Legal and UN Translation

E 308

Second Semester

Compiled by
English Department

(2024-2025)
 Unit I: Legal Translation
Chapter 1: Domain & Rationale
Introduction:
We live in a world which is globalized and where international relations are much
more active than ever. As people do not speak common language, need for
translation and interpreting is more crucial in this regard. We cannot think of close
contacts among states, societies, people and businesses without the mediation of
translation and interpreting than before. Thus, translation and interpreting have
become crucial and are playing a very important role in human interactions.
Over the last two decades the translation profession has undergone a significant
transformation that has led to increasing volume, often requiring a high level of
subject matter expertise. As the demand for legal translation continues to grow,
specialization and task complexity are particularly relevant to translation
professionals in the legal domain.
International law, which regulates relations between organizations and states, has
also gained importance. Thus, it can be said that international law (as a result of this
translation and interpreting as well) has also become more crucial. Thus, legal
translation has also become important among the other domains of translation.
However, translating and interpreting are not easy at all. There is no room for error
in translation and interpreting as legal consequences may follow. Legal translation
involves very complex matters and specialized terminology. This is why it is
extremely important to assign the legal translation task to a translator who is well
qualified and specialized to handle translation of legal documents. The field of legal
translation in Egypt is not so much developed. There is a limited work and study
done in this regard. Therefore, this course attempts to make a modest contribution
in this regard with description and discussion of the issues regarding translation of

1
legal texts. Solutions offered herein may be taken as a basis for further study and
research.
This course deals with issues in translating legal texts. Initially, it discusses the legal
language which is the language of the translation category dealt with herein and then
sets out linguistic characteristics of the legal language. Further it will discuss the
legal translation, categories of the legal translation and finally, it will present issues
in translating legal texts by providing some of the requirements that good legal
translators need in order to render professional and accurate translations.

The Legal Language

Legal language refers to the language of and related to law and legal process. It is a
variety of language appropriate to the legal situations of use. Because of its
characteristics, it is also regarded as a separate language - different from the ordinary
language. Linguistic difficulties in legal languages arise from the differences found
in the different legal cultures and legal systems. Legal language has developed its
characteristics to meet the demands of the legal system in which it is expressed. It is
distinguished from other types of technical languages that convey universal
information. In this sense, legal language is sui generis. Each legal language is the
product of a special history and culture.
Legal English is unique in terms of its lexical features. It involves ‘terms of art’ with
a highly technical meaning, terms with a semi-technical meaning as well as general
everyday vocabulary. Legal English also includes Latinisms, French and archaic
terms, all of which continue to exist in legal texts in spite of the plain language
campaign. Analysis of English legal discourse has shown that lexical features such
as archaic and Latin terms tend to occur more frequently in one legal subtype than
another; they are more common in official documents in general and in contracts in
particular. Formality, which is another distinctive feature of legal English, is

2
expressed by fixed linguistic aspects such as speech acts, modals and enactment
formulas.
Legal English is characterized by many syntactic features such as complex
sentences, nominalization, passivization, performative verbs, modal auxiliaries,
conditionals, doublets and triplets and double negatives. Some of these features are
more common than others such as nominalization and modal verbs whereas some
others are more common in one legal subtype than another (for example passive,
conditional and prepositional phrases).
As for the textual features, cohesion, and in particular lexical repetition, is a common
cohesive device expressed through reiteration (for example synonyms, near
synonyms, superordinates, etc.) or lexical chains. Due to the complexity of English
legal texts, subordinating or coordinating conjunctions are also a common feature in
legal texts: ‘and’, ‘or’ and the hybrid conjunction ‘and/or’, which suggests a degree
of uncertainty. Generally, English avoids recurrence, viz. the occurrence of the same
word several times in a text, but it is common in English legal discourse.
In analyzing the features of Legal Arabic discourse, like English, ‘terms of art’ exist
in legal Arabic but they are more common in official documents. Highly formal
expressions and figurative language are common in legal Arabic. Such formality is
expressed through first person plural pronouns, the use of formulas and honorific
titles. Arabic tends to use the gender-biased terms in which there is a preference for
the masculine element in writing, which can be considered a tradition in Arabic
stylistics. Arabic legal discourse uses a lexical category, common in official
documents, called the ‘template terms and phrases’. Unlike in English, some of these
template terms have disappeared, whereas a few others have continued to exist such
as ‫ السالف‬/‫ المذكور‬/‫ ) الوارد‬the previously mentioned, the abovementioned,
mentioned/contained, subsequently).

