Drive Axles
Related terms:
Powertrain, Axles, Friction, Pinion, Fuel Economy, Gear Ratio, Operating Condition,
Rear Tire
View all Topics
Final drive transmission
Heinz Heisler MSc., BSc., F.I.M.I., M.S.O.E., M.I.R.T.E., M.C.I.T., M.I.L.T., in Ad-
vanced Vehicle Technology (Second Edition), 2002
7.6.3 Inter axle with third differential
Description of forward rear drive axle (Fig. 7.27) A third differential is generally
incorporated in the forward rear axle of a tandem bogie axle drive layout because
in this position it can be conveniently arranged to extend the drive to the rear axle
(Fig. 7.27).
Fig. 7.27. Final drive with third differential and lock and optional transfer gearing for
front
Power from the gearbox propellor shaft drives the axle input shaft. Support for this
shaft is provided by a ball race mounted in the casing at the flanged end and by a
spigot bearing built into the integral sun gear and output shaft at the other end.
Bevel planet pinions supported on the cross-pin spider splined to the input shaft
divide the drive between both of the bevel sun gears. The left hand sun gear is
integral with the input helical gear and is free to rotate relative to the input shaft
which it is mounted on, whereas the right hand bevel sun gear is integral with the
output shaft. This output shaft is supported at the differential end by a large taper
roller bearing and by a much smaller parallel roller bearing at the opposite flanged
output end.
A tandem axle transmission arrangement is shown in Fig. 7.28(a) where D1,D2and
D3represent the first axle, second axle and inter axle differential respectively.
Fig. 7.28 (a and b). Tandem drive axle layout
When power is supplied to the inter axle (forward rear axle) through the input shaft
and to the bevel planet pinion via the cross-pin spider, the power flow is then divided
between both sun gears. The drive from the left hand sun gear then passes to the
input helical gear to the final drive bevel pinion helical gear where it is redirected at
right angles by the crownwheel and pinion to the axle differential and half shafts.
At the same time the power flowing to the right hand sun gear goes directly to the
output shaft flange where it is then transmitted to the rear axle via a pair of universal
joints and a short propellor shaft.
Third differential action (Fig. 7.27) When both drive axles rotate at the same speed,
the bevel planet pinions bridging the opposing sun gears bodily move around with
the spider but do not revolve on their own axes. If one axle should reduce its speed
relative to the other one, the planet pinions will start to revolve on their cross-pins
so that the speed lost by one sun gear relative to the spider's input speed will be
gained by the other sun gear.
Therefore the third differential connecting the two axles permits each axle mean
speed to automatically adjust itself to suit the road operating conditions without
causing any torsional wind-up between axle drives.
Third differential lock-out (Fig. 7.27) For providing maximum traction when road
conditions are unfavourable such as driving over soft, slippery or steep ground, a
differential lock-out clutch is incorporated. When engaged this device couples the
input shaft directly with the input helical gear and left hand bevel sun gear so that
the differential planet pinions are prevented from equally dividing the input torque
between the two axles at the expense of axle speed differentiation. Consequently,
when the third differential is locked out each axle is able to deliver independently
to the other axle tractive effect which is only limited by the grip between the road
wheels and the quality of surface it is being driven over. It should be observed that
when the third differential lock-out is engaged the vehicle should only be operated
at slow road speeds, otherwise excessive transmission wind-up and tyre wear will
result.
Front wheel drive transfer gear take-up (Fig. 7.28) An additional optional feature is
the transfer gear take-up which is desirable for on-off highway applications where the
ground can be rough and uneven. With the front wheel drive lock clutch engaged,
25% of the total input torque from the gearbox will be transmitted to the front steer
drive axle, while the remainder of the input torque 75% will be converted into tractive
effect by the tandem axles. Again it should be pointed out that this mode of torque
delivery and distribution with the third differential locked-out must only be used at
relatively low speeds.
