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Preface

The preparation of an international reference book such

as this could not possibly be achieved without the total
cooperation of so many individual authors and the back-
ing of their various employers, especially where company
contributions have been made, bringing together a wealth
of professional knowledge and expertise.
An acknowledgement such as this can only scratch the
surface and cannot really portray the grateful thanks I
wish to express to all these people concerned that have
devoted so much time and effort to place their ideas and
contributions to this Plant Engineering Handbook.
Plant engineering is such a broad subject incorporating
a multitude of disciplines and a wide variety of solutions
to virtually every problem or situation, unlike some sub-
jects that have clear-cut methods.
In compiling the initial suggested guidelines for each
of the contributions, I posed the questions to myself what
information and assistance had I found difficult to locate
during over 30 years as a plant engineer responsible for
plants throughout the world and how could it be best pre-
sented to assist others in their profession.
I would therefore like to take this opportunity to thank
each of the contributing authors for their patience and
assistance in helping me to structure this publication.

R. Keith Mobley
President and CEO
The Plant Performance Group
Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
 Contents

Foreword vii 32 Pumps and Pumping 533

33 Centrifugal Pump Installation 565
Preface ix 34 Cooling Towers 571
List of Contributors xi 35 Compressed Air Systems 587
36 Compressors 601
1 Definition and Organization of the 1 37 Fans and Blowers 615
Plant Engineering Function 38 Mixers and Agitators 623
2 Plant Engineering in Britain 7 39 Gears and Gearboxes 629
3 The Role of the Plant Engineer 13 40 Hydraulic Fundamentals 639
4 Physical Considerations in Site 17 41 Pneumatic Fundamentals 687
Selection 42 Noise and Vibration 707
5 Plant Location 35 43 Vibration Fundamentals 721
6 Industrial Buildings 43 44 Vibration Monitoring and Analysis 757
7 Planning and Plant Layout 67 45 Air Pollution 813
8 Contracts and Specifications 85 46 Dust and Fume Control 823
9 Industrial Flooring 101 47 Dust Collection Systems 837
10 Lighting 111 48 Maintenance Management in UK 845
11 Insulation 131 49 Effective Maintenance 857
12 Paint Coatings for the Plant 147 Management
Engineer 50 Predictive Maintenance 867
13 Insurance: Plant and Equipment 161 51 Planning and Scheduling Outages 889
14 Insurance: Buildings and Risks 185 52 Lubrication 915
15 Electricity Generation 199 53 Corrosion 961
16 Electrical Distribution and 233 54 Shaft Alignment 987
Installation 55 Rotor Balancing 1009
17 Electrical Instrumentation 255 56 Packing and Seals 1017
18 Oil 273 57 Gears and Gear Drives 1029
19 Gas 285 58 Flexible Intermediate Drives 1043
20 Liquefied Petroleum Gas 321 59 Couplings and Clutches 1065
21 Coal and Ash 335 60 Bearings 1081
22 Steam Utilization 353 61 Finance for the Plant Engineer 1101
23 Industrial Boilers 387 62 Statistical Approaches in 1117
24 Combustion Equipment 415 Machinery Problem Solving
25 Economizers 429 63 Health and Safety in the UK 1131
26 Heat Exchangers 437 64 Regulatory Compliance Issues in 1151
27 Heating 447 the US
28 Ventilation 465
29 Air Conditioning 481 Index 1159
30 Energy Conservation 503
31 Water and Effluents 517
 List of
Contributors

A Armer A P Hyde
Spirax Sarco Ltd National Vulcan Engineering Insurance Group Ltd
B Augur, IEng, FIPlantE, MBES H King
J B Augur (Midlands) Ltd Thorn Lighting
H Barber, BSc B R Lamb, CEng, MIChemE
Loughborough University of Technology APV Baker Ltd
D A Bayliss, FICorrST, FTSC S McGrory
BH Oil UK Ltd
J Bevan, IEng, MIPlantE
R Keith Mobley
R J Blaen International Consultant
Senior Green Limited
R J Neller
British Compressed Air Society Film Cooling Towers Ltd
G Burbage-Atter, BSc, CEng, FInstE, Ove Arup & Partners, Industrial Division
HonFIPlantE, FCIBSE
Heaton Energy Services G Pitblado, IEng, MIPlantE, DipSM
Support Services
P D Compton, BSc, CEng, MCIBSE
Colt International Ltd R S Pratt, ALU, CEng, MIMfgE, MBIM, MSAE
Secretary-General, The Institution of Plant
I G Crow, BEng, PhD, CEng, FIMechE, Engineers
FIMarE, MemASME
Davy McKee (Stockton) Ltd G E Pritchard, CEng, FCIBSE, FInstE, FIPlantE,
MASHRAE
R. Dunn
Editor, Plant Engineering Magazine Risk Control Unit
Royal Insurance (UK) Ltd
P Fleming, Bsc(Eng), ARSM, CEng, MInstE
British Gas plc R Robinson, BSc, CEng, FIEE
The Boots Co. plc
C Foster
British Coal M J Schofield, BSc, MSc, PhD, MICorrT
Cortest Laboratories Ltd
C French, CENg, FInstE, FBIM
Saacke Ltd J D N Shaw, MA
SBD Construction Products Ltd
F T Gallyer
Pilkington Insulation Ltd R H Shipman, MIMechE, MIGasE, MInstE
Liquefied Petroleum Gas Industry Association
R R Gibson, BTech, MSc, CEng, FIMechE, FIMarE,
FRSA K Shippen, BSc, CEng, MIMechE
W S Atkins Consultants Ltd ABB Power Ltd
B Holmes, BSc(Tech), PhD, CEng, FIChemE, FInstE R Smith
W S Atkins Consultants Ltd Life Cycle Engineering, Inc.
xii List of Contributors

G Solt, FIChemE, FRSC E Walker, BSc, CEng, MIMechE

Cranfield Institute of Technology Senior Green Limited
K Taylor, CEng, FCIBSE, FIPlantE, FIHospE, R C Webster, BSc, MIEH
FSE, FIOP, MASHRAE, FBIM, ACIArb Environmental Consultant
Taylor Associates Ltd
D Whittleton, MA, CEng, MIMechE, MHKIE
L W Turrell, FCA Ove Arup & Partners, Industrial Division
K Turton, BSc(Eng), CEng, MIMechE
Loughborough University of Technology
Copyright  2001 by Butterworth-Heinemann

All right reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval

system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission
of this publisher.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Plant engineer’s handbook/edited by R. Keith Mobley. – [Rev. ed.].
p.cm
Rev. ed. of: Plant engineer’s reference book. c1991.
Includes index.
ISBN 0 7506 7328 1
1 Plant engineering – Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Mobley, R. Keith, 1943-II,
Title: Plant engineer’s reference book.
TS184 .P58 2000
696 – dc21 00-049366

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Plant engineer’s handbook
1 Plant engineering – Handbooks, manuals, etc.
1 Mobley, R. Keith, 1943 –
658.2

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 1/1

Definition and
Organization of
the Plant

1 Engineering
Function

Richard Dunn
Editor, Plant Engineering Magazine

Contents

1.1 Introduction 1/3

1.2 Basic definition 1/3
1.3 Responsibilities 1/3
1.3.1 Activities 1/3
1.3.2 Knowledge areas 1/4
1.4 Organization 1/4
 Responsibilities 1/3

1.1 Introduction and outside the facility as well as the safety and health
of the employees and the reliability of its systems and
The concept of the plant engineering function has changed equipment. And they are expected to do all of this in a
little over the years. Yet, the ways in which that func- cost-effective manner.
tion is accomplished have changed significantly, primarily A few phrases from a 1999 classified ad for a plant
because of changing technologies and business models. engineer provide some real-world insight on the scope of
More than ever before, for example, the plant engineer responsibilities:
must learn to manage from the perspective of a business
participant, relating his responsibilities and activities to ž Support ongoing operations, troubleshoot, resolve emer-
the mission and goals of the enterprise. Moreover, the gencies, implement shutdowns
invasion of electronics and computerization into nearly ž Organize and maintain information on plant sys-
every facet of engineering and business operation has fos- tems/equipment and improvement programs
tered the integration of plant engineering into both the ž Implement plant projects and maintain proper docu-
operations and the business plan of the enterprise. mentation
Changes in enterprise organization models have also ž Deal effectively with multiple activities, requests, and
impacted plant engineering. In many industrial plants, for emergencies
example, the title of ‘plant engineer’ has disappeared, ž Manage scope, design, specification, procurement,
being replaced with such titles as ‘facilities manager’ or installation, startup, debugging, validation, training, and
‘asset productivity manager’. Yet, the essential services maintenance.
provided by these people and their departments remains
essentially unchanged, and every enterprise with physical To this list, most plant engineers would quickly add
facilities must have a plant engineering function, regard- compliance with all applicable laws and regulations as
less of the name by which it is labeled and the organiza- well as accepted industry standards and practices.
tion through which it is accomplished. More than 25 years ago, Edgar S. Weaver, then
manager of Real Estate and Construction Operations for
General Electric, provided a succinct description of the
1.2 Basic definition function:
Plant engineering is that branch of engineering which ‘The primary mission of the plant engineer is to pro-
embraces the installation, operation, maintenance, modifi- vide optimum plant and equipment facilities to meet
cation, modernization, and protection of physical facilities the established objective of the business. This can be
and equipment used to produce a product or provide a broken down into these four fundamental activities:
service. (1) ensure the reliability of plant and equipment oper-
It is easier to describe plant engineering than to define ation; (2) optimize maintenance and operating costs;
it. Yet, the descriptions will vary from facility to facil- (3) satisfy all safety, environmental, and other regu-
ity and over time. Every successful plant is continuously lations; and (4) provide a strong element of both short-
changing, improving, expanding, and evolving. And the term and long-range facilities and equipment planning.’
activities of the plant engineer must reflect this envi-
ronment. Each plant engineer is likely to have his own, The description still rings true today.
unique job description, and that description is likely to be
different from the one he had five years earlier.
By definition, the plant engineering function is multi-
1.3 Responsibilities
disciplinary. It routinely incorporates the disciplines of There are two ways of analyzing the plant engineering
mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and civil function. One is through the activities plant engineers
engineering. Other disciplines, such as chemical engineer- must perform. The other is through the facilities, systems,
ing for example, may also be needed, depending on the and equipment they must be knowledgeable about. For
type of industry or service involved. a complete understanding of the function, both must be
In addition, skills in business/financial management, considered.
personnel supervision, project management, contracting,
and training are necessary to the successful fulfillment
of plant engineering responsibilities. The function is fun-
1.3.1 Activities
damentally a technical one, requiring a thorough tech- The activities that plant engineers must perform generally
nical/engineering background through education and/or fall under the responsibilities of middle-to-upper manage-
experience. But beyond it’s most basic level, a broad ment. Like all managers, they plan, organize, administer,
range of skills is needed. and control. But more specifically, plant engineers are
If the plant engineer is a specialist in anything, it is involved in or in charge of the following activities:
in his/her own plant or facility. Plant engineers must
learn to know their own plants thoroughly, from the ž Design of facilities and systems
geology underlying its foundations and the topology of ž Construction of facilities and systems
the rainwater runoff to the distribution of its electricity ž Installation of facilities, systems, and equipment
and the eccentricities of its production machinery. They ž Operation of utilities and services
must ensure the quality of the environment both inside ž Maintenance of facilities, systems, and equipment
1/4 Definition and Organization of the Plant Engineering Function

ž Improvement, retrofit, and redesign of facilities, sys- the maintenance of virtually all structures, systems, and
tems, and equipment equipment in their facilities.
ž Planning to meet business needs Thus, to be successful, plant engineers must be knowl-
ž Contracting for equipment, materials, and services edgeable in the design, installation, operation, and main-
ž Project management, including planning, estimating, tenance of the following:
and execution
ž Administration of the plant engineering organization ž Electrical power systems
and personnel as well as related financial consider- ž Electrical machinery
ations (budgeting, forecasting, cost control), training, ž Lighting
and record keeping ž Fluid power transmission
ž Regulatory compliance with a wide variety of govern- ž Mechanical power transmission
mental laws and standards ž Instrumentation and controls
ž Coordination of plant engineering activities and ž Heating and ventilating
responsibilities with all other functions and departments ž Air conditioning and refrigeration
in the organization ž Pumps, piping, and valving
ž Purchasing of requisite tools, equipment, parts, and ž Material handling and storage
materials. ž Paints, coatings, and corrosion prevention
ž Fire protection
These activities are nearly universal throughout the ž Engines
plant engineering function, although they may be ž Lubricants and lubrication systems
described differently in specific companies or facilities. ž Environmental control systems and compliance
Also, other activities might be added to the list. ž Compressed air systems
ž Buildings and construction
1.3.2 Knowledge areas ž Tools
ž Welding and joining
While most plant engineers are, in fact, engineers by edu- ž Safety and health equipment and practices
cation and training, there is no single, traditional engineer- ž Security.
ing discipline that comprises all areas of plant engineering
responsibilities. A combination of mechanical and electri- Each of the above categories could easily be broken
cal engineering education and experience is essential, and into numerous subcategories, and more could be added.
some knowledge in the areas of civil, structural, envi- But these are the generally accepted areas of expertise
ronmental, safety, chemical, and electronic engineering is that plant engineers are expected to know.
useful and important.
Mere education is not enough, however. Plant engineer- 1.4 Organization
ing demands a level of experience in applied knowledge
and problem solving that is more intense than in most Organizational structures and reporting relationships
other engineering functions. In fact, plant engineers are within the plant engineering function and in relation to
often described as ‘jacks of all trades’ or ‘firefighters’ other functions are as unique as each business enterprise
because of their abilities to respond to a wide variety of and individual plant. Yet, some common structures can be
needs on short notice, to fix almost anything that breaks, identified.
and to implement solutions to emerging problems. To be most effective, the plant engineering function
Nevertheless, a major portion of every plant engineer’s should report directly to top plant or facility manage-
efforts is devoted to the prevention of problems and emer- ment. In smaller enterprises, it should report directly to
gencies, as exemplified by their intense involvement in the owner or to top corporate management. In any case,

Plant
manager

Accounting Personnel Quality Plant Production Material

manager manager supervisor engineer manager manager

Maintenance
manager

Figure 1.1 Typical organization of a small plant illustrates that plant engineering is one of the essential functions in any plant. Maintenance
is normally a subfunction of plant engineering
 Organization 1/5

the plant engineer should have direct access to whoever multiple departments. The most common division in these
makes the final decisions on any project, capital expen- cases is the separation of ‘landlord’ responsibilities (that
diture, legal concern, or enterprise policy decision. In is, real estate, buildings and grounds, and utilities) from
multi-site companies with a corporate engineering depart- ‘production’ responsibilities (that is, manufacturing and
ment, each site plant engineer should report directly to process equipment and systems).
the site manager with a secondary reporting relationship Within the plant engineering function, there are typi-
to the director of corporate engineering. cally two primary subfunctions, best described as engi-
It is worth noting that a few very large industrial com- neering and maintenance. The engineering subfunction
panies have divided the plant engineering function into is responsible for such matters as design, construction,

Plant
manager

Plant
superintendent

Industrial Plant engine-

Industrial
Plant engineering & ering & main- Production Purchasing Quality
relations
controller distribution tenance manager manager manager
manager
manager manager

Process A Process B Process C

Plant Electrical
maintenance maintenance maintenance Shops Planning
engineer supervisor
manager manager manager

Figure 1.2 In larger plants, the plant engineering function is often divided into departments to serve particular needs

Executive
vice president

Plant A Plant B Plant C Plant D Vice president

plant plant plant Director of manufacturing Vice president
manager manager manager operations engineering quality

Tooling & Plant Manufacturing

Plant Master Production Purchasing Traffic
maintenance engineering engineering
superintendent mechanic manager director manager
services MGR manager manager

Industrial
Quality
engineering
director
manager
Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance
supervisor supervisor mechanics superintendent

Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance

mechanics mechanics mechanics

Figure 1.3 Multisite enterprises are often organized with a central engineering department providing plant engineering services to all
plants and separate maintenance departments within each site
1/6 Definition and Organization of the Plant Engineering Function

Director of
facilities

Executive secretary

Manager Manager
Manager facilities strategic
facilities maintenance planning

Clerk

1st shift supervisor 2nd shift supervisor

Facilities Tactical planner electrical & mechanical electrical & mechanical
engineer architect repair repair

Project Tactical planner Maintenance Maintenance

manager technicians technicians

Building & Building &

Designer grounds grounds
technicians technicians

Custodial Custodial

3rd shift supervisor Supervisor

electrical & mechanical planning & scheduling
repair

Maintenance
technicians Clerk

Building &
grounds Planners
technicians

Custodial

Figure 1.4 Large, complex industrial plants and other facilities require an extensive plant engineering organization to meet constantly
changing demands

modification, and modernization of the facility, its utili- the utility systems, such as electrical control and distri-
ties, and operating equipment. The maintenance subfunc- bution; steam; heating, ventilating, and air conditioning;
tion provides all maintenance services and carries out compressed air; water treatment; etc.
many of the changes specified by engineering. Some plant The organization charts in Figures 1.1–1.4, adopted
engineering organizations also identify a third subfunc- from real plant organizations of various sizes and in a
tion, operations. This group is responsible for running variety of industries, illustrate some typical structures.
 2/7

Plant
2 Engineering in
Britain

Roger S Pratt
Secretary-General, The Institution of Plant
Engineers

Contents

2.1 The professional plant engineer 2/9

2.2 The Institution of Plant Engineers 2/9
2.3 Aims of the Institution 2/9
2.4 Organization 2/10
2.5 Membership 2/10
2.5.1 Membership requirements 2/10
2.5.2 Courses leading to a career in plant engineering 2/10
2.6 Registration with the Engineering Council 2/10
2.7 Registration as a European Engineer 2/11
2.8 Professional engineering development 2/11
2.9 Addresses for further information 2/11
 Aims of the Institution 2/9

2.1 The professional plant engineer more formal manner through the medium of a properly
incorporated body. The Memorandum of Association of
The profession of engineering, in contrast to many oth- ‘Incorporated Plant Engineers’ was subsequently signed
ers, is extremely wide ranging in the spread of topics, on 3 September 1946.
technologies and specialization included under the over- The concept of an engineering institution which cov-
all heading. The early engineers, the creative geniuses of ered a wide field attracted engineers from many different
their day, encompassed all these latter-day specializations, areas of activity, including industrial, municipal and ser-
famous examples being Brunel, Stephenson and Telford. vice establishments, civil engineering projects, transport
Engineers have been at the heart of all technological and undertakings, design, research and education. By 1947,
scientific progress. Without them the world as we know branches of the Institution were holding monthly meetings
it today would not exist. in London, Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, Newcastle,
This has been despite the fact that the UK has devel- Glasgow and Bristol, and in the following year six more
oped with a culture that is indifferent to engineering, branches were established. There are now 20 branches in
the respectable professions being those such as law or the UK and a large number of members in other countries.
medicine offering more money and prestige. This deeply In January 1959, the Board of Trade gave permission
rooted attitude was supported by an education system in for a change of title from ‘Incorporated Plant Engineers’
which on the whole applied science – engineering – was to ‘The Institution of Plant Engineers’. This marked an
not studied in schools or universities. This contrasts with important stage in the Institution’s development, enabling
the rest of world, where such studies were an important it to take its place alongside other established engineering
part of the curricula of many schools and universities institutions. The Bureau of Engineer Surveyors, whose
as early as the eighteenth century. Engineering was not members had particular interests and expertise in relation
considered suitable for those with the ability to enter a to the safety and insurance aspects of plant operation and
university, where arts and sciences were studied. maintenance, merged with the Institution in 1987, forming
The need for education in engineering in the UK was the basis of a new specialist division.
met by the development of Mechanics Institutes. By the The Institution of Plant Engineers is therefore in many
middle of the nineteenth century, around 120,000 students ways a small-scale reflection of the engineering profes-
per annum attended some 700 institutes on a part-time sion as a whole, embracing a wide range of disciplines and
basis, thus laying the foundations for the pattern of engi- activities. The Institution’s members work in the fields of,
neering education in the UK. In 1840, the first chair in an and have responsibility for, designing, specifying, build-
engineering discipline (civil engineering) was established, ing, installing, overseeing, commissioning, operating and
at Glasgow University, soon to be followed by one at Uni- monitoring the efficiency of plant of all kinds. This can
versity College, London. Oxford and Cambridge were late include most types of building, plant and equipment used
on the scene, establishing chairs in engineering in 1875 in the manufacturing, chemical and process industries,
and 1910, respectively. educational establishments, warehouses, hospitals, office
Also peculiar to the UK is a somewhat confusing and residential accommodation, hotels, banks, theatres,
array of professional engineering institutions. These were concert halls and all types of transportation systems. In
originally learned societies where like-minded people met the broadest sense of the term, these are the assets of the
to exchange views and information. They developed into organization in question, without which it could not func-
qualifying bodies by setting levels of experience and tion. The plant engineer thus carries out a key role as the
academic attainment for different grades of membership. practical manager of these assets.
The oldest professional engineering institution in the UK
is the Institution of Civil Engineers, established in 1818.
The Institution of Mechanical Engineers was established 2.3 Aims of the Institution
in 1847 and the Institution of Electrical Engineers in
1871. Three-quarters of the approximately 50 institutions The aims of the Institution of Plant Engineers are:
which are the Nominated Bodies of the Engineering 1. To bring together those already qualified by the attain-
Council were founded in the twentieth century, some ment of such standards of knowledge, training, conduct
quite recently, reflecting the growth of certain engineering and experience as are desirable in the profession of
disciplines such as nuclear engineering, computing and plant engineering;
electronics. 2. To promote the education and provide for the examina-
tion of students in the profession of plant engineering;
2.2 The Institution of Plant Engineers 3. To encourage, advise on and take part in the educa-
tion, training and retraining of those engaged in plant
The Institution of Plant Engineers (IPlantE) had its origins engineering activities at all levels;
in the Second World War. During this period, engineers 4. To diffuse knowledge of plant engineering by every
who found themselves responsible for the operation and means, including lectures, papers, conferences and
maintenance of the large excavators and other mobile research;
plant brought from the US to work open cast coal met 5. To increase the operational efficiency of plant for the
together for the exchange of information and to discuss greater benefit and welfare of the community, bear-
their problems. These meetings were so successful that ing in mind the importance of the conservation of the
the engineers concerned decided to continue them in a environment and the preservation of amenity.
2/10 Plant Engineering in Britain

2.4 Organization 2.5.2 Courses leading to a career in plant

Overall direction of the Institution is vested in its Council,
engineering
but committees and panels of members carry out much of The main courses leading to a career in plant
the Institution’s detailed work. Branches and divisions of engineering are the Business and Technician Education
the Institution are run by their own committees, which Council’s (BTEC) Technician Certificate or Diploma
arrange programs of visits, lectures and other appropriate in Plant Engineering and Higher National Certificate
activities, spread throughout the year. Non-members are or Diploma in Plant Engineering. In Scotland, the
very welcome to attend most Institution events. The Insti- equivalents are the Scottish Technician and Vocational
tution publishes its journal, The Plant Engineer, and other Education Council’s (SCOTVEC) Technician Certificate
technical information, and organizes national conferences in Mechanical Engineering (Plant Engineering Options)
and exhibitions. and Higher Certificate in Mechanical Engineering (Plant
The Institution’s permanent staff is always available Engineering Options). Additionally, certain other BTEC
to give help and advice on matters relating to member- Certificates and Diplomas, Higher National Certificates,
ship, education and training, and Engineering Council and Diplomas in subjects other than ‘Plant Engineering’
registration. have been assessed by the Institution and approved for
membership purposes. Degrees, degree course options,
diplomas, and higher degree course options in plant
2.5 Membership engineering are available at certain universities in the UK.
Membership of the Institution of Plant Engineers is the Further guidance on courses and their entry requirements
hallmark of the professional plant engineer and is often may be obtained from technical colleges or universities
a prerequisite for successful career progression. This will or from the Institution’s membership department.
become increasingly so in post-1992 Europe, when evi- Table 2.1 Summary of IPlantE membership requirements
dence of appropriate professional qualifications may be
a legal requirement for employment in many engineering
appointments. 2.6 Registration with the Engineering
Council
2.5.1 Membership requirements An individual engineer’s registration with the Engineering
Council is a further valuable indication of professional
A summary of the grades of membership and the personal attainment and standing. Royal Charter established the
requirements for each of these grades is shown in Table 2.1. Engineering Council in 1981 to:

Table 2.1 Summary of IPlantE membership requirements

Class of membership Minimum Minimum academic Evidence of Minimum

age (years) qualifications competence responsibility

Student Member 16 Engaged in engineering

studies and training
Graduate Member 18 BTEC NC/ND or Engaged on an EC approved system of
HNC/HND or degrees training and experience
in EC approved subjects
Associate – – Employed in an allied industry or
profession
Associate Member (AMIPlantE) 21 BTEC NC/ND or ONC/D 4 years combined training and experience
or CGLI Part II in EC
approved subjects
Member (MIPlantE) (i) 23 BTEC HNC/HND or 4 years combined 2 years of responsible
HNC/D or CGLI FTC in training and experience experience
EC approved subjects
Member (MIPlantE) (ii) 35 Technical Paper and 15 years combined 2 years of responsible
Interview training and experience experience
Member (MIPlantE) (iii) 26 At Membership Panel’s 8 years combined 2 years of responsible
discretion training and experience experience
Fellow (FIPlantE) (i) 25 EC approved degree 4 years combined 2 years in responsible
and interview training and experience appointments
Fellow (FIPlantE) (ii) 35 Technical Paper and 15 years combined 2 years in responsible
interview training and experience appointments
Fellow (FIPlantE) (iii) 35 At Membership Panel’s 15 years combined 2 years in responsible
discretion training and experience appointments
 Addresses for further information 2/11

1. Promote and develop the science and best practice of face from day to day. Recent advances in technology,
engineering in the UK; materials and processes emphasize this need, but with
2. Ensure the supply and best use of engineers; ever-increasing demands on time, opportunities to attend
3. Coordinate the activities of the engineering profession. full-time courses are few. The plant engineer must there-
fore rely upon a Continuing Education and Training (CET)
The Charter empowers The Engineering Council to program to enable successful updating to take place, thus
establish and maintain a Register of qualified engineers. enhancing his or her professional development.
The registrants may, where appropriate, use one of the The Engineering Council places considerable emphasis
following titles and designatory letters: on CET as an essential part of a professional engineer’s
development, anticipating that in due course CET will
Chartered Engineer (CEng) form a normal part of an engineer’s career and that such
Incorporated Engineer (IEng) CET activity will be noted in his or her personal career
Engineering Technician (Eng Tech) record.
To enable those engineers engaged in plant engineer-
Each of these three qualifications is obtained in three
ing to look to the future, the Institution of Plant Engi-
stages. Stage 1 indicates attainment of the required aca-
neers has formulated a simple procedure for recording
demic standard, Stage 2 that approved training has been
an engineer’s attendance at activities, which contribute to
received and Stage 3 that responsible experience has been
CET and have been approved by the Institution for that
gained. The titles may only be used at Stage 3.
purpose. Further information may be obtained from the
The Institution of Plant Engineers is a Nominated Body
Institution.
of the Engineering Council (EC) and is thus able to nom-
inate members in appropriate membership grades for EC
registration.
2.9 Addresses for further information
2.7 Registration as a European Engineer The Institution of Plant Engineers
77 Great Peter Street
Registration with the European Federation of National London SW1P 2EZ
Engineering Associations (FEANI) is now open to UK Telephone 020-7233 2855
engineers, and may be helpful to careers in post-
1992 Europe. Such registration is available at two Business and Technician Education Council
levels, Group 1 and Group 2. Group 1 is normally Central House
appropriate for engineers having the education, training
Upper Woburn Place
and experience to qualify them for the title Chartered
London WC1 0HH
Engineer. Group 2 is approximately appropriate for those
Telephone 020-7388 3288
qualified to Incorporated Engineer level, but at the time
of writing, the matter has not been finalized. Further
Scottish Vocational Education Council
information and FEANI application forms are available
Hannover House
from the IPlantE’s membership department.
24 Douglas Street
As mentioned above, FEANI Group 1 registration is for
Glasgow G2 7NQ
those registered as Chartered Engineers. Registration with
Telephone 0141-248 7900
FEANI will allow the engineer concerned to use the title
European Engineer. This title has the designatory letters
Eur Ing, which should be used as a prefix (for example, City and Guilds of London Institute
Eur Ing John B. Smith, CEng MIPlantE). 76 Portland Place
London W1
Telephone 020-7580 3050
2.8 Professional engineering
development The Engineering Council
Canberra House
Throughout the professional life of most engineers, there Maltravers Street
is a need to acquire new knowledge to enable them to London WC2R 3ER
tackle the technical and managerial problems that they Telephone 020-7249 7891
 3/13

3 The Role of the

Plant Engineer

R Keith Mobley
The Plant Performance Group

Contents

3.1 Responsibilities of the plant engineer 3/15

3.1.1 Design and modification of production systems and
auxiliary equipment 3/15
3.1.2 Production system specification and selection 3/15
3.1.3 Installation and commissioning of plant systems 3/15
3.1.4 Operation and maintenance of plant services 3/15
3.1.5 Plant safety, energy conservation, pollution control and
environmental compliance 3/15
3.1.6 Process troubleshooting and optimization 3/15
 Responsibilities of the plant engineer 3/15

3.1 Responsibilities of the plant engineer systems. The plant engineering function has sole respon-
sibility for assuring proper installation criteria is followed.
The increasing mechanization of industrial installations In addition, the plant engineer is responsible for testing
has resulted in the use of more complex and costly equip- newly installed systems to assure that they comply with
ment and this has greatly increased the responsibilities of procurement and performance specifications.
the plant engineer. In today’s environment, the plant engi-
neer must have a practical, well-rounded knowledge of the
3.1.4 Operation and maintenance
fundamentals of civil, mechanical, electrical, process and
environmental engineering. In addition, plant engineers of plant services
must have a basic knowledge of business management, In traditional organizations, the plant engineer is responsi-
statistical analysis, communications and effective super- ble for the operation and maintenance of all plant services
vision skills. (i.e. electric and steam generation, water treatment, waste
The plant engineer by definition must be a generalist treatment, etc.). In locations where these services are pro-
who has a basic knowledge of all aspects of business. vided by outside sources, the plant engineering function
Because of these expansive skill requirements, the plant is responsible for the internal distribution of electricity,
engineer must have the training, experience and expertise steam and other services and the supervision of the out-
necessary to fulfill this critical role in the organization. In side service provider.
part, a plant engineer is responsible for:
3.1.5 Plant safety, energy conservation,
ž Design and modification of production systems and
pollution control and environmental compliance
auxiliary equipment
ž Production system specification and selection Generally, the plant engineering function is responsible
ž Installation and commissioning of plant systems for overall plant safety, as well as all compliance issues.
ž Operation and maintenance of plant services The plant engineer must adapt to the constantly escalat-
ž Plant safety, energy conservation, pollution control and ing federal, state and local regulations that govern these
environmental compliance compliance issues.
ž Process troubleshooting and optimization
3.1.6 Process troubleshooting and optimization
3.1.1 Design and modification of production Perhaps the most important role of the plant engineer is
systems and auxiliary equipment process optimization. This function has the sole respon-
In a traditional organization, the plant engineer is the sin- sibility for improving the reliability and performance of
gle source of design knowledge. Therefore, he or she is production and auxiliary systems.
responsible for all design or redesign of plant systems. As a profession, plant engineering is on the decline.
With the increasing complexity of plant systems, the plant In many plants, this critical function has be discontinued
engineer must have a thorough knowledge of machine or replaced with functions that provide part of the role
design practices (i.e. mechanical, electrical, electronic and describe in the preceding paragraph. In part, reliability,
microprocessors). production and maintenance engineers have replaced the
plant engineering function. The loss of single account-
ability that has resulted from the dilution of the plant
3.1.2 Production system specification engineering function has had a severe, negative impact
and selection on overall plant performance and corporate profitability.
In today’s plant, the plant engineering function has
Plant engineering provides the technical knowledge and been reduced to project management, coordination of con-
experience needed to properly specify and select new or tractors that provide design, construction, operations and
replacement production, plant services and maintenance maintenance of plant facilities. This trend has seriously
systems. diluted the plant’s ability to design, install, operate and
maintain critical production systems. Hopefully, this trend
3.1.3 Installation and commissioning will be short-lived and more plants will return to tra-
of plant systems ditional plant engineering functions. This book and the
information it contains is designed to provide the prac-
Proper installation of new production and plant services tical skills required by a fully functional, effective plant
systems is essential for long-term performance of these engineering functional group.
 4/17

Physical
4 Considerations
in Site Selection

D Whittleton
Ove Arup & Partners, Industrial Division

Contents

4.1 Environmental considerations of valley or hillside sites 4/19

4.1.1 Effect of topography on prevailing winds and
strengths 4/19
4.1.2 Design for wind 4/19
4.1.3 Factored basic wind speed approach 4/19
4.2 Road, rail, sea and air access to industrial sites 4/20
4.2.1 Introduction 4/20
4.2.2 Design considerations 4/20
4.2.3 Forms of site access 4/30
4.2.4 Access to the road system 4/21
4.2.5 Selection of sites 4/21
4.2.6 Checklist 4/21
4.3 Discharge of effluent and general site drainage 4/22
4.3.1 Effluent 4/22
4.3.2 Site drainage 4/22
4.4 Natural water supplies, water authority supplies and the
appropriate negotiating methods and contracts 4/24
4.5 Water storage, settling wells and draw-off regulations 4/27
4.5.1 Water storage 4/27
4.5.2 Draw-offs 4/28
4.6 Problem areas associated with on-site sewage treatment for
isolated areas 4/29
4.6.1 Cesspools 4/29
4.6.2 Septic tanks 4/30
4.7 Landscaping on industrial and reclaimed land 4/30
4.7.1 General 4/30
4.7.2 Contaminated land 4/30
4.7.3 Non-contaminated land 4/32
 Environmental considerations of valley or hillside sites 4/19

4.1 Environmental considerations Other factors

of valley or hillside sites Other factors to account for topography with regard to
4.1.1 Effect of topography on prevailing winds valley or hillside sites should include possible inversion
and strengths and failure to disperse pollutants. Temperature inversion
occurs when the temperature at a certain layer of the atmo-
Apart from the obvious influence of topography in produc- sphere stays constant, or even increases with height, as
ing shelter or the enhanced exposure to wind, the influence opposed to decreasing with height, which is the norm for
of large topographic features can be sufficient to generate the lower atmosphere. Inversions may occur on still, clear
small-scale weather systems, which are capable of produc- nights when the earth and adjacent air cools more rapidly
ing significant winds. Three types of wind are associated than the free atmosphere. They may also occur when a
with topography: diurnal winds, gravity winds and lee layer of high turbulence causes rapid vertical convection
waves. so that the top of the turbulent layer may be cooler than
the next layer above it at the interface.
Diurnal winds The running of a cool airflow under a warm wind is
Under clear skies in daytime the slopes of hills and moun- another cause of temperature inversion. As a rule, the
tains facing the sun will receive greater solar heating than presence of an inversion implies a highly stable atmo-
the flat ground in valley bottoms. Convection then causes sphere: one in which vertical air movements is rapidly
an up-slope flow, called anabatic wind, which is generally damped out. In such a situation, fog and airborne pollu-
light and variable but which can often initiate thunder- tants collect, being unable to move freely or be dissipated
storms. At night, the upper slopes lose heat by radiation by convection.
faster than the lower slopes and the reverse effect hap- Additional dispersal problems may occur when the pre-
pens, producing down-slope katabatic winds. However, vailing wind occurs perpendicular to the valley or hill
the denser cold air falling into the warmer valley can pro- ridgeline. This may lead to speed up and turbulence over
duce strong winds in a layer near the ground. The higher the valley or it may simply reduce the effect of airflow
the mountains, the stronger are the effects. carrying away airborne pollutants.
It is possible to obtain wind data from the local or
Gravity winds regional meteorological office for almost any location in
the world, although these frequently require modification
The effect of katabatic winds can be much enhanced if and interpretation before they can be used.
greater differences in air temperature can be obtained from
external sources. A continuous range of mountains can
act as a barrier to the passage of a dense mass of cold 4.1.2 Design for wind
air as it attempts to displace a warmer air mass. Cold air
accumulates behind the mountain range until it is able A structure may be designed to comply with any of the
to pour over the top, accelerating under gravity to give following information:
strong winds down the lee slope.
1. No specific details available.
Lee waves 2. Specified basic wind speed and relevant site data.
3. Specified design wind speed, with or without FOS.
Under certain conditions of atmospheric stability, stand-
ing waves may form in the lee of mountains. This wave 4. Specified survival wind speed, with or without FOS.
motion is an oscillating exchange of kinetic and poten-
tial energy, excited by normal winds flowing over the When details are given they should be checked, if only by
mountain range, which produces alternately accelerated comparison with equivalent wind speeds derived from first
and retarded flow near the ground. Sustained lee waves at principles, to ensure that they are reasonable. Depending
the maximum amplitude are obtained when the shape of on the specified requirements, the wind speeds may or
the mountain matches their wavelength, or when a sec- may not utilize gust wind speeds as in CP3 (3) or mean
ond range occurs at one wavelength downstream. Unusual hourly wind speeds, v, with applied gust factors.
cloud formations often indicate the existence of lee waves,
in that they remain stationary with respect to the ground
instead of moving with the wind. These clouds are con- 4.1.3 Factored basic wind speed approach
tinuously forming at their upwind edge as the air rises
above the condensation level in the wave and dissipating Basic gust wind speed, V, is multiplied by a series of S
at the downward edge as the air falls again. factors, which adjust the basic values to design values for
Conditions are frequently suitable for the formation the particular situation. CP3 uses up to four S factors:
of lee waves over the mountainous regions of the US,
an effect that is routinely exploited by glider pilots to S1 : Topography factors
obtain exceptionally high altitudes. The combination of S2 : Ground roughness, building size and height above
lee waves with strong winds that are sufficient to produce ground factors
damage to structures is fortunately rare, but do occur in S3 : Statistical factor
hazardous mountainous regions. S4 : Directional factor
4/20 Physical Considerations in Site Selection

S1 – Topography factors of the above include distribution warehousing, transport

operations and those industries dealing with bulk
The effect of local topography is to accelerate the wind commodities (e.g. oil refineries). For other industries
near summits or crests of hills, escarpments or ridges and access to strategic modal networks is important in order to
decelerate it in valleys or near the foot of steep escarp- be competitive where cost of transport and timesaving are
ments or ridges. The extent of this effect on gust wind significant factors. Examples of these operations include
speeds is generally confined to mountainous regions, but air freighting and fresh-food deliveries. A third category
may occur in other locations. Local topography is consid- would include those establishments which would require
ered significant when the gradient of the upwind slope is high-visibility sites to enhance their reputation in the
greater than 5 per cent. marketplace.
The shape of the upwind slope affects the degree of
shelter expected near the foot of the slope when the
slope is shallow and the flow remains attached. When 4.2.2 Design considerations
the changes in slope are sudden, so a single straight line
can approximate that upwind slope for more than two- It is difficult to give specific advice on this subject, as
thirds of its length, then the shape is sharp. Otherwise there is a very large range of industrial undertakings. The
the changes of slope are gradual and the shape is smooth. awareness for, and acceptability of, access is dependent
This distribution is relevant for sites close to the foot of on the types of goods to be moved and the frequency
the upwind slope, where sharp topography offers a greater and method of movement. In some undertakings there
degree of shelter. is a major movement between different transport modes,
which is concentrated either at ports or at major road/rail
S2 – Ground roughness, building size and height interchanges.
above ground factors In addition to the amount of commercial traffic it is
vital to consider the movement associated with employees
The factor S2 takes account of the combined effect of and visitors, which themselves can generate large numbers
ground roughness, the variation of wind speed with height of vehicular and pedestrian movements. For very large
above ground and the size of the building or component manufacturing sites there will also be the need for acces-
part under consideration. In conditions of strong wind the sibility for public transport, which, for a large workforce,
wind speed usually increases with height above ground. may need to be supplemented by investment in subsidized
The rate of increase depends on ground roughness and travel.
also on whether short gusts or mean wind speeds are Site access will reflect the nature of the existing
being considered. This is related to building size that take local transport system and will need to be designed to
account of the fact that small buildings and elements of a cater for the anticipated future traffic flows associated
building are more affected by short gusts than are larger with on-site development. At the extreme of the range
buildings, for which a longer and averaging period is more this could include a significant on-site infrastructure,
appropriate. potentially involving small bus stations for staff or
private rail sidings for goods heavily committed to
S3 – Statistical factor using the rail network. Special consideration might also
need to be given to customs facilities, where operations
Factor S3 is based on statistical concepts and can be varied include cross-border movements with or without bonding
from 1.0 to account for structures whose probable lives are operations.
shorter (or longer) than is reasonable for the application
of a 50-year return-period wind.
4.2.3 Forms of site access
S4 – Directional factor
Access to the road network can range from a simple
In the latitudes occupied by the US the climate is dom- factory gate or location on a business park to a major
inated by westerly winds. The basic wind speed may be industrial complex requiring its own major grade sepa-
adjusted to ensure that the risk of it being exceeded is rated interchange due to the high traffic volumes on the
the same for all directions. This is achieved by the wind strategic road network. New site developments will need
speed factor S4 . to cater for future traffic growth and must be adequate to
When applying S4 , topography factor S1 and the terrain deal with a design life over the foreseeable future.
roughness, building size and height above ground factor Access to a seaport will be limited by the ability
S2 should be appropriately assessed for that direction. of total traffic generated by the docks and the
incorporation of these traffic movements into the local
road system.
4.2 Road, rail, sea and air access Air traffic access may be constrained by the operational
to industrial sites aspects of the airport. Otherwise, the road-related traffic
4.2.1 Introduction will be dealt with in a manner similar to that of seaports,
except that the vehicles are likely to be smaller in size
Many industrial processes and factories require specific and of lower traffic volumes, reflecting the higher-value
accessibility for one particular form of transport. Examples goods being transported by air.
 Road, rail, sea and air access to industrial sites 4/21

4.2.4 Access to the road system ž Rail/water/air access

ž Public transport provision
Before access is obtained to any road it is necessary ž Cyclists
to obtain the consent of the relevant highway authority. ž Pedestrians
Direct access to freeways or limited access highways is
generally prohibited and the policy regarding access to
trunk roads is to minimize the number of accesses and to
2. Types of site
encourage the free flow of traffic on these major roads.
ž Large single site
Therefore careful consideration needs to be given to the
ability of the proposed access to cover traffic capacity and ž Industrial estate
road safety adequately. The local town or county coun- ž Segregation of access for lorries and cars
cil is the highway authority, in non-metropolitan areas, ž Capacity of access and need for improvement
for all other roads, although, in many instances the local ž Ensure no backup of traffic onto highway
authority may have agency powers for the roads within ž Ensure sufficient on-site space for all vehicles to enter
its area. highway in forward gear
It will be necessary to forecast the amount of traffic ž Ensure off-highway loading/unloading
to be generated by the development within the site and ž Access for emergency vehicles
to propose a form of junction that not only deals with
the site’s traffic but also adequately caters for the existing 3. Access arrangements
traffic on the road. Tests for capacity are required and
attention should also be given to the safety of operation ž Access width should be a minimum of 20 feet (6.1
of the proposed access. meters) to allow trucks to pass each other (25 feet or
As part of the planning approvals it is increasingly 7.3 meters is ideal)
common to provide road-improvement schemes that are ž Single access could cope with up to 250 truck move-
sometimes off-site and are necessary to deal with site- ments per day
generated traffic, which has detrimental effects on the ž Any gate or security barrier to be set in at least 65 feet
local road network. Generally, these agreements require (20 meters) from public highway to avoid blockage or
the applicant of the proposed site to carry out specified interference to pedestrians
highway improvement schemes to an agreed timetable rel- ž Minimum center line radius to be 39 feet (12 meters)
evant to the planning application. ž Minimum entire live radius to access road to be 197 feet
(60 meters). Widening on bends may be required
4.2.5 Selection of sites
4. Maneuvering space
Suitable sites are normally limited to those areas designed
in development plans as being for industrial or commer- ž Turning circle for articulated vehicles to be 62 feet
cial uses. Such land should be capable of being accessed (26 meters) diameter minimum
directly from the primary or secondary distributor roads ž For draw-bar vehicles this can be reduced to 69 feet
in the area. Segregation of trucks and truck access from (21 meters)
residential areas should be achieved where possible. ž Turning head for rigid trucks only needs to be 115 feet
The utilization of existing or the provision of new rail- (35 meters) long
heads will also be a determining factor for some operators, ž Turning head for articulated vehicles should be 174 feet
and frequently the rail sidings do not have good road (53 m) long. Curb radii need to be 30 feet (9 m)
access. In these cases extensive improvement measures ž Loading bays at 90° to road should be 102 feet (31 m)
may be necessary to provide adequate space and geomet- deep including the road width. Bay should be 12 feet
rical requirements. or 3.5 meters wide
ž Strong site management is required to ensure maneu-
4.2.6 Checklist vering space is kept clear of storage/goods/debris at all
times
The following list, while not exhaustive, identifies many ž Headroom clearance should be a minimum of
of the issues which will need careful consideration. In 15.25 feet (4.65 m) with careful consideration to ensure
many instances it might be necessary to seek the advice all pipework, etc. is above that level. Approach
of a specialist traffic consultant, either in the design of gradients to flat areas will reduce the effective height.
a scheme or in access, or to negotiate with the highway
authority the impact of a proposed development and any It is emphasized that the above checklist is not exhaus-
attendant road-improvement schemes. tive. Any reductions in the standards identified above will
lead to difficulty of operation, tire scrub, potential dam-
1. Types of operation to be carried out age to vehicles and buildings, and general inefficiency.
Cost effectiveness could also be hindered due to loss
ž Number of trucks of time caused by blocked-in vehicles. Safety is also a
ž Staff cars highly important factor, which should be prominent in
ž Visitors’ cars any decision-making.
4/22 Physical Considerations in Site Selection

4.3 Discharge of effluent and general 10. Precautions must be taken against freezing for exter-
site drainage nal pipework, tanks, meters, gauges, and monitoring
equipment.
4.3.1 Effluent 11. Assessments should be made for electrically operated
process equipment that may require an essential power
The control of drainage and sewerage systems and of supply in the event of a main failure.
sewage disposal is governed by federal, state, county and 12. The quality of the effluent discharge must be regularly
city regulations and varies depending on the specific area. checked. Depending on the quantity and type of dis-
charge, this may require an in-house laboratory and
Methods of treatment analysis room.
Two methods of treatment can be considered: 13. The water authority may limit the quantity of final
treated effluent, and monitoring of the final out-fall
1. On-site treatment and disposal; and may have to be considered in conjunction with a hold-
2. Off-site treatment and disposal. ing tank.
14. Large or small on-site treatment plants will create
Where on-site treatment is to be undertaken consideration sludge concentrates that require disposal. Where
should be given to the following: large quantities of sludge occur, on-site de-
1. Where large volumes of effluents are produced and/or watering filters may be considered with dry sludge
different types of contaminants, large equipment areas cakes properly removed from site by licensed
may be required. Sufficient space must also be allowed contractors. Alternatively, small quantities of wet
for maintenance and inspection of such equipment. sludge concentrates may be removed and disposed of
2. Settlement/storage areas for effluent need to be sized by similar contractors.
not just for average flow but also for peak periods.
Where production is based on a shift system, peak Where off-site treatment is undertaken the following
flows created during holiday periods (shutdown, major should be considered:
maintenance, etc.) should be considered. 1. Cost comparison with on-site treatment.
3. Where effluents require primary, secondary and 2. Availability of approved, licensed contractors to handle
possibly additional tertiary treatment, attention should the type of effluents being considered.
be paid to the various treatment processes with regard 3. Reliability of licensed contractors during emergency,
to personnel safety and public sensitivity to on-site weekends and holiday periods.
treatment. 4. Space requirements for holding untreated effluent prior
4. Where concentrated alkali and/or acids are stored
to removal from site.
and used on-site as part of the treatment process,
5. Accessibility, safety and security associated with
care should be exercised to prevent misuse, fire,
the holding vessels by the vehicles of the licensed
and security and health hazards. The provision of
contractors.
emergency showers, eyewash stations, etc. needs
6. Suitable pumps may be required to pump from holding
careful consideration.
tanks into licensed contractor vehicles.
5. If equipment malfunctions during the treatment
process, adequate precautions should be taken to
prevent the discharge of untreated effluent. Such 4.3.2 Site drainage
precautions should be the provision of emergency
collection tasks or the use of approved, licensed The discharge of surface water from a site may originate
effluent-disposal traders. from three potential sources: rainwater from building(s),
6. Where accidental discharge of untreated effluent does surface-water runoff from paved/hard standing areas and
occur, the appropriate water authority and/or environ- subsoil drainage (groundwater)
mental health officer should be advised immediately.
All steps should be taken to limit the extent and inten- 1. The rainwater runoff from buildings depends on the
sity of any potential contamination. geographical location and storm-return period speci-
7. Where small and/or single contaminant effluents fied. Rainwater runoff from a roof is relatively clean
are encountered, packaged treatment plants may be and can discharge directly to a watercourse, lake, etc.
acceptable. Consideration should, however, be given to without passing through an interceptor.
capital cost, payback period, reliability of equipment, 2. The surface water runoff from paved/hard standing
maintenance, plant-life expectancy and contaminant- areas also depends on rainfall intensity calculated from
removal efficiencies. the geographical locations of the site and storm-return
8. Pipework material for conveying effluent to treatment period. However, the return period for a site will be far
plants should exhibit resilience to corrosive attack by higher than for a building in order to ensure prevention
the effluent as well as scouring and erosion created by of persistent flooding of the site. In many instances the
the material content of the effluent. local authority may specify the storm-return period as
9. Consideration should be given to plant operation in a the design criterion.
shift system and any requirements for an analyst to be Where development of a greenfield site or an extension
present during operational/non-operational periods. to an existing building takes place, the rate of storm water
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Fig. 2.—THE HOLY VIRGIN AND THE INFANT JESUS.
German Wood Engraving. (Fifteenth Century.)

The thing might, indeed, be possible, were it merely a question

of the copies in Latin; but the Dutch ones cannot be supposed to
have been published anywhere but in Holland; and the origin of the
latter once established, how are we to explain the typographical
imperfection of the work if not by ignorance of the process which
Gutenberg was to popularise? According to M. Paeile, a competent
judge in such a matter7 the letterpress of the Dutch "Speculum" is
written in the pure dialect of North Holland, as it was spoken in
those parts towards the end of the fourteenth century and the
beginning of the fifteenth. Armed, therefore, with but a few
particulars as to printing and idiom, it will not be too bold in us to fix
the date of publication between the first and second quarters of the
fifteenth century. It may be added that the costume of the figures is
of the time of Philip the Good; that the taste and style of the
drawing suggests the influence of the brothers Van Eyck; and that
there is a decided contrast between the typographical imperfection
of the text and the excellent quality of the plates. Art, and art
already well on its way and confident of its powers, is thus seen side
by side with an industrial process still in its infancy: a remarkable
proof of the advances already accomplished in wood engraving
before printing had got beyond the rudimentary period. For our
present purpose, this is the chief point, the essential fact to verify.

Fig. 3.—ST. VERONICA.

German Wood Engraving. (Fifteenth Century.)
 Fig. 4.—ST. JOHN.
Flemish Wood Engraving. (Fifteenth Century.)

The discovery of printing, therefore, is doubtless a result of the

example of relief engraving, and there is no doubt either that the
first attempts at printing with type originated in Holland. Whilst
Coster, or the predecessor of Gutenberg, whoever he was, was
somewhat feebly preparing the way for typographical industry,
painting and the arts of design generally had in the Low Countries
attained a degree of development which they had not before
reached, except in Italy. Amongst the German contemporaries of
Hubert and John van Eyck, what rival was there to compare with
these two masters?—what teacher with so notable an influence, or
so fertile a teaching? Whilst, on the banks of the Rhine, artists
unworthy of the name and painters destitute of talent were
continuing the Gothic traditions and the formulæ of their
predecessors, the school of Bruges was renewing, or rather
founding, a national art. By the beginning of the fifteenth century
the revolution was accomplished in this school, which was already
distinguished by the Van Eycks, and to which Memling was about to
add fresh lustre. Germany, too, in a few years was to glory in a like
success; but the movement did not set in till after the second half of
the century. Till then everything remained dead, everything betrayed
an extreme poverty of method and doctrine. If we judge the German
art of the time by such work, for instance, as the "St. Christopher,"
engraved in 1423, a single glance is sufficient to reveal the marked
superiority of the contemporary Flemings. It is, then, far from
unnatural that, at a time when painters, goldsmiths, and all other
artists in Flanders were so plainly superior in skill to their co-workers
in Germany, the Flemish engravers should likewise have led the van
of progress and taken their places as the first in the history of their
art.
 Fig. 5.—THE INFANT JESUS.
Flemish Wood Engraving. (Fifteenth Century.)
 Fig. 6.—JESUS, SAVIOUR OF THE WORLD.
German Wood Engraving. (Fifteenth Century.)
 Fig. 7.—THE CRUCIFIXION.
German Wood Engraving. (Fifteenth Century.)

It may be said that the proofs are insufficient. Be it so. We shall

not look for them in the "Virgin" on wood, belonging to the Brussels
Library, and bearing the date 1418, as the authenticity of this date,
to our thinking perfectly genuine, has been disputed; nor shall we
seek for them in the anonymous examples which it seems to us but
just to ascribe to the old school of the Low Countries.8
 Fig. 8.—THE APOCALYPSE OF ST. JOHN.
Dutch Wood Engraving. (Fifteenth Century.)

Up to now we are willing to admit that only Germany is in a

position to produce a piece of evidence beyond suspicion. With its
imposing date of 1423, its time-honoured rights, and official renown,
the "St. Christopher," now in the library of Lord Spencer, has
privileges which cannot be disputed or questioned. But it does not
follow that the wood-cuts of the "Speculum," of the "Biblia
Pauperum," of the "Ars Moriendi," and of similar undated
publications, must be more recent. Nor, because a dated German
print has survived, must it therefore be concluded that nothing was
produced at that time except in Germany. It should be particularly
observed that the plates of the "Speculum" seem well-nigh prodigies
of pictorial skill and knowledge in comparison with the "St.
Christopher;" that their author must have served a long
apprenticeship in a good school; that, in short, no art begins with
such a piece of work, and that, even supposing these cuts did not
appear till after the German print, some time had doubtless elapsed
during which the progress they involve had been prepared and
pursued.
It is therefore reasonable to suppose that, from the first years of
the fifteenth century, the engravers of the Low Countries began,
under the influence of the Van Eycks, to be initiated into the
conditions of art, and that, like their countrymen the printers, they
showed the path which others were to clear and level. It must be
remarked, however, that in the beginning printing and wood
engraving do not always march on parallel lines—that they do not
meet in like order their successive periods of trial and advance. In
Germany, up till the time when Gutenberg attained the final stage,
and popularised the last secrets of the printing process, painters,
draughtsmen, and engravers were all helpless in a rut: from the
author of the "St. Christopher" to the engravers of thirty years later,
they boast but the roughest and coarsest of ideas and methods.
Heinecken, the exaggerated champion of the German cause as
against the partisans of Coster, whom he contemptuously calls "the
beadle"9—Heinecken himself, speaking of the first German books
engraved on wooden tablets, is obliged to admit that "when the
drawing is examined with a connoisseur's eye, a heavy and
barbarous taste appears to reign throughout."10 In Germany the
artistic part was to wait upon and follow the example of the
industrial: was to lag behind and to plod on in barbarism long after
the industrial revolution was accomplished at its side. And it was
long before the "wood-cutting" engravers acquired anything like the
skill of the printers employed by Gutenberg and by Füst.
In the Low Countries, on the other hand, the regeneration of art
preceded mechanical improvement. Even when the latter was in full
progress, nay, even when a grand discovery had revealed all the
capabilities and fixed the limits of printing, engraving was by no
means subordinated, as in Germany, to the advance of the new
process, but, on the contrary, had long since acquired a clearness
and certainty of execution which was still lacking in the works of the
printers. The "Speculum," as we have said, bears testimony to that
sort of anomaly between the mechanical imperfection of the Dutch
printed texts of the fifteenth century and the merit of the plates by
which they were accompanied. Other examples might be mentioned,
but it is useless to multiply evidence, and to insist on details. We
shall have accomplished enough if we have succeeded in
accentuating some of the principal features, and in summing up the
essential characteristics of engraving, at the time of the Incunabuli.
 CHAPTER II.
PLAYING CARDS. THE DOT MANNER.

In our endeavour to prove the relative antiquity of wood

engraving in the Low Countries, we have intentionally rather
deferred the purely archæological question, and have sought the
first signs of talent instead of the bold beginnings of the art. The
origin of wood engraving, materially considered, cannot be said to
be confined to the time and country of the pupils of Van Eyck. It was
certainly in their hands that it first began to show signs of being a
real art, and give promise for the future; but we have still to inquire
how many years it had been practised in Europe, through what
phases it had already passed, and to what uses it had been applied,
before it took this start and received this consecration.
We treat this question of origin with some reserve, and must
repeat as our excuse that savants have pushed their researches so
far, and unhappily with such conflicting results, and have found, or
have thought they found, in the accounts of travellers, or in ancient
official or historical documents, so many proofs and arguments in
support of different systems, that it becomes equally difficult to
accept or to finally reject their various conclusions. The prevailing
opinion, however, attributes to the makers of playing cards, if not
the discovery of wood engraving, at least its first practical
application in Europe. Many writers agree on the general principle,
but agreement ends when it comes to be question of the date and
place of the earliest attempts. Some pronounce in favour of the
fourteenth century and Germany; others plead for France, where
they say cards were in use from the beginning of the reign of Philip
of Valois. Others again, to support the claims of Italy, arm
themselves with a passage quoted by Tiraboschi from the "Trattato
del Governo della Famiglia," a work written, according to them, in
1299; and they suppose, besides, that the commercial relations of
Japan and China with Venice would have introduced into that town
before any other the use of cards and the art of making them.
Emeric David, one of the most recent authorities, carries things
with a still higher hand. He begins by setting aside all the claimants
—Germany with the Low Countries, France as well as Italy.11 Where
playing cards were first used, or whether any particular xylographic
collection belongs or not to the first years of the fifteenth century,
are matters of extremely small importance in his eyes. In the
documents brought forward by competent experts as the most
ancient remains of wood engraving, he finds instead a testimony to
the uninterrupted practice of the art in Europe. For the real origin
the author of the "Discours sur la Gravure" does not hesitate to go
boldly back beyond the Christian era. Nor does he stop there; but
sees in the practice of the Greeks under the successors of Alexander
a mere continuance of the traditions of those Asiatic peoples who
were accustomed from time immemorial to print on textile fabrics by
means of wooden moulds.
It would be too troublesome to discuss his facts or his
conclusions; so many examples borrowed from the poets, from the
historians of antiquity, and the Fathers of the Church, appear to
sustain his perhaps too comprehensive theory. The best and the
shortest plan will be to take it upon trust, and to admit on the
authority of Homer, Herodotus, Ezekiel, and St. Clement of
Alexandria, that from the heroic ages till the early days of
Christianity, there has been no break in the practice of printing upon
various materials from wooden blocks. Still less need we grudge the
Middle Ages the possession of a secret already the common property
of so many centuries.
But the printing of textiles does not imply the knowledge and
practice of engraving properly so called; and many centuries may
have passed without any attempt to use this merely industrial
process for finer ends, or to apply it to the purposes of art. Seals
with letters cut in relief were smeared with colour and impressed on
vellum or paper long before the invention of printing. The small
stamps or patterns with which the scribes and illuminators
transferred the outlines of capital letters to their manuscripts, might
well have suggested the last advance. And yet how many years and
experiments were required to bring it to perfection! Why may we not
suppose that the art of engraving, like the art of printing, in spite of
early, partial, and analogous discoveries, may have waited long for
its hour of birth? And when block printing was once brought from
Asia into Europe, why may it not have suffered the same fate as
other inventions equally ingenious in principle and equally limited in
their earlier applications? Glass, for instance, was well known by the
nations of antiquity; but how long a time elapsed before it was
applied to windows?
We have said that according to a generally received opinion we
must look upon playing cards as the oldest remains of xylography.
But the evidence on which this opinion is based has only a negative
authority. Because the old books in which cards are mentioned say
nothing of any other productions of wood engraving, it has been
inferred that such productions did not yet exist; but is it not
allowable to ask if the silence of writers in such a case absolutely
establishes such a negative? Might not this silence be explained by
the nature of the work, and of the subject treated, which was
generally literary or philosophical, and quite independent of
questions of art? When speaking of cards, whether to formally forbid
or only to restrain their use, the chroniclers and the moralists of the
fourteenth century, or of the beginning of the fifteenth, probably
thought but little of the way they were made. Their intention was to
denounce a vice rather than to describe an industrial process. Why,
then should they have troubled about other works in which this
process was employed, not only without danger to religion and
morality, but with a view of honouring both? Pious pictures cut in
wood by the hands of monks or artisans might have been well
known at this time, although contemporary authors may have
chosen to mention only cards; and, without pushing conjecture too
far, we may take the liberty of supposing that engravers first drew
their inspiration from the same source as illuminators, painters on
glass, and sculptors. Besides, we know well that art was then only
the naïve expression of religion and the emblem of Christian
thought. Why should the cutters of xylographic figures have been an
exception to the general rule? and what strange freak would have
led them to choose as the subject of their first efforts a species of
work so contrary to the manners and traditions of all the schools?
Setting aside written testimony, and consulting the engravings
themselves which have been handed down to us from former
centuries, we are entitled to say that the very oldest playing cards
are, at the most, contemporaneous with the "St. Christopher" of
1423 and the oldest known wood-cuts, inasmuch as the engraving of
these cards certainly does not date back beyond the reign of Charles
VII. That the Italian, German, or French tarocchi (ornamented
chequers or cards) were in use before that time is possible; but as
none of these early tarocchi have survived, it cannot be known to
what extent they represent the progress of the art, and how far they
may have served as models for other xylographic works: even
though it be true that relief engraving, and not merely drawing with
the pen, was the means first employed for the making of the
tarocchi mentioned here and there in the chronicles.
Such French cards as have come down to us would lead us to
believe, in any case, that the progress was slow enough, for they
still reveal an extraordinary want of experience both as to shape and
effect, and have all the timidity of an art still in its infancy. This must
also be said of works of the same kind executed in Germany in the
fifteenth century; except the cards, attributed to a contemporary of
the Master of 1466, and these are engraved on metal. In Italy alone,
cards, or rather the symbolical pieces known rightly or wrongly by
the name of tarocchi, possessed, from an artistic point of view, real
importance from the time when engraving on metal had begun to
take the place of wood-cutting. The artists initiated by Finiguerra
into the secrets of the new method displayed good taste,
knowledge, and skill; and in such less important work, as well as in
that of a higher order, their talent at last inaugurated an era of real
progress and of fruitful enterprise.
It is of no consequence, for the matter of that, whether wood
engraving was first applied to the making of pious pictures or to the
manufacture of cards. In any case the process is generally looked
upon as the oldest method of engraving, and as the first to give
types to be multiplied in proofs by printing.
M. Léon de Laborde, one of the clearest and best informed
writers on the origins of engraving and typography, considers, on the
other hand, that engraving in relief on metal, rather than the
xylographic process, was the proximate cause of the discovery of
printing. In a work published in 1839, which unfortunately has yet to
receive the amplifications promised by the author12 M. de Laborde
declares that the first printed engravings must have been dotted
ones: that is, prints produced in the peculiar mode already touched
upon, and in which the black parts come out sprinkled with white
dots. According to him, engraving, or, to speak more exactly, the
printing of engraved work, must have been invented by goldsmiths
rather than by draughtsmen or illuminators. The former, by the
nature of their craft, possessed the tools and the necessary
materials, and were therefore in a better position than any one else
to stumble upon the discovery of the process, if not deliberately to
invent it. As matter of fact, many of those who worked in the Low
Countries, or in the Rhenish provinces, during the first years of the
fifteenth century, printed works in the early dot manner: in other
words, engraved in relief on metal. And those xylographic specimens
which are usually looked upon as the oldest examples of engraving,
are in reality only the outcome of a reformation, and the product of
an art already modified.
 Fig. 9.—JESUS CHRIST CARRYING THE CROSS.
Engraving in the Dot Manner (1406).

The opinion expressed some time ago by M. Léon de Laborde

has recently been supported by the discovery of two engravings, in
the early dot manner, belonging, we think, to the year 1406, and on
which we have ourselves published some remarks.13 But our
argument being only founded on the similarity of certain external
facts, so to speak, and on the probability of certain calculations, it is
not really possible to attribute to these documents so secure a
standing as to those whose age is established by dates, and set
practically beyond question.
 Fig. 10.—THE HOLY FACE.
Engraving in the Dot Manner (1406).

Now, the oldest of the dated engravings in relief on metal is the

"St. Bernardino of Siena," wrongly called the "St. Bernard,"
belonging to the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. This engraving in
the dot manner bears the date 1454. It is, therefore, later than the
"St. Christopher" engraved on wood, and later even, as we shall
presently see, than the first engraving in incised line, the "Pax," by
Finiguerra, whose date of printing is certain. Remembering these
facts, the separation of the oldest dotted prints from the first
specimens of true engraving is only permissible on the ground that
they are works executed by a special process. Considered from a
purely artistic point of view, they offer little interest. Their drawing,
still ruder than that of the German wood-cuts, exhibits an almost
hieroglyphic unreality. Their general effect is purely conventional;
and, owing to the uniform depth of the blacks, their insignificant
modelling expresses neither the relief nor the comparative
depression of the forms.

Fig. 11.—ST. BERNARDINO.

Engraving in the Dot Manner (1454).
 Fig. 12.—ST. CHRISTOPHER.
Engraving in the Dot Manner. (Fifteenth Century.)

In short, we find in these early dotted prints nothing but perfect

falseness to nature, and all the mendacity inherent in feebleness of
taste and slavish conformity to system.
How comes it that this sorry child's-play has appeared to
deserve in our day attention which is not always conceded to more
serious work? This might be better excused had these prints been
investigated in order to demonstrate the principles of the method
followed afterwards by the engravers of illustrations for books. The
charming borders, for instance, which adorn the "Books of Hours,"
printed in France at the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the
sixteenth centuries, would naturally suggest comparisons between
the way in which many parts are stippled, and the process of the
early dotted engraving. But we may surely term excessive the efforts
of certain scholars to fix on these defective attempts in a particular
method of work the attention of a public naturally attracted
elsewhere. The fact is, however, that in this matter, as well as in
questions relating to the origin of wood engraving and printing,
national self-respect was at stake, and writers sought in the narrow
field of archæology a victory over rival claims which they might less
easily have achieved on other grounds.

Fig. 13.—JESUS ON THE MOUNT OF OLIVES.

Engraving in the Dot Manner. (Fifteenth Century.)
 Between the authors of the Low Countries and of Germany, long
accustomed to skirmishes of the kind, this new conflict might have
begun and continued without awaking much interest in other
nations; but, contrary to custom, these counterclaims originated
neither in Germany nor in the Low Countries. For the first time the
name of France was heard of in a dispute as to the origin of
engraving; and though there was but scant honour to be gained, the
unforeseen rivalry did not fail to give additional interest to the
struggle, and, in France at least, to meet with a measure of favour.
The words "Bernhardinus Milnet," deciphered, or supposed to be
deciphered, at the bottom of an old dotted engraving, representing
"The Virgin and the Infant Jesus," were taken for the signature of a
French engraver, and the discovery was turned to further profit by
the assumption that the said "Bernard or Bernardin Milnet" engraved
all the prints of this particular class; although, even supposing these
to belong to a single school, they manifestly could not all belong to a
single epoch. The invention and monopoly of dotted engraving once
attributed to a single country, or rather to a single man, these
assertions continued to gain ground for some time, and were even
repeated in literary and historical works. A day, however, came when
they began to lose credit; and as doubts entered even the minds of
his countrymen, the supposed Bernard Milnet is now deprived of his
name and title, and is very properly regarded as an imaginary being.
Does it follow from this, as M. Passavant14 would have it, that all
these prints, naturalised for a little while in France, ought to be
restored to Germany? Their contradictory character with regard to
workmanship and style might cause one, with the most honest
intentions, to hesitate, though their intrinsic value is not such as to
cause the former country any great loss.
 Fig. 14.—ST. GEORGE.
Engraving in the Dot Manner. (Fifteenth Century.)
 Fig. 15.—ST. DOMINIC.
Engraving in the Dot Manner. (Fifteenth Century.)

Indeed, it is difficult to conceive of anything less interesting,

except with regard to the particular nature of the process. The
outlines of the figures have none of that drawing, firm even to
stiffness, nor has the flow of the draperies that taste for abrupt
forms, which distinguished the productions of the German school
from its beginnings. The least feeble of these specimens, such as the
"Saint Barbara," in the Brussels Library, or the "St. George on
Horseback," preserved in the Print Department of the Bibliothèque
Nationale in Paris, do indeed occasionally suggest some similarity of
origin or manner with the school of Van Eyck. But it is unnecessary
to debate the point at greater length. Whether produced in France,
in the Low Countries, or in Germany, the dotted engravings of the
fifteenth century add so little lustre to the land which gave them
birth, that no scepticism as to their origin need lie very heavily on
the conscience. In the general history of the documents on the
origin of engraving, the dotted prints form a series distinguished by
the method of their execution from any other earlier or
contemporary specimens of work; the date mark 1454, borne by one
among the number, gives us authentic information as to the time of
these strange experiments, these curiosities of handicraft rather than
of art. This is as much as we need to bear in mind upon the subject,
and quite enough to complete the history of the elementary
attempts which preceded or which co-existed for a few years with
the beginning of engraving by incised line in Italy.
We have now arrived at that decisive moment when engraving,
endowed with fresh resources, was practised for the first time by
real masters. Up to the present, the trifling ability and skill
possessed by certain wood-cutters and the peculiar methods of
dotted engraving have been the only means by which we could
measure the efforts expended in the search for new technical
methods, or in their use when discovered. We have now done with
such hesitating and halting progress. The art of printing from plates
cut in intaglio had no sooner been discovered by, or at least dignified
by the practice of, a Florentine goldsmith, than upon every side fresh
talent was evoked. In Italy and Germany it was a question of who
should profit most and quickest by the advance. A spirit of rivalry at
once arose between the two schools; and fifteen years had not
elapsed since Italian art had given its note in the works of the
goldsmith engravers of the school of Finiguerra, before German art
had found an equally definite expression in the works of the Master
of 1466. But, before examining this simultaneous progress, we shall
have to say a few words on the historical part of the question, and
to return to the origin of the process of intaglio engraving, as we
have already done with the origin of engraving in relief. This part of
our subject must be briefly and finally disposed of; we may then
altogether abandon the uncertain ground of archæological
hypothesis.
 CHAPTER III.
FIRST ATTEMPTS AT INTAGLIO ENGRAVING. THE NIELLI OF
THE FLORENTINE GOLDSMITHS. PRINTS BY THE ITALIAN
AND GERMAN PAINTER-ENGRAVERS OF THE FIFTEENTH
CENTURY

We have seen that Gutenberg's permanent improvements in the

method of printing resulted in the substitution, so far as written
speech was concerned, of a mode of reproduction almost infinitely
fruitful, and even rapid when compared to the slowness and the
limited resources of the xylographic method. Typography was
destined to abolish the use of block printing, and more particularly of
caligraphy, which, till then, had occupied so many pious and patient
hands both in monasteries and in schools. The art of printing from
engravings worked similar mischief to the illuminator's craft. Such
were, before long, the natural consequences of the progress made;
and, we may add, such had been from the first the chief object of
these innovations.
Perhaps this double revolution, so potent in its general effect
and in its influence on modern civilisation, may have appeared to
those engaged in it no more important than a purely industrial
improvement. Surely, for instance, we do no injustice to Gutenberg if
we accept with some reserve the vast political and philosophical
ideas, and the purposes of universal enfranchisement, with which he
has been sometimes credited? Probably the views of the inventor of
printing reached neither so far nor so high. He did not intend to
figure as an apostle, nor did he regard himself as devoted to a
philanthropic mission, as we should put it in the present day. He
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