3
There are some commonalities between legal Arabic and other Arabic registers such
as political Arabic, diplomatic Arabic, media Arabic in terms of lexis and style. It
can be argued that boundaries between legislative and international (for example
UN) Arabic legal documents on the one hand and diplomatic Arabic discourse on
the other are fuzzy. Furthermore, there is a degree of similarity between Arabic legal
discourse and news and diplomatic discourse in relation to some lexical items such
as highly decorative expressions; grammatical elements such as nominalization,
passivization and negation as well as textual features such as parallelism and
repetition (for example lexical repetition, be it morphological, word, phrase, or
clause repetition). The repetition is employed for different functions in various
Arabic registers. For example, it is informative in legal texts, whereas it is used for
purposes of persuasion and emotiveness in political discourse.
Legal Arabic is characterized by many syntactic features, the most common of which
are nominalization, modal expressions, doublets and triplets and complex sentences.
Although the passive exists in legal Arabic, it is less preferred and less common than
the active voice. Regarding the textual features, generally speaking Arabic legal
discourse employs many of MSA stylistic features: mainly parallel structures, root
repetition, patterns (synonyms, antonyms). Techniques such as suffix repetition and
parallel structures are sometimes used for rhetorical purposes and for achieving
cohesion of the text. Lexical density and lexical chains or listings are among the
distinctive features of legal Arabic. Thus, one can argue that the Arabic textual
features are to be considered regular or universal among different Arabic text types,
the legal type being one of them. This emphasizes the hybridity principle I have
assumed when discussing the lexical features of Arabic legal discourse.
One of the main reasons why the language of the law is difficult to understand is that
it is often very different from ordinary language. In legal language writing

4
conventions are different, like: sentences often have peculiar structures, punctuation
is used insufficiently, foreign phrases are sometimes used instead of ordinary phrases
(e.g. inter alia instead of among others), unusual pronouns are employed (the same,
the aforesaid, etc.), unusual set phrases are to be found (null and void, all and
sundry), technical vocabulary, unusual and archaic words, impersonal constructions,
use of modal like shall, multiple negation, long and complex sentences and poor
organization are all problematic.

Legal Translation
Translation is an act of communication between text producers and text receivers
and the translator is regarded as a mediator between the two. Translators of legal
documents not only translate from one language into another language but also from
one legal language into another legal language. The translation of law has played a
very important part in the contact between different people and different cultures in
history and is playing an even more important role in our globalized world.
Legal translation is a special and specialized area of translational activity. This is
due to the fact that legal translation involves law and such translation can and often
does produce not just linguistic but also legal impact and consequence because of
the special nature of law and legal language. Legal translation is a complex process
that requires special skills, knowledge and experience on the part of the translator to
produce such translation. It is a cross-cultural and inter-lingual communicative act
and as a complex human and social behavior.
Legal translation refers to the rendering of legal texts from the source language into
the target language. In the light of the purposes of the target language texts, legal
translation can be classified into following categories:
There is legal translation for normative purpose. It refers to the production of equally
authentic legal texts in bilingual and multilingual jurisdictions of domestic laws,