> Read full chapter
Digital Powertrain Control Systems
William B. Ribbens, in Understanding Automotive Electronics (Seventh Edition),
2013
Differential and Traction Control
The transmission output shaft is coupled to the drive axles via the differential. The
differential is a necessary component of the drivetrain because the left and right drive
wheels turn at different speeds whenever the car moves along a curve (e.g., turning
a corner). Whenever a car is executing a turn, the outside drive wheel rotates at a
higher angular speed than the inside wheel. The differential achieves this function
permitting both wheels to propel the vehicle. Figure 7.26 depicts the configuration
for a differential. Unfortunately, wherever there is a large difference between the
tire/road friction from left to right, the differential will tend to spin the low friction
wheel. An extreme example of this occurs whenever one drive wheel is on ice and
the other is on dry road. In this case, the tire on the ice side will spin and the wheel
on the dry side will not. Typically, the vehicle will not move in such circumstances.
Figure 7.26. Differential configuration.
Certain cars are equipped with so-called traction control devices that can overcome
this disadvantage of the differential. Such cars have differentials that incorporate
electrohydraulic solenoid-activated clutches somewhat similar to those used in an
automatic transmission that can “lock” the differential, permitting power to be
delivered to both drive wheels. It is only desirable to activate these clutches in certain
conditions and to disable them during normal driving, permitting the differential to
perform its intended task.
A traction control system incorporates sensors for measuring wheel speed and a
controller that determines the wheel slip condition based on these relative speeds.
Wherever a wheel spin condition is detected, the controller sends electrical signals
to the solenoids, thereby activating the clutches to eliminate the wheel slip.
> Read full chapter
Digital Powertrain Control Systems
William B. Ribbens, in Understanding Automotive Electronics (Eighth Edition), 2017
Differential and Traction Control
The transmission output shaft is coupled to the drive axles via the differential or
transaxle. The differential is a necessary component of the drivetrain because the
left and right drive wheels turn at different speeds whenever the car moves along
a curve (e.g., turning a corner). Whenever a car is executing a turn, the outside
drive wheel rotates at a higher angular speed than the inside wheel. The differential
achieves this function permitting both wheels to propel the vehicle. Fig. 6.30 depicts
the configuration for a differential. A transaxle incorporates a gear system structure
that is similar to the differential depicted in Fig. 6.30. Unfortunately, wherever there
is a large difference between the tire/road friction from left to right, the differential
will tend to spin the low-friction wheel. An extreme example of this occurs whenever
one drive wheel is on ice and the other is on dry road. In this case, the tire on the ice
side will spin, and the wheel on the dry side will not. Typically, the vehicle will not
move in such circumstances.
Fig. 6.30. Differential configuration.
A majority of contemporary vehicles are equipped with so-called traction control
devices that can overcome this disadvantage of the differential. One method of
achieving traction control involves differentials that incorporate electrohydraulic
solenoid-activated clutches somewhat similar to those used in an automatic trans-
mission that can “lock” the differential, permitting power to be delivered to both
drive wheels. It is only desirable to activate these clutches in certain conditions and
to disable them during normal driving, permitting the differential to perform its
intended task.
An alternative traction control is available in vehicles having an automatic brake
system. In this case, a brake is automatically applied to the spinning wheel, which
causes drive torque to be applied to the nonspinning drive wheel. The details of this
topic are explained in Chapter 10.
A traction control system incorporates sensors for measuring wheel speed and a
controller that determines the wheel slip condition based on these relative speeds.
Wherever a wheelspin condition is detected, the controller sends electrical signals
to the solenoids, thereby activating the clutches to eliminate the wheel slip.
> Read full chapter
Overview
William B. Ribbens, in Understanding Automotive Electronics (Eighth Edition), 2017
Chapter 6
Chapter 6 is devoted to the entire vehicular powertrain including the traditional
engine transmission drive axle coupling for a conventional vehicle. This chapter
also presents a discussion of hybrid/electric vehicles. The chapter begins with a
description of digital control electronics both qualitatively and quantitatively. This
portion of the chapter is an extension of the basic concepts of electronic engine
control introduced in Chapter 4. The discussion here concerns practical digital
engine control electronics. In addition to the qualitative explanation, analytic models
are developed for the control system with references to the basic discrete-time
system theory of Appendix B.
Various control laws are presented for control of exhaust emissions and fuel econo-
my. The goals of the engine control are to meet or exceed government regulations
for emissions of the gases explained in Chapter 4 while optimizing important
performance of the engine including fuel economy.
One of the benefits of digital control is its ability to compensate for various en-
gine-operating modes including start-up, warm-up, acceleration, deceleration, and
cruise as well as environmental parameters (e.g., ambient air pressure and temper-
ature). The practical digital electronic engine control is capable of being adaptive
to changes in vehicle parameters that can occur, for example, with vehicle age. As
explained in Chapter 4, the vehicle must meet or exceed emission requirements for
a specified number of miles driven. The digital engine control can assure engine
emission performance for the specific period by being an adaptive control system
and is explained here.
One of the design features of contemporary engines is variable valve timing (VVT)
which also is called variable value phasing (VVP) and which can optimize a parameter
called volumetric efficiency (see Chapter 4). The improvement in engine perfor-
mance (while meeting emission requirements) through use of VVT/VVP is explained
here, though the mechanism for implementing VVP is explained in Chapter 5
along with the associated actuator. The control subsystem for VVP is explained, and
relevant analytic models are developed. The dynamic response characteristics of a
VVP system are important for relatively rapid changes in RPM. The VVP models
in this chapter are dynamic and are used in an analysis of the system dynamic
performance.
Another subsystem of electronic engine control is idle speed control (ISC). There are
vehicle-operating conditions under which ISC can maintain engine operation with
minimum fuel consumption at idle (i.e., lowest operating) RPM. For example, if the
vehicle is stopped by operator choice or traffic control, to avoid having to restart
the engine, it is operated under control of the digital engine control system at a
predetermined idle speed. In addition, a vehicle traveling downhill might require
no engine power to maintain desired speed. In this case, the digital engine control
maintains idle speed. The theory of operation of the ISC subsystem of the digital
engine control is explained, and analytic models are developed for the described
configuration. In addition, performance analysis of the ISC subsystem shows that
the ISC is an adaptive control.
It is important to note that as of the time of this writing, there are vehicles for
which the ISC is not alone in reducing fuel consumption for a stopped vehicle.
Improvements in engine starting systems have permitted the engine to be shut off i
f the vehicle is stopped for a sufficiently long time. Reapplication of the throttle
by the driver causes essentially an instantaneous engine start such that acceleration
can occur relatively quickly. However, the ISC can maintain idle RPM for the short
interval until the engine is shut off automatically. Vehicles with this feature can
have significant reductions in overall fuel consumption, particularly those operated
in heavy traffic urban environments. This automatic engine start/stop feature is
commonly used in hybrid vehicles.
This chapter also explains electronic control of ignition that involves controlling
the so-called ignition timing. Ignition timing refers to the angular position of the
crankshaft relative to top dead center (TDC) that is the crankshaft angular position
at which the piston is at the exact top of the compression stroke (also discussed in
Chapter 4). Chapter 6 also gives a qualitative explanation and a partial analytic model
for a closed-loop automatic ignition control system.
Explanation of the electronic control of the transmission (automatic) portion of the
powertrain and the mechanical coupling from the transmission to the drive wheel
axles (e.g., differential) are included in this chapter. There is a brief review of the
mechanical components with illustrations. A qualitative explanation and analytic
models of these components (including the torque converter) are presented. The
gear ratio selection method, including the actuators involved for electronic control,
is explained, as are the torque converter lockup methods mechanisms and actuators
in the context of electronically controlled automatic transmissions.
A major portion of Chapter 6 is devoted to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). This
section begins with a description of the physical configurations of two major
categories of HEV that are known, respectively, as series or parallel HEVs. This
explanation includes block diagrams of the two types of HEV and an explanation
of their operation. Analytic models are developed for the electric portion of the HEV
powertrain based on the discussion of electric motors in Chapter 5.
Performance analysis is derived from these analytic models. The performance analy-
sis leads to an explanation of the control of an HEV. This control has many functions
including the selection of the mechanical power source of the IC engine or the elec-
tric motor. The process by which energy is conserved during deceleration or braking
involves converting the electric motor to a generator and storing the output electric
power produced by the generator in a vehicle battery. In this section of Chapter 6,
there is an explanation of the mechanisms by which the HEV achieves superior fuel
economy compared to an IC engine only powered vehicle of comparable size and
weight.
The performance analytic models relate the electric motor torque and power to this
excitation. A representative HEV powered by an induction motor is explained via the
analytic models and the electric excitation voltage. During electric motor propulsion
operation of an HEV (with the engine off ), the electric power comes from the vehic-
ular storage batteries. The voltage level of these batteries is approximately constant
and not compatible with the a-c voltages required to operate the drive electric motor.
Chapter 6 explains the mechanism for generating the motor excitation voltages
required for operating the motor at the power and speed required for any given
vehicle-operating condition. Exemplary circuit diagrams and/or block diagrams for
the voltage conversion in an HEV are presented here.
Chapter 6 concludes with a discussion of a purely electric vehicle (EV). Such a vehicle
has some components found in an HEV, but it has no IC engine. Reference is made
to the similar components found in an HEV.
> Read full chapter
Power Quality – Harmonics in Power
Systems
DrC.R. Bayliss CEng FIET, B.J. Hardy CEng FIET, in Transmission and Distribution
Electrical Engineering (Fourth Edition), 2012
24.3.5.2 AC Traction
The motive power units of trains taking an AC supply comprise onboard single-phase
transformers supplying the axle drive motors through one of a variety of converter
systems. Older AC trains with diode/thyristor convertor systems produce lower range
harmonics (100–750 Hz). More modern trains with GTO drives, pulse-width-mod-
ulated (PWM) systems and synthesized driving voltages produce harmonics in the
higher ranges centred around, say, 1,800 Hz, but of a lower pro rata magnitude.
Although the harmonic spectra generated by modern rolling stock have improved,
(reduced) significant third harmonics remain a feature of these systems.
Rail traction systems are rich in harmonics and the difficult assessment of the filter-
ing requirements has to take into account that several trains of varying vintage and
type operating at different duties will be supplied from any one traction substation
at any given time. Further, since the traction load is essentially single phase it creates
an unbalance on the three phase supply source. The effect of phase unbalance is to
impose both positive and negative fundamental harmonic phase-sequence currents
on the supply system. For further discussion and an example of this see Sections
25.3 and 25.4, in Chapter 25Section 25.3Section 25.4. In practice, this unbalance is
partially reduced by connecting the different traction substations along the route
of the railway line from different selected phase pairs of the three phase supply
system. However, this has only partial success because the loads on each substation
traction transformer will be varying with time throughout the day. In addition,
different substation transformers may be taken out of service at different times for
maintenance and this may exaggerate the overall state of unbalance. Because of
the phase pair connection no zero-sequence components will be present but triplen
harmonics with positive and negative sequence components will exist in the traction
load current spectrum brought about by the phase unbalance.
> Read full chapter
Vehicle Modeling
Daiheng Ni, in Traffic Flow Theory, 2016
Problems
1. Conduct an Internet search and find the following information about the 2016
Volvo XC90 engine:a.final drive axle ratiob.first gear ratioc.sixth gear ratiod.tire
sizee.base curb weight
2. It is known that the vehicle speed v (m/s) is related to the engine speed
(revolutions per minute) as follows: (20.14)where r is the tire radius in meters
and Nft is the final transmission gear ratio, which is the product of the axle
ratio and the gear ratio. Use the information from the previous Internet search
and assume the vehicle is cruising at 30 m/s in sixth gear, and find the
corresponding engine speed.
3. When a vehicle is starting up, it needs the maximum torque to generate engine
force. Assume first gear is used and half of the maximum torque is available
at start-up. Calculate the corresponding engine force for a 2016 Volvo XC90
engine assuming the mechanical efficiency of the driveline is 80%.
4. A 2016 Volvo XC90 engine has a drag coefficient CF of 0.32 and a frontal
area Af of 2.79 m2, and is traveling at 100 km/h. How much aerodynamic drag
results if the air density is 1.20 kg/m3?
5. The above-mentioned vehicle is running up a hill with a grade G of 5%.
Calculate the grade resistance acting on the vehicle.
6. Assume that the above-mentioned vehicle is subject only to aerodynamic
drag and grade resistance. Calculate the maximum acceleration available at
start-up.
> Read full chapter
Transmission Architecture and Topolo-
gy Design of EVs and HEVs
Jibin Hu, ... Zengxiong Peng, in Modeling, Dynamics and Control of Electrified
Vehicles, 2018
4.1.2.3 Combined Hybrid
Combined hybrid systems have features of both series and parallel hybrids. There is a
double connection between the engine and the drive axle: mechanical and electrical.
This split-power path allows interconnecting mechanical and electrical power, at
some cost in complexity.
Power-split devices are incorporated in the powertrain. The power to the wheels can
be either mechanical or electrical or both. This is also the case in parallel hybrids.
However, the main principle behind the combined system is the decoupling of the
power supplied by the engine from the power demanded by the driver.
In a conventional vehicle, a larger engine is used to provide acceleration from
standstill than one needed for steady-speed cruising. This is because a combustion
engine’s torque is minimal at lower RPMs, as the engine is its own air pump.
On the other hand, an EM exhibits maximum torque at stall and is well suited to
complement the engine’s torque deficiency at low RPMs. In a combined hybrid, a
smaller, less flexible, and highly efficient engine can be used. It is often a variation
of the conventional Otto cycle, such as the Miller or Atkinson cycle. This contributes
significantly to the higher overall efficiency of the vehicle, with regenerative
braking playing a much smaller role.
> Read full chapter
Suspension
Heinz Heisler MSc., BSc., F.I.M.I., M.S.O.E., M.I.R.T.E., M.C.I.T., M.I.L.T., in Ad-
vanced Vehicle Technology (Second Edition), 2002
10.14.3 Willetts (velvet ride) leading and trailing arm torsional
rubber spring suspension (Fig. 10.105(a and b))
The tandem suspension consists of leading and trailing swing arms. These arms are
mounted back to back with their outer ends attached to the first and second drive
axles whereas the swivel ends are supported on central trunnion pivot tubes which
are mounted on a frame cross-member on either side of the chassis (Fig. 10.105(a)).
Fig. 10.105(a and b). Willetts (velvet) leading and trailing arm torsional rubber spring
suspension
Torque arms attached to the suspension cross-member and to brackets in the
centres of each axle casing assist the swing arms to transfer driving and braking
torque reaction back to the chassis. These stabilizing torque arms also maintain the
axles at the correct angular position. Good drive shaft geometry during articulation is
obtained by the torque arms maintaining the axles at their correct angular position.
Panhard rods (transverse tracking arms) between the frame side-members and the
axle casings provide positive axle control and wheel tracking alignment laterally.
The spring consists of inner and outer annular shaped rubber members which are
subjected to both torsional and vertical static deflection (Fig. 10.105(b)). The inner
rubber member is bonded on the inside to the pivot tube which is supported by the
suspension cross-member and on the outside to a steel half shell.
The outer rubber member is bonded on the inside to a median ring and on the
outside to two half shells. The inside of the median ring is profiled to the same shape
as the inner rubber member and half shell thus preventing inter rotation between the
inner and outer rubber members. Key abutments are formed on the circumference
of each outer half shell. These keys are used to locate (index) the outer rubber spring
members relative to the trailing pressed (keyed) swing arm (Fig. 10.105(b)).
When assembled, the outer rubber member fits over the inner rubber member and
half shell, whereas the trailing swing arm spring aperture is a press fit over the outer
pair of half shells which are bonded to the outer rubber member. The leading swing
arm side plates fit on either side of the median ring and aligned bolt holes enable
the two members to be bolted together (Fig. 10.105(a and b)).
Load equalization between axles is achieved by torsional wind-up of the rubber
spring members. Thus any vertical deflection of one or other swing arm as the
wheels roll over any bumps on the road causes a torque to be applied to the rubber
members. Accordingly an equal torque reaction will be transferred through the
media of the rubber to the other swing arm and axle. As a result, each axle will
support an equal share of the laden weight. Therefore contact and grip between
wheels of both axles will be maintained at all times.
The characteristic of this springing is a very low stiffness in the unladen state which
therefore provides a soft ride. A progressive spring stiffening and hardness of ride
occurs as the swing arms are made to deflect against an increase in laden weight.
An overall cushioned and smoothness of ride results.
An additional feature of this suspension geometry is that when weight is transferred
during cornering from the inside to the outside of the vehicle, the deflection of the
swing arms spreads the outer pair of wheels and draws the inner pair of wheels
closer together. As a result smaller turning circles can be achieved without excessive
tyre scrub.
> Read full chapter
Types of suspension and drive
Jörnsen Reimpell Prof.Dipl.-Ing., ... Jürgen W. Betzler Prof.Dr.-Ing., in The Automo-
tive Chassis (Second Edition), 2001
1.7.5 Permanent four-wheel drive, basic standard design pas-
senger car
Giving a standard design car four-wheel drive requires larger modifications, greater
design complexity and makes the drive less efficient (Fig. 1.78). A power take-off g
ear is required, from which a short propshaft transmits the engine moment to the
front differential. The lateral offset must be bridged, for example, with a toothed
chain (Fig. 1.79). The ground clearance must not be affected and so changes in the
engine oil pan are indispensable if the axle drive is to be accommodated (Fig. 1.80).
Fig. 1.78. Drive train of the four-wheel drive Mercedes-Benz E class 4MATIC (from
1997). In order to be able to control the drive shafts to the front wheels, an integrated
spring-and-shock absorber strut in the shape of a fork on the lower transverse link
is used. In the almost identical suspension design of other than off-road varieties,
the springs and shock absorbers are separate.
Fig. 1.79. The torque coming from the engine is apportioned by the Planet
Wheel-Centric Differential 1 in such one, to the rear cardan shaft 2 (64%) and to
the front one 3 (36%). The offset to this shaft is bridged-over by the inserted tooth
type chain 4. The adaptation of the distribution of driving power is taken over the
the multiple-disk clutch 5, which is driven (controlled) by the electromagnet.Power
Divider A110 of the Fa. ZF. (Zahnradfabrik Friedrichshafen)
Fig. 1.80. Front cross-section view of the engine; and drive axle of a standard
four-wheel drive vehicle (BMW assembly diagram). The basic vehicle has rear-wheel
drive and, in order to also be able to drive the front wheels, the front axle power
take-off 4 had to be moved into the space of the oil pan. The intermediate shaft
1 bridges the distance to the right inner CV joint and thus ensures drive shafts of
equal length to both wheels (items 2 and 3 and Fig. 1.51). Part 1 is mounted on one
side in the non-lockable differential 4 and on the other side in the outrigger 5. This,
and the casing 6, are screwed to the oil pan.
The power take-off gear (Fig. 1.79) contains a planet gear centre differential which
facilitates a variable force distribution (based on the internal ratio); 36% of the drive
moment normally goes to the front and 64% to the rear axle. A multidisc clutch
can also be installed that can lock the differential electromagnetically up to 100%,
depending on the torque requirement (front to rear axle). Moreover, there is a further
electrohydraulically controlled lock differential in the rear axle which is also up to
100% effective.
The two differentials with variable degrees of lock offer decisive advantages:
• to reach optimal driving stability, they distribute the engine moments during
overrun and traction according to the wheel slip on the drive axles;
• they allow maximum traction without loss of driving stability (Fig. 1.66).
The locks are open during normal driving. By including the front axle differential,
they make it possible to equalize the number of revolutions between all wheels, so
tight bends can be negotiated without stress in the power train and parking presents
no problems. If the car is moved with locked differentials and the driver is forced
to apply the brakes, the locks are released in a fraction of a second. The system is
therefore fully ABS compatible.
In its four-wheel drive vehicles of the E class (Fig. 1.78), Mercedes-Benz uses a
transfer gear with central differential situated on the gearbox outlet and a front axle
gear integrated into the engine-oil pan. The (fixed) driving torque distribution is
35%:65%. Instead of traditional differential locks, the wheel brakes are activated
on the spinning wheels as in off-road vehicles of the M class. This system permits
maximum flexibility, its effect not only corresponds to differential locks on front and
rear axles as well as on the central differential, but also makes it possible for other
functions such as ABS and electronic yaw control (ESP) to be integrated without any
problem. Design complexity – and thus cost – is considerable.
Fig. 1.81. Front suspension and drive axle of the Mercedes-Benz off-road vehicle
of the M series. In off-road vehicles, rigid axles are mostly used. Instead of these,
Mercedes-Benz installs double wishbone suspensions at the front and rear. In this
way, the proportion of unsprung masses can be reduced by approximately 66%;
driving safety and riding comfort are increased. For space reasons, torsion-bar
springs are used for the suspension of the front axle.1 lower transverse link in
the form of a forged steel component because of the introduction of torque by
the torsion bars (2) and notch insensitivity off road conditions; 2 torsion bars
(spring rate of 50 Nm/degree); 3 vertically adjustable torque support which can
be placed in any position in a transverse direction; 4 integral bearers (subframe)
attached to the box-type frame by 4 bolts; 5 upper transverse link in the form of a
forged aluminium component; 6 rack and pinion power steering, 7 twin-tube shock
absorber with integrated rubber bump stop, 8 transverse link mounting points; 9
stabilizer application of force to lower transverse link.
> Read full chapter
The Onset to Criticality in a Sheared
Granular Medium
R. Lynch, ... F. Dalton, in Recent Advances in Multidisciplinary Applied Physics, 2005
DYNAMIC PHASES OF SYSTEM
Experimental results have shown the dependence of the dynamic phase of the
system on two scale parameters, the angular pulling velocity, O, and the angular
dynamic velocity, D. The angular pulling velocity can be determined from the
average turning speed of the drive axle. The angular dynamic velocity cannot be
calculated directly from the experiment but it is taken as being proportional to the
average torque being held by the torsion spring before a slip. To see this, consider
that D is the maximum possible angular velocity of a slip, which for an un-damped
simple harmonic oscillator is , where k = spring constant, I = moment of inertia,
= angle from equilibrium at the start of the slip [4]. Since the torque just before
slipping is S = − k it follows that . Therefore D is proportional to S, for constant k
and I, and small system damping.
As described above, the set of shearing experiments can be classified into type I + II
and type II behaviour. In Fig. 2, subject to these classifications, the experiments are
plotted on a dynamic phase diagram and can be seen to form two distinct phase
groupings. Increasing D and decreasing O causes a change from mixed sliding and
stick-slip (type I + II) behaviour to stick–slip (type II) behaviour. The trend is consistent
with predictions based on the dynamic phase diagram of a spring block system [3].
FIGURE 2. Dynamic phase diagram of sheared granular system.
> Read full chapter
ScienceDirect is Elsevier’s leading information solution for researchers.
Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. Terms and conditions apply.
