CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
History of computer

Computer: A computer is basically defined as a tool or machine used for processing data to give required
information. It is capable of:
taking input data through the keyboard (input unit),
storing the input data in a diskette, hard disk or other medium,
processing it in the central processing unit (CPU) and
giving out the result (output) on the screen or the Visual Display Unit (VDU).

Fig. 1: A schematic diagram to define a computer

Data: The term data refers to raw facts and figures about a person, object or place, e.g. name, age, complexion,
school, class, height etc.
Information: This is referred to as processed data or a meaningful statement, e.g. net pay of workers,
examination results of students, list of successful candidates in an examination or interview etc.

Methods of Data Processing

The following are the three major methods that have been widely used for data processing over the years:
The Manual method
The Mechanical method
The Manual Method
The manual method of data processing involves the use of chalk, wall, pen, pencil and the like. These devices,
machines or tools facilitate human efforts in recording, classifying, manipulating, sorting and presenting data or
information. The manual data processing operations entail considerable manual efforts. Thus, the manual
method is cumbersome, tiresome, boring, frustrating and time consuming.
Furthermore, the processing of data by the manual method is likely to be affected by human errors. When there
are errors, then the reliability, accuracy, neatness, tidiness, and validity of the data would be in doubt.
The manual method does not allow for the processing of large volumes of data on a regular and timely basis.
The Mechanical Method
The mechanical method of data processing involves the use of machines such as the typewriter, roneo machines,
adding machines and the like.
These machines facilitate human efforts in recording, classifying, manipulating, sorting and presenting data or
information. The mechanical operations are basically routine in nature. There is virtually no creative thinking.
Mechanical operations are noisy, hazardous, error prone and untidy. The mechanical method does not allow for
the processing of large volumes of data continuously and timely.

Characteristics of a Computer
Speed: The computer can manipulate large data at incredible speed and response time can be very fast.
Accuracy: Its accuracy is very high and its consistency can be relied upon. Errors committed in computing
are mostly due to human rather than technological weakness. There are in-built error detecting schemes in the
computer.
Storage: It has both internal and external storage facilities for holding data and instructions. This capacity
varies from one machine to the other. Memories are built up in K (Kilo) modules where K=1024 memory
locations.
Automatic: Once a program is in the computer’s memory, it can run automatically each time it is opened. The
individual has little or no instruction to give again.
Reliability: Being a machine, a computer does not suffer human traits of tiredness and lack of concentration.
It will perform the last job with the same speed and accuracy as the first job every time even if ten million jobs
are involved.
Flexibility: It can perform any type of task once it can be reduced to logical steps. Modern computers can be
used to perform a variety of functions like on-line processing, multiprogramming, real time processing etc.

The Computing System

The computing system is made up of the computer system, the user and the environment in which the computer
is operated.

The Computer System

The computer system is made up of the hardware and the software.

The Hardware
The computer hardware comprises the input unit, the processing unit and the output unit.
The input unit comprises those media through which data is fed into the computer. Examples include the
keyboard, mouse, joystick, trackball and scanner.
The processing unit is made up of the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), the control unit and the main memory.
The main memory also known as the primary memory is made up of the Read Only Memory (ROM) and the
Random Access Memory (RAM).
The output unit is made up of those media through which data, instructions for processing the data (program),
and the result of the processing operation are displayed for the user to see. Examples of the output unit are the
monitor (Visual Display Unit) and the printer.

Software
Computer software is the series of instructions that enable the computer to perform a task or group of tasks. A
program is made up of a group of instructions to perform a task. Series of programs linked together make up
software. Computer programs could be categorised into system software, utility software, and application
programs.
Computer Users
Computer users are the different categories of personnel that operate the computer. We have expert users and
casual users. The expert users could be further categorised into computer engineers, computer programmers and
computer operators.

The Computing Environment

The computing environment includes the building housing the other elements of the computing system namely
the computer and the users, the furniture, auxiliary devices such as the voltage stabiliser, the
Uninterruptible Power Supply System (UPS), the fans, the air conditioners etc. The schematic diagram of the
computing system is presented in Fig.
 Categories of Computers

Classification Based on Signal Type:

There are basically three types of electronic computers. These are the
Digital, Analog and Hybrid computers.

The Digital Computer

 This represents its variables in the form of digits.
 The data it deals with, whether representing numbers, letters or other symbols, are converted
into binary form on input to the computer.
 The data undergoes a processing after which the binary digits are converted back to alpha
numeric form for output for human use.
 Digital computers are mostly used in commercial and business places today.

The Analog Computer

 It measures rather than counts.
 The common type represents its variables in terms of electrical voltage and sets up circuit analog
to the equation connecting the variables.
 Analog computers hold data in the form of physical variables rather than numerical quantities.
 It is almost never used in business systems.
 It is used by scientists and engineers to solve systems of partial differential equations.
 It is also used in controlling and monitoring of systems in such areas as hydrodynamics and
rocketry in production.