5
international legal instruments and other laws. Often such bilingual or multilingual
texts are first drafted in one language and then translated into another language or
languages. They may also be drafted simultaneously in both or all languages. In
either case, the different language texts have equal legal force and one is not superior
to another irrespective of their original status. This category of legal translation may
also include private documents such as contracts, the bilingual texts of which are
equally authentic in a bilingual or monolingual jurisdiction. For instance, non-
English speaking country contracts sometimes may stipulate that the versions of the
contract in the official language of the country and English are both authentic, even
though the language of the court and the country does not include English. In this
category of legal translation, the communicative purposes of the source language
and target language texts are identical.
Then, there is legal translation for informative purpose, with constative or
descriptive functions. This includes translation of statutes, court decisions, scholarly
works and other types of legal documents if the translation is intended to provide
information to the target readers. This is most often found in monolingual
jurisdictions. Such translations are different from the first category where the
translated law is legally binding. In this category, the source language is the only
legally enforceable language while the target language is not. For instance, a statute
written in Albanian translated into English for informative purpose for the benefit of
foreign lawyers or other English readers is not legally enforceable.
And there is legal translation for general legal or judicial purpose. Such translations
are primarily for information and are mostly descriptive. This type of translated
document may be used in court proceedings as part of documentary evidence.
Original source language texts of this type may include legal documents such as
statements of claims or pleadings, contracts, agreements and ordinary texts such as

6
business or personal correspondence, records and certificates, witness statements
and expert reports etc. Such translated texts have legal consequences attached to
them due to their use in the legal process. Thus, we can say that legal translation
refers to the translation of texts used in law and legal settings. Legal translation is
used as a general term to cover both the translation of law and other communications
in the legal setting. For the legal translator, it is important to ascertain the status and
communicative purposes of both the original text and the translation.
Legal translation is often more difficult than other types of technical translation
because of the system-bound nature of legal terminology. Unlike scientific or other
technical terminology, each country has its own legal terminology (based on the
particular legal system of that country), which is quite different even from the legal
terminology of another country with the same language. Law, as a social
phenomenon and product of a culture, acquires a unique character in every society.
Every society organizes its legislation or its legal system according to the legal
concept it has. For instance, Common Law in English is difficult to translate into
Chinese. This is linked with the differences in legal systems we have. Common Law
legal system is characterized by case law, which is law developed by judges through
decisions of courts. The body of precedent is called Common Law and it binds future
decisions. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, a common law
court looks to past precedential decisions of relevant courts. If a similar dispute has
been resolved in the past, the court is bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior
decision. If the court finds that the dispute is fundamentally distinct from all previous
cases, judges have the authority and duty to make law by creating precedent. On the
other hand Chinese legal system is different. They have a civil law system and their
court decisions are based on written legal framework - primarily on Constitution and
then on other laws. Therefore, legal translators find it difficult to translate Common

7
Law into Chinese as there is no equivalent in Chinese legal system. As a result of
the increasing role of international relations and the increasing demand for the free
movement of people, goods and capital, in one way or another legal translation
affects all of us. In other words, we can say that law has a close relation with
language because it cannot exist without language. In fact, law is a profession of
words; it is alive in language.
In legal translation, due to the differences in legal systems, many of the legal terms
in one language do not correspond to terms in another. This is the problem of non-
equivalence and represents a major source of difficulty in translation. The system-
bound nature of legal text means that successful translation into another language
requires competency in at least three separate areas:
1. the legal translator must acquire a basic knowledge of the legal systems, both
in the source language and target language;
2. must possess familiarity with the relevant terminology; and
3. must be competent in the target language-specific legal writing style”.

As seen above, without these competencies, the translator’s rendition will be a word-
for-word translation that is often incomprehensible.
Moreover, as noted, translation of legal texts of any kind, from statute laws, contracts
to courtroom testimony, is a practice that stands at the crossroads of legal theory,
language theory and translation theory. Therefore, it is essential that the legal
translator has a basic understanding of the nature of law and legal language and the
impact it has on legal translation. Legal translators have traditionally been bound by
the principle of fidelity to the source text. As a result, it was generally accepted that
the translator’s task is to reconstruct the form and substance of the source text as
closely as possible. Thus literal translation (the stricter the better) was the golden
rule for legal texts. However, in order to produce a text that leads to the same results

