
Non-gradable
Non-gradable adjectives are adjectives like ‘married’ or ‘wooden’. You can’t be
very married or a bit married. Non-gradable adjectives do not have different
degrees.
Adjectives like ‘terrifying’, ‘freezing’ ‘amazing’ are also non-gradable adjectives.
They already contain the idea of ‘very’ in their definitions – ‘freezing’ means ‘very
cold’ etc.
Using adverbs of degree
When we use adverbs of degree to modify adjectives we usually have to use
different adverbs for gradable and non-gradable adjectives.
NOT I’m completely hot.
NOT It was very fantastic!
With gradable adjectives
It’s a bit cold in here. Shall I turn the fire on?
He’s very interested in history. Why don’t you buy him a history book?
This exercise is really difficult. I don’t know any of the answers.
I’m extremely tired. I’m going to bed.
The adverbs a bit, very, really, extremely and quite can all be used with
gradable adjectives.
With non-gradable adjectives
It’s absolutely freezing in here. Shall I turn the fire on?
He’s completely fascinated by history. Why don’t you buy him a history book?
This exercise is absolutely impossible.
That film is really terrifying. Don’t go and see it on your own.
The adverbs absolutely and completely can be used with non-gradable
adjectives.
Notice that really can be used with both gradable AND non-gradable adjectives.
NOTE: There are other adverbs of degree that we haven’t covered in this section.
The ones included here are some of the most common.
Complete the sentences with an appropriate adverb.a bit
Completely Absolutely
Really Very
1. I speak good Italian but my French is terrible.
2. What an gorgeous skirt! Where did you buy it?
3. You should have come to the party. It was fantastic.
4. Sorry. I'm late, aren't I?
5. Have you seen that film? It's amazing!

AS AND LIKE

Read the grammar explanation and do the exercise.

As and like are often confused since they are both used to compare actions or
situations. There are, however, important differences.
As
We use as to talk about job or function.
 I worked as a shop assistant for 2 years when I was a student.
 He used his shoe as a hammer to hang the picture up.
In comparisons, the structure ‘as adjective as’ is often used.
 He’s not as tall as his brother
 She ran as fast as she could.
In the following comparisons as is a conjunction – it’s followed by a clause with a
subject and a verb.
 He went to Cambridge University, as his father had before him.
 She’s a talented writer, as most of her family are.
Like
In the following comparisons, like is a preposition and it’s followed by a noun or a
pronoun.
 I’ve been working like a dog all afternoon.
 None of my brothers are much like me.
 She looks just like her mother.
Like and As if/As though
Like, as if and as though can all be used to make comparisons. There is no
difference in meaning among the 3 forms.
 You look as if you’ve seen a ghost.
 You talk as though we’re never going to see each other again.
 It looks like it’s going to rain.
Expressions with ‘as’
The following expressions all use as.
 As you know, classes restart on January 15th.
 I tried using salt as you suggested but the stain still didn’t come out.
 As we agreed the company will be split 50/50 between us.
 Their house is the same as ours.
Complete the gaps with 'like' or 'as'.
1. My grandfather worked a miner in the 1930s.
2. Irina's jacket is the same mine.
3. You sound just your mother when you're angry.
4. Although we've only just met, I feel I've known you all
my life.
5. Using the sheets a rope, he managed to escape.

BRITISH ENGLISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH

British people and American people can always understand each other – but there
are a few notable differences between British English and American English
Grammar
Americans use the present perfect tense less than speakers of British English and
a British teacher might mark wrong some things that an American teacher would
say are correct.
 US Did you do your homework yet?
 Brit. Have you done your homework yet?
 US I already ate.
 Brit. I’ve already eaten.
In British English, ‘have got’ is often used for the possessive sense of ‘have’ and
‘have got to’ is informally used for ‘have to’. This is much less common in
American English.
 Brit. I’ve got two sisters.
 US I have two sisters.
 Brit. I’ve got to go now.
 US I have to go now.
There are a number of other minor grammatical differences.
Vocabulary
There are a lot of examples of different words being used in British and American
English. Here are a few of the commonest.
 angry (Brit.) = mad (US)
 autumn = fall
 boot (of a car) = trunk
 chemist’s = drug store
 cupboard = closet
 flat = apartment
 lift = elevator
 nappy = diaper
 pavement = sidewalk
 petrol = gas/gasoline
 rubbish = trash
 tap = faucet
 trousers = pants
There are British words which many Americans will not understand and vice versa.
There are also words which exist in both British and American English but have very
different meanings.
Spelling
There are also a number of different spelling rules between British English and
American English.
1 Some words that end in ‘-tre’ in British English end in ‘-ter’ in American English.
 US theater, center
 Brit. theatre, centre
2 Some words that end in ‘-our’ in British English end in ‘-or’ in American English.
 US color, labor
 Brit. colour, labour
3 Some words are shorter in American English than in British English.
 US catalog, program
 Brit. catalogue, programme
There are other minor spelling differences between British and American English.
Decide whether these sentences were said by an American or a British
person.
1. I already took the trash out.
US Brit
2. I've got to put some petrol in the car.
US Brit
3. I just spilled wine on my pants.
US Brit
4. Take the elevator up to my apartment.
US Brit
5. Have you changed the baby's nappy yet?
US Brit

Capital letters and apostrophes

The rules for the use of capital letters and apostrophes are quite easy to remember.
Capital letters
We use capital letters for the days of the week but not for seasons.
 One Saturday in autumn.
We use capital letters for planets – but not the earth, sun or moon.
 Mercury is closer to the sun than the earth is.
We use capital letters for countries and for ‘nationality’ words.
 David is from Germany but Jana is Slovak.
 I bought the camera in Hong Kong but it’s Japanese.
And we use capital letters when we talk about languages as school subjects –
but other subjects don’t have a capital letter.
 She’s got exams in English, French, history and geography this year.
Apostrophes
We use an apostrophe (‘) to show either possession or that there is a letter missing
(e.g. the apostrophe in ‘she’s’ shows that there is a letter missing in ‘she is’)
We use apostrophes with people or animals to show possession.
 My sister’s house.
 The dog’s blanket.
For things we use ‘of’ (the front of the car, NOT the car’s front.)
The position of the apostrophe depends on whether the noun is singular or plural.
Look at these two examples.
 My friend’s house. This is about one friend.
 My friends’ house. This is about two or more friends who share a house.
If a plural noun does not end in ‘s’ (e.g. men, people, children) we use ‘s’ to
show possession.
 The children’s bedroom.
 A pair of women’s sunglasses.
We also use an apostrophe in some time expressions.
 two weeks’ holiday
 ten years’ experience
Choose the sentence with the correct punctuation.
1. Which sentence has correct punctuation?
A) Sarah's studying German, Physics and Chemistry this year.
B) Sarah's studying German, physics and chemistry this year.
C) Sarah's studying german, physics and chemistry this year.
2. Which sentence has correct punctuation?
A) I handed the boys' passports to the immigration officer as we entered
Brazil.
B) I handed the boys' passport's to the immigration officer as we entered
Brazil.
C) I handed the boys' passports' to the immigration officer as we entered
Brazil.
3. Which sentence has correct punctuation?
A) We spent the summer sailing down the danube on my brother's boat.
B) We spent the summer sailing down the Danube on my brother's boat.
C) We spent the Summer sailing down the Danube on my brother's boat.
4. Which sentence has correct punctuation?
A) The children's school term starts next Monday.
 B) The childrens' school term starts next Monday.
C) The childrens school term starts next Monday.
5. Which sentence has correct punctuation?
A) You don't know where the dogs ball is do you?
B) You don't know where the dog's ball is do you?
C) You don't know where the dog's ball is, do you?

