Journal of History, Art and

Archaeology

Vol. 3, No. 1, 2023, pp. 97-105

© ARF India. All Right Reserved

URL: www.arfjournals.com
https://doi.org/10.47509/JHAA.2023.
v03i01.11

THE PEMAYANGTSE AND

TAWANG MONASTERIES IN
PRE-COLONIAL INDIA:
A COMPARATIVE STUDY

Krishna Kumar Sharma

Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of History, North Eastern Hill University, Shillong,
Meghalaya – 793022. E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: The monastery of Pemayangtse and the monastery of Tawang are Received : 12 May 2023
two prominent Buddhist monasteries situated in the Eastern Himalayan region Revised : 27 May 2023
of India. The Pemayangtse monastery, located in the state of Sikkim belongs
Accepted : 10 June 2023
to the Nyingma tradition and was established by Master Lhastsun Namkha
Jigme in 1642 CE. It was later re-established in 1705 CE during the reign of Published : 30 June 2023
Chakdor Namgyal, the third king of Sikkim. From the time of its foundation, it
remained under the control of the kings of Sikkim, being guided by their policies TO CITE THIS ARTICLE:
of the elite class. The Tawang Monastery of Arunachal Pradesh is influenced
Sharma, K.K. (2023). The
by the Gelugpa sect and was founded by Marak Lama Lodre Gyatso around
Pemayangtse and Tawang
1680–1681 CE. In contrast to Pemayangtse, the Tawang Monastery has been Monasteries in Pre-Colonial India:
thriving and is being nourished by the services and deeds of the common A Comparative Study. Journal of
people belonging to the tribes such as Monpa and the Sherdukpen. While both History, Art and Archaeology, 3: 1,
are Buddhist institutions, they appear to differ in their role and functions. pp. 97-105. https://doi.org/10.47509/
In this paper, an attempt has been made to identify the major similarities JHAA.2023.v03i01.11
and differences between these monasteries which are influenced by different
Buddhist traditions of Tibet by analysing their politico-social conditions. The
paper is based upon field study supplemented by secondary sources.
Keywords: Tawang, Pemayangtse, Tribe, Lhopo, Monpa, Sherdukpen,
Gelugpa, Nyingma

Introduction and quite popular in these areas. As these

Buddhist monasteries functioning in the Eastern monasteries play a pivotal role in the cultural and
Himalayas, particularly in Sikkim and Western economic life of the society at large, it is important
Arunachal Pradesh, represent the living tradition to understand their nature, which appears similar
98 Journal of History, Art and Archaeology

