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INTELLIGENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Series Editors: Da Ruan (Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK.CEN) &
Ghent University, Belgium)
Jie Lu (University of Technology, Sydney, Australia)
Vol. 1 Advances in Artificial Intelligence for Privacy Protection and Security
edited by Agusti Solanas & Antoni Martínez-Ballesté (Rovira i
Virgili University, Spain)
Vol. 2 E-Business in the 21st Century: Realities, Challenges and Outlook
by Jun Xu (Southern Cross University, Australia) &
Mohammed Quaddus (Curtin University of Technology, Australia)
editors
Agusti Solanas • Antoni Martínez-Ballesté
Rovira i Virgili University, Spain
World Scientific
NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TA I P E I • CHENNAI
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
UK office 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ADVANCES IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE FOR PRIVACY PROTECTION
AND SECURITY
Intelligent Information Systems — Vol. 1
Copyright © 2010 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval
system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher.
For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to
photocopy is not required from the publisher.
ISBN-13 978-981-279-032-3
ISBN-10 981-279-032-2
Printed in Singapore.
Preface
Security has become a key issue in modern life, both in the physical and
the virtual worlds. For the physical world, the need for security was always
there, even though in very small isolated and peaceful communities, like a
hamlet where everyone knows each other, security might seem a far-fetched
concern. However, in the virtual world, for good or evil there are no small
isolated communities: global connectivity implies that we are all within
reach of (probably unknown) remote malicious parties. Therefore, it is
today beyond dispute that the information society is not viable without
a certain degree of security; no entity (organization or individual) likes to
engage in a transaction which might render it vulnerable to attacks. For
example, no shop would sell on-line if payment systems were not secure
and/or buyers could penetrate the shop’s backoffice.
While the information society has to stay secure to survive, it must
respect privacy to stay human. Just as organizations do not like insecurity,
human beings need some privacy to feel comfortable. Privacy is not exactly
secrecy: it rather means that an individual should be given the means to
control what information about her is disclosed, as well as when and to
whom it is disclosed. Being privacy-friendly in the information society is in
many respects parallel to being environment-friendly in the physical society.
In principle, neither of both properties has much commercial appeal: just
as being environmentally friendly tends to increase manufacturing costs,
being privacy-friendly implies that the ability of service providers to profile
users (e.g. in view of customer relationship management or with more
dubious aims) is substantially reduced. However, in the same way that
green products are earning ever larger market shares, privacy-preserving
services will follow the same trend as the awareness of consumers about
potential abuses and about their own rights increases.
There are reasons for optimism: individual privacy is mentioned in the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and data privacy is explicitly
protected by law in most Western countries. Now the challenge is to turn
v
vi Preface
laws into technologies and to have those technologies deployed, without
significant losses in security, functionality or operational efficiency. For the
time being, though, the development of privacy technologies is still very
dependent on sponsorship and awareness campaigns by the public sector,
unlike the development of security technologies.
This book edited by Dr. Solanas and Dr. Martı́nez-Ballesté has the
virtue of embracing both privacy and security technologies. Furthermore,
its scope is very broad, thanks to the contributions of international experts
in several different areas of information and communications technologies,
not just security and privacy experts. Hence, it can be especially useful
for readers with a general background in ICT to grasp the challenges, the
solutions and the ramifications of adding security and privacy to ICT sys-
tems . The initial part is an introduction putting privacy and security in
context. Then there is a part devoted to privacy, consisting of chapters
going from methodology to specific applications like statistical disclosure
control and medical databases. The final part comprises several chapters
covering different aspects of security research.
Having had the pleasure to do research with the co-editors and with
several chapter contributors of this book for a number of years, I can only
recommend this work to anyone interested in the intertwined areas of se-
curity and privacy.
Tarragona, January 2009.