COMPARING AND CONTRASTING – MODIFYING COMPARATIVES

When we want to talk about similarities and differences we can use adjectives in
their comparative forms …
 Max is taller than Judy.
 You’re more intelligent than me.
or we can use (not) as (adjective) as
 Her hair is as long as mine.
 This one’s not as interesting as his first book. Remember that ‘not as
interesting as’ means ‘less interesting than'.
We can also use expressions like different from, similar to and the same as.
 She’s very different from her sister. They’re very different.
 Sri Lankan food is similar to Indian food. They’re similar.
 Andrew is the same age as Lily. Their ages are the same. We use same with
nouns.
Modifying comparisons
A big difference – much, a lot, far
We can modify comparative adjectives to show that there is a big difference
between things.
 Sales in July were much higher than sales in June.
 She’s a lot taller than you.
 This one’s far more expensive than the blue one.
We can also say that things are completely or totally different from each other.
 They may be twins but they’re completely different from each other.
A small difference – slightly, a little, a bit, not much
We can show there is a small difference.
 Sales in August were slightly lower than sales in July.
 You’re a bit younger than me.
 These are not much more expensive than those.
No difference – exactly, more or less, roughly
We can show that there is no difference or almost no difference.
 He’s exactly the same age as me. ( No difference)
 The figures for December are more or less the same as the figures for
November. (a tiny difference)
Use the information and drag the words to make a comparative sentence.
Exactly the same height Slightly warmer
Much more expensive Not much longer
A little higher
1. Ferrari (price = £120,000). Skoda (price = £ 20,000). A Ferrari is
than a Skoda.
2. Peter is 186 cm tall. Mark is 186 cm tall. Peter and Mark are .
3. Vienna (average temperature = 11 degrees Centigrade). Venice (average
temperature = 13 degrees Centigrade). Venice is than Vienna.
4. Casino Royale (length = 148 mins). Pirates of the Caribbean (length = 140 mins).
Casino Royale is than Pirates of the Caribbean.
5. Gerlachovsky (altitude = 2655m). Krivan (altitude = 2494m). Gerlachovsky is
than Krivan.

CONDITIONAL

Zero conditional
We use the zero conditional to talk about things that are always true.
 If you heat water, it boils.
 When the sun goes down, it gets dark.
 It lights up if you push that button.
The present simple is used in both clauses.
First conditional
We use the first conditional when we talk about real and possible situations.
 I’ll go shopping on the way home if I have time.
 If it’s a nice day tomorrow, we’ll go to the beach.
 If Arsenal win, they’ll be top of the league.
In first conditional sentences, the structure is usually if + present simple and will
+ infinitive. It’s not important which clause comes first.
Second conditional
The second conditional is used to talk about ‘unreal’ or impossible things.
 If I won a lot of money, I’d buy a big house in the country.
 Where would you live if you could live anywhere in the world?
 If you didn’t smoke so much, you’d feel a lot better.
The structure is usually if + past simple and would + infinitive. It’s not
important which clause comes first.
Look at the difference between the first and second conditionals.
 In January: If it snows tomorrow, I’ll go skiing. It might snow tomorrow.
 In August: If it snowed tomorrow, I’d go skiing. It almost certainly won’t snow
tomorrow.
NOTE: Although many conditional sentences use if + will/would, conditional
sentences can also use other words instead of ‘if’ – e.g. ‘when’ ‘as soon as’ ‘in case’
Other modal verbs can be used instead of ‘will/would’ – e.g. ‘can/could’, ‘may’
‘might’.
Other types of conditional sentences are covered in another section.
Match the sentence halves to make a complete sentence.
If he asked you out on a date? When I go home tonight.
You get another turn. If we don’t hurry.
I’d go and live in Rome. We'll be late

If I spoke Italian

If you throw a six

What would you say.

I'll have a bath

Third conditionals and mixed conditionals

Conditionals are sentences with two clauses – an ‘if clause and a main clause – that
are closely related. Conditional sentences are often divided into different types.
Third conditional
Third conditional sentences describe the past. They describe something that
didn’t happen.
 If I’d studied harder at school I would have gone to university.
He didn’t study very hard and he didn’t go to university.
 We wouldn’t have got lost if you hadn’t given me the wrong directions.
She wasn't given the correct directions and she didn't find her way.
 She might have finished the exam if she’d had more time.
She didn't finish the exam and she didn't have more time.
In third conditional sentences, the structure is usually if + past perfect and
would + perfect infinitive (e.g. have done). It’s not important which clause
comes first.
Notice that other modal verbs can be used instead of ‘would’ (e.g. ‘could’, ‘might’
‘may’)
Mixed conditionals
In mixed conditional sentences the time in the ‘if’ clause is not the same as the
time in the main clause. There can be various combinations.
 If he’d gone to university he might have a better job.
He didn’t go to university (past)
He doesn’t have a very good job. (present)
This sentence shows the present consequences of a past action.
 If I’d won the competition I’d be going to Florida next week.
She didn’t win the competition (past)
She isn’t going to Florida (future)
This sentence shows the future consequences of a past action.
Match the sentence halves to make a complete sentence.
It would have hit us. I wouldn’t feel terrible.
We would have won the game. I wouldn’t feel terrible.
I would have bought some cakes. We wouldn’t be late.
1. If he had scored the penalty

2. If I'd known you were coming

3. If I hadn't eaten too much chocolate

4. If you hadn't taken a long time getting ready

5. If you hadn't seen the car

ENOUGH

‘Enough’ can qualify an adjective or an adverb or it can go with a noun or even act
as a pronoun.
With adjectives and adverbs
 She isn’t tall enough to be a ballet dancer.
 I’m afraid your work just isn’t good enough.
 I couldn’t write quickly enough and I ran out of time.
 I haven’t been to lessons often enough to have really learnt much.
Enough comes after adjectives and adverbs.
With nouns
 There isn’t enough bread to make sandwiches.
 Have you got enough money?
 There aren’t enough nails.
Enough comes before nouns.
Enough of
 There isn’t enough of bread
We don’t use enough of unless there is a determiner (an article, this/that,
my/your/his etc).
We use enough of when there is a determiner.
 I’ve had enough of your nonsense! ‘Your’ is a determiner here.
 I haven’t seen enough of the film to really form an opinion.
Enough can also be used without a noun.
 That’s enough! Be quiet!
 Enough is enough.
With adjective and noun
When ‘enough’ is used with an adjective and a noun, two positions are possible but
the meaning changes. Look at these two sentences.
 We haven’t got big enough nails. None of the nails are as big as we need.
 We haven’t got enough big nails. We have some big nails but we need more.
When enough comes between the adjective and the noun (big enough nails) it
qualifies the adjective – it tells us that the nails aren’t big enough. When enough
comes before the adjective it qualifies the noun phrase – it tells us that there aren’t
enough nails.
Complete the sentences by dragging the phrases at the top into the gaps.
Nicely enough Good enough
Got enough of Old enough
Get enough
1. It's quite simple. You didn't marks and that's why you
failed the test.
2. We've the red material but I don't think we've got the blue.
3. Those children don't look to smoke.
4. If you ask him he might let you borrow his car.
5. Our team is terrible. Our players aren't just .

FUTURE CONTINUOS AND FUTURE PERFECT

The future continuous (will be + ‘ing’ form) and the future perfect (will have +
past participle) tenses are used to talk about events in the future.
Future continuous
 Don’t ring at 8 o’clock. I’ll be watching Who Wants to be a Millionaire.
 This time tomorrow we’ll be sitting on the beach. I can’t wait!
We use the future continuous to talk about something that will be in progress at or
around a time in the future.
 Don’t phone grandma now, she’ll be having dinner.
 The kids are very quiet. They’ll be doing something wrong, I know it!
These sentences are not about the future but we can use the future continuous to
talk about what we assume is happening at the moment.
Future Perfect

 Do you think you will have finished it by next Thursday?

 In 5 years time I’ll have finished university and I’ll be able to earn some money
at last.
We use the future perfect to say that something will be finished by a particular time
in the future.
We often use the future perfect with ‘by’ or ‘in’
 I think astronauts will have landed on Mars by the year 2020.
 I’ll have finished in an hour and then you can use the computer.
‘By’ means ‘not later than a particular time’ and ‘in’ means 'within a period of
time’. We don’t know exactly when something will finish.
 I promise I’ll have done all the work by next Saturday.
We don’t know exactly when he will finish the work – maybe Thursday, maybe
Friday – but definitely before Saturday.
Complete the sentences by dragging the appropriate phrases into the
gaps.
will have changed will be listening
will have paid will you be doing
will you be wearing
1. What do you think by the year 2050?
2. It's 3:30. Chris to the football so we'd better not ring.
3. What at 11 o'clock tonight?
4. In 10 year's time we for the house and it will finally be
ours!
5. How will I recognize you? What ?

FUTURE PLANS

We use different verb forms to talk about our plans for the future – depending on
what kind of plan it is.
will

We use will to talk about plans decided at the moment of speaking.