8
in practice, the translator must be able to understand not only what the words and
sentence mean, but also what legal effect it is supposed to have and how to achieve
that legal effect in other language.
The central requirement for the translator is to comprehend the given text within an
adequate legal perspective. For this purpose one needs a well-grounded
understanding based on subject knowledge by doing researches. Specialist
translation in the field of law requires the formulation of communicatively adequate
technical texts in the other language. Legal translator’s task is to convey what is said
in the source text and not what he/she believes it ought to say. In other words, a legal
translator should not provide legal advice and solve legal problems, but translate and
facilitate communication across linguistic, cultural and legal barriers through the
medium of language. He/she should produce a text that preserves its meaning, legal
effect and intend.
Lawyers should not expect translators to produce parallel texts that are identical in
form. Yet, they should expect them to produce parallel texts that are identical in their
legal meaning and effect. Thus the translator's main task is to create a text that will
produce the same legal effect in practice. To do so, the translator must be able to
understand not only what the words mean and what a sentence means, but also what
legal effect it is supposed to have and how to achieve that legal effect in the other
language.
Translators must be able to use legal language effectively to express legal concepts
in order to achieve the desired effect. They must be familiar with the conventional
rules and styles of legal texts in every field of the individual legal systems. A legal
translator must not forget that even a ‘Will’ is not valid if not written in the correct
style.

9
Translation of Ambiguous Legal Texts
Translation of any ambiguous text is difficult. In legal translation it is even more
difficult and problematic. This is due to linguistic uncertainties like vagueness,
generality and ambiguity. Legal disputes often arise from linguistic uncertainties
found or allegedly found in contracts and statutes.
An important point for the legal translator with regard to linguistic uncertainties is
that one should always bear in mind the task of the translator. A legal translator is
not a lawyer. The central task of the translator is to translate, not to solve legal
problems. Thus, one of the tasks for the translator in such situations is to recognize
the linguistic uncertainty that may have occurred, intentionally or unintentionally, in
the original text and whenever possible, the translator should always try to clarify or
make the word more precise or less ambiguous.
The best way to avoid different interpretations of your writing is to replace the
ambiguous words with concrete language. For example, if a local district wants to
ban heavy trucks from their highways, the legislation would be clearer if it
specifically contained the words trucks over [x] tonnage rather than saying large
vehicles.
Ambiguous words should be avoided and substituted with another word which is
tantamount and monosemic. Any time a translator faces a word that would seem or
sound even a little ambiguous, with no hesitation or indolence, it is appropriate that
he/she looks for and necessarily finds the adequate word for the concrete situation
that eliminates possible and tiresome dilemma for the reader affiliated with different
social environment. The clearer the text is in the translated language, the closer the
translator is in performing his/her task”.

10
Conclusion
 It is the language of and related to law and legal process that is regarded as a
separate language - different from the ordinary language.
 Each legal language is the product of a special history and culture.
 The legal translation has played a very important part in the contact between
different people and different cultures in history and is playing an even more
important role in our globalized world
 Legal translation is a complex process that requires special skills, knowledge and
experience on the part of the translator to produce such translation as it is a cross-
cultural and interlingual communicative act and as a complex human and social
behavior.
 The role of a translator in the translation process is to translate, not to solve legal
problems and that he/she should produce a text that preserves its meaning, legal
effect and intend.