The Hybrid Computer

 Hybrid machine where the two are connected and the analog computer may be regarded as a
peripheral of the digital computer.
 In such a situation, a hybrid system attempts to gain the advantage of both the digital and the
analog elements in the same machine.
 This kind of machine is usually a special-purpose device which is built for a specific task. It
needs a conversion element which accepts analog inputs, and outputs digital values.
 Such converters are called digitisers.
 There is a need for a converter from analog to digital also.
 It has the advantage of giving real-time response on a continuous basis.
 Complex calculations can be dealt with by the digital elements, thereby requiring a large
memory, and giving accurate results after programming.
 They are mainly used in aerospace and process control applications.
Classification by Purpose

Depending on their flexibility in operation, computers are classified as either special purpose or general
purpose.

Special-Purpose Computers

A special purpose computer is one that is designed to solve a restricted class of problems. Such
computers may even be designed and built to handle only one job. In such machines, the steps or
operations that the computer follows may be built into the hardware. Most of the computers used for
military purposes fall into this class. Other examples of special purpose computers include:

Computers designed specifically to solve navigational problems.

Computers designed for tracking airplanes or missiles
Computers used for process control applications in industries such as oil refinery, chemical
manufacture, steel processing and power generation
Computers used as robots in factories like vehicle assembly plants and glass industries.

Attributes of Special-Purpose Computers

Special-purpose computers are usually very efficient for the tasks for which they are specially
designed.
They are very much less complex than the general-purpose computers.
The simplicity of the circuiting stems from the fact that provision is made only for limited facilities.
They are very much cheaper than the general-purpose type since they involve fewer components and
are less complex.

General-Purpose Computers

General-purpose computers are computers designed to handle a wide range of problems. Theoretically,
a general-purpose computer can be adequate by means of some easily alterable instructions to handle
any problems that can be solved by computation. In practice, however, there are limitations imposed by
memory size, speed and the type ofinput/output devices. Examples of areas where general purpose
computers are employed include the following:
Payroll
Banking
Billing
Sales analysis
Cost accounting
Manufacturing scheduling
Inventory control

Attributes of General-Purpose Computers

General-purpose computers are more flexible than special purpose computers. Thus, the former can
handle a wide spectrum of problems.
They are less efficient than the special-purpose computers due to such problems as the following:
- They have inadequate storage
- They have low operating speed
- Coordination of the various tasks and subsections may take time
- General-purpose computers are more complex than special purpose computers.

Classification of Computers According to Capacity

In the past, the capacity of computers was measured in terms of physical size. Today, however,
physical size is not a good measure of capacity because modern technology has made it possible to
achieve compactness.
A better measure of capacity today is the volume of work that a computer can handle. The volume of
work that a given computer handles is closely tied to the cost and to the memory size of the
computer. Therefore, most authorities today accept rental price as the standard for ranking computers.
Here, both memory size and cost shall be used to rank (classify) computers into three main categories
as follows:
Microcomputers
Medium/mini/small computers
Large computer/mainframes.

Microcomputers
Microcomputers, also known as single board computers, are the cheapest class of computers. In the
microcomputer, we do not have a Central Processing Unit (CPU) as we have in the larger computers.
Rather we have a microprocessor chip as the main data processing unit.
They are the cheapest and smallest, and can operate under normal office conditions. Examples are
IBM, APPLE, COMPAQ, Hewlett Packard (HP), Dell and Toshiba, etc.

Different Types of Personal Computers (Microcomputers)

Laptop Computers: These are small size types that are battery operated.
The screen is used to cover the system while the keyboard is installed flat on the system unit. They
could be carried about like a box when closed after operation and can be operated in vehicles while on
a journey.
Notebook Computers: These are like laptop computers but smaller in size. Though small, the
notebook computer comprises all the components of a full system.
Palmtop Computers: The palmtop computer is far smaller in size. All the components are complete
as in any of the above, but it is made smaller so that it can be held on the palm.

Uses of the Personal Computer

A personal computer can perform the following functions:
It can be used to produce documents like memos, reports, letters and briefs.
It can be used to calculate budgets and accounting tasks
It can analyse numeric functions
It can create illustrations
It can be used for electronic mails
It an help in making schedules and planning projects
It can assist in searching for specific information from lists or from reports.
Advantages of the Personal Computer
The personal computer is versatile: it can be used in any establishment
It has faster speed for processing data
It can deal with several data at a time
It can attend to several users at the same time, thereby being able to process several jobs at a time
It is capable of storing several data
Operating the personal computer gives less fatigue
It is possible to network personal computers, that is, linking of two or more computers.

Disadvantages of the Personal Computer

The personal computer is costly to maintain
It is very fragile and complex to handle
It requires special skill to operate
With inventions and innovations everyday, the personal computer is at the risk of becoming obsolete
It can lead to unemployment, especially in less developed countries
Some computers cannot function properly without the aid of a cooling system, e.g. air conditioners or
fans in some locations.

Mini Computers
Mini computers have memory capacity in the range ‘128- 256 Kbytes’ and are also not expensive but
reliable and smaller in size compare to mainframe. They were first introduced in 1965; when DEC
(Digital Equipment Corporation) built the PDP – 8.Other mini computers are WANG VS.

Mainframe Computers
The mainframe computers, often called number crunchers have memory capacity of the order of ‘4
Kbytes’, and are very expensive. They can execute up to 100 MIPS (Meanwhile Instructions per
Second). They have large systems and are used by many people for a variety of purposes.