Concept of Equality for Women in Indian Society
This study guide explores the evolution of the concept of equality for women in Indian
society, tracing its roots from mythological narratives to contemporary perspectives. It
provides a detailed examination of historical, cultural, and legal developments, highlighting
both progress and persistent challenges in achieving gender equality.
1. Mythological Narratives and Ancient India
Vedic Period (1500-500 BCE)
• Status of Women: During the early Vedic period, women enjoyed significant
freedom and were often considered equal to men in spiritual and intellectual
domains. They had access to education and participated actively in religious
ceremonies, holding respected roles in society.
• Key Figures: Women scholars like Gargi Vachaknavi and Maitreyi, mentioned in the
Rig Veda, were celebrated for their philosophical contributions, indicating
opportunities for intellectual engagement.
• Mythological Texts:
– The Mahabharata (Anushasana Parva, 13.47.26) explicitly states, “The
daughter, O king, has been ordained in the scriptures to be equal to the son,”
reflecting an early recognition of gender equality (Women in Hinduism).
– The Devi Mahatmya (6th century CE) portrays the goddess as supreme,
embodying roles as creator (Lakshmi) and destroyer (Durga), suggesting
feminine supremacy in divine narratives.
– The Skanda Purana (1.1.21.22) highlights the complementary nature of
femininity, with Parvati discussing its pervasive role alongside Shiva.
• Cultural Reverence: The worship of goddesses like Durga, Lakshmi, and Saraswati
underscores the importance of feminine power in Hindu culture, with more goddess
temples than those dedicated to male deities (Women in Hinduism).
• Decline in Status: By the later Vedic period, women’s roles in religious ceremonies
diminished as priests took precedence, and societal norms began to favor sons,
laying the groundwork for patriarchal structures (Insights IAS).
Epics and Sutras
• Ramayana and Mahabharata:
– Women like Sita (Ramayana) and Draupadi (Mahabharata) are revered as
ideals of virtue and resilience but also face societal constraints. Sita’s trial by
fire and Draupadi’s public humiliation reflect the commodification of women,
despite their revered status.
– Bhisma in the Mahabharata notes that women were respected and guided
men on religious and social matters but were deemed unfit for independence,
requiring lifelong protection (Insights IAS).
• Grihya Sutras: Marriage was considered a sacred bond, with brides marrying at a
mature age (15-16). Women were allowed to sing, dance, and enjoy life, and
practices like sati were not widespread, with widow remarriage permitted under
certain conditions.
• Contradictions: While mythological narratives celebrated women’s divine and
intellectual roles, societal practices increasingly restricted their autonomy, setting
the stage for later inequalities.
Maurya and Gupta Periods
• Maurya Empire: Kautilya’s Arthashastra granted women property rights to
stridhan (gifts received at marriage, including jewelry and sometimes immovable
property). Widows could remarry but lost rights to their deceased husband’s
property.
• Gupta Dynasty: The Kama Sutra suggests elite women were educated and skilled in
various arts, while courtesans were esteemed for their training in poetry, music, and
Sanskrit, indicating some avenues for empowerment (Insights IAS).
Mythological/Textual
Period Key Aspects of Equality Evidence
Early Vedic Equal access to education, Gargi, Maitreyi; Devi Mahatmya
religious roles; revered as (goddess supremacy).
scholars and divine figures.
Later Vedic Diminished religious roles; Priests’ dominance; desire for
societal preference for sons. sons noted.
Epics (Ramayana, Revered yet subjugated; equality Sita, Draupadi; Mahabharata’s
Mahabharata) in divine narratives but societal equality statement.
restrictions.
Maurya/Gupta Property rights (stridhan); Arthashastra; Kama Sutra.
educated elite women;
courtesans esteemed.
2. Historical Evolution
Medieval Period (500-1500 CE)
• Patriarchal Reinforcement: The Manusmriti codified patriarchal norms, restricting
women’s rights to property, education, and independence. It prohibited widow
remarriage and emphasized subservience to husbands (Vedgyaan).
• Social Practices: Practices like sati, dowry, and child marriage became more
entrenched, further limiting women’s autonomy. The introduction of zenana
(seclusion of women) by Muslim dynasties and its adoption by Hindu royal families
reinforced gender segregation (History of Women).
• Exceptions: Women like Mirabai, a 16th-century Bhakti poet, defied norms by
pursuing spiritual devotion, demonstrating early resistance to patriarchal
constraints.
Colonial Period (1757-1947)
• Legal Reforms: British colonial rule introduced measures to address social
injustices, though often with paternalistic motives:
– Bengal Sati Regulation (1829): Abolished sati, the practice of widow
immolation.
– Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act (1856): Legalized remarriage for Hindu
widows.
– Female Infanticide Prevention Act (1870): Targeted the killing of female
infants.
– Age of Consent Act (1891): Raised the minimum marriage age for girls
(Women in India).
• Social Reformers: Figures like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra
Vidyasagar advocated for women’s education and rights, leading to the
establishment of the first free school for girls in 1847.
• Women’s Activism: Women’s participation in the Indian independence movement,
with leaders like Sarojini Naidu and Kasturba Gandhi, marked a shift toward
political agency (Vedgyaan).
• Limitations: Colonial reforms did not fully dismantle cultural inequalities, and
practices like dowry and child marriage persisted in many communities.
Post-Independence (1947-Present)
• Constitutional Guarantees: The Indian Constitution (1950) enshrined gender
equality through:
– Article 14: Equality before the law.
– Article 15(1): No discrimination based on sex.
– Article 16: Equal opportunity in public employment.
– Article 39(d): Equal pay for equal work.
– Article 15(3): Special provisions for women and children (Women in India).
• Legal Milestones:
– Child Marriage Restraint Act (1929): Set the minimum marriage age at 14,
later raised to 18.
– Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act (2005): Granted women equal
inheritance rights (Hindu Succession Act).
– Triple Talaq Ruling (2017): Declared unconstitutional by the Supreme
Court.
– Sabarimala Verdict (2018): Allowed women of all ages to enter the
Sabarimala temple (Women in India).
• Feminist Activism: The 1970s saw a surge in feminist movements, particularly
after the Mathura rape case (1979-1980), which led to amendments in rape laws.
The 2001 National Policy for Empowerment of Women and the Women’s
Reservation Bill (passed in Rajya Sabha, 2010) aimed to enhance women’s political
participation (Women in India).
Period Key Reforms/Developments Impact on Equality
Medieval Manusmriti; sati, dowry entrenched; zenana Reinforced patriarchal
introduced. norms; limited women’s
autonomy.
Colonial Sati abolition, widow remarriage, female Began restoring equality;
infanticide prevention; women’s activism. cultural barriers
persisted.
Post- Constitutional equality; inheritance rights; Legal framework for
Independence feminist activism. equality; societal
challenges remain.
3. Present Perspectives
Achievements
• Education: The rise in women graduates has nearly doubled that of men over the
past decade, reflecting increased access to education (Times of India).
• Political Representation: Women hold 14.5% of parliamentary seats (2018 data),
with 50% reservation in panchayats. Notable figures include President Droupadi
Murmu (2022-present) and female Chief Ministers in several states (Women in
India).
• Employment: Women have entered combat roles in the armed forces since 2016,
and rural women in Haryana are challenging traditional practices like ghunghat
(veiling) to assert empowerment (Reuters; India Today).
• Cultural Shifts: Modern Indian cinema, with films like Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna
(2006) and Gehraiyaan (2022), portrays women as independent, reflecting evolving
societal norms (Women in India).
Challenges
• Gender-Based Violence: A rape is reported every 15 minutes in India (2020 data),
and dowry-related violence and honor killings remain prevalent, particularly in
northern India (Asia Times).
• Child Marriage: 40% of child marriages occur in India, limiting girls’ education and
autonomy (UNICEF, 2009) (The Hindu).
• Economic Disparities: A 20% gender pay gap was recorded in 2017, and women
are overrepresented in low-paid, informal sectors (People Matters).
• Health and Nutrition: Adolescent girls face alarmingly high malnutrition rates,
impacting their health and opportunities (Women in India).
• Cultural Barriers: Practices like son preference and restricted mobility continue to
hinder women’s full participation in society.
Aspect Achievements Challenges
Education Near doubling of female graduates; Child marriage limits girls’
increased access. education.
Politics 14.5% parliamentary seats; 50% Underrepresentation in higher
Aspect Achievements Challenges
panchayat reservation; female leaders. political roles.
Employment Combat roles opened; rural women 20% gender pay gap; informal
challenging norms. sector dominance.
Health/Safety Improved maternal health policies. High malnutrition; frequent
gender-based violence.
4. Synthesis: Evolution of Equality
• Mythological Roots: Early Indian mythology celebrated women’s divine and
intellectual roles, with goddesses and scholars symbolizing equality. However,
societal shifts introduced restrictions, as seen in later epics and texts like the
Manusmriti.
• Historical Progress: Colonial reforms and post-independence legal frameworks
sought to restore equality, drawing inspiration from early egalitarian ideals but
facing resistance from cultural norms.
• Contemporary Landscape: Modern India reflects significant advancements in
women’s rights, echoing the reverence for feminine power in mythology. Yet,
persistent challenges like violence and economic disparities indicate that full
equality remains an ongoing goal.
• Cultural Continuity: The reverence for goddesses in Hindu culture continues to
inspire movements for gender equality, while societal practices often lag behind
these ideals.