Exercises
Translate the following into English.
‫ لكن ما‬،‫ تشمل نقل المعنى من لغٍة إلى أخرى‬،‫ ال شك أن الترجمة القانونيةٌ مثلها مثل كل أنواع الترجمات‬-1
‫ ولكل نظامها القانوني الذي ي ٌختلف عن‬،‫ي ٌمي ٌزها أنها تتعلق بنقل المعنى من لغة قانونيةٌ إلى لغة قانونيةٌ أخرى‬
‫ ولهذا تٌعي ٌن على الناقل أو المترجم أن ي ٌكون ملما بالنظامي ٌن القانونيي ٌن مع إلمامه بقواعد‬.‫النظام القانوني لألخرى‬
‫ وأن يتٌرجم المصطلح بما ي ٌكافئه في المعنى والوظيفٌة وأال لٌجأ الى المعنى القاموسي‬،‫اللغتي ٌن المنقول منها وإلي ٌها‬
.ٌ‫وحده ألن المعنى القاموسي ال ٌحتج به دون الرجوع إلى السياٌق ووظيفٌة اللفظ في اللغة القانونية‬
‫ تأتي أهميةٌ الترجمة القانونيةٌ من أهميةٌ النصوص التي نٌقلها المترجم لسد فجوة عدم معرفة المتلقي باللغة‬-2
‫سر ي ٌربط بي ٌن الثقافات والحضارات المختلفة فالترجمة هي الوسيلٌة الوحيدٌة للتواصل بي ٌن‬
ٌ ‫المنقول إلي ٌها؛ فهو ج‬
‫أصحاب اللغات المختلفة؛ وهذا بالطبع حال كل أنواع الترجمات فمن غي ٌر المترجم ينٌقل لغي ٌر المتحدثي ٌن بلغة‬
!‫الوثيقٌة المعنى الذي قصده كاتبها؟‬

11
‫‪ -3‬بادئ ذي بدٍء‪ ،‬إعلم أخي المترجم أن عليكٌ أال تتخصص في الترجمة القانونيةٌ‪ ،‬أو في أي مجال آخر قبل أن‬
‫تخوض غمار الترجمة العامة؛ وتتجول بي ٌن بساتي ٌن مختلف المجاالت؛ لتتعلم طريقٌة فك شفرات الجمل‬
‫والتراكيبٌ وتتحسن صياٌغتك‪ ،‬فترتق من مستوى آلخر فمجال الترجمة القانونيةٌ ي ٌحتاج إلى مهارا ت أفضل‬
‫وإلى ج ٍهد أكبر ال أقول إن هذا أمر واجب التنفيذٌ؛ وال أدّعي وال ي ٌحق لي أن أدّعي أ ٌ أنك لن تتمكن من الترجمة‬
‫القانونيةٌ ما لم تتقن الترجمة العامة‪ ،‬فبعض المحامي ٌن أو غي ٌر المحامي ٌن أ يضٌا خاضوا غمار الترجمة القانونيةٌ‬
‫بعد دراسة اللغة‪ ،‬وأعانتهم دراستهم القانونيةٌ على الترجمة‪ ،‬وبذلوا الجهد الالزم ونجحوا في ذلك‪ .‬لكنن أود أن‬
‫سر عليكٌ األمر‪ ،‬وأختصر عليكٌ الطري ٌق وأخبرك بما ينٌبغي لك فعله حتى ال تستصعب األمر وتتركه‪ .‬ومن‬
‫أي ٌ‬
‫سر علينٌا اإلنجاز هو أن نخطط تخطي ٌ‬
‫طا سلي ٌما ونتدرج حسب مستوياٌت الصعوبة؛ وهذا ما‬ ‫بي ٌن األمور التي تي ٌ‬
‫تفعله بممارستك للترجمة العامة؛ وأقصد هنا بالترجمة العامة ترجمة النصوص التعلي ٌميةٌ‪ ،‬ونصوص التنميةٌ‬
‫البشريةٌ‪ ،‬أو أي نص ذي طابع غي ٌر متخصص ال يقٌتضي غي ٌر فهم النص ونقله نقال صحيحا بما ي ٌحافظ على‬
‫مقصد الكاتب األصلي وثقافة اللغة المنقول إليهٌ؛ دون تراكيبٌ معقدة أو جمل طويلٌة أو غي ٌر ذلك‪.‬‬
‫‪Translate the following into English.‬‬
‫‪ .1‬سوف أعطيكٌ الكتاب بشرط أن تعيدٌه لي غدا‪.‬‬
‫‪I will give you the book provided that you give it back to me tomorrow.‬‬
‫‪ .2‬ال ي ٌجوز ألي مواطن أن يتٌخلى عن جنسيتٌه‪.‬‬
‫‪No citizen may forfeