Journal of Water Process Engineering 63 (2024) 105522

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Journal of Water Process Engineering

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Sewage sludge: A review of its risks and circular raw material potential
Halyna Kominko *, Katarzyna Gorazda , Zbigniew Wzorek
Department of Chemical Technology and Environmental Analytics, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24,
31-155 Cracow, Poland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Editor: H.H. Ngo The increasing amount of sewage sludge, which is mainly related to the improvement of wastewater treatment
technologies and the expansion of sewage systems, has become a serious problem for sewage sludge manage­
Keywords: ment. Sewage sludge is a valuable source of nutrients and organic matter. The use of sewage sludge for agri­
Sewage sludge cultural purposes presents a sustainable method of disposal in line with circular economy strategies, which are
Fertiliser
aimed at waste prevention, the effective use of resources and energy, and a nutrient closed-loop system. How­
Organic matter recycling
ever, sewage sludge can contain heavy metals and toxic organic compounds which pose threats to the envi­
Pollutants
Nutrients ronment. Therefore, sewage sludge management is still a controversial topic. Taking into account disruptions in
the fertiliser market caused by the pandemic and wars, it is necessary to consider local waste with fertilising
potential as an alternative raw material to reduce fertiliser import dependency and ensure food security. This
review collected data confirming the agronomic value of sewage sludge, including long-term field studies and
data on the presence of pollutants along with possible ways to reduce them. Particular attention is given to the
technologies available for fertiliser production from sewage sludge which are operating at full scale. This in­
cludes information about the processes, their efficiency, production scale, and the characterisation of fertilisers.

the shortage of fertilisers and the increase in their prices.

Bearing in mind the current situation of the fertiliser market, it can
1. Introduction be assumed that the prices of raw materials and fertilisers will remain at
a high level [3]. Therefore, using local alternative raw materials should
The world’s population continues to grow and is expected to reach be a priority to decrease dependency on imported resources and ensure
8.5 billion by 2030 [1]. Therefore, modern agriculture faces a major food security.
challenge: meeting the nutritional needs of the increasing population, On the other hand, there is a big problem with the management of
taking into account water and land scarcity, soil degradation, and waste which is rich in nutrients. One such type of waste is sewage sludge,
climate changes [2]. which contains valuable organic matter and nutrients (P, N) which is
Fertilisers can undoubtedly be considered the main means of beneficial for plants. There is no agreement in the literature about the
improving agricultural productivity. However, recent global crises have amount of global sewage sludge production. According to [5], in 2017,
significantly weakened the fertiliser industry. Fertiliser prices began to the global sewage sludge generation reached 45 million Mg on a dry
increase during the pandemic when high natural gas prices made the weight basis. Based on the amount of sewage sludge produced per capita
production of ammonia and fertilisers unprofitable. Many fertiliser and the world’s population, [6] estimated global sludge production at
producers have had to reduce ammonia and fertiliser production ca­ 53 million Mg of dry matter. Contrastingly, [7] gives the amount of
pacities, or even temporarily close factories [3]. Another blow to the globally generated dry sewage sludge at 75 million Mg. None of the
fertiliser industry came with the beginning of the Russian invasion of above-mentioned articles indicate whether the amounts provided
Ukraine. According to data from the FAO (Food and Agriculture Orga­ concern municipal or industrial sewage sludge. It can be assumed that
nization of the United Nations), in 2021 Russia accounted for approxi­ this is about municipal sewage sludge. The management of sewage
mately 17 % of world trade in nitrogen fertilisers and 14 % of trade in sludge is a challenge for the whole world due to the high costs of its
phosphates. In addition, together with Belarus, it had a share of >40 % disposal, which can account 160–310 € per Mg of dry mass [8] and the
in the global potash trade [4]. Therefore, the imposition of sanctions on tightening of laws surrounding its agricultural use [5].
these two countries in connection with the war in Ukraine contributed to

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Kominko).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2024.105522
Received 10 November 2023; Received in revised form 14 May 2024; Accepted 18 May 2024
Available online 27 May 2024
2214-7144/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
H. Kominko et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 63 (2024) 105522

Abbreviations (N), phosphorus (P2O5) and potassium (K2O)

OMFs organo-mineral fertilisers
AMD acrylamid PAHs polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
AOXs adsorbable organohalogens PAM polyacrylamide
ARB antibiotic resistance bacteria PCBs polychlorinated biphenyls
ARGs antibiotic resistance gens PCDDs/Fs polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzo-furans
DEHPs di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalates PFAAs perfluoroalkyl acids
DM dry matter PFASs per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances
EBPR enhanced biological phosphorus removal PhACs pharmaceutically active substances
GO graphene oxide PPCPs pharmaceuticals and personal care products
HTC hydrothermal carbonization P-REX acronym of project “Sustainable sewage sludge
HTL hydrothermal liquefaction management fostering phosphorus recovery and energy
LAS linear alkylbenzene sulfonates efficiency”
LOD limit of detection PVDF poly(vinylidene fluoride)
LOQ limit of quantification SS sewage sludge
NPEs nonylphenol and nonylphenol ethoxylates WHO World Health Organization
NPK ratio the proportion of three plant nutrients in order: nitrogen WWTPs wastewater treatment plants

Bearing in mind the fertilising and soil-forming properties of sewage accumulating organisms for energy. The method of increased biolog­
sludge, its use in agriculture is the simplest and most economically ical phosphorus removal is characterised by low stability. Heavy rain­
justified method of its management, contributing to the development of fall, excessive amounts of nitrates, increased heavy metal content, and
the bioeconomy [9]. According to the available data from Eurostat, in other external factors may disrupt the process and lead to ineffective
Denmark and Great Britain over 50 % of the generated sewage sludge is phosphorus removal [16–18].
returned to the soil, whereas in the cases of Spain and Ireland, this value Chemical precipitation is a well-known and reliable method for
reaches 81 % and 89 %, respectively [10]. Land application of sewage phosphorus removal from wastewater, which is based on adding
sludge is also popular in the USA, where 55 % of sludge is managed in aluminium, iron, or calcium compounds to form insoluble phosphate
this way. In Australia, its use in agriculture has increased from 55 % salts. These salts are then removed by sedimentation and/or filtration
(2010) to 73 % (2021) [11]. Nevertheless, due to the possible occur­ [19]. Chemical precipitation allows for a high level of phosphorus
rence of pollutants (inorganic, organic, and biological), land applica­ removal but requires large doses of chemicals and causes a significant
tions of sewage sludge are unfavourable with the public. increase in waste. Due to the low bioavailability of chemically precipi­
The main goal of this review is to collect new data related to sewage tated phosphorus, its extraction from sewage sludge is hindered [20,21].
sludge quality, determine ways to improve sewage sludge quality and Most of the nitrogen is removed from wastewater in conventional
discuss the practical aspects of its use as a fertiliser. Unlike other review nitrification-denitrification processes. In the first step, ammonia-
articles on this topic, particular attention was given to technologies oxidising bacteria convert ammonia into nitrite ions, which are then
implemented in industrial settings, including information about pro­ oxidised to nitrate ions by nitrite-oxidising bacteria. In the second step,
cesses, their efficiency, the production scale, and the characterisation of nitrates are reduced into molecular nitrogen [22,23]. The nitrogen that
obtained products. Challenges related to the use of sewage sludge for remains in the sewage sludge usually constitutes 2 %–6 % of its total dry
agricultural purposes are identified and possible directions for future weight [24]. Most of the nitrogen (80 %) in sewage sludge is present in
research are presented. Such a combination of data will contribute to a organic form (mainly proteins) and will be available for plants after
broader view of the management of waste as complex as sewage sludge. biodegradation of organic matter [25].
The manuscript does not cover topics related to the thermal treatment of Taking into account the depletion of phosphorus natural resources
sewage sludge (e.g., pyrolysis and incineration) nor the potential use of and the growing demand for it, and considering the energy requirements
biochar and ashes for fertiliser purposes. for nitrogen fertiliser production and the associated environmental is­
sues, one option to improve sustainability is to increase the recycling of
2. Sewage sludge use in agriculture: benefits and concerns sewage sludge, thus generating phosphorus and nitrogen via an alter­
native source [26,27].
2.1. Sewage sludge as a source of nutrients and organic matter Sewage sludge applications with soil are important not only in terms
of nutrient recycling but also for organic matter recycling. Organic
Sewage sludge is considered a valuable source of nutrients and matter plays a crucial role in soil fertility [28]. It helps maintain the
micronutrients which are desirable for proper plant growth and devel­ correct water-to-air ratio and thermal conditions of the soil, creating
opment [12]. Phosphorus in sewage sludge occurs in organic and inor­ multiform aggregates with inorganic materials. The structure of the
ganic form, with its content ranging from 0.1 % to 15.2 % P2O5, as aggregates influences the shape and size of the pores, which are essential
calculated on a dry weight basis and dependent on the specific phos­ in the water and air cycle. The high content of organic matter in the soil
phorus removal process from sewage [13,14]. Currently, the most reduces its susceptibility to degradation as a result of erosion processes
popular methods are biological phosphorus removal (in particular, while increasing the buffer capacity, sorption capacity, and ability to
enhanced biological phosphorus removal [EBPR]) and chemical pre­ exchange cations. Organic matter has high complexing abilities, forming
cipitation. The EBPR process is based on the accumulation of phos­ complexes with micro and macronutrients, facilitating their transport to
phorus caused by microorganisms taking up this element in large plant cells; it is seen as a source of nutrients and energy for soil micro­
amounts, exceeding their basic metabolic requirements, and storing it organisms, which in turn are responsible for the availability of nutrients
inside cells in the form of polyphosphates [15]. The process requires to plants [28,29].
alternating anaerobic-aerobic conditions, an appropriate amount of Intensive agricultural practices and inappropriate soil management
organic carbon (C:P > 30:1), and growth control of the glycogen- led to a decline in the content of organic matter in soils, which can result
accumulating organisms which compete with phosphorus- in soil degradation. A meta-analysis of data from 102 studies (29