Prof. Dr. Josep Domingo-Ferrer
Chairholder
UNESCO Chair in Data Privacy
Department of Computer Engineering and Mathematics
Universitat Rovira i Virgili
Tarragona, Catalonia
Contents
Preface v
1. Introduction 1
A. Solanas and A. Martı́nez-Ballesté
PART 1: A Brief Introduction to Privacy and Security 5
2. An Introduction to Privacy Aspects of Information and
Communication Technologies 7
A. Martı́nez-Ballesté and A. Solanas
3. An Overview of Information Security 29
A. Ribagorda Garnacho, A. I. González-Tablas Ferreres,
A. Alcaide Raya
PART 2: Privacy Protection by means of Artificial
Intelligence 61
4. Data Mining in Large Databases — Strategies for
Managing the Trade-Off Between Societal Benefit
and Individual Privacy 63
M. Schmid
vii
viii Contents
5. Desemantization for Numerical Microdata Anonymization 81
J. Pont-Tuset, J. Nin, P. Medrano-Gracia,
J.-Ll. Larriba-Pey and V. Muntés-Mulero
6. Multi-Objective Evolutionary Optimization in
Statistical Disclosure Control 117
R. Dewri, I. Ray, I. Ray and D. Whitley
7. On the Definition of Cluster-Specific Information
Loss Measures 145
V. Torra
8. Privacy Preserving and Use of Medical Information in a
Multiagent System 165
K. Gibert, A. Valls, L. Lhotska and P. Aubrecht
PART 3: Security by means of Artificial Intelligence 195
9. Perimeter Security on Noise-Robust Vehicle Detection
Using Nonlinear Hebbian Learning 197
B. Lu, A. Dibazar, S. George and T. W. Berger
10. Texture-Based Approach for Computer Vision Systems
in Autonomous Vehicles 223
D. Puig, J. Melendez and M. A. Garcia
11. An Aggression Detection System for the Train
Compartment 249
Z. Yang, S. Fitrianie, D. Datcu and L. Rothkrantz
12. K-Means Clustering for Content-Based Document
Management in Intelligence 287
S. Decherchi, P. Gastaldo and R. Zunino
Contents ix
13. Genetic Algorithms for Designing Network Security
Protocols 325
L. Zarza, J. Forné, J. Pegueroles and M. Soriano
14. Evolving Strategy-Based Cooperation in Wireless
Mobile Ad Hoc Networks 359
M. Seredynski, P. Bouvry and M. A. Klopotek
Acknowledgements to the Referees 383
Author Index 385
Subject Index 387
Chapter 1
Introduction
Agusti Solanas and Antoni Martı́nez-Ballesté
UNESCO Chair in Data Privacy
Department of Computer Engineering and Mathematics.
Rovira i Virgili University
Av. Paı̈sos Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain
{agusti.solanas,antoni.martinez}@urv.cat
“If self-regulation and self-restraint are not exercised by all concerned
with automatic data processing [...] the computer will become the
villain of our society. It is potentially one of the greatest
resources of our civilization, and the tragedy of
slowing its development is unthinkable.”
Lance J. Hoffmann. 1969
This excerpt from an article by Lance J. Hoffmann published in Comput-
ing Surveys in 1969 points out the importance of taking into account the
security and privacy aspects related to the use of computers. In this book,
we recognize the importance of those topics and seek to collect a number of
recent advances for the protection of privacy and security by means of arti-
ficial intelligence techniques, namely evolutionary computation, clustering,
computer vision, etc. This book considers the security and privacy prob-
lems, and focuses on the relation between them and the field of artificial
intelligence from a modern point of view. Notwithstanding, we should not
forget that privacy and security have been important issues long before the
age of computers.
From the very beginning, humans have tried to protect their privacy and
enhance their security. Probably, the first attempt of ancient humans to
gain some privacy and security was the use of caves. The size of the caves
and the size of the entrances were important, for example the entrance
would be smaller if the caves were to be used for secret activities.1,2
1
2 A. Solanas and A. Martı́nez-Ballesté
As time passed ancient humans evolved and their intelligence and capa-
bilities increased. The smarter they were the more sophisticated their pri-
vacy and security methods became. Among these sophistications, writing
was an outstanding step forward for many ancient societies (e.g. Egyptians,
Sumerians, Chinese, Assyrians, Greeks, Mayas, etc.) and it changed their
view on many areas such as commerce, diplomacy and war. The way mes-
sages were transmitted from strategists to commanders in the battlefield
evolved. It was no longer secure to send plain messages because if they
were intercepted by the enemy vital operations could be endangered. As a
result, cryptography, the art of secret writing, became essential to guaran-
tee the confidentiality of communications. In recent decades, cryptography
has expanded beyond confidentiality to include more sophisticated prop-
erties such as integrity, non-repudiation, authentication, etc (See3 for a
comprehensive study of the history of cryptography).
Nowadays, many security and privacy problems cannot be optimally
solved due to their complexity. In these situations, heuristic approaches
should be used and artificial intelligence has proven to be extremely useful
and well-fitted to solve these problems. Artificial neural networks, evo-
lutionary computation, clustering, fuzzy sets, multi-agent systems, data-
mining and pattern recognition are just a few examples of artificial in-
telligence techniques that can be successfully used to solve some relevant
privacy and security problems.
Our main aim has been to gather high quality scientific articles that
address privacy and security problems by using artificial intelligence tech-
niques. It can be believed that privacy, security and artificial intelligence
are like water and oil, and cannot be mixed. However, this book shows that
security and privacy can extraordinarily benefit from artificial intelligence.
We hope that the book will spark the interest of researchers from both
worlds (security and privacy, and artificial intelligence) in the investigation
of future ways of collaboration that lead to a better understanding of the
problems and their solutions.
1.1. Organization of the book
The book you are about to read has been structured in three main parts:
The first part “A brief introduction to privacy and security” comprises
Chapter 2 and 3. The aim of this first part is to introduce the main prob-
lems related to the many aspects of security and privacy. In Chapter 2,
Martı́nez and Solanas summarize some of the most relevant privacy threats
Introduction 3
related to the use of information and communication technologies, namely
the Internet, ubiquitous computing and large databases. Similarly, Ribar-
gorda et al. provide the reader with an overview of information security in
Chapter 3.
The second part, which includes Chapters 4 to 8, is devoted to several
artificial intelligence techniques used to protect privacy in different areas.
In Chapter 4, Schmid considers the problem of finding the right balance
between societal benefit and individual privacy. He introduces some ba-
sic concepts such as anonymity, data perturbation and microaggregation,
which are later used in other chapters. In Chapter 5, Pont-Tuset et al. fol-
low the line of the previous chapter and study how data can be desemantized
using, for example, neural networks. Taking the problem from a different
point of view, Dewri et al. propose the use of multi-objective evolutionary
computation for statistical disclosure control in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 is
devoted to the study of cluster-specific information loss measures. Torra
reviews and compares some of them emphasizing the importance of cluster-
ing and fuzzy sets. The second part of the book concludes with Chapter 8,
where Gibert et al. show how multi-agent systems can be used to preserve
the privacy of medical records in health-care applications.
The third part, which comprises Chapters 9 to 14, tackles the security
problem from a broad point of view that includes physical security, na-
tional security and intelligence, and network security. In Chapter 9, Lu et
al. propose the use of acoustic signal recognition and nonlinear Hebbian
learning to detect vehicles that may be loaded with explosives approaching
restricted areas. In Chapter 10, Puig et al. propose the use of textures in
autonomous surveillance vehicles. This chapter compares different state-
of-the-art texture classifiers and proposes an efficient solution to the prob-
lem of per-pixel classification of textured images with multichannel Gabor
wavelet filters. Chapter 11 is devoted to the detection of aggressions in train
compartments. Yang et al. present an efficient aggression detection system
that integrates several aggression detection systems, including recognition
of face patterns and one of the bests detectors i.e. human beings. In Chap-
ter 12, Decherchi et al. consider the problem of text-mining for homeland
security. They present a system for clustering documents that combines
pattern-recognition grouping algorithms with semantic-driven processing.
In Chapter 13, Zarza et al. address the problem of defining network se-
curity protocols for sensor or mobile ad-hoc networks where thousands of
nodes can be involved by means of genetic algorithms. Finally, Chapter 14
focuses on the problem of securing mobile ad-hoc networks against selfish
4 A. Solanas and A. Martı́nez-Ballesté
behaviors. Seredynski et al. propose a method that uses concepts concern-
ing co-operation developed in evolutionary biology and tools like genetic
algorithms and evolutionary game theory.
References
1. H. Holderness, G. Davies, A. Chamberlain, and R. Donahue. A conservation
audit of archaeological cave resources in the peak district and yorkshire dales.
Technical Report 7, CAPRA, (2006). URL http://capra.group.shef.ac.
uk/7/743Research.pdf.
2. P. Arosio and D. Meozzi. The home-hunting habits of prehistoric britons.
http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/002329.html.
3. D. Kahn, The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Commu-
nication from Ancient Times to the Internet. (Scribner, December 1996).
Chapter 2
An Introduction to Privacy Aspects of Information and
Communication Technologies
Antoni Martı́nez-Ballesté and Agusti Solanas
Rovira i Virgili University of Tarragona, UNESCO Chair in Data Privacy
Av. Paı̈sos Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain
{antoni.martinez,agusti.solanas}@urv.cat
Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) are fostering
the appearance of a plethora of new services and applications. On the
one hand, ICT will improve the efficiency of a variety of processes and
will provide users with amazing amounts and varieties of services. On
the other hand, the universal deployment of these new technologies and
the world-wide access to them may lead to the invasion of users privacy.
In this chapter, we introduce the reader to a number of relevant
aspects of privacy in ICT. We elaborate on the use of the Internet as a
potential threat to users privacy, since the web and their modern services
pave the way for the gathering of large amounts of data. Also, ICT
allow the management of databases, which entail privacy concerns: for
example, sensitive data from individuals can be stored in these databases
and, moreover, administrators can track queries of the database users so
the latter can be profiled. Finally, new trends in ubiquitous computing
that look promising (e.g. location based services and radio-frequency
identification) are also analyzed from a privacy-aware point of view.
Contents
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Privacy and the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.1 Monitoring User Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.2 Privacy in Modern Web Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.3 The Big Brothers of Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Privacy in Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.1 Privacy of the Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.2 User Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Privacy in Ubiquitous Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4.1 Location-Based Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4.2 Radio-Frequency Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7
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