in the eyes of the common people. This research a legacy of material and spiritual cultures of
paper focuses upon the nature of these pre- the Himalayan people, especially in Sikkim and
colonial religious institutions that not only shaped Arunachal Pradesh. Due to Indo-Tibetan cross
social behaviour, including economic decisions border trade, economic development of Sikkim
like production, exchange and distribution, and Arunachal Pradesh provided the solid ground
but also took the initiative to formulate social for the emergence of the Buddhist monasteries of
rules and formal norms in a contemporary different sects in these regions. One of the striking
system. Both the Pemayangtse monastery of characteristics of the Tibetan Buddhist tradition
Sikkim which is affiliated with the Nyingma that needs to be mentioned here is the assimilation
School, and the Tawang monastery of Arunachal of Buddhism by the masses and society to a great
Pradesh affiliated to the Gelugpa School not level. This is visible not only at one end of the
only exercised political authority, but are also Eastern Himalayas, but also in Tibeto-Mongol
interconnected with the philosophical traditions society at the other end. This culture gives an
of Tibet which impacted the different parts of important place to the common people and their
Eastern Himalayas (Thakur: 2022: 133-63). traditional clan deities. Tsong Khapa, the founder
There are very few relevant research works and of Gelugpa, like his forefathers, distanced himself
studies on Pemayangtse and Tawang monasteries. from politics. He was also against sexual practices
Only a few papers or manuscripts published by in monasticism, a common practice in other
some individuals or some institutions help in traditions.
understanding the different aspects of Buddhist With the passage of time, the Gelugpa sect
monasteries of Sikkim and Tawang. However, became one of the most prominent of the Tibetan
Colonial historiography on the Eastern Himalayas tradition. It attracted the common man mostly
is available in the form of Gazetteers, and British because of its indifference to political participation
trade and military mission reports, to Sikkim, (Powers: 2007: 163-81). In the late sixteen and
Tibet and Bhutan. Apart from these, there are seventeenth century, with the support of various
canonical and secular literature preserved at both Mongol chieftains and the Manchu dynasty, the
monasteries which have been utilised as primary Gelugpa sect gained a quasi-monopoly over the
sources. Through the qualitative and comparative Tibeto-Mongol monasteries. Shakyapa, Karmapa/
analysis, this paper examines both the monasteries Kagyu and Nyingma seemed to have almost
with relation to their origin and functioning at all disappeared before the popularity of the Gelugpa.
levels. While attempting a comparative study of The Red Hat orders of Tibetan Buddhism (i.e.
these monasteries, the method of dual attestation the Shakyapa, Karmapa/Kagyu and Nyingma)
has been adopted in this paper in which literary attempted to make inroads among the Mongols
sources have been correlated with archaeological as early as the thirteenth century, yet very few
sources. The trans-Himalayan socio-cultural of their monasteries were established. During
and economic relations are also discussed while the Yuan dynasty, their isolation in the political
examining the nature of the Pemayangtse and sphere or their inability to reach the conscience of
Tawang monasteries, their closeness to a state the people was the main reason for their failure.
authority. However, many Nyingma lamas received favours
In the region of the Eastern Himalayas, the from the Yuan emperors. The Red Hat monks
present Indian states of Sikkim and Arunachal were in competition with their rival Gelugpa in
Pradesh are two Indian states that have had contacts order to convert and infiltrate Genghis Khan’s
with Tibet, Bhutan, Nepal and Myanmar in early descendants into Mongolia. However, the various
times, i.e. prior to the advent of Colonialism in tribes of Mongolia eventually gave prominence
the Indian sub-continent. Buddhism developed to the Gelugpa sect which was a part of their
Sharma, K.K. : The Pemayangtse and Tawang Monasteries in Pre-Colonial India: A Comparative Study 99
socio-religious life. The ambition of the Gelugpa Even after the emergence of new sects in Tibet,
missionaries in Mongolia to be closer to the daily the influence of old sects such as the Nyingma
life of the people and also the recognition of the remained on the elite and ruling class (Singh:
Mongolian prince, Yonten Gyatso or Yon-tan- 2001: 19-30). During the political upheaval of the
rgya-mtsho (1589–1617 CE) as a fourth Dalai seventeenth century, the Nyingma sect gained a
Lama resulted in the young faith being completely strong patronage in the form of the Fifth Dalai
in favour of Gelugpa. After this, the construction of Lama Ngagwang Lobzang Gyatso or Ngag Dbang
Gelugpa monasteries in Mongolia began rapidly. Blo Bzang Rgya Mtsho (1617–1682 CE). Under
Gelugpa saints replaced the former Shamanist his patronage, this period saw a considerable
practices with Buddhism. Consequently, ordinary increase in the establishment of large and new
Mongols voluntarily turned to Buddhism over Nyingma monasteries throughout central and
the next few decades. The Gelugpa order became eastern Tibet.
more popular among the Mongol tribes as it was The Nyingma school has had a deep
supported by the Manchu dynasty, however the influence on Pemayangtse monastery and it is
Gelugpa or Yellow Hat tradition gained an effective closely related to the Namgyal royal family of
foothold in Mongolian society and acquired full Sikkim, whose dynasty lasted from 1642 CE
religious power. The year 1635 CE is marked by until its end in 1973 (Census: 2011: 8-10). The
various scholars as a turning point in the history Pemayangtse monastery was started by the master
of Southern Mongolian Buddhism. By this time Lhastsun Namkha Jigme in 1645 CE as a small
the Gelugpa sect had established its hegemony shrine called Tsangkhang. However, it was re-
almost everywhere, except for a limited range of established in 1705 CE under the third king of
the Red Hat traditions. After 1635 CE, the Red Sikkim Chagdor Namgyal (1686-1717 CE). First
Hat tradition from southern Mongolia almost Chogyal (King) Phuntsog Namgyal (1742-70 CE)
disappeared. In central Tibet also, the Gelugpas was enthroned with the help of Nyingma saints.
progressively superseded the other sects at the With the support and patronage of a particular
political level, after gaining Qoshud’s support. authority, the Nyingma sect tried to dominant
However, the Nyingma was never completely the other sects through these institutions in the
wiped out as there is evidence of the presence sixteen and seventeenth centuries. As Melanie
of Nyingma monks in Mongolia during the Vandenhelsken (2003: 55-73) has mentioned
nineteenth century. Unlike others, the Nyingma in her article, the functional principles of the
order of monks was loosely organised. Many Pemayangtse monastery were setup at the
scholars claim that the Red Hats were characterised founding time of the Namgyal Monarchy in
as being more “meditating in solitude”, and they Sikkim. The lamas of the Pemayangtse monastery
became popular as monks, maintaining less were not only the spiritual guides of the Chogyal,
closeness among common Mongols, in contrast they were also the only lamas responsible to hold
to the Yellow Hat tradition (Charleux: 2002: 168- the rituals for the king and his family. Moreover,
32). The Nyingma, known for its transmission of only the Pemayangtse lamas were empowered to
Tantric teachings and lineages, evolved into an perform the major public annual ceremonies at
institutional form as a distinct tradition from the the royal chapel.
eleventh century onwards. In the Tibetan cultural Only the twelve noble Lhopo clans who
sphere, the military and political establishment were the direct descendants of Khye Bumsa (the
of Buddhist ruling families and the formation of mythical first inhabitant of Sikkim) were eligible
governments, especially the charismatic Tantric to get admission into this Buddhist institution.
Buddhist masters and their positions, prestige, Therefore, it can be said that the Pemayangtse
etc., played an important role in these events. monastery was founded and funded by the Lhopo
100 Journal of History, Art and Archaeology

aristocrats for their own interest. In the society of and taught the Kirat people in different parts of
Sikkim, we find dominance of two major classes Sikkim, was put under arrest, bounded to a tree
- Lhopo and Lepcha. The hegemony of these two and shot dead by the lamas of Pemayangtse. The
classes is seen in different aspects, from control assassination of the Limboo leader Sirijunga, who
over land to the administrative level. Despite had challenged the supremacy of the state and
this, the main reason why the Lepcha class did the religious monopoly of Pemayangtse, sparked
not get selected in an institution like Pemayangtse outrage in public, resulting in the then Bhutia
monastery was that they were not considered ruler of Sikkim fleeing to Tibet.
equal to the highly respected aristocracy such The royal monastery of Pemayangtse not only
as the Lhopo, who considered themselves provided a moral and religious justification for
superior among all classes and the Emperor the state’s social sovereignty, but also displayed
himself considered it fit to share power with their a military like aggression in the administration of
descendants. As the Lhopo supremacy continued Sikkim to safeguard the interests of the Chogyal.
since the founding of the Pemayangtse monastery The assassination of an official of Nepali origin
and they had imbibed the Buddhist culture, the by Pemayangtse lamas in 1880 CE as reported
Chogyal was also devoted to Buddhism in all by Thutob Namgyal and Yeshe Dolma can be
its socio-political ramifications. Therefore, state regarded as an action of the national army as
authority and the Lhopo aristocracy always the Pemayangtse lamas functioned as the king’s
retained the monopoly of their high clan. The (Chogyal’s) army (Tran: 2012).
Lepchas, who later adopted Buddhism, in spite The formation of the social structure of
of their superiority in pastoralism and agriculture, Sikkim is reminiscent of the early medieval
were always relegated to a lower social status than Indian society. Just like the Brahmana – Shudra
the Lhopo. Secondly, the reason for the decrease in relations of north and south India, where religious
the incidence of political intrigue in Sikkim is that institutions like Brahmana’s temple advocated and
the position of the Chogyal was only of symbolic protected the upper-class rights, we find similar
importance. There was no power struggle among circumstances in the case of the Pemayangtse
the many sons of the Chogyal. Thus it was totally monastery and the society of Sikkim. Just as the
different from the court conspiracies of other parts Brahmanical hegemony over the lower classes
of India. It appears that real power lies in the huge in India weakened after the arrival of Turkish
faction of the Sikkimese elite standing behind the invaders, the entry of the Nepalese clan in Sikkim
Chogyal. The Chogyal was not the chief architect challenged the monopoly of the nobility such as
of the section of the lower classes in Sikkim. the Lhopo. The Lepcha and Limboos were also
The Pemayangtse lamas, who were involved in suppressed.
the work of tax collection from the raiyat, was But in the case of Arunachal Pradesh, the
also ordered not to harass the raiyat in any way social structure was different from Sikkim and
and they were warned that those who worked for this reason the expectation, affection, and
against this order would be punished severely attachment of local sympathisers with the Tawang
(Tran: 2012). However, we do find instances monastery were varied in nature. And this may
where the religious monopoly of Buddhism and have been the reason why the Nyingma school
the Pemayangtse monastery were threatened or a famous for its Tantric philosophy and royal
competing leader in Sikkim opposed the Chogyal. patronage in Tibet, fought for its existence from
These were forthwith attempted suppressed by the the very beginning in western Arunachal Pradesh
lamas of the Pemayangtse monastery. According or the Monpa region. Through materialistic
to Limboochronicle, Teyongshi Sirijunga, a structures in the form of monasteries, the
learned Limboo man who revived Kirat literature Nyingma sect tried its best to make inroads into
Sharma, K.K. : The Pemayangtse and Tawang Monasteries in Pre-Colonial India: A Comparative Study 101
western Arunachal Pradesh from the eleven and the custodian of Tawang Monastery (Thakur
twelfth century onwards. In this effort, there were 2014).The Monastery was authorised to collect
several attacks on the Gelugpa sect from the taxes from Monyul areas (Tawang and its adjacent
Bhutanese side after the sixteen and seventeenth district, West Kameng) which were divided into
century, which took the form of sectarian wars. administrative centres or dzongs (meaning fort
Consequently, in western Arunachal Pradesh, we or district). Dzongs were used for political and
also find mention of warrior-lamas. This religious administrative purposes in the Himalayan states
and sectarian division further took the form of but in the post-colonial period only religious
border clashes and territorial disputes between activities were carried out (Habung: 2016: 53-
Bhutan and Tawang (Nanda: 1982: 68-76). 64). As Tawang Monastery was the spiritual and
The Tawang terminology is technically a administrative centre in Monyul areas, it used to
combination of two words- ‘Ta’ and ‘Wang’ where depute an officer who was a senior monk called
Ta denotes the Horse and Wang is for Chosen or dzongpon to the dzongs to oversee the collection
blessing. So Tawang means “Chosen by horse of agricultural levies, and to settle local disputes
or the place chosen and blessed by the horse.” in pre-colonial time. The Shyo Basti (meaning
According to a local tradition, Mera Lama Lodre lower part or place below), a village just below
Gyatso’ horse had chosen the site of the Tawang the Tawang Monastery, was established during the
Monastery. After that Tawang city developed construction of the Tawang Monastery to supply
around the monastery. Before the establishment the daily needs of the Monastery. The monastery
of Tawang Monastery in the seventeenth century, in turn, looked after the needs and problems of
the history of Arunachal Pradesh is the history the people of the settlement. In the pre-colonial
of ethnic groups (Laskar: 2001). However, it is period, there was an impression of a patron-client
not a history of isolation. Western Arunachal relationship between the surrounding villages and
Pradesh, the habitat of the Monpas (Nath 2005), the Tawang Monastery which is reminiscent of
Sherdukpens (Sharma 1961), Akas and Nishis had the Nalanda Monastery (Sharma 2013) of Bihar.
trade and cultural relations with Tibet, Burma, The Tawang Monastery also has some subsidiary
Bhutan and Assam. Due to the respectability monasteries and nunneries in the Tawang region.
towards the Mera Lama and Tawang Monastery Similar to the practice of the Pemayangtse
which is influenced by the Gelugpa tradition of monastery, it was compulsory for each family in
Tibetan Buddhism, tribes such as Monpa and the surrounding villages of Tawang, which had
Sherdukpens adopted Buddhism which ultimately three sons or more, to send their second or middle
became dominant in that region (Verma: 2017: son (bu sum barma or tib bugsum barpa) to
1-12). The Tawang Monastery locally known become a monk. In February 1951, a paramilitary
as Tawang Galden Namgyal Lhatse meaning expedition to Tawang led by Major Bob Khating
Celestial Paradise, is strategically located at about of the Indian Frontier Administration Services
10,000 feet above the mean sea level, where the puts an end to the Tibetan tax collection and
trade routes from Tibet, Bhutan and East Kameng established the first Indian administrative post in
meet. It is the second largest in Asia and largest of the region. On the basis of fieldwork, Swargajyoti
its kind in India. It is estimated that the monastery Gohain claims that elderly Monpa villagers and
possesses more than five thousand rare Buddhist locals rejoiced when the Indian Army ended
manuscripts (Motebennur: 2009: 120-7).The Tibetan jurisdiction (Gohain: 2017: 87-94).As
assemblage of different monasteries including the Tibetan tax authorities were infamous for
Tawang were the main centres to teach skills and their cruelty, it is a certain fact that the Tawang
earning methods to the people in the pre-colonial Monastery faced financial difficulties during
period. The predominant Monpa tribe have been colonial times. It is worth noting that, both the
102 Journal of History, Art and Archaeology

Pemayangtse and Tawang monasteries, despite monastery (Mizuno and Tenpa: 2015: 57-110).It
being under the umbrella of Tibetan Buddhism, was because of the high attraction of the tribes
had different characteristics mainly due to towards Buddhism and the Monastery and in turn
different political situations. The Pemayangtse the affection of the monastery for the area, that the
was dominated by the ruling family of Sikkim, designation of the sixth Dalai Lama was adorned
while due to the geographical distance between by a Monpa of the region. It is believed that the
Tawang and Lhasa the monastery was not very present Dalai Lama is an incarnation of the sixth
tightly controlled by Tibet, but was freely active Dalai Lama Tsangyang Gyatso (1683-1706 CE).
in social and religious works. Buddhism assumed Apart from agricultural and pastoral occupation,
a distinct form in Monyul (the lowlands) which tribes like Monpa and Sherdukpens were actively
was also different from the Buddhism of Tibet. engaged in trading between the foothills of the
A major reason behind this was that the majority Himalayas and internal parts of Tibet and Central
Monpa (lowlanders) community of Tawang Asia via Tawang. The Tawang monastery was
were essentially organised as democratic, self- not only a protector of commercial activities but
governing communities and led by Tsorgens who actively participated in trade dealings by giving
differed from elected or semi-hereditary chieftains equal rights to all merchant tribes (Dutta and Jha:
(Nanda: 2020: 29-40). 2002: 61-71).Almost all the tribal communities
When Bhutanese Drukpas became more were going through a period of the complex
aggressive against the Tawang Monastery and the economic transition where physical strength and
Gelugpa during sectarian struggle in the sixteen and labour were necessary to conquer each other.
seventeenth century, Mongol and Tibetan troops Women in tribal society were compelled to seek
sided with the Tawang Monastery which sought the protection of men. We do not know of any
to pacify those raiders (Namgyal: 2020: 59-70). major restrictions imposed by Buddhism and
The steps taken to help the Monyul and Tawang Buddhist monasteries regarding tribal women in
Monastery did not materialise. Nevertheless, the western Arunachal Pradesh, but it can be said that
secular image created by the Gelugpa school was these institutions expected women to discharge
maintained from the Tibeto-Mongol border to the their responsibilities within the limits of the rules
Indo-Tibetan areas of eastern Himalayas through made by them (Thakur: 2003).
the organisations like the Tawang Monastery. An
important reason for the large-scale assimilation Conclusion
of Buddhism by local communities in the Monyul Tibetan Buddhism or Lamaism has been famous
region was the liberal, democratic and secular for the monastic culture in the Himalayas.
aspect of the Gelugpa institutions through which Due to cross-border connectivity and people
primitive beliefs were absorbed into Buddhism. It to people contacts and cultural assimilation,
is also worth noting that Buddhist monks became Buddhism has developed a legacy of material
more skilled in non-Buddhist practices, such as and spiritual cultures of the Himalayan people.
the worship of local spirits, receiving oracles, After the emergence of Buddhism from Tibet, its
and fortune-telling, than did Bon believers (Bon different schools developed where their character
was the traditional religion of the Monpas). In was dependent on the diverse socio-political
comparison to the Pemayangtse, the monastery formations of the Himalayas. According to their
at Tawang was not attached to any high clan, distinct character, schools of Tibetan Buddhism,
but was accountable to all the tribes that were particularly Nyingma and Gelugpa took separate
under its religious and administrative territory. paths from the Tibeto-Mongol border to the
Part-time monks were played important roles Indo-Tibetan extent in the Eastern Himalayas.
to connect the common person of society to the On one side, the Nyingma were close to royal
Sharma, K.K. : The Pemayangtse and Tawang Monasteries in Pre-Colonial India: A Comparative Study 103
patronage and Tantric practices in Tibet, while While the Pemayangtse monastery was an
the Gelugpa was opposing the sexual practices elite monastery founded and funded by a noble
in Tantrism and attempted to distance themselves class, such as Lhopo for their own interest and
from affairs. In reality, the Gelugpa were less benefits the Tawang monastery was not attached
connected to the ruling classes in comparison to to any such high clan, but was accountable
the Nyingma and due to this they benefited from to all the tribes that were under its authority.
this secular and democratic image in society. The Pemayangtse monastery was closer to
Secularisation in Tibetan Buddhism began from state authority and a partner in administrative
the seventh century onwards with the complex and military work with the ruling class. It had
relationship between religion and politics, after political interests and participated directly in
that attempts were made to institutionalise it state sponsored works. However, the Tawang
(Schwerk: 2019: 1-16).Through the universal monastery had royal patronage, but its role in
representation and mass acceptance of Gelugpa state politics was limited and their inclination was
philosophy in contemporary society of 16th-17th much more towards social and economic welfare
century, this school gained a quasi-monopoly of the local tribes like the Monpa.
over the Tibeto-Mongol monasteries. At the Both monasteries have different socio-
same time, the Nyingma School lagged behind. political backgrounds. Pemayangtse has been
The srrival of the Nyingma in the Sikkim area more effective in society through their ritual
became possible with the blessings of the ruling ceremonies and with the help of the aristocratic
class of Tibet and Sikkim. Political patronage classes of Sikkim. The Lhopo and the Royal
has been the backbone of Nyingma from the very family of Sikkim were directly connected with
beginning in Sikkim and Eastern Himalayas. Pemayangtse while the Lepchas were effective in
While the advent of Gelugpa in the Monyul area administrative works. These noble classes have
started with social work where the first Gelugpa been propagators of Pemayangtse philosophy
Saint of this area, Thangston Gyalpo (1382-1462 in society. But the Tawang monastery has been
CE), built many iron-chain suspension bridges effective within some Buddhist tribes in the limited
for the welfare of society (Sarkar 1981). Later areas of western Arunachal Pradesh without any
monks of the Gelugpa school always tried to nexus, playing a passive role. The reason behind it
maintain this secular image in society which is that the geographical distance between Tawang
they got from pioneer saints and were validated and Lhasa is reflected in the feeble political orders
by local inhabitants. In the case of the origin of and restrictions that governed the monastery.
Pemayangtse and Tawang Monasteries, we find As the Pemayangtse monastery served as
the major participation of a ruling class of Sikkim an exponent for the ruling class, the women’s
in the establishment of Pemayangtse while empowerment par with men in pre-colonial
another side, trade, tradesmen and commercial Sikkimese society was not facilitated by a
activities played a greater role in the development monastery. Gender discrimination was linked to
of the Tawang monastery. social class distinction, which was also supported
We can thus conclude from the foregoing by monasteries like Pemayangtse. But the social
discussion that while the Pemayangtse monastery condition of Western Arunachal Pradesh was
belongs to Nyingma sect the Tawang monastery different from Sikkim where tribal conflict was
belongs to the Gelugpa sect. Both schools in extremity. The tribal communities were going
have been based on different translations of through a period of a complex economy where
religious scripts and different ideologies. Their physical strength and labour were necessary to
separate philosophies guide their monastic rules conquer each other. This factor was going opposite
regulations and ritual activities. to women in contemporary tribal conflict society.
104 Journal of History, Art and Archaeology

Women were compelled to seek the protection of Pradesh: Strategies, Issues and Challenges, pp. 120
men. However, in the absence of the knowledge of -127.
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2ahUKEwi4y6iY6q35AhWYjdg
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