 I forgot to phone my mum. I’ll do it after dinner. He decides to phone his mum
when she is speaking – she didn’t have a plan.
 I can’t decide what to wear tonight. I know. I’ll wear my black dress.
 There’s no milk in the fridge. I’ll buy some when I go to the shops.
going to

We use going to to talk about plans decided before the moment of speaking.
 I’m going to phone my mum after dinner. I told her I’d call at 8 o’clock. He
decided to phone his mum before he speaks – he already had a plan.
 I’m going to wear my black dress tonight. I need to pick it up from the cleaners.
 I know there’s no milk. I’m going to get some. It’s on my shopping list.
present continuous
We can also use the present continuous to talk about future plans. We usually
use it when the plan is an ‘arrangement’ – more than one person is involved and we
know the time and place.
 I’m meeting Jane at 8 o’clock on Saturday.
 We’re having a party next Saturday. Would you like to come?
 Are you doing anything interesting this weekend? We often use the present
continuous to ask about people’s future plans.
Put the verbs in brackets into the Future (will or going to).
1. It is really hot in here. I (open) a window
2. It is Emma's birthday tomorrow. I (bake) her a cake.
3. I would love to go out with you tomorrow but I (go) to the
cinema with James.
4. I want to do more with my free time. I know! I think I (start)
taking French lessons.
5. I (have) my hair cut on Saturday morning.

IN SPITE OF / DESPITE / ALTHOUGH

In spite of, despite and although are all used to show a contrast but there are
differences in the structures used with them.
In spite of / despite
After in spite of and despite we use a noun or a pronoun.
 We enjoyed our camping holiday in spite of the rain.
 Despite the pain in his leg he completed the marathon.
 Despite having all the necessary qualifications, they didn’t offer me the job.
Remember that the gerund (‘-ing’ form) is the ‘noun’ form of a verb.
The only difference between in spite of and despite is the ‘of’.
 Despite of the bad weather, there was a large crowd at the match.
Although
After although we use a subject and a verb.
 We enjoyed our camping holiday although it rained every day.
 Although he worked very hard, he didn’t manage to pass the exam.
 The holiday was great although the hotel wasn’t very nice.
We can use in spite of and despite with a subject and verb if we include the
expression ‘the fact that’.
 In spite of the fact that he worked very hard, he didn’t manage to pass the
exam.
 Despite the fact that he worked very hard, he didn’t manage to pass the exam.
Even though
Even though is a slightly stronger form of although.
 We decided to buy the house even though we didn’t really have enough money.
 You keep making that stupid noise even though I’ve asked you to stop three
times.
Like although, even though is followed by a subject and a verb.
Match the two halves of the sentences.
Despite the low salary I couldn’t sleep
We weren’t close friends He swims every day
In spite of the rain 1. Although I was tired

2. I like my job

3. I walked home

4. Although we went to university together

5. Despite his age

JUST, YET, STILL, ALREADY

These words are often used with the present perfect tense although yet, still and
already can all be used with other tenses.
Just
‘Just’ is usually used only with the present perfect tense and it means ‘a short time
ago’.
 I’ve just seen Susan coming out of the cinema.
 Mike’s just called. Can you ring him back please?
 Have you just taken my pen? Where has it gone?
In the present perfect, ‘just’ comes between the auxiliary verb (‘have’) and the past
participle.
Yet
‘Yet’ is used to talk about something which is expected to happen. It means ‘at any
time up to now’. It is used in questions and negatives.
 Have you finished your homework yet? The speaker expects that the homework
will be finished.
 I haven’t finished it yet. I’ll do it after dinner.
‘Yet’ usually comes at the end of the sentence.
Still
‘Still’ is used to talk about something that hasn’t finished – especially when we
expected it to finish earlier.
 I’ve been waiting for over an hour and the bus still hasn’t come.
 You promised to give me that report yesterday and you still haven’t finished it.
‘Still’ usually comes in ‘mid-position’
Still is often used with other tenses as well as the present perfect.
 I’ve still got all those letters you sent me.
 Are you still working in the bookshop?
Already
‘Already’ is used to say that something has happened early – or earlier than it
might have happened.
 I’ve already spent my salary and it’s two weeks before pay day.
 The train’s already left! What are we going to do?
‘Already’ usually comes in mid-position.
Complete the sentences with the appropriate word.
just already
still yet
yet
1. They say they posted it two weeks ago but it hasn't
arrived.
2. I haven't found a flat . Everything around here is so
expensive.
3. I've seen this film. Let's watch something else.
4. He's bought a new car. I'm going to go round and have a
look at it.
5. Have they finished redecorating your house ?

MODALS
Permission, Prohibition, Obligation, No obligation
To express permission, prohibition, obligation and no obligation we usually
use modal verbs.
Permission
Can is often used to ask for and give permission.
 Can I sit here?
 You can use my car if you like.
 Can I make a suggestion?
We can also use may and could to ask for and give permission but can is used
more often.
Prohibition
Both can’t and mustn’t are used to show that something is prohibited – it is not
allowed.
 You can’t park here, sir.
 You can wear jeans but you can’t wear trainers in that bar.
 You mustn’t speak when the teacher is speaking.
Can’t tells us that something is against the rules. Mustn’t is usually used when the
obligation comes from the person who is speaking.
Obligation
Have to and must are both used to express obligation. There is a slight difference
between the way they are used.
Have to shows us that the obligation comes from somebody else. It’s a law or a
rule and the speaker can’t change it.
 Do you have to wear a uniform at your school?
 John can’t come because he has to work tomorrow.
 In Britain you have to buy a TV licence every year.
Must shows us that the obligation comes from the speaker. It isn’t a law or a rule.
 I must call my dad tonight.
 You must hand in your homework on Tuesday or your mark will be zero.
 You must come and visit us the next time you come to London.
No obligation
We use don’t have to to show that there is no obligation. You can do something if
you want to but it’s not compulsory.
 You don’t have to wear a tie in our office. You can wear a tie if you want to but
it’s OK if you don’t.
 It’ll be nice if you do but you don’t have to come with me if you don’t want to.
 You don’t have to dress up for the party. Wear whatever you feel comfortable
in.
Complete the sentences by dragging the appropriate words into the gap.
Can Have to
Mustn’t Can’t
Don’t have to
1. You be 17 to get a driving licence in the UK.
2. You hit your sister again! Do you understand?
3. I borrow your black dress tonight, please?
4. You memorize it - but try to remember the key points.
5. This is the non-smoking section. You smoke here.

MODALS – DEDUCTION (PAST)

In the same way that we use modal verbs to say how certain we are about things in
the present we can also use them to speculate about the past.
Have + past participle (‘have done’, ‘have been’ have stolen’ etc.) is called the
perfect infinitive. When we use modal verbs to talk about the present they are
followed by an infinitive without ‘to’. When we use modal verbs to talk about the
past they are followed by a perfect infinitive.
must + perfect infinitive
We use must + perfect infinitive when we feel sure about something in the past.
 You must have been delighted when you heard you’d won the lottery.
 The thieves must have come in through the window. Look – it’s still open.
 Oh no! Where’s my car? Someone must have stolen it!
might/may/could + perfect infinitive
We use might, may or could with the perfect infinitive to say that we think
something was possible but we aren’t sure.
 The thieves might have escaped by car but we can’t be sure.
 He should be here by now. He may have been delayed by a traffic jam or
something.
 I can’t find my purse. I could have left it in the supermarket but I just don’t
know.
can’t + perfect infinitive
We use can’t + perfect infinitive when we feel sure something didn’t happen in
the past.
 I thought I saw John in town this morning but it can’t have been him – he’s in
Greece this week.
 I can’t have left it in the supermarket – I had it on the bus on the way home.
 You can’t have read the instructions properly. They’re perfectly clear.
Complete each sentence using a model that fits the space.
Must have seen Can’t have gone
Might have handed Could have been
May have misunderstood
1. I don't know why there weren't any buses yesterday. They on
strike but I'm not really sure.
2. You her. She was standing right next to you.
3. We'll ask at reception. Someone your keys in.
4. He to Russia. He hasn't got a passport.
5. I explained it but she - my Japanese isn't very good.

MODALS – DEDUCTION (PRESENT)

We use modal verbs to say how sure we are about something.

1 must
We use must when we feel sure that something is true because there’s very strong
evidence.
 He must live near here because he comes to work on foot. We don’t know
where he lives but we’re sure it’s not far away.
 Come inside and get warm – you must be freezing out there.
 You’re a zookeeper? That must be very interesting.
Notice that must is followed by an infinitive without ‘to’.
2 might, may, could
We use might, may or could to say that we think something is possible but we’re
not sure.
 Did you hear that? I think there might be a burglar downstairs. She’s not sure
there’s a burglar but she thinks it’s possible.
 We’ll try to get there early but we may arrive late if there’s a lot of traffic.
 Don’t put it up there. It could fall off and hit someone.
Might, may and could are also followed by an infinitive without ‘to’.
3 can’t
We use can’t when we feel sure something is not true.
 It can’t be a burglar. All the doors and windows are locked. He doesn’t know it’s
not a burglar but he feels sure it’s not.
 It can’t be far away now. We’ve been driving for hours. Where’s the map?
 Really? He has to work on Christmas Day? He can’t feel very happy about that.
Like the other verbs, can’t is followed by an infinitive without ‘to’.
Remember that all of these modal verbs – must, might, may, could and can’t
have other uses. These are covered in another section.
Complete the sentences.
Must Can’t
Must Might
Might Can’t
Might
1. It be him – he's in Spain this week. He have
a twin brother, I suppose.
2. Come in and sit down. You be tired after the journey.
3. Who's this letter from? It be from Paul – he never writes letters.
4. The exam results should be out soon. It be this week or it
be next week.
5. She always gets such good grades at school. She work
very hard.

MULTI-WORD VERBS

There are very many multi-word verbs (sometimes called phrasal verbs) in English
and it’s very difficult to learn them all. It can sometimes be quite easy to guess the
meaning (He picked up the pencil) but other multi-word verbs are less easy to
guess (I picked up Italian quite easily when I lived there) and you should look them
up in a good dictionary. When you record new multi-word verbs in your notebook it
can be helpful to record what type they are.
Multi-word verbs are made up of a verb and a particle or, sometimes, two particles.
Separable
 He cut the tree down.
 He cut down the tree.
With separable verbs the verb and particle can be apart or together – the meaning
doesn’t change.
Look at another example:
 Can you turn the radio down please?
 Can you turn down the radio please?
However, when we use a pronoun – usually ‘it’ in place of the subject – it must come
between the verb and the particle in separable multi-word verbs.
 Can you turn it down please?
 Can you turn down it please? is NOT possible.
Non-separable
 Who looks after the baby when you’re at work?
In non-separable verbs the verb and particle cannot be separated.
 Who looks the baby after is NOT possible.
When there is a pronoun the verb and particle remain together.
 Who looks after her when you’re at work?
With two particles
 Who came up with that idea?
 I don’t know how you put up with it.
There are a few verbs with two particles and they act like inseparable multi-word
verbs.
Intransitive
 What time do you get up?
 The plane took off and rose into the sky.
Intransitive verbs do not have an object. Multi-word verbs can also be
intransitive.
Complete the sentences by dragging the correct words into the gaps.
Up Coming down with
Backs down In
Came across Brought
Fill
1. My grandparents me .
2. He's really stubborn. He never .
3. I that one in a second hand book shop.
4. I feel terrible. I think I’m 'flu.
5. Give me the form and I’ll it for you.

PARTICIPLE CLAUSES
Participle clauses are a form of adverbial clause which enables us to say information
in a more economical way. We can use participle clauses when the participle and
the verb in the main clause have the same subject. For example:
Waiting for John, I made some tea.
Waiting for John, the kettle boiled. [This would suggest that the kettle was waiting
for John!]
Forming participle clauses
Participle clauses can be formed with the present participle (-ing form of the
verb) or past participle (third form of the verb). Participle clauses with past
participles have a passive meaning:
Shouting loudly, Peter walked home. [Peter was shouting]
Shouted at loudly, Peter walked home. [Someone was shouting at Peter]
If we wish to emphasise that one action was before another then we can use a
perfect participle (having + past participle):
Having won the match, Susan jumped for joy.
Having been told the bad news, Susan sat down and cried.
The meaning and use of participle clauses
Participle clauses give information about condition, reason, result or time. For
example:
CONDITION (in place of an if-condition):
Looked after carefully, this coat will keep you warm through many winters.
Compare: If you look after it carefully, this coat will keep you warm through many
winters.
REASON (in place of words like so or therefore):
Wanting to speak to him about the contract, I decided to arrange a meeting.
Compare: I wanted to speak to him about the contract so I decided to arrange a
meeting.
RESULT (in place of words like because or as a result):
I had no time to read my book, having spent so long doing my homework.
Compare: I had no time to read my book because I had spent so long doing my
homework.
TIME (in place of words like when, while or as soon as):
Sitting at the cafe with my friends, I suddenly realised that I had left the oven on at
home.
Compare: While I was sitting at the cafe with my friends, I suddenly realised that I
had left the oven on at home.

PAST ABILITY AND POSSIBILITY

 In the present tense we use ‘can’ to talk about a general ability – e.g. I can swim –
and also for ability at a particular moment – e.g. I can see you! The rules for talking
about past abilities are different.
General ability
We use could to talk about general abilities in the past.
 He could speak fluent French when he was 5.
 I could read before I started school.
Ability on one occasion
However, when we talk about ability on one particular occasion, we can’t use could
 The burglar was able to get in through the bathroom window.
 The burglar managed to get in through the bathroom window.
We have to use was able to or managed to. We can’t use could.
 The burglar could get in through the bathroom window.
Ability on one occasion – negative
When we talk about a particular occasion when something wasn’t possible, we can
use wasn’t/weren’t able to, didn’t manage to, or couldn’t
 The burglar wasn’t able to get in through the window.
 The burglar didn’t manage to get in through the window.
 The burglar couldn’t get in through the window.
Hypothetical past ability
Sometimes things were possible in the past but didn’t happen.
 I could have gone to university but I decided to get a job.
 I would have been able to win the race but I fell over.
We use could have (+ past participle) or would have been able to to talk
about these hypothetical events. They can be used in the positive and the negative.
 I couldn’t have done it without your help.
 I wouldn’t have been able to afford it even if it had been for sale.
Write sentences with the same meaning using the word in brackets. Do
NOT use contractions.
1. I tried to open the door but it was too difficult. (able) I open the
door.
2. I could play the piano when I was 7. (knew) I play the piano when
I was 7.
3. I had a chance to steal the necklace but I didn’t. (could) I
the necklace, but I didn’t.
4. It was difficult but they escaped. (managed) They
escape.
5. I wouldn’t have been able to buy a car without the money you lent me. (afford)
The money you lent me meant I buy a car.
 PAST HABIT – USED TO/WOULD/PAST SIMPLE

When we talk about things that happened in the past but don’t happen anymore we
can do it in different ways.
Used to
 We used to live in New York when I was a kid.
 There didn’t use to be a petrol station there. When was it built?
We can use ‘used to’ to talk about past states ….
 I used to go swimming every Thursday when I was at school.
 I used to smoke but I gave up a few years ago.
… or we can use ‘used to’ to talk about repeated past actions
Remember that ‘used to’ is only for past states/actions that don’t happen now – we
can’t use it for things that still happen now. Also, ‘used to + infinitive’ should not
be confused with ‘be/get used to + ‘ing’ form’ – this is covered in a separate
section.
Would
 Every Saturday I would go on a long bike ride.
 My teachers would always say “Sit down and shut up!”
We can use ‘would’ to talk about repeated past actions.
Often either ‘would’ or ‘used to’ is possible. Both of these sentences are possible.
 Every Saturday, I would go on a long bike ride.
 Every Saturday I used to go on a long bike ride.
However, only ‘used to’ is possible when we talk about past states.
 We used to live in New York when I was a kid.
 We would live in New York when I was a kid.
Past simple
 We went/used to go/would go to the same beach every summer.
We can use the past simple in the same way as ‘used to’ and ‘would’ to talk about
repeated past actions.
 I had/used to have a dog called Charlie.
We can also use the past simple for past states.
 I went to Egypt in 1988.
However, if something happened only once we can’t use ‘used to’ or ‘would’ – we
must use the past simple.
Complete the sentences using the words and phrases at the top.
Spent Used to live
Used to make Caught
Would get up
1. When I was young we in a big house in the countryside.
2. On summer mornings we while everyone else was asleep.
 3. I breakfast for myself and creep out of the house to go fishing.
4. I hours fishing in a small river near our house.
5. Once I an enormous trout.

PAST PERFECT

When we talk about something that happened in the past we sometimes want to
refer back to something that happened before that time. We can use the past
perfect tense (had + past participle) to do this.
Look at these two sentences.
John left the house at 7:30 yesterday morning.
 Mary rang John’s doorbell at 8:15 yesterday.
Both actions happened in the past so we use the past simple tense. But look at
how we can combine the sentences.
 Mary rang John’s doorbell at 8:15 yesterday but John had already left the house.
We use the past perfect (had left) because the action happened before another
action in the past (Mary rang the doorbell.)
Look at some more examples of the past perfect.
 When Mrs Brown opened the washing machine she realised she had washed the
cat.
 I got a letter from Jim last week. We’d been at school together but we’d lost touch
with each other.
The past perfect is used because they were at school before he received the
letter. It refers to an earlier past.
Look at these 2 sentences.
 James had cooked breakfast when we got up.
 James cooked breakfast when we got up.
In the first sentence, the past perfect tells us that James cooked breakfast before
we got up. In the second sentence, first we got up and then James cooked
breakfast.
Past perfect continuous
The past perfect can also be used in the continuous.
 I realised I had been working too hard so I decided to have a holiday.
 By the time Jane arrived we had been waiting for 3 hours.
NOTE
The most common mistake with the past perfect is to overuse it or to use it simply
because we are talking about a time in the distant past.
For example we would not say
The Romans had spoken Latin
but rather
The Romans spoke Latin
because it simply describes a past event, and not an event before and relevant to
another past event.
Remember that we only use the past perfect when we want to refer to a past that is
earlier than another time in the narrative.
Complete the sentences about the past using an appropriate form of the
verb in brackets. Do NOT use continuous tenses.
1. I (recognise) him because I (see) him several
times before.
2. He (already eat) by the time we (arrive).
3. I (work) there for 6 months before anybody (speak)
to me.
4. When we (get) home we (find out) that we (be
burgled) .
5. Philip (is not) at the party because he (break) his leg playing
football the day before.

PREDICTING THE FUTURE

We can say how sure we feel about the future by using modal verbs. There are also
other phrases we can use to express our certainty or uncertainty about future
events.
Modal verbs
We can combine modal verbs with adverbs to show a greater or lesser degree of
certainty.
 People will definitely work longer hours in the future.
 People definitely won’t work longer hours in the future.
Both of these sentences show that the speaker is sure.
 You’ll probably enjoy this film.
 You probably won’t enjoy this film.
The speaker is thinks (s) he’s right but isn’t 100% sure.
 She might pass the exam or she might not pass. I don’t know.
The speaker isn’t sure at all. You could also use could or may instead of might.
Other expressions
Here are some other ways to talk about how certain we are about something in the
future.
1 I’m sure
 Jan is bound to pass the exam. He’s worked really hard.
 Jan is certain to pass.
2 I think so but I’m not 100% sure
 Katka is likely to pass the exam.
 Katka may well pass the exam.
 There’s a good chance that Katka will pass the exam.
3 I don’t think so
 Juraj is unlikely to pass the exam.
 There’s not much chance Juraj will pass.
 I doubt if Juraj will pass.
 There’s no chance of Juraj passing the exam.

Rearrange the words to make sentences.

1. Winning/ Of/ There’s/ The other team are much better than us/ Not/ Chance/ Us/
Much

2. The gold medal/ is/ Smith/ bound/ win/ to.

3. Good/ will/ that/ there’s/ people/ I think/ chance/ live on the moon in the future/ a.

4. Come/ to the party/ I/ probably/ work/ wont’/ I’ve got too much.

5. The police/ doubt/ your car/ ever/ will/ I/ find/ if.

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE AND PRESENT PERFECT

CONTINUOUS

The present perfect simple suggests completion while the continuous suggests
something is unfinished.
We use the present perfect tense to talk about things where there is a connection
between the past and the present.
 He’s written 16 books.
He started writing books at some time in the past. So far, he has written 16 books.
He may write more books.
As well as the present perfect simple, we can use the present perfect
continuous tense to talk about events with a connection to the present.
1 Look at these 2 sentences:
 I’ve been decorating the house this summer. The focus is on the action –
decorating – and the action is unfinished.
 I’ve painted the living room blue. The focus is on the finished result. The activity
is finished but we can see the result now.
We use the present perfect continuous when the focus is on an activity that is
unfinished.
2 Look at these two sentences.
 I’ve read that book you lent me. I finished it yesterday.
 I’ve been reading that book you lent me. I’ve got another 50 pages to read.
The present perfect simple (I’ve read) gives the idea of completion while the
present perfect continuous (I’ve been reading) suggests that something is
unfinished.
3 Look at these two sentences.
 She’s been writing emails for 3 hours.
 She’s written 10 messages.
The present perfect continuous (has been writing) talks about how long
something has been happening. The present perfect simple (has written) talks
about how much/how many have been completed.
4 Look at these two sentences.
 I’ve worked here for thirty years.
 I usually work in London but I’ve been working in Birmingham for the last 3
weeks.
We can use the present perfect simple to talk about how long when we view
something as permanent. But the present perfect continuous is often used to
show that something is temporary.
Complete the sentences with a suitable verb form – present perfect simple
or continuous.
1. I (wash) the windows, I (sweep) up the
leaves, but I (not wash) the car yet.
2. What (you do) You're covered in flour.
3. Debbie (look) very tired recently. (She work)
too hard?
4. He (not finished) his homework because he (watch)
television for the last two hours.
5. Have we got any plasters? I (chop) vegetables for
dinner and I (cut) my finger.

QUESTION TAGS

Question tags are the short questions that we put on the end of sentences –
particularly in spoken English. There are lots of different question tags but the rules
are not difficult to learn.
Positive/negative
If the main part of the sentence is positive, the question tag is negative ….
 He’s a doctor, isn’t he?
 You work in a bank, don’t you?
... and if the main part of the sentence is negative, the question tag is positive.
 You haven’t met him, have you?
 She isn’t coming, is she?
With auxiliary verbs
The question tag uses the same verb as the main part of the sentence. If this is an
auxiliary verb (‘have’, ‘be’) then the question tag is made with the auxiliary verb.
 They’ve gone away for a few days, haven’t they?
 They weren’t here, were they?
 He had met him before, hadn’t he?
 This isn’t working, is it?
Without auxiliary verbs
If the main part of the sentence doesn’t have an auxiliary verb, the question tag
uses an appropriate form of ‘do’.
 I said that, didn’t I?
 You don’t recognise me, do you?
 She eats meat, doesn’t she?
With modal verbs
If there is a modal verb in the main part of the sentence the question tag uses the
same modal verb.
 They couldn’t hear me, could they?
 You won’t tell anyone, will you?
With ‘I am’
Be careful with question tags with sentences that start ‘I am’. The question tag for ‘I
am’ is ‘aren’t I?’
 I’m the fastest, aren’t I?
Intonation
Question tags can either be ‘real’ questions where you want to know the answer or
simply asking for agreement when we already know the answer.
If the question tag is a real question we use rising intonation. Our tone of voice
rises.
If we already know the answer we use falling intonation. Our tone of voice falls.
Add a suitable question tag to each sentence.
1. You can't hear me, .
2. I'm next,
3. She already knew him,
4. They haven't met,
5. They don't like me,

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

English doesn’t really have reflexive verbs the way that many other languages do.
However, when the same person is the subject and object of the verb we usually
use a reflexive pronoun.
 I cut myself shaving this morning.
The subject – I – is also the object of the sentence – so we use the reflexive
pronoun, myself.
 Why don’t you buy yourself a new car? This one’s really unreliable.
 He looked at himself in the mirror.
 She taught herself Italian using a book.
 The washing machine switches itself off when it’s finished.
 We kept ourselves warm around the fire.
 Tell me all about yourselves.
 Hedgehogs protect themselves from predators by rolling into a ball.
‘Enjoy’ is often used with a reflexive pronoun.
 Did you enjoy yourself at the party?
 From their postcard it sounds as if they’re really enjoying themselves.
‘By yourself’ means ‘alone’
 He lives by himself in a cottage by the sea.
 I’m rather anti-social. I love being by myself.
Reflexive pronouns can also be used with nouns to mean ‘Me (or you/him/her etc)
and nobody else’
 Did you do this homework yourself or did you get help?
 Did you talk to the manageress herself or just to one of her assistants?
There is an important difference between reflexive pronouns and reciprocal
pronouns
 They looked at themselves in the mirror. This is reflexive.
 They looked at each other lovingly. This is reciprocal. He looked at her and she
looked at him.
Complete the sentences using one of these pronouns: each other | herself
| himself | itself | ourselves.
1. The tennis players shook hands with at the end of their
match.
2. Dear Sue,
We're enjoying very much here in Brazil.
3. My father talks to all the time!
4. She went on holiday by . I would never do that.
5. The cat cleaned with its tongue.

RELATIVE CLAUSES – DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

Relative clauses add extra information to a sentence by defining a noun. They are
usually divided into two types – defining relative clauses and non-defining
relative clauses.
Defining relative clauses

Look at this sentence:

 The woman who lives next door works in a bank.
‘who lives next door’ is a defining relative clause. It tells us which woman we are
talking about.
Look at some more examples:
 Look out! There’s the dog that bit my brother.
 The film that we saw last week was awful.
 This is the skirt I bought in the sales.
Can you identify the defining relative clauses? They tell us which dog, which film
and which skirt we are talking about.
Relative pronouns

Relative clauses are usually introduced by a relative pronoun (usually who,

which, that, but when, where and whose are also possible)
With defining relative clauses we can use who or that to talk about people.
There is no difference in meaning between these, though 'who' tends to be
preferred in more formal use.
 She’s the woman who cuts my hair.
 She’s the woman that cuts my hair.
We can use that or which to talk about things. Again, there is no difference in
meaning between these, though 'which' tends to be preferred in more formal use.
 This is the dog that bit my brother.
 This is the dog which bit my brother.
Simplifying defining relative clauses

Defining relative clauses can be simplified, or reduced, in several ways:

1. If the relative pronoun is the object of the verb then it can be omitted:
 This is the skirt that I bought in the sales.
 This is the skirt which I bought in the sales.
 This is the skirt I bought in the sales.
In this sentence ‘skirt’ is the object of the verb (buy). ‘I’ is the subject. When the
relative pronoun is the object, it can be omitted.
Note that if the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb then it cannot be omitted:
 This is the dog that bit my brother.
 This is the dog which bit my brother.
BUT NOT
 This is the dog bit my brother.
2. If the relative clause contains the verb 'be' + any of the following then it can be
reduced:
(a) be + an adjective phrase
 The man who is interested in your car will telephone later.
 The man interested in your car will telephone later.
Note that other verbs are possible here as well as 'be', such as 'seem', 'look' and
'appear'.
(b) be + a prepositional phrase
 The books which are on the table have been read.
 The books on the table have been read.
(c) be + a past participle [a passive form]
 A person who has been tricked once is careful the next time.
 A person tricked once is careful the next time.
(d) be + a present participle [a continuous form]
 The family who are living in the house are very rich.
 The family living in the house are very rich.
Choose which relative pronouns are possible. Sometimes more than one
pronoun is possible.
1. The woman ............... called said she'd ring again later.
who whose
that no relative pronoun
which
2. Have you seen the necklace ............... he gave me? It's beautiful!
who whose
that no relative pronoun
which
3. That's the man ............... son is a professional footballer.
who whose
that no relative pronoun
which
4. Where's the book ............... Paul lent me?
who whose
that no relative pronoun
which
5. I'm looking for a thing ............... will clean glass.
who whose
that no relative pronoun
which

RELATIVE CLAUSES - NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

Relative clauses add extra information to a sentence by defining a noun. They are
usually divided into two types – defining relative clauses and non-defining
relative clauses.
Non-defining relative clauses
Look at this sentence.
 My grandfather, who is 87, goes swimming every day.
‘who is 87’ is a non-defining relative clause. It adds extra information to the
sentence. If we take the clause out of the sentence, the sentence still has the same
meaning.
Look at some more examples.
 My eldest son, whose work takes him all over the world, is in Hong Kong at the
moment.
 The film, which stars Tom Carter, is released on Friday.
 The car, which can reach speeds of over 300km/ph, costs over $500,000.
In the first sentence, it is clear which son is being talked about and the relative
clause provides extra information. In the second sentence, the speaker thinks you
know which film you are talking about, and the information about Tom Carter is just
something interesting. In the third sentence, the speaker thinks you already know
which car is being discussed. The information about the speed is just for interest.
Defining or non-defining?
Remember that defining relative clauses are used to add important information.
The sentence would have a different meaning without the defining relative
clause.
 I’m going to wear the skirt that I bought in London.
 The skirt, which is a lovely dark blue colour, only cost £10.
The first sentence with a defining relative clause tells us which skirt. The second
sentence, with a non-defining relative clause, doesn’t tell us which skirt – it gives us
more information about the skirt. The context (which is missing here) makes it clear
which skirt is being talked about.
Non-defining relative clauses can use most relative pronouns (which, whose
etc,) but they CAN’T use ‘that’ and the relative pronoun can never be omitted.
 The film, that stars Tom Carter, is released on Friday.
Non-defining relative clauses are more often used in written English than in
spoken English. You can tell that a clause is non-defining because it is separated by
commas at each end of the clause.
Put the words of each sentence in the correct order.
1. Son/ dentist/ new/ is/ who/ York/ lives/ Her/ in/ a.

2. Was/ Leonardo da Vinci/ by/ in/ Louvre/ the/ Mona Lisa/ Which is/ painted/ the
3. Million/ over/ the/ opened/ which is/ by/ building/ cost/ £5/ going/ to/ the/ queen/
be

4. Whose/ a/ French/ has/ surname/ father/ Charlot/ is/ Pete.

5. Who is/ questioned/ being/ reasons/ be/ the/can’t/ legal/ police,/ named/ for/
man,/ by/ the

REPORTED QUESTIONS

When we report what people say, we usually change the tense of the verbs to
reflect that we are reporting – not giving direct speech. This pattern is followed
when we report questions and there are also other important changes between
direct questions and reported questions.
Yes/no questions
 Direct question: “Do you like working in teams?” Reported question: He asked if
I liked working in teams.
When we report yes/no questions we use ‘if’ or ‘whether’.
 Direct question: “Did you enjoy the party?” Reported question: She asked me
whether I’d enjoyed the party.
The tense of the verb changes as it does in reported speech but we don’t use
auxiliary verbs. The word order is the same as in an affirmative sentence.
Questions with a question word
 Direct question: “What time does the train leave?” Reported question: He asked
what time the train left.
When there is a question word (what, where, why, who, when, how) we use that
question word in the reported question but there is no auxiliary verb and the word
order is like an affirmative sentence (‘what time the train left’ not He asked me
what time did the train leave.)
Look at some more examples:
 Direct question: “Who did you see?”
 Reported question: She asked me who I’d seen.
 Direct question: “Where did you go to school?”
 Reported question: He asked me where I’d gone to school.
 Direct question: “Why are you crying?”
 Reported question: She asked him why he was crying.
Notice that the reported questions do not have a question mark at the end.
Indirect questions
Similar to reported questions are indirect questions.
  Can you tell me what time the train leaves? NOT Can you tell me what time
does the train leave?
 I’d love to know what he said to her. NOT I’d love to know what did he say to
her.
Report the questions.
Where they had met. If he wanted another drink.
Why he was wearing sunglasses. Who had given me the parcel.
If we had gone to school together
1. Where did you meet each other?" He asked them …

2. Why are you wearing sunglasses?" She asked him …

3. "Who gave you the parcel?" They asked me …

4. "Did you two go to school together?" She asked us …

5. "Do you want another drink?" I asked him …

REPORTED SPEECH

In reported speech the tenses, word-order and pronouns may be different from the
original sentence.
When we report someone’s words we can do it in two ways. We can use direct
speech with quotation marks (“I work in a bank”), or we can use reported speech
(He said he worked in a bank.)
In reported speech the tenses, word-order and pronouns may be different from
those in the original sentence.
Present simple and present continuous tenses
 Direct speech: “I travel a lot in my job” Reported speech: He said that he
travelled a lot in his job.
The present simple tense (I travel) usually changes to the past simple (he travelled)
in reported speech.
 Direct speech: “Be quiet. The baby’s sleeping.” Reported speech: She told me to
be quiet because the baby was sleeping.
The present continuous usually changes to the past continuous.
NB:
 “I work in Italy” Reported speech: He told me that he works in Italy.
It isn’t always necessary to change the tense. If something is still true now – he
still works in Italy – we can use the present simple in the reported sentence.
Past simple and past continuous tenses
 Direct speech: “We lived in China for 5 years.” Reported speech: She told me
they had lived in China for 5 years.
The past simple tense (we lived) usually changes to the past perfect (they had
lived) in reported speech.
 Direct speech: “I was walking down the road when I saw the accident.” Reported
speech: He told me he’d been walking down the road when he’d seen the
accident.
The past continuous usually changes to the past perfect continuous.
Perfect tenses
 Direct speech: “They’ve always been very kind to me”. Reported speech: She
said they’d always been very kind to her.
The present perfect tense (have always been) usually changes to the past
perfect tense (had always been).
 Direct speech: “They had already eaten when I arrived” Reported speech: He
said they’d already eaten when he’d arrived.
The past perfect tense does not change in reported speech.
Change the direct speech statements to reported speech by typing words
into the gaps. If there is a contraction in the direct speech statement, e.g.
“I didn't”, also use a contraction in the reported speech. If there is not a
contraction in the direct speech statement, do not use a contraction in the
reported speech.
1. "My dad was a teacher." She told me that her dad a teacher.
2. "We've been waiting for hours." He said that waiting for hours.
3. "I didn't go to the party because I was too tired." He said that he
to the party because he too tired.
4. "I work for a bank." She told me that she for a bank.
5. "We are meeting Tony at 8 o'clock." She said that meeting
Tony at 8 o'clock.
Remember that in reported speech we usually change the tense of the direct
statement. The present simple tense changes to the past simple, the past simple
changes to the past perfect and so on.
Here are some other points to consider.
‘Can’ and ‘will’
 Direct speech: “I can’t remember his name.” Reported speech: She said she
couldn’t remember his name.
‘Can’ and ‘can’t’ in direct speech change to ‘could’ and ‘couldn’t’ in reported
speech.
 Direct speech: “I’ll be there for 3 weeks.” Reported speech: He told me he’d be
there for 3 weeks.
‘Will’ and ‘won’t’ in direct speech change to ‘would’ and ‘wouldn’t’ in reported
speech.
Other modal verbs
 Direct speech: “You could be right.” Reported speech: I said that he could be
right.
 Direct speech: “You must call me.” Reported speech: She said that I must call
her.
Other modal verbs don’t change in reported speech.
Reporting orders, requests and advice
 Direct speech: “Sit down and shut up!” Reported speech: The teacher told me
to sit down and shut up.
 Direct speech: “Can you hold this for me please?” Reported speech: He asked
me to hold it.
 Direct speech: “You should do more exercise.” Reported speech: He advised
me to do more exercise.
Orders, request and advice can be reported using an infinitive.
Reporting verbs
There are a number of verbs that we use to report statements. These can make
your speech and writing more interesting than simply reporting every word of the
direct speech.
 Direct speech: “It wasn’t me who broke the window.” > He denied breaking the
window.
 Direct speech: “I’ll help you if you want” > She offered to help.
There are a number of verbs that can be used to report. They include: promise,
claim, suggest, advise, refuse, argue, confirm and others.
Put the verb forms into the gaps to make reported sentences.
refused claimed
promised advised
suggested
1. 'I won't tell you where I've hidden it!' – He to tell me where
he'd hidden it.
2. 'Why don't you go to Greece? It's beautiful.' – She that we go to
Greece.
3. 'I won't lose it and I'll bring it back tomorrow'. – He not to lose it.
4. 'It wasn't me! It was Pete!' – He that it had been Pete, not him.
5. 'You should report it to the police'. - She us to report it to the
police.

SO

‘So’ has a number of different meanings and is used in different ways.

‘so’ and ‘neither’ short answers
We can use ‘so’ in short answers to mean ‘also’
 “I like this film” “So do I.”
 “I’m tired” “So am I.”
 She’s got a happy face and so has he.
As in questions, the verb with ‘so’ in these short answers is the same as the
auxiliary verb. If there is no auxiliary we use ‘do’.
To show negative agreement we use ‘neither’.
 “I haven’t done the homework”. “Neither have I.”
 “I don’t want another drink” “Neither do I.”
 He doesn’t look very happy and neither does she.
‘so’ with certain verbs
‘So’ is used in place of a clause after certain verbs,
 “Is John coming?” “I think so.”
 “Are you going to tell him?” “I suppose so.”
As well as think and suppose we can make this kind of sentence with hope,
believe and expect.
Note that we can also say ‘I don’t think so’ but all the other verbs would use not.
 “Is John coming?” “I hope not.”
‘so’ and ‘such’ with adjectives and nouns
‘So’ can be followed by an adjective
 It’s so hot today!
 She looks so young in that photo.
‘Such’ is used if there is a noun or adjective + noun.
 It’s such a hot day today!
 They’re such lovely trousers. Where did you buy them?
Both these ‘so’ and ‘such’ structures are often used with a ‘that’ clause
 It was so cold that the water in the lake froze.
 He was such a good teacher that we all passed the exam.
Match the best response to each of the statements.
You’re so kind! So have I.
I hope so. So cold!
Neither was I.
1. What was Canada like?

2. Do you think we'll win the match tonight?

3. I've got two sisters.

4. I wasn't expecting this.

5. I'll give you a lift if you want.

STATIVE VERBS

Some verbs are not usually used in the continuous form, even when we are talking
about temporary situations or states. These are called stative verbs.
 So, we say I’m sorry, I don’t understand rather than I’m not understanding.
1. Stative verbs are often verbs connected with thinking and opinions.
 She doesn’t know what to do NOT She isn’t knowing what to do
 Do you agree with me?
 I don’t recognise it, do you?
Other verbs in this group include: believe, doubt, guess, imagine, mean,
remember, think
2. Other stative verbs are connected with feelings and emotions
 I like this song. Who sings it? NOT I’m liking this song
 What do you want to do now?
 I hate my new boss!
Other stative verbs in this group include: dislike, love, prefer. want, wish
NB– although ‘enjoy’ is a verb of emotion, it is used in the continuous tense
 I’m enjoying the party.
3. ‘see’, ‘hear’, ‘taste’, ‘smell’, ‘feel’ are verbs that describe senses.
These verbs aren’t usually used in continuous forms. They are often used with ‘can’.
 It smells of smoke in here. NOT It’s smelling of smoke in here
 I can’t see anything. It’s too dark.
4. Stative verbs describe things that are not actions.
Look carefully at these 2 sentences.
 He smells of fish.
 He’s smelling the fish.
The second sentence is an action – not a state. The man wants to know if the fish is
OK to eat.
 I think we should go to Croatia for our holiday this year.
 Sorry, what did you say? I was thinking about my holiday.
The first sentence is an opinion but the second sentence is an action.
Drag and drop the words to the correct places.
means enjoying
do you think tastes
don’t believe
1. Liz isn't her new job very much.
2. That's a lie! I you!
3. We've missed the last bus. That we'll have to walk.
4. The soup a bit too spicy for me.
5. What about today's news?
‘USED TO + INFINITIVE’ AND ‘BE/GET USED TO’
People often get confused about the use of used to + infinitive and be/get used
to + ‘ing’ form because they look similar. They are, however, completely different.
‘used to + infinitive’
We use ‘used to’ to talk about things that happened in the past – actions or states
– that no longer happen now.
 She used to be a long distance runner when she was younger.
 I used to eat meat but I became a vegetarian 5 years ago.
The negative is ‘didn’t use to’ and questions are formed with ‘Did you use to …?’
There is no present tense equivalent of ‘used to’. To talk about present habits we
use the present simple and an adverb of frequency (usually, always, often, never,
etc.)
e.g. I often eat at the Japanese restaurant in the city centre.
‘be/get used to’
If you are used to something, you are accustomed to it – you don’t find it unusual.
If you get used to something or you are getting used to something you are
becoming accustomed to it – it was strange, now it’s not so strange.
 I found Slovak food very strange at first but I’m used to it now.
 I’m getting used to driving on the right.
Both ‘be used to’ and ‘get used to’ are followed by a noun (or pronoun) or the
gerund – the ‘ing’ form of a verb.
 I can’t get used to getting up so early. I’m tired all the time.
 He’s not used to the weather here yet. He’s finding it very cold.
‘Be/get used to’ can be used with past, present and future tenses.
 You might find it strange at first but you’ll soon get used to it.
 He wasn’t used to the heat and he caught sunstroke.
Fill the gaps with one of the phrases.
Used to Didn’t use to
Was used to Are you getting used to
‘ve got used to
1. I work in a bank but I left and got a job as a gardener.
2. Since we had the baby I not getting enough sleep.
3. How's the new job? it yet?
4. You smoke! When did you start?
5. The noise was deafening but the driver it.

VERBS & PREPOSITIONS

 Some verbs are usually followed by prepositions before the object of the verb. these
are called dependent prepositions and they are followed by a noun or a gerund
(‘ing’ form).
 He’s waiting for a bus.
For is the dependent preposition for ‘wait’
We can use other prepositions with ‘wait’ – e.g. He waited at the bus stop – but ‘for’
is the dependent preposition.
Here are some other verbs with their dependent prepositions.
Verbs with ‘for’
 He apologised for being late. You can also ‘apologise to someone’
 I applied for the job but I didn’t get it.
 How do you ask for a coffee in Polish?
 She spent many years caring for her aged parents.
 I can’t go out tonight because I have to prepare for my interview tomorrow.
With ‘from’
 This spray should protect you from mosquitoes.
 Has he recovered from his illness yet?
 He won an award because he saved someone from drowning.
 I suffer from hay fever.
With ‘in’
 She believes in ghosts.
 Our company specialises in computer software.
 You have to work hard if you want to succeed in life.
With ‘of’
 I don’t approve of your language, young man.
 Our dog died of old age.
 This shampoo smells of bananas.
With ‘on’
 The film is based on the novel by Boris Pasternak.
 If you make so much noise I can’t concentrate on my work.
 Come on! We’re relying on you!
 We don’t agree on anything but we’re good friends.
With ‘to’
 Can I introduce you to my wife?
 Please refer to the notes at the end for more information.
 Nobody responded to my complaint.
With ‘with’
 I agree with everything you’ve said.
 My secretary will provide you with more information if you need it.
There are many more verb + dependent preposition combinations – make a note of
them as you meet them.
Complete the sentences by typing the appropriate preposition into the
gap.
1. It smells coconut in here.
2. Tax is based how much you earn.
3. We promise to respond all emails within 3 days.
4. I'm doing a law degree- specializing commercial law.
5. Our staff will provide you protective glasses on request.

VERBS FOLLOWED BY ‘ING’ OR BY ‘TO + INFINITIVE’

When one verb is followed by another, the second verb can either be an infinitive
or an –ing form. Some verbs can be followed by either an infinitive, or an –ing
form but with a change in meaning. These are some of the most common ones.
like
 I like watching old films on TV.
With an ‘ing’ form, ‘like’ means ‘enjoy’
 I like to wash up as soon as I finish eating.
I might not enjoy washing up but I think it’s the right thing to do.
Remember that ‘would like’ can only be followed by an infinitive.
 I’d like to go to Japan next year, if possible.
try
 I’m trying to learn Japanese but it’s very difficult.
Try + to + infinitive means that something is difficult and you make an attempt
to do it.
 Have you tried using butter instead of oil?
Try + ‘ing’ means make an experiment. It’s not difficult – it might work, it might
not.
stop
Stop + ‘ing’ tells us what has stopped. in this example, buying a newspaper.
 I’ve stopped buying a newspaper every day to try to save money.
Stop + to + infinitive tells us why something stopped. In this example the reason
that the bus stopped was to pick up the children.
 The bus stopped to pick up the children.
remember /forget
 Don’t forget to post that letter for me.
 Did you remember to post that letter for me?
Remember/forget + to + infinitive means that you remember something you
have to do – a duty or a chore.
 I’ll always remember meeting you for the first time.
 I’ll never forget meeting you for the first time.
Remember/forget + ‘ing’ form means remember something you did in the past –
an event or an activity.
Write the verb in brackets in the correct form ('ing' form or infinitive) into
the gap in each sentence.
1. I like [go] to the dentist every six months.
2. I feel a lot healthier since I stopped [smoke] .
3. Try [drink] a glass of water if you've got hiccups.
4. Why can you never remember [buy] milk when you go to the
supermarket?
5. I stopped at the petrol station [fill] the car up.

WISH AND IF ONLY

Wish and ‘If only’ are both used to talk about regrets – things that we would like to
change either about the past or the present.
Talking about the present
 If only I didn’t have so much homework I could go to the concert tonight. She
has a lot of homework and she can’t go to the concert.
 I wish you didn’t live so far away.
 I wish I knew what to do.
When we talk about present regrets, both wish and if only are followed by the
past simple tense. The past tense emphasises that we are talking about
something ‘unreal’.
Talking about the past
 I wish I’d studied harder when I was at school. He didn’t study harder when he
was at school.
 I wish I hadn’t eaten all that chocolate. I feel sick.
 If only I’d known you were coming.
Both wish and if only are followed by the past perfect tense when we talk about
past regrets.
Wish/if only and would
We use wish + would to talk about something in the present that we would like to
change – usually something that we find annoying.
 I wish you wouldn’t borrow my clothes without asking.
 I wish it would rain. The garden really needs some water.
 I wish you’d give up smoking. it’s really bad for you.
NB We can only use wish + would to talk about things we can’t change.
So I wish I wouldn’t eat so much chocolate is not possible although we can say I
wish I didn’t eat so much chocolate.
Complete the sentences by dragging the appropriate words into the gap.
Was/were Had met
Hadn’t said Didn’t have to
Would tidy up
1. I wish I go to work tomorrow.
2. If only I that to her. She's not speaking to me now.
3. I wish you your bedroom. It's a mess!
4. Oh darling! I wish I you ten years ago!
5. If only he here. He'd know what to do.
WORDS THAT ARE OFTEN CONFUSED
Some words are often confused by language learners – because they are similar to
another word or because they look like a word in your own language but have a
different meaning. Here are some words that often cause confusion.
Sensible and sensitive
Sensible means ‘practical’ or ‘having good judgement’
Sensitive means ‘easily affected by the things people say or do’
 Come on darling, be sensible and put a coat on. It’s freezing outside.
 Don’t be so sensitive - he didn’t say you were fat, it was just a joke.
Sympathetic
Usually we are sympathetic when someone has a problem or is in trouble.
 They were very sympathetic when our house was burgled but they couldn’t do
much to help.
We don’t use it to mean ‘nice’ or ‘pleasant’
 My uncle is a very sympathetic man.
Nervous
We are nervous in a particular situation, like an exam. We don’t generally use
nervous to describe someone’s character.
 I’ve never been as nervous as the time I had to give a speech to 500 people.
 My sister is very nervous. She’s always shouting at me.
journey and travel
Journey is countable. Travel is uncountable and refers to the general idea of
travelling.
 Did you have a good travel?
 Travel is something I recommend to all young people.
 The journey took about 8 hours.
recipe, receipt and prescription
A recipe is a set of instructions for cooking something.
A receipt is a piece of paper you are given after you pay for something.
A prescription is a piece of paper a doctor gives you to get the medicine you need.
Choose the correct word to complete each sentence.
1. Did you make this cake yourself? It's lovely. You must let me have
the .........................
recipe receipt
2. I think it would be ......................... to take an umbrella. The forecast is for rain.
sensible sensitive
3. We've had a horrible ......................... and now I want a cup of tea.
journey travel
4. Don't ask him how old he is - he's really ......................... about it.
sensible sensitive
5. We often eat in that restaurant. The owners are really.........................
sympathetic nice
 AIR TRAVEL
Meal Airport

Duty free Departures board

Plane Boarding carad

Gate Overhead locker

Seat belt Baggage

Check-in desk Water

APPEARANCE
Goatee Moustache

Long hair Curly hair

Toddler Straight hair

Bald Dreadlocks

Beard Grey hair

Short hair Teenager

AROUND TOWN
Street lights crossing Corner

Crossroads Pavement

Traffic lights Road

Signpost Roundabout

Bus stop Traffic

Square

BATHROOM
Toothpaste Tap

Toothbrush Washbasin

Toilet Mirror

Toilet paper Shower

Towel Shampoo

Bath Soap

BEACH
Sunglasses Boat

Sand Sun cream

Sun hat Shell

Surfboard Crab
Bag Surf

Towel Wave

BICYCLES AND MOTORBIKES

Handlebars Spokes

Brakes Petrol

Chain Gear

Helmet Pedal

Pump Saddle

Tyre Headlight

BODY PARTS
Forehead Teeth

Tongue Thumb

Knee Fingernails

Face Wrist

Eyebrows Elbow

Toes Ankle

CARS
Warning triangle Number plate

Mirror Boot

Windscreen Turn signal

Headlights Wheel

Steering wheel Wiper

Bumper Bonnet

CHRISTMAS
Reindeer Sleigh

Present Mince pie

Christmas pudding Tinsel

Cracker Santa

Christmas tree Snowman stocking

Holly

CONTAINERS
Tub Tube
Can Jar

Box Bottle

Tin Jug

Bowl Carton

Packet

FOOTBALL
Fan Goal

Cup Referee

Team Corner flag

Centre circle Linesman

Pitch Penalty box

Kit Whistle

FRUIT
Pomegranate Guava

Passion fruit Watermelon

Blueberry Fig

Kiwi Papaya

Lychee Nectarine

Cherry Clementine

GARDENS
Gate Lawn

Flower Lawnmower

Grass Barbecue

Garage Hedge

Hammock Tree

Greenhouse

HEALTH
Injection Medicine

Chemist Ambulance

Tablets X-ray

Doctor Bandage

Plaster Dentist

Hospital Nurse
 KITCHENS
Bin Toaster

Saucepan Freezer

Sink Fridge

Sponge Dishwasher

Frying pan Microwave

Oven Tin opener

MEAT AND FISH

Chicken Fish

Crab Lamb

Sausages Beef

Steak Burgers

Prawns Bacon

Duck Ham

OTHER ANIMALS
Beetle Frog

Millipede Spider

Penguin Swallow

Crab Flea

Dove Cockroach

Budgie

STREETS AND ROADS

Roundabout Kerb

Ambulance Pavement

Motorway Crossing

Junction Police officer

Traffic lights Signpost

VEGETABLES
Onion Sweetcorn

Peas Aubergine

Lettuce Cabbage
Cauliflower Leeks

Tomato Ginger

Carrot Chard

Cucumber Green beans

Patato Spinach

Pepper Pumpkin

Courgettes Garlic

Radish Broccoli

Cassava Artichoke

WILD ANIMALS
Rendeer Tiger

Fox Elephant

Rhino Polar bear

Lion Gorilla

Squirrel Cheetah

Anteater Panda