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H. Kominko et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 63 (2024) 105522

countries) showed that the median decrease of soil organic carbon stock in sewage sludge from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in large
upon the conversion of native vegetation to cropping was 43 % [31]. and medium-sized industrially developed cities. On the other hand,
After 7 years, converting cropland to plantation in China resulted in a sewage sludge from small WWTPs does not pose a threat in terms of
decrease of the soil’s organic carbon content by 27.4 %–50.9 % [32]. In heavy metal content [49,60].
European countries, cropland soils lose 0.5 % of organic carbon every Many methods have been studied to remove heavy metals from
year and 60 %–70 % of soils are considered unhealthy [33]. Organic sewage sludge. Chemical methods are based on heavy metal extraction
matter recycling through the application of sewage sludge helps to using organic acids (e.g., oxalic and citric), inorganic acids (e.g., sul­
replenish organic soil carbon stocks and closes the carbon cycle, in phuric and phosphoric), and chelating agents (e.g., ethyl­
accordance with the new European strategy for soil protection [34]. enediaminetetraacetic acid, N,N-dicarboxymethyl glutamic acid, and
However, to prevent soil contamination, attention should be given to the nitrilotriacetic acid). These methods provide good results in short time
quality of sewage sludge. frames; however, a large amount of chemical agents is usually needed,
leading to an increase in operational costs. In addition, they can cause
secondary pollution in the environment [62].
2.2. Sewage sludge as a source of pollutants There is growing interest in bioleaching as a method for heavy metal
elimination from sewage sludge through the direct effect of microor­
Sewage sludge can be a significant source of pollutants, such as ganisms or their metabolites. Usually, At. Thiooxidans and At. Ferroox­
heavy metals, pathogenic microorganisms, toxic organic compounds, idans are used in this process. The removal efficiency depends on the
hormones, and microplastics. These can be transferred to the environ­ substrate, initial pH and temperature of the sludge, heavy metal con­
ment causing undesirable effects [35–37]. centration, and occurrence form [38]. Bioleaching provides a high
removal efficiency of heavy metals, which can reach 38 %–100 % Zn, 42
2.2.1. Heavy metals %–100 % Ni, 58 %–99 % Mn, 18 %–80 % Cr, 34 %–100 % Cu, and 10 %–
It is estimated that 50 %–80 % of heavy metals from wastewater 58 % Pb [63].
enter sewage sludge during treatment processes [38]. They do not un­ Electrokinetic methods use an electric field for heavy metal migra­
dergo chemical or biological degradation; therefore, they remain in tion from sewage sludge to the cathode or anode. This technique is often
sewage sludge and can be transferred to the environment when sewage used in combination with chemical leaching or bioleaching. Leaching by
sludge is applied to soil, leading to their bioaccumulation in the food biosurfactant-enhanced electrokinetic processes achieves removal effi­
chain [39]. Cd, Ni, Cr, As, Cu, Zn, Pb, and Hg are metals of high concern ciencies of 55.8 % Cu, 73.8 % Zn, 64.0 % Cr, 51.6 % Pb, 60.8 % Ni, 56.0
which are usually found in sewage sludge samples. Some of them (Cd, % Mn, 41.0 % Fe, and 35.0 % Hg [64].
Pb, and As) are toxic in very low concentrations [40]; prolonged expo­ The utilisation of supercritical water treatment methods (e.g., su­
sure to Cd can result in kidney and bone diseases and the International percritical water gasification, supercritical water partial oxidation, and
Agency for Research on Cancer considers it cancerogenic. Pb injures supercritical water oxidation) [65], plant-based washing agents [66],
neurological, gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and haematological sys­ chitosan covered magnetite nanoparticles [67], and other methods were
tems [41]. also verified.
The source of heavy metals in sewage sludge is primarily industrial To the authors’ knowledge, none of the aforementioned technologies
wastewater originating from chemical, tanning, painting, and metal­ have been implemented in wastewater treatment plants due to low
lurgy industries, as well as domestic wastewater and surface runoff from economic feasibility.
industrial areas and roads [60]. The content of heavy metals in sewage
sludge varies greatly even within the same country (Table 1). Literature
data shows that higher concentrations of heavy metals are usually found

Table 1
Heavy metal content in sewage sludge from different countries (mg/kg DM).
Country Number of As Cd Cr Cu Ni Hg Pb Zn
samples

China [42] 8 3.13–51.30 <2.5–33.4 53.23–952.5 91.02–5248 3.23–692.9 <2.5–80.48 22.22–113.3 294.8–3884
Croatia [43] 9 0.6–1.3 15.8–109.0 84.1–660.0 7.9–52.6 0.4–1.9 11.8–72.1 478.0–1254
Portugal [44] 3 <LOQ 150–285 251–480 21.0–53.1 17.9–25.1 628–790
394.9 ± 1028 ±
Italy [45] 55 9.0 ± 2.3 0.9 ± 0.5 90.4 ± 20.8 59.7 ± 12.1 0.1 ± 0.3 64.2 ± 10.9
60.8 117.2
USA [46] 112 5.8–10.2 2.9–428 49–142 399–593 28–56 24–115 620–3776
Poland [12] 12 1.88–15.6 32.35–246.8 37.24–499.2 23.05–136.2 0.083–7.2 12.14–168.0 521.4–4504
United Kingdom [47] 28 0.8 ± 0.5 344 ± 228 29.9 ± 19.9 07 ± 0.2 68.9 ± 52.4 607 ± 309
Turkey [48] 22 1.7–28.8 0.40–7.43 22–724 61–374 25–294 0.2–3.2 10.4–309.4 342–2421
Lithuania [49] 7 0.35–19.4 16.7–811.3 97.9–339.4 7.8–70 0.1–1.95 5–124 174.7–1438
<LOD-
Switzerland [50] 64 0.6–8 <LOD-267 132–1963 <LOD-67 17–232 400–2000
82.2
Ireland [51] 8 <LOD 10 ± 3 16 ± 12 464 ± 205 15 ± 7 <LOD 54 ± 30 869 ± 400
Japan [52] 32 0.38–1.78 1.49–426 130–1120 8.12–427 5.23–64.7 207–2180
Spain [53] 20 4.0 ± 0.4 0.7 ± 0.2 24.7 ± 3.0 164 ± 29 18.5 ± 2.0 37.9 ± 7.0 421 ± 29
Germany 4–30* 1.5–4.5* 50-80* 300-350* 30-35* 0.3-2.5* 70-100* 100-300*
Permissible values
Directive 86/278/EEC [54] 20–40 1000–1750 300–400 16–24 750–1200 2500–4000
Poland (for agricultural
20 500 1000 300 16 750 2500
purposes) [55]
Germany [56] 10 900 800 200 8 900 2500
Netherlands [57] 1.25 75 75 30 0.75 100 300
China (soil pH < 6.5) [58] 75 5 600 250 100 5 300 500
(soil pH ≥ 6.5) 75 20 1000 500 200 15 1000 1000
USA [59] 75 85 4300 420 57 840 7500
*
Data for raw sewage sludge.

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H. Kominko et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 63 (2024) 105522

2.2.2. Organic contaminants process, as PAHs have low volatility and solubility in water accumulated
Toxic organic compounds pose a much greater threat than heavy in sewage sludge, about 95 % of them are eliminated [72]. However,
metals due to their great diversity and insufficient knowledge about the there are scientific studies confirming the degradation of PAHs during
pathways of their transmission to the environment during the waste­ sewage sludge treatment processes. Composting and vermicomposting
water treatment process, as well as the complexity of analysis and its of sewage sludge with sawdust reduces the PAH content by 64.4 %–100
associated high costs [68,69]. Among the most dangerous organic pol­ %, depending on the number of condensed rings [73]. Guo and co-
lutants presented in sewage sludge, PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydro­ workers [74] reported a 75.2 % degradation of PAHs after 50 days of
carbons), PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), PCDDs/Fs (polychlorinated co-composting sewage sludge with green forest waste. High removal
dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzo-furans), NPEs (nonylphenol and non­ efficiencies can be achieved after anaerobic digestion in the case of
ylphenol ethoxylates), PFASs (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances), naphthalene (70.6 %), phenanthrene (70.0 %), pyrene (64 %) and benzo
DEHPs (di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalates), and AOXs (adsorbable organo­ (a)pyrene (50.0 %) [75].
halogens) are particularly worth mentioning. The concentration range Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans are introduced
of organic contaminants found in sewage sludge from different literature into the biosphere mainly as a by-product of the chemical production
sources is given in Table 2. industry and as a result of combustion processes [76]. As PCDDs/Fs can
PAHs are a concerning group of persistent chemical compounds due cause immune and enzyme effects, as well as cancer, they are listed as
to their mutagenic and carcinogenic properties [70]. They are formed as persistent organic pollutants by the Stockholm Convention [77].
a result of the incomplete combustion of organic matter in natural PCDDs/Fs show hydrophobic properties and are very resistant to bio­
processes (e.g., volcanoes and forest fires) or they originate from logical degradation, which makes them a serious ecological problem
anthropogenic sources (e.g., combustion and pyrolysis of coal, wood, oil, [78]. The half-life of dioxins and furans is 3.2–5.8 years in the atmo­
and petroleum products) [71]. During the wastewater treatment sphere and 10 years in the soil [79].
Polychlorinated biphenyls are also included in the Stockholm
Convention list as priority pollutants. Sources of PCBs in wastewater are
Table 2
transformer oils or dielectric fluids and runoff from municipal catch­
Content of organic pollutants in sewage sludge.
ments that contain organic substances from combustion processes. The
Type of Type of sewage Number Value Country
global production of PCBs is estimated at 1.5 billion metric Mg and
pollutant sludge of samples
currently 10 % of it remains in the environment [80]. Due to poor sol­
Anaerobic 5.7 ± 4.1 ng TEQ/ ubility, PCBs sediment and are absorbed by sewage sludge particles.
ΣPCDD/F 35 Italy [45]
digested SS kg DM (mean)
104.1–1661 pg/g
These compounds can undergo biodegradation processes under the in­
Different types 24 China [96] fluence of microorganism enzymes. Some studies showed that,
DM
Composted SS 7 1.38–39.7 μg/kg Spain [76] depending on the type of congeners, during mesophilic and thermophilic
Different anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge, the PCB content can be reduced by
European
Composted SS 17 0.11–0.90 μg/kg 57.1 %–90.3 % and 33 %–58 %, respectively [81,82].
countries
[97] Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances are a group of synthetic chem­
Anaerobic 0.3 ± 0.5 mg/kg icals which are widely used in products that resist water and oil (e.g.,
Σ16PAH 46 Italy [45]
digested SS DM (mean) water-repellent clothes, kitchen cooking ware, fire-fighting foams,
565–280,000 ng/ paints, impregnation agents, and lubricants) [83]. WWTPs only partly
75 China [98]
g DM
19.48–30.53 mg/
remove PFASs from the wastewater as they are resistant to microbial
Raw urban SS 6 Poland [73] degradation due to the C–F bond. Therefore, these substances are
kg DM
10.06–25.29 mg/ released into the environment through effluent and sewage sludge. This
Raw rural SS 6 Poland [73]
kg DM problem is exacerbated by the fact that some PFASs can be precursors for
Anaerobic/
0.5342–1.0666 other PFASs. These mechanisms have not yet been understood suffi­
anaerobic 4 Taiwan [99]
digested SS
mg/kg DM ciently and the detection of some compounds is an analytical challenge
Different [84]. However, in recent years, studies have demonstrated that some
Σ6PCB Composted SS 17 0.10–0.98 μg/kg
European microbial species (e.g., Acidimicrobium sp., Pseudomonas plecoglossicida,
countries Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Gordonia sp., Pseudomonas fluorescens, Trametes
[97]
Anaerobic
versicolor) can destroy perfluoroalkyl substances. The removal efficiency
46 <0.1 mg/kg DM Italy [45] of PFASs depends on the microbial species, the type of PFAS, the con­
digested SS
0.091 mg/kg DM Germany dition of biodegradation, and the occurrence of other contaminations.
(mean) [56] These studies are at the laboratory testing stage; however, they could be
Anaerobic 6.7 ± 9.9 mg/kg
DEHP 39 Italy [45] a promising solution [85].
digested SS DM (mean)
0.36–148.81 mg/ National and international environmental regulations are critical to
130 Italy [100] reduce toxic compounds in ecosystems. A twenty-year study by [86],
kg DM
27.5 mg/kg DM Germany carried out on samples from 8 WWTPs in Switzerland, showed that a ban
(mean) [56] and strong restrictions on the use of PCBs and PCDDs/Fs reduced the
Anaerobic
AOX
digested SS
39 <0.6 mg/kg DM Italy [45] median concentration of these substances in the sludge by 69 %–87 %.
Primary SS, Based on a meta-analysis of data from 159 sources, [87] also confirmed a
Australia
Σ21PFAS secondary SS, 17 2.0–130 ng/g DM decreasing trend in the concentration of organic contaminations in
[83]
lagoon SS Chinese sewage sludge.
Czech
5.6–963.2 ng/g Much attention has been paid to the occurrence of pharmaceuticals
Σ32PFAS Different types 43 Republic
DM
[101] and personal care products (PPCPs) in recent years, the content of which
2.60–1330 ng/g is rapidly increasing in sewage due to their widespread use. A sharp
Σ2PFAS 108 China [102]
DM increase in drug consumption occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic
29.1 μg/kg DM Germany [88]. A study conducted in a WWTP in Athens during 2019–2020
Σ14PFAA Different types 201
(median) [103]
showed that the concentration of antiviral drugs, hydroxychloroquine,
Anaerobic 0.40–102.51 mg/
NPnEOs 130 Italy [100] and antibiotics increased in wastewater by 170 %, 387 %, and 58 %,
digested SS kg DM
respectively [89].

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H. Kominko et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 63 (2024) 105522

Pharmaceuticals generally include antibiotics, hormones, pain re­ Table 3

lievers, anti-inflammatory drugs, blood lipid regulators, β-blockers, and Content of pathogenic microorganisms in sewage sludge.
cytostatic drugs. Personal care products include preservatives, germi­ Pathogen spices Type of samples Value Country
cides and disinfectants, cosmetics, fragrances, and sunscreens. These
Bacteria
components are present in wastewater ranging from ng/dm3 to μg/dm3, Clostridium Aerobic digested 2.22 ± 0.06 × 107
Spain [125]
and the efficiency of their removal in conventional wastewater treat­ spores sludge CFUs/g
ment systems is very low. Therefore, they pose a real threat to the Anaerobic digested 1.04 ± 0.20 × 104
Spain [125]
aquatic environment, as most of them are discharged with treated sludge CFUs/g
Faecal Aerobic digested 5.24 ± 0.24 × 106
sewage to receivers [90,91]. Pharmaceuticals, such as ibuprofen, cit­ enterococci sludge CFUs/g
Spain [125]
alopram, ciprofloxacin, and norfloxacin have a high sorption capacity Anaerobic digested 9.82 ± 1.88 × 106
Spain [125]
and can be present in sewage sludge in high concentrations, reaching sludge CFUs/g
1274 ng/g DM, 3300 ng/g DM, 6300 ng/g DM, and 8300 ng/g DM, Aerobic digested 6.05 ± 0.11 × 106
Faecal coliforms Spain [125]
sludge CFUs/g
respectively [92]. In a one-year study of digested sewage sludge, the
Anaerobic digested 4.16 ± 0.27 × 108
highest concentration of azithromycin (1494 μg/kg DM), clarithromycin sludge CFUs/g
Spain [125]
(1496 μg/kg DM) and ciprofloxacin (503 μg/kg DM) in sludge samples 8.8 ± 0.3 × 107 Morocco
Lagooning sludge
were reported [88]. CFUs/g [121]
Anaerobic digestion and composting seem to be effective at Anaerobic digested 3.55 ± 1.16 × 107
Italy [126]
sludge MPN/g TS
removing some PPCPs [93], with a reported removal efficiency over 80 2.83–6.11 log10 United States
% for acetaminophen, codeine, naproxen, clarithromycin, sulfameth­ Different types
MPN/g TS [127]
oxazole, trimethoprim, atenolol, metoprolol, propranolol, hydrochlo­ Clostridium Anaerobic digested Bulgaria
4000 CFUs/g
rothiazide, fenofibrate, and lorazepam in a two-stage mesophilic perfringens sludge [111]
Anaerobic digested Bulgaria
anaerobic digestion plant operating at a pilot scale. The study conducted Enterococcus 2100 CFUs/g
sludge [111]
by [94] analysed digested sewage sludge during open-air storage with Anaerobic digested Bulgaria
and without composting, with a focus on 3 hormones, 12 antibiotics, and Listeria sp. 2000 CFUs/g
sludge [111]
30 pharmaceutically active substances (PhACs). The results of the study Escherichia coli
Anaerobic digested
2400 CFUs/g
Bulgaria
showed that composting improved the removal efficiency of these sub­ sludge [111]
Anaerobic digested Portugal
stances. The concentration of hormones and antibiotics after 1 year of 693–2400 CFUs/g
sludge [44]
composting and open-air storage was less than the limit of detection Anaerobic digested 7.9 × 102–2.5 × 106
Spain [53]
(LOD), and in the case of PhACs only 5 % of their initial content sludge CFUs/g
remained in sewage sludge. A satisfying level of degradation of PPCPs Anaerobic digested
9100 MPN/g dm Brazil [128]
dried sludge
during the co-composting process was also reported [95]. The removal
Salmonella spp. Raw sludge 82 ± 21 MPN/g dm Italy [126]
efficiency of carbamazepine and triclosan achieved over 80 % in a Viruses
multiple pollutant system. It is worth pointing out that the increased 0–5.3 log10 genome United States
Adenovirus Different types
PPCP concentration results in the death of some microorganisms, which copies/g TS [127]
will have negative impacts on pollutant degradation [104]. Angeles-de Primary and waste 1.17 × 104–4.02 × Turkey
SARS-CoV-2
active sludge 104 RNA copies/l [129]
Paz and co-workers [105] proposed coupled bioaugmentation and
1.7 × 103–4.6 × 104 United States
composting for the degradation of pharmaceuticals in sewage sludge. Primary sludge
RNA copies/l [130]
Inoculation with the fungus P. oxalicum XD 3.1 and an enriched con­ 1.7 × 103–3.8 × 105 Canada
Primary sludge
sortium from non-digested sewage sludge resulted in total removal of RNA copies/l [131]
Helminths
alprazolam, valsartan, and atenolol in matured compost. Furthermore,
Limed sewage 3.79 ± 1.96 eggs/g
this coupled technique led to a 40 % reduction of the most resistant Ascaris spp.
sludge TS
Brazil [132]
compound in compost, carbamazepine. 0–290,000 eggs/kg Poland
Different types
TS [117]
2.2.3. Pathogenic microorganisms Poland
Toxocara spp. Different types 0–43,000 eggs/kg TS
[117]
Sewage sludge may contain pathogenic species of living organisms,
Poland
such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and other parasitic worms that pose Trichuris spp. Different types 0–24,000 eggs/kg TS
[117]
an epidemiological threat and may cause allergies and toxic or immu­ Protozoa
notoxic effects on humans, animals, and the surrounding environment Lime-treated
110–19,029 cysts/g United States
Giardia aerobic digested
(Table 3) [106]. The quality of sewage sludge, in terms of pathogenic TS [127]
sludge
organisms, reflects the health and hygiene of the population served by a Aerobic digested United States
specific treatment plant. It is estimated that 1 % of the healthy popu­ Cryptosporidium 0–1866 oocysts/g TS
sludge [127]
lation extracts pathogens which go to WWTPs [107]. Additional sources
of pathogens in sewage sludge are the agri-food industry, meat and fish
processing, gastronomy, and hospital sewage [108,109]. According to the estimation of the World Health Organization (WHO),
Bacteria constitute the most prevalent groups present in sewage infections caused by soil-transmitted helminths have affected over 1.5
sludge. Occurrences of Escherichia coli, Enterococcus sp., Salmonella spp., billion people in the world [115]. The eggs of helminth can be found in
Pseudomonas sp., Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria sp., Clostridium sp., and sewage sludge in large concentrations, especially in developing countries
Yersinia sp. have been reported [110,111]. [116]. Zbydel and co-workers [117] analysed sewage sludge samples
Adenoviruses, rotaviruses, and enteroviruses (poliovirus, coxsack­ from 92 municipal, mechanical-biological WWTPs in Poland, focusing on
ievirus, echovirus, hepatitis A, reoviruses, astrovirus, coronavirus) are the the viable intestinal parasite content. The results of the study showed that
most often detected viruses in wastewater and sewage sludge [112]. 99 % of all samples were positive. The eggs of Ascaris spp. and Toxocara
Kittigul and co-workers [113] analysed 72 samples of limed sewage spp. were the most detected in sewage sludge, reaching values ranging
sludge from a WWTP in Bangkok (Thailand) during 2007–2018. RNA of from 0 to 290,000 and 0–43,000 eggs in 1 kg of DM, respectively. The
rotavirus was detected in 36 samples. Of the 23 sewage sludge samples eggs of Trichuris spp. were found in 60 % of sewage sludge samples. It was
taken between 2015 and 2018 from the same WWTP, 73.9 % tested concluded that the samples of sewage sludge originating from the largest
positive for norovirus [114]. WWTPs had the highest number of parasite eggs.

5
H. Kominko et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 63 (2024) 105522

The number of pathogenic organisms in sewage sludge can be Haemophilus influenzae, and Shigella species [143].
significantly reduced or eliminated by applying appropriate sludge It is estimated that approximately 80 % of antibiotics are excreted
treatment processes (i.e., digestion, disintegration, composting, drying, from human and animal bodies and after the sewage treatment process
liming, pasteurization, and long-term storage), thus reducing the po­ they usually remain in sewage sludge. Due to this, sewage sludge is
tential health risks [118]. The study performed by [119] showed that considered the main reservoir of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and
chemical treatment with Fenton’s reagent can significantly decrease the antibiotic-resistance genes (ARGs), with its use in agriculture posing a
number of faecal markers in sewage sludge (solid sample and superna­ threat to the environment and people [144]. Many scientific studies
tant). This is associated with a low pH and hydroxyl radicals, which confirm the presence of ARGs in sewage sludge. Sewage sludge samples
destroy bacteria and virus structures. Liming of sewage sludge leads to from 11 WWTPs in China analysed in [145] contained an average of 95
the destruction of Escherichia coli and coliforms, Enterococcus sp., Listeria ± 45 ARGs, of which aminoglycoside, beta-lactam, tetracycline, and
sp., and Clostridium perfringens. However, the redevelopment of patho­ multidrug resistance genes were the most abundant types. In activated
gens after 10 days is possible; therefore, additional liming is needed to sludge and anaerobic digested sludge samples from a WWTP in Seoul
preserve an alkaline pH [111]. Other alkaline agents can be used for (South Korea), 181 ARGs belonging to 22 ARG types were found. It was
sewage sludge disinfection, such as ashes, green liquor dregs, industrial noted that the abundance of ARGs in activated sludge was 1.3–2 orders
eggshells, and lime mud [44,120]. Co-composting of sewage sludge with of magnitude higher than in anaerobically digested sludge [146]. Yang
green waste can reduce the content of faecal coliforms, faecal strepto­ and co-workers [147] studied the effect of benzalkonium chloride,
cocci, Shigella spp., and Salmonella spp. by >98.72 % [121]. which is widely used as a disinfectant, on the antibiotic resistance of
Nevertheless, some treatment methods can be ineffective against sewage sludge. They identified 147 ARGs and 39 mobile genetic ele­
some pathogens. Tapeworm eggs can survive in sewage sludge for many ments in sewage sludge samples from a WWTP in China.
months in temperatures between 20 and 30 ◦ C [122]. Many enteric vi­ Agricultural use of sewage sludge may lead to ARGs entering the food
ruses are also stable in the environment and can survive in a wide pH chain; however, reports on this topic are ambiguous. A field study
(3− 10) and temperature range (20–30 ◦ C) [123]. A study on stabilised conducted in Spain showed that sewage sludge-amended soil was
sewage sludge (class B biosolids) in the United States showed that vi­ characterised by higher ARG loads compared to untreated soil. How­
ruses, such as Herpesvirus, Papillomavirus, Adenovirus, and Bocavirus were ever, they were found to be unstable and transient during the year of the
identified in 90 % of samples, with Klassevirus, Coronavirus, and Rota­ experiment. Low but measurable levels of intI1, sul1, and tetM genes
virus present in 80 % of samples [124]. were detected in cabbages and radishes growing in sludge-amended soil
New concerns about the agricultural use of sewage sludge appeared [148]. Two-year studies conducted in Poland did not confirm an in­
in 2020 when SARS-CoV-2 was detected in WWTPs, with the majority of crease in the number of ARGs in the soil after treatment with stabilised
available studies reporting the presence of Coronavirus in wastewater sewage sludge in doses of 10 t DM per ha [149]. Similar results were
[133–136]. The genetic material of SARS-CoV-2 was found in sewage obtained in Sweden by [150]. The authors concluded that there is no
sludge samples in Canada (primary sludge) [131], Turkey (primary and evidence that long-term sewage sludge treatment at doses up to 12 tons
waste-activated sludge) [129], the USA (primary sludge) [130], and per ha over 4 years contributes to the promotion of antibiotic resistance
France and Spain (primary, secondary, thickened, and digested sewage in soil. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the recommended
sludge) [137]. Studies showed that Coronavirus is sensitive to high dose of sludge does not increase the risk of ARGs spreading.
temperatures, high/low pH values, and high retention times [138]. In general, common sewage sludge treatment technologies are
According to this, it can be assumed that appropriate sewage sludge considered not very effective in terms of ARG reduction. The estimated
treatment methods, such as thermophilic anaerobic digestion, thermal efficiency of anaerobic digestion is 20 %–50 % [37]. Increased ARG
drying, and thermal hydrolysis will be effective in removing SARS-CoV- removal is observed at higher retention times and temperatures. Some
2 [139]. Nevertheless, additional research is needed to determine the studies confirmed better performance of thermophilic anaerobic diges­
behaviour of Coronavirus during wastewater treatment and sewage tion in comparison with mesophilic [151,152]. Temperature-phased
sludge processing to eliminate risks when sewage sludge is used in the anaerobic digestion, which consists of thermophilic (55 ◦ C) and meso­
agricultural industry. philic (37 ◦ C) anaerobic digestion, seems to be an effective process for
Characterisation of sewage sludge mainly depends on the origin and ARG elimination. This was confirmed by research conducted by Liu and
quality of wastewater, wastewater treatment processes, and sludge co-workers [153] in a WWTP in Melbourne, Australia. The reduction
processing methods [138]. Preventing potentially toxic elements in level of genes such as aac(6′)-Ib-cr, blaTEM, drfA1, sul1, sul2, ermb, mefA,
sources should be a priority to avoid their accumulation in sewage tetA, tetB, and tetX was 87.3 %–100 %. Moreover, the process contrib­
sludge and soil. Effective technologies for destroying organic pollutants uted to a reduction in the overall average absolute abundance of tar­
and pathogenic organisms should be implemented in sewage sludge geted ARGs by 92.39 %. The authors noted that thermophilic anaerobic
processing to avoid environmental contamination [140]. digestion played a crucial role in ARG reduction.
Pre-treatment and post-treatment processes of sewage sludge and the
2.2.4. Antibiotic resistance genes and antibiotic resistance bacteria use of different additives can improve the efficiency of ARG elimination
The rapid spread of antibiotic resistance is considered a global health [154]. The effects of thermal hydrolysis, microwave-based, alkaline,
public challenge of the 21st century [141]. The most dangerous diseases, ultrasonic, and ozone pre-treatments on the ARG reduction rate in
such as tuberculosis, malaria, and HIV, as well as common ones, sewage sludge are presented in [155]. The use of conductive materials as
including pneumonia, sexually transmitted infections, and post- additives supporting the reduction of ARGs during anaerobic digestion
operative infections, are becoming increasingly untreatable. It is esti­ has become a subject of interest [156]. The prospect of using novel
mated that approximately 700,000 people die every year due to anti­ nanomaterials to remove ARGs is discussed by Dey and co-workers
biotic resistance, with this number potentially increasing to 10 million [157]. Some of these materials (e.g., bismuth nanoparticles, TiO2-
by 2050 [142]. In 2017, the WHO published a priority list of antibiotic- modified PVDF membrane, Ag/TiO2/GO, and Bio-GOAg) can reduce the
resistant bacteria (ARB), which aims to encourage research funding in abundance of ARGs by 90 %–100 %. However, most of the described
this area. The list includes bacteria of critical priority, namely multidrug solutions have only been tested at a laboratory scale or are not often
resistance bacteria, such as Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeru­ implemented in WWTPs due to economic concerns.
ginosa, and Enterobacteriaceae; bacteria of critical priority, such as To solve the growing problem of antibiotic resistance, it is necessary
Enterococcus faecium, Helicobacter pylori, Salmonella species, Staphylo­ not only to optimise existing sewage sludge treatment processes and
coccus aureus, Campylobacter species, and Neisseria gonorrhoeae; and implement new processes for effective ARG removal but also to prevent
medium priority bacteria, including Streptococcus pneumoniae, excessive consumption of antibiotics by humans and animals.

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H. Kominko et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 63 (2024) 105522

2.2.5. Microplastic contamination environmental conditions, the degradation of PAM does not lead to the
Plastic pollution is a global concern because of its ubiquity, high release of toxic monomers such as AMD, which is considered to be
emissions, environmental persistence, and negative impacts on the carcinogenic and neurotoxic. However, it was observed under UV ra­
environment and human health. Agricultural use of sewage sludge (and diation and high temperatures [174]. In recent years, interest in natural
other bio-waste) together with agricultural practices and airborne polymers, such as starch, chitosan, and cellulose, which are environ­
deposition are considered to be the main pathways for microplastics to mentally friendly and efficient, has been growing [175]. Plant-based
enter the soil [158]. flocculants may also be potential substitutes for synthetic flocculants
The removal efficiency of microplastics in WWTPs is about 90 %, (e.g., cactus juice, aloe vera gel, okra water extract and powder, and
which means that they accumulate in sewage sludge and may be moringa water extract and powder) [176].
released into the environment as a result of their land application. The
concentration of microplastic in sewage sludge can vary from 0.193 to 3. Impact of sewage sludge application on soil and plants
1.69 × 105 MPs/g DW. Polyethylene and polypropylene are the most
common microplastics due to their wide use [159]. National charac­ The positive effect of sewage sludge on soil and plant production has
teristics of microplastic contamination in sewage sludge can be found in been proven in many scientific studies in recent years. The application of
[160]. sewage sludge increases soil organic matter and the availability of nu­
It is estimated that in Europe, 125–180 Mg of microplastics per trients, stimulates soil microbial activity, and improves soil physical
million inhabitants are introduced into the soil via sewage sludge [161]. parameters [177–179]. Cano-Ruiz and co-workers [180] reported that
A study conducted by van den Berg and co-workers [162] in Spain shows after a two-year field study, the content of organic carbon increased by
that successive applications of sewage sludge resulted in an increase of 38 %–45 % in treatments with sewage sludge in comparison with control
the microplastic load by an average of 280 light-density microplastics and mineral fertilisers. A significant increase of N, P, and K content in
per kg and 430 heavy-density microplastics per kg. A nine-year study in the soil was also observed. According to the [181], sewage sludge
China also confirmed the accumulation of microplastics in the soil due to application resulted in an increase of soil structural stability by 13.3 %–
the repeated use of sewage sludge [163]. 59.4 % and the total soil organic carbon content by 41 %–119 %,
A polymer matrix consists of monomers, initiators or catalysts, and depending on doses.
additives (e.g., plasticizers, flame retardants, and stabilizers), which Skowrońska and co-workers [182] conducted a field study to assess
give the final product desirable properties. These chemical substances the impact of different doses of sewage sludge (10, 20, 40, and 60 t DM/
can be released into the environment after degradation processes and ha). The application of sewage sludge improved fertiliser properties of
pose a threat to flora and fauna, as well as human health [164]. Another the soil, including an increase in soil carbon and nitrogen content.
risk associated with microplastics is their ease of binding with other However, these differences were not significant between doses. An in­
contaminants, especially heavy metals, toxic organic compounds, and crease of heavy metals, such as Cu, Cd, Pb, and Zn and Σ14 PAHs in soil
pharmaceuticals. Once in the soil, microplastics negatively affect soil with higher sludge doses was also reported. After 8 years, the total PAH
structure, water retention capacity, nutrient mobility, and microbial content in the soil decreased by 21 %–23 %, which is associated with
activity, resulting in the inhibition of plant development and a decrease their degradation, volatilization, and leaching. A positive correlation
in biomass production [165,166]. was observed between sewage sludge dose and soil enzymic activity. In
Research into various methods is currently underway to reduce the treatment with a sewage sludge dose of 60 t DM/ha, the activity of en­
amount of microplastics in sewage sludge. The results from [167] show zymes was 2–3 times higher relative to the control.
that the hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) process, which is based on wet Siebielec and co-workers [183] also confirmed an improvement in
biomass conversion into bio-oil at relatively low temperatures and high the biological properties of the soil after the application of sewage
pressures, deserves further attention. The content of microplastics in sludge. Acidic phosphatase, alkali phosphatase, and dehydrogenase
sewage sludge after HTL treatment decreased by 76 % in terms of par­ showed a positive response to sewage sludge application. The results of
ticle numbers and 97 % in terms of plastic mass. Fourteen weeks of the study showed an increase in the content of available phosphorus in
vermicomposting using the Eudrilus eugeniae earthworm reduced the the soil by a factor of 2–3.
polypropylene content in sewage sludge by 22 %–78 %, depending on According to [184], sewage sludge addition can accelerate the
particle size [168]. dechlorination of PCBs in contaminated soil. The results of the study
Microplastic contamination in sewage sludge is a very complex topic. regarding soil microcosms showed an increase in the attenuation of PCBs
Firstly, there are a lack of standards and validated methods for the by 126–544 %. This can be attributed to the occurrence of specific
isolation and characterisation of microplastic particles in sludge, which organohalide-respiring bacteria and PCB-reductive dehalogenase genes
may make the test results unreliable [169]. Secondly, further research is in sewage sludge. Furthermore, the addition of sewage sludge promotes
needed on the behaviour of microplastics in the soil to assess the risk to an abundance of fermenting and syntrophic bacteria in the soil, which
the environment and human health and compare it with the benefits of can support the dechlorination process.
the agricultural use of sewage sludge [158]. On the other hand, Markowicz and co-workers [149] did not observe
In the context of plastic pollution, it is worth noting that synthetic a beneficial effect of sewage sludge on soil. Results of a 720-day study
polymers are often used in the sewage sludge dewatering process, for showed lower activity of alkaline phosphatase, acid phosphatase, and
example cationic polyacrylamide (PAM), which can cause secondary urease in soil treated with sewage sludge compared with the control.
environmental pollution when sludge use in agriculture [171]. Estima­ This can be attributed to the presence of toxic organic pollutants, which
tions show that if the soil is fertilised with sewage sludge with a polymer inhibit microbial activity.
content in line with German legislation for 10 years, a flocculant content Being rich in the main nutrients and micronutrients, sewage sludge
of 11 mg per kg of soil can be expected [172]. Little is known about the positively impacts plant growth. The increase in plant yield and
degradation of polyacrylamides in soil. Hennecke and co-workers [173] improvement of plant characteristics were observed in studies carried
conducted research on the decomposition of a 14C-labelled cationic PAM out on wheat [185], sunflower [186], rice [187], tomatoes [188], cu­
in soil treated with sewage sludge. The degree of polymer mineralisation cumber [189], industrial hemp [190], willow [191], basil [192], Arundo
within 2 years was 22.5 %. PAM degradation takes place under the in­ Donax [180], giant miscanthus [193], and maize, crotalaria and sun­
fluence of mechanical, chemical, and biological factors. Due to the large flower [194]. In most studies, the yield increase showed a positive
size of the molecules, there is a low risk of PAM bioaccumulation. There correlation with sewage sludge doses. The main results of these studies
is no data on the bioaccumulation of polymer degradation products. are presented in Table 4.
There is an agreement among scientists that under normal Increased doses of sewage sludge for agricultural purposes may lead

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H. Kominko et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 63 (2024) 105522

to the accumulation of heavy metals in soil and plants in the long term Table 4
[189,192]. However, this did not usually affect the growth of biomass. Summary of research results on sewage sludge agricultural use.
Moreover, the differences in the accumulation of heavy metals in the soil Type of Type of Type of trial, Results Country
in the case of using sewage sludge and mineral fertilisers were insig­ sewage crop rates
nificant. The mobility of heavy metals in the soil, their bioavailability for sludge
plants, and the resulting ecotoxicity largely depend on the chemical • Significant
forms of metals and the type of binding with the components of the solid increase of the
phase [195]. The application of various sorbents from the groups of number of tillers,
• Improvement in
alkaline materials (e.g., lime, ash, and hydroxyapatite) and clay (e.g., growth of plants
bentonite and limonite) to the soil, together with sewage sludge, reduces Full growing in height,
the mobility of heavy metals and thus decreases their accumulation and season pot • Increase in root
Urban
the possibility of their penetration into ground and surface waters activated
Durum trials, weight, Algeria
wheat 20 t/ha • Increase in total [185]
[196–198]. SS
50 t/ha nitrogen content
Considering the results of the studies aiming to evaluate the impact 100 t/ha in plants,
of sewage sludge on soil and plants, it can be concluded that in most • Increase number
cases sludge has a beneficial effect and, to some extent, can be used as a of grains/spike
substitute for conventional fertilisers. This may improve the efficiency of • With increase of
sewage sludge
natural resource usage, which is crucial in the case of finite phosphorus dose
reserves; reduce costs related to waste management; and decrease • Increase in
environmental pollution caused by nutrient leakage and processes biomass yield by
associated with mineral fertiliser production. Nevertheless, the sewage 41–43 %
comparing with
sludge dose should be adapted according to its quality. Analysis of soil is
Composted control,
also an interesting issue. The content of soil contamination should be SS with Two growing • Increase in plant
taken into consideration when calculating sewage sludge doses. pruning Arundo seasons field height by 17 % in Spain
waste, donax experiment, relation to control [180]
thermally 50 t/ha and mineral
4. Sewage sludge in fertiliser production
dried SS fertilisers,
• Increase in
Different studies have been conducted to check the possibilities of nitrogen and
manufacturing fertilisers based on sewage sludge which comply with chlorophyll
regulations and are safe for the environment. Antille and co-workers content in plants
Six years field • Biomass yield
[199] developed organo-mineral fertilisers from sewage sludge for
experiment, increase by
arable crops in two formulations, with an NPK ratio of 15:4:4 and 10:4:4. Anaerobic rates 16–25 %
Giant Poland
The production process consists of drying the fermented sewage sludge digested equivalent to depending on
miscanthus [193]
to a dry matter content of 95 % and screening. Granules 3–6 mm in size SS 100 and 160 dose comparing
were sprayed with molten urea with the addition of potassium chloride kg N/ha each with control
year sample
and then dried. The final product was a two-layer fertiliser. The first • Increase in
layer provides the plants with nitrogen in ammonium form in the first amount in fruits
phase of growth, while the second layer is responsible for the release of and fresh weight
nitrogen and phosphorus in the later phases following the mineralisation of fruits,
Four months
Aerobic • Increase in Zn
of the sewage sludge. These assumptions have been confirmed in field pot trials,
digested content in roots, Kuwait
studies [200,201]. thermally
Tomato 100 g/kg
leaves and fruits [188]
200 g/kg
In the study conducted by [202], anaerobically digested sewage dried SS in relation to
300 g/kg,
sludge was used for the production of organo-mineral fertilisers (OMFs) control sample,
by mixing them with monoammonium phosphate, potassium chloride, • Increase in Cu
content in steams
sulphur, and boric acid to obtain a 4–8-8 (N-P2O5-K2O) fertiliser and fruits
composition. Fertilisers were safe in terms of heavy metal content and • Increase in steam
sanitary conditions. 60-day pot trials showed that OMFs increased the diameter by
concentration of P, K, Ca, Fe, B, Zn, Cu, and S in soybean planting 33–49 %,
Two years • Increase in dry
compared to the control treatment. A positive impact on soil microbial
field mass of sunflower
activity was also reported. experiment, by 147–207 %, Greece
Sunflower
Kominko and co-workers [203] used dried sewage sludge to produce 9 Mg/ha, • Increase in achene [186]
high-nutrient value organo-mineral fertilisers optimised for maize and 18 Mg/ha, yield/head by
sunflower growth. The process was based on the addition of conven­ 36 Mg/ha 112–158 %
• Significant
tional and alternative sources of nutrients (e.g., mineral fertilisers and increase in achene
biomass ashes) to sewage sludge, followed by granulation of the mixture oil concentration
with an acid solution. The obtained products fulfilled the requirements Four years • Increase in Cd
China
given by Polish legislation for organo-mineral fertilisers in terms of Rice field content in rice
[187]
experiment grains
heavy metal content, the presence of Salmonella sp., and eggs of intes­
• Increase in shoot
tinal parasites. Pot trials confirmed good agronomic efficiency of fer­ Pot trials, 10
height, root
g/kg,
tilisers. However, the accumulation of Cd, Ni, Pb, and Cr is possible in Aerobic length, number of Saudi
20 g/kg,
plant tissues. Therefore, it is recommended to use these fertilisers for digested Cucumber
30 g/kg,
leaves, number of Arabia
industrial plants [204]. SS fruits, leaf area, [189]
40 g/kg,
total biomass
Numerous technologies of fertiliser production from sewage sludge 50 g/kg
weight,
have been already implemented, many of them at WWTPs. The Seaborn
(continued on next page)
(Gifhorn) process is based on the extraction of digested sewage sludge
with sulphuric acid at a pH of 4.5. Heavy metals are removed from the

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Table 4 (continued ) obtained extract by adding Na2S and NaOH, at an adjusted pH of 5.7. In
Type of Type of Type of trial, Results Country the next step, the extract is neutralised with Mg(OH)2 or MgO until the
sewage crop rates pH reaches 9. The product precipitates as a mixture of calcium phos­
sludge phate and struvite, with some amounts of iron phosphate also observed
• Increase in heavy [205]. The process allows for up to 50 % recovery of the total phos­
metals content phorus in sewage sludge. However, it is characterised by high opera­
(Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, tional costs and energy consumption; therefore, it can be unprofitable
Fe, Mn, Ni, Zn,
[206]. The process has been implemented at a full-scale WWTP in Gif­
Pb) in fruits,
roots, stems and horn (Germany) [207].
leafs of cucumber TerraNova is a patented process for fertiliser production from
• With increase of different types of sewage sludge. Sewage sludge with a dry matter
sewage sludge content between 5 % and 30 % undergoes hydrothermal carbonization
dose
• Increase in height
(HTC) at temperatures between 180 and 200 ◦ C and pressures between
of plants, root 20 and 35 bar. The obtained slurry is then acidified to solubilise Al- and
length, leaf yield, Fe-phosphate. After filtration, granular calcium silicate hydrate is added
above ground to the P-rich liquid to absorb phosphorus and form hydroxyapatite,
mass yield and
struvite, and amorphous phosphorus compounds. The fertiliser showed
root yield with the
first dose of good agronomic performance with 65 %–90 % of triple superphosphate
sewage sludge in terms of ryegrass yield and 70 %–80 % in terms of P availability
(25 Mg/ha) and [208]. Since 2016, a full-scale TerraNova processing plant has operated
decrease with the in China with an input capacity of 2 Mg of dewatered sewage sludge per
Four months
next doses,
Anaerobic pot trials,
• Increase in Cu
hour [209].
digested Industrial 25 Mg/ha, Lithuania In Pyreg technology the sewage sludge is carbonised in a twin screw
content in root
thermally hemp 50 Mg/ha, [190]
and stems of reactor operated at 500–800 ◦ C. The final product is biochar with a P
dried SS 100 Mg/ha,
200 Mg/ha
hemp by 6–742 % content of 6 %–7 %, about 1 % N, and 10 % K. In Sweden, biochar from
comparing to
Pyreg technology is registered as fertiliser PYREGphos. Currently, 4 full-
control sample
• Increase in Ni scale installations are operating in Germany, two with a capacity of
content in roots, 1200 Mg of dry sewage sludge per year and the others with capacities of
• Increase in Zn 1500 Mg/y and 1600 Mg/y. There is one installation processing 1200
content in stems Mg of sewage sludge per year in the Czech Republic, Sweden, and the
and leafs
USA [210].
• Increase in P and
S content in all Hydrothermal carbonization is also a basis of CarboREM technology.
plant parts Digested sewage sludge undergoes the HTC process at 200 ◦ C for 1 h, and
• Increase in fresh then solid/liquid separation occurs. In the next step, phosphorus is
mass of roots and
dissolved in acids (citric or hydrochloric) and precipitated in the form of
total biomass by
2–3 fold, salt by the addition of an alkali. The phosphorus recovery rate in this
SS from process can reach 91 %. The CarboREM technology is implemented on
20 weeks • Significant
small,
medium Willow
field increase in Poland an industrial scale in a WWTP in Mezzocorona (Italy). The installation
experiment, chlorophyll (a and [191] processes 1.4 Mg of wet digested sewage sludge per hour [210].
and large
3 t/ha, 9 t/ha b) content
WWTPs In the AirPrex process, digested sewage sludge is fed into a reactor,
• Decrease in gluta-
thione S- where CO2 stripping occurs through aeration. This significantly in­
transferase creases the pH of sludge. At the same time, magnesium salts are added,
activity in roots which leads to precipitation of magnesium-ammonium phosphate
• Grain yield and
[211]. As of 2017, 8 full-scale plants of this technology operate in the
dry matter of
plants grown in
world: 2 in the Netherlands with a daily capacity of 400 and 2.500 m3 of
soil treated with sewage sludge; 1 in China with a capacity of 1600 m3/day; and 5 in
10 years field
experiment,
sewage sludge Germany with a capacities of 1500, 2400, 145, 240, and 280 m3/day
Maize, were similar to [212].
2.5 Mg/ha, Brazil
sunflower, plant from soil
5 Mg/ha, [194] Quick Wash Nutrient Recovery is a technology for phosphorus re­
crotalaria with addition of
10 Mg/ha
mineral fertilisers covery which involves the solubilisation of digested sewage sludge with
each year
(urea, citric or hydrochloric acid, solid/liquid separation by settling, and cal­
superphosphate, cium phosphate precipitation from acid solution by lime dosing. To
potassium
improve the salt-settling process, an anionic polyacrylamide polymer is
chloride)
Irradiated
added to the mixture. The final product is amorphous calcium phosphate
• Increase in with organics (10 %–40 % organic carbon) [210,213].
and non-
concentration of
irradiated
Basil
12 weeks pot
Cu, Zn, Ni, Fe, Mn, Iran [192]
The Kubota method is based on thermal treatment of dried sewage
anaerobic trials, sludge (> 80 % DM) at 1300 ◦ C. The addition of Fe2O3 and control of the
Cd and Pb in roots
digested
and shoots of basil oxygen concentration allows phosphorus to be kept in the melt, while
SS
simultaneously volatile heavy metals are removed. Calcium hydroxide is
added to the melt to increase phosphorus bioavailability. The phos­
phorus removal efficiency reaches 90 %. Currently, 11 full-scale plants
operate in Japan [209].
EuPhoRe is a thermal process in a rotary kiln incinerator, which
operates in different zones, i.e., reduction and oxidation. Alkali or earth-
alkali chlorides can be added to milled, dried sewage sludge to remove
heavy metals in the form of chlorides. It is possible to recover 95 % of

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H. Kominko et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 63 (2024) 105522

phosphorus in sewage sludge. The final product is an ash of about 14 %– application as well as convenience for transportation and storage.
24 % phosphorus content as phosphates, demonstrating good phos­ The quality assessment of fertilisers includes measuring the content
phorus availability [214]. of heavy metals and potential toxic substances, nutrient release char­
Endev Ltd. has developed PAKU technology for nutrient recovery acteristics, and agronomic efficiency. All of these metrics are crucial in
from sewage sludge. This solution involves drying dewatered sludge in the case of newly developed fertilisers, especially those based on waste
the patented circulating mass dryer to a water content of 95 % and then raw materials. The study conducted in the laboratory helps to verify
incineration in a reactor at a temperature of 850 ◦ C. The obtained ash is whether fertilisers fulfil the requirements according to legislation and
separated into a fertiliser fraction and a by-product fraction. The assists with evaluating their impact on the environment. However, it is
average content of phosphorus in the fertiliser fraction is 4.7 %, 60 %– only possible to investigate the long-term effects on soil health and
70 % of which is soluble in neutral ammonium citrate solution. Nitrogen microbiological diversity in field studies; these are both time-consuming
is recovered from the thermal drying condensate by air stripping and and expensive. However, studies of this nature confirm the safety of
absorption. The final product is a 25 % ammonium sulphate solution. A waste-based fertilisers and increase consumer confidence in them.
full-scale plant utilising PAKU technology with a capacity of 10,000 Mg A 3-year field study (2015–2017) carried out on maize with Lys­
of dewatered sewage sludge per year operates in Rovaniemi (Finland) tekGro and a commercial fertiliser demonstrated very good agronomic
[210]. suitability of a fertiliser based on sewage sludge. The maize yields during
Examples of fertilisers based on sewage sludge, which are available all years with LystekGro treatments were similar to the mineral fertiliser
in local markets, are presented in Table 5. The main stages of the pro­ or higher. Analysis of the content of grain proteins and nitrates in stalks
duction of fertiliser from sewage sludge usually includes disinfection, was higher at later times in the plants grown in soil with LystekGro. This
enrichment of the main nutrients and micronutrients, and trans­ confirmed that the fertiliser based on sewage sludge is a slow-release
formation to a form which is easy to apply. Disinfection of sewage sludge fertiliser and provides nitrogen in accordance with the maize growth
can be achieved by using alkali (e.g., lime, fly ashes, gypsum, and kiln [222].
dust) or acid agents (e.g., sulphuric acid and phosphoric acid), high A field study conducted with SymTRX also showed satisfying results.
temperatures, and through composting and thermal hydrolysis of When substituting urea with ammonium sulphate, the yield of corn,
sewage sludge. As sewage sludge has a low nutrient content compared to cotton, and rice increased by 3.5 %, 6.6 %, and 2.6 %, respectively
mineral fertilisers, the enrichment of sludge with mineral fertilisers is a [222]. Using sewage-sludge-based fertilisers is an economically and
frequently used practice to obtain nutrient-rich products. Most products environmentally viable solution. A leaching study showed that, in the
are available in granular or pelleted forms, which offer ease of case of SymTRX, nitrogen leaching is reduced by 39.9 % in comparison
with ammonium sulphate and by 50.2 % relative to urea. Fertilisers can
contribute to improving soil health by increasing microbial activity.
Table 5 Carbon efflux tests for SymTRX demonstrated an increase in CO2 levels
Examples of fertilisers based on sewage sludge available on the market. given off by soil microbes by 246.8 % in comparison with ammonium
Name Production process Characterisation Source sulphate [223].
• Organic matter content
>65 % 5. Sewage sludge agricultural use—legislation
• Granulation of sewage
OCEANGRO • Composition 5–5-0 (N- [215]
sludge
P2O5-K2O)
The basic legal act in the field of sewage sludge management in the
• pH = 7
• Composition 1.24–2.04- European Union is Directive 86/278/EEC [54], which regulates the
• Composting with 0.19 (N-P2O5-K2O) agricultural use of sewage sludge in a way that protects against negative
GroCo [216]
sawdust for over a year • Organic matter 85.6 % impacts on the environment, animals, and humans. According to the
• pH = 6.8 directive, sewage sludge intended for natural use must be processed and
• 85 % of organic matter
meet content requirements for heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn, and
• 80 % of N is water
• Drying sewage sludge in Hg). The directive prohibits the use of sewage sludge in pastures
Milogranite insoluble [217]
kiln
• Slow-release fertiliser, intended for grazing and in soils for fruit and vegetable crops, with the
feeds up to 8–10 weeks exception of fruit trees. European Union member states have imple­
• Sewage sludge
• Composition 5–5-0 (N- mented restrictions on the quality of sewage sludge when used for
dewatering do TS
content 20 %
P-K) agricultural purposes into their national regulations. Seventeen coun­
• Grain size 0.5–2.5 mm tries (Austria, Belgium, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Finland, Germany,
SoundGro • Mixing with recycled [218]
• Recommended for
pellets
landscaped area and
the Netherlands, Slovenia, Hungary, Luxembourg, Malta, France,
• Drying Poland, Romania, Latvia, Slovenia, and Sweden) have stricter limits on
vegetable garden
• Sorting and cooling
the heavy metal content of the sludge. The directive does not impose
• Liquid fertiliser
• Composition 4.5–7-2.5 limits on organic pollutants. Nevertheless, Austria, Denmark, France,
• Thermal hydrolysis of
LystekGro (N-P-K) [219] Germany, and Sweden have established limit values for toxic organic
sewage sludge
• Can be applied to corn, compounds in sludge for agricultural use, which mainly concern PAHs,
soybean, wheat, barley
PCBs, PCDDs/Fs, AOXs, LAS, NPEs, and DEHPs. The content of patho­
• Mixing with strong
oxidizers
genic organisms, such as Salmonella, Enterobacteria, Escherichia coli,
• Alkali treatment (lime • Organic matter content Enterovirus, and helminths are regulated in sewage sludge applied to soil
kiln dust, ammonium 16 % in France, Denmark, Luxembourg, Poland, Finland, and Italy [57].
SymTRX solution) • Composition 17–1–0-20 [220] The discussion on revisions of the Sewage Sludge Directive has been
• Acidification (N-P-K-S)
going on for many years [223]. As part of the work on the revision of the
• Addition of nutrient • Granular form
sources Sludge Directive, the European Commission called a community
• Granulation research centre to verify sewage sludge intended for agricultural use in
• Mixing with alkaline
• Soil like material terms of the content of heavy metals and organic compounds. Sewage
materials (quicklime, sludge from 15 EU countries from 61 wastewater treatment plants was
In-Viro Soil • Can be used as lime [221]
cement kiln dust, fly ash)
• Drying
aging analysed. The results showed that in the case of heavy metals, none of
the sludge samples exceeded the limit value set up by the Sewage Sludge
Directive and in most of the samples these values were significantly

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H. Kominko et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 63 (2024) 105522

below the limit. Based on the research, the limits for toxic organic regulations after proving their safety, quality, and fertilising effect. This
compounds (PAHs, PCBs, and PCDDs/Fs) were not introduced. How­ is most often done through an appropriate application containing a
ever, due to the significant amounts of PFASs in some sewage sludge, it is report on tests (physical, physicochemical, chemical, biological, and
worth considering regulating their content. The results of studies on the agricultural) of the fertiliser or agent, supporting plant cultivation per­
concentrations of polycyclic masks and siloxanes did not show formed by authorised or accredited units. In addition, it is possible to
increasing risk associated with these substances; the emergence of new place fertilising products authorised under a country’s national law on
organic substances is a problem in wastewater rather than in sewage the market in other EU Member States, but this requires compliance with
sludge [224]. Additionally, the P-REX risk assessment showed that the country’s national law and the principles of mutual recognition set
sewage sludge is not the main source of organic pollutants (PCDDs/Fs, out in Regulation (EU) 2019/515 of the European Parliament and the
PCBs, and PAHs) in soils. Atmospheric precipitation introduces 10 times Council of 19 March 2019 on the mutual recognition of goods lawfully
more of these toxic substances [225]. placed on the market in another Member State and repealing Regulation
When discussing the fertilising use of sewage sludge, the fertilising (EC) No 764/2008 [227].
properties should not be confused with the term ‘fertilising product’. It This legislative compilation means that there are many examples of
should be noted that in accordance with the Fertiliser Directive 2019/ applications of products permitted on the market based on sewage
1009 ‘EU fertilizing product’ means a substance, mixture, micro- sludge, as indicated in Chapter 4.
organism or any other material, applied or intended to be applied on
plants of providing the plants with nutrients or improving their nutrition 6. Future work
efficiency and shall meet the requirements set out in Annex I for the
relevant product function category (PFC); meet the requirements set out The crisis in the fertiliser market forces us to take action towards
in Annex II for the relevant component material category (CMC) or more effective usage of fertilisers and to identify alternative raw mate­
categories’. In accordance with this directive, the use of sewage sludge rials for fertiliser production, which will be economically and environ­
as fertilising product could potentially be a soil improver (PFC 3). mentally beneficial.
Depending on the content of the main fertiliser ingredients, N, P, and K, Sewage sludge has high fertiliser potential due to the nutrient and
it may constitute a fertiliser (PFC 1), specifically a solid organic fertil­ micronutrient content and organic matter, both of which are beneficial
iser, and its valorisation towards a solid organo-mineral fertiliser is for soil fertility and plant growth. On the other hand, the content of
possible [226]. All three types of fertilising products must meet certain pollutants that are resistant to chemical and biological degradation as
requirements, as summarised in Fig. 1. well as emerging new threats, such as PFASs, make the topic very
Unfortunately, sewage sludge has been excluded as a component controversial. It is necessary to constantly monitor the sewage sludge
material (CMC) and fertilising products based on sewage sludge cannot quality and conduct screening tests regarding their physicochemical
be marked with the ‘CE’ sign. characteristics to introduce changes to legislation and reduce the risk of
Regulation (EU) 2019/1009 does not replace national rules on fer­ harmful effects on the environment and humans. However, a more
tilisers, which will continue to apply. Soil improvers and fertilisers based effective strategy is to reduce pollutants in sewage sludge by reducing
on sewage sludge can be authorised in a given country under internal their content in treated wastewater or eliminating sources of their

Fig. 1. Parameters standardised in fertilisers and soil improvers in accordance with Fertiliser Directive 2019/1009.

11
H. Kominko et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 63 (2024) 105522

formation, e.g., by limiting the content of heavy metals in industrial and nutrients (0.1 % - 15.2 % P2O5, 2–6%N), their land application can
wastewater or prohibiting the use of certain substances in production improve soil properties, enhance production of plant biomass and
processes. reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Sewage sludge application resulted in
Particular attention should be given to the introduction of advanced an increase of soil structural stability by 13.3–59.4 %, in total soil
treatment methods for sewage sludge that eliminate pollutants and thus organic carbon content by 41–119 % and soil enzymic activity is 2–3
make the sludge more attractive for agricultural use. An example of such times higher as well as available phosphorus (2–3-fold increase)
technology is the thermal hydrolysis process. It is the best-known and depending on doses.
most commercially implemented pre-treatment method allowed for In order to reduce the negative effects of sewage sludge on the
pathogen elimination, odour reduction, and improvement of sewage environment, special attention should be paid to its quality as it is a
sludge properties in the context of further processing. Ultrasonication, source of pollutants, such as heavy metals, pathogenic microorganisms,
high-pressure homogenisation, electrokinetic disintegration, and mi­ toxic organic compounds, hormones and microplastic. Heavy metals
crowave treatment have also been implemented on an industrial scale. with higher concentration are usually found in sewage sludge from
However, the introduction of such methods is associated with high en­ wastewater treatment plants in large and medium-sized industrially
ergy demand and capital costs, problems with scalability, and complex developed cities while small wastewater treatment plants do not pose a
operations in some cases [228]. threat in terms of heavy metal content in sewage sludge. Community
Many studies indicate the presence of various toxic organic com­ Research Center based on analysis of sewage sludge for agricultural use
pounds, pharmaceuticals or microplastics in sewage sludge. However, from 15 EU countries showed that in the case of heavy metals most of the
data on their exact effects on the soil are lacking. Long-term studies need samples were significantly below the limit value settled up by the
to be carried out to gain some understanding of what happens to these Sewage Sludge Directive and none of the sludge samples exceeded this
substances in the soil and assess the risk to the environment and human limit.
health compared to the other activities and together with these activities Toxic organic compounds (e.g., PAH, PCB, PCDD/F, NPE, PFAS,
(e.g., the use of mineral fertilisers, manure, or other wastes). There are DEHP and AOX) pose a much greater threat than heavy metals. How­
still analytical challenges in the determination of certain compounds. In ever, the literature confirms the effective destruction of these com­
the case of PFASs, the determination methods are at different stages of pounds during sewage sludge treatment, i.e. composting, hydrolysis or
development and validation due to the presence of different isomers of fermentation. Degradation of PAHs during composting and vermi­
these compounds and precursor transformations, even during the stor­ composting of sewage sludge with sawdust allow for 64.4–100 %
age of samples. reduction of PAHs content, mesophilic and thermophilic anaerobic
Bearing in mind that the thermal sludge treatment is economically digestion reduces PCB by 57.1–90.3 % and 33–58 %, respectively.
viable in large agglomerations, sewage sludge from small WWTPs usu­ PCDD/Fs show hydrophobic properties and are very resistant to bio­
ally characterised by a low level of heavy metals will continue to be used logical degradation, which makes them a serious ecological problem.
in agriculture as the most sustainable management option. Nevertheless, strong restrictions on the use of PCBs and PCDD/Fs
The development of local technologies for the manufacturing of reduced the median concentration of these substances in the sludge by
fertilisers based on sewage sludge is also observed. They are often 69–87 %. Anaerobic digestion and composting seem to be effective also
implemented in wastewater treatment plants and are treated as a in removing some PPCPs with efficiency over 80 %. The concentration of
method of sewage sludge management. They are related to the vari­ hormones and antibiotics after 1 year composting and open-air storage
ability of the sludge composition, which means that these technologies was <LOD, and in the case of PhACs only 5 % of initial content remained
must be adapted regionally and locally. Additional work is needed to in sewage sludge.
establish contamination limits for sewage sludge as a raw material for Effective technologies for destroying pathogenic organisms like
fertilisers. Such technological parameters would make it easier to decide thermophilic anaerobic digestion, disintegration, composting, drying,
on the direction of sewage sludge management. liming, pasteurization, long-term storage implemented in sewage sludge
Currently, fertiliser companies are not particularly interested in processing will avoid environment contamination.
using alternative raw materials, including sewage sludge. This is Sewage sludge is considered the main reservoir of antibiotic resistant
because they are usually characterised by variable compositions, they bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and its use in agriculture
may contain impurities, they are not easily available (must be collected may pose a threat to the environment and people in this respect.
from several places), and they have a significantly lower content of Temperature-phased anaerobic digestion, which consists of thermo­
nutrients compared to conventional raw materials. Sometimes the philic (55 ◦ C) and mesophilic (37 ◦ C) anaerobic digestion, seems to be an
introduction of alternative raw materials requires modifications of the effective process for ARGs elimination.
whole process, which entails additional costs. It is worth noting that The results of studies on the concentrations of polycyclic mask and
government strategy is important in the case of the implementation of siloxanes did not show increasing risk associated with these substances,
technologies for waste valorisation into fertilisers. Investments and tax and the emergence of new organic substances is a problem in waste­
measures can be helpful. water rather than in sewage sludge.
Another gap to be filled is a standardised method of analysing both To summarize, the use of sewage sludge in agriculture is beneficial
sewage sludge and waste with a complex matrix and the resulting fer­ and after proper treatment of sewage sludge ensuring their good quality
tiliser materials. Currently, these two issues are dealt with separately; is a safe environmental option. Moreover, technological treatment of
there are different procedures for the mineralisation or speciation of sewage sludge for the production of fertilisers makes it possible to obtain
compounds in waste materials which are both quite different for man­ products that are competitive with conventional fertilisers. Work is
ufactured fertilisers. This makes the experimental material difficult to needed to make waste-based technologies more attractive to the po­
compare. Moreover, often the methods of analysis that are standardised tential recipients.
for fertilisers pose problems in the case of organo-mineral fertilisers or The graphical abstract was created with BioRender.com.
mineral fertilisers produced from waste materials.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
7. Conclusion
Halyna Kominko: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
Waste valorisation to fertilisers will gain more attention due to un­ draft, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Katarzyna
stable situation on the fertiliser market, environmental issue and EU Gorazda: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Super­
policy. Due to sewage sludge containing valuable organic compounds vision. Zbigniew Wzorek: Writing – review & editing, Supervision.

12
H. Kominko et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 63 (2024) 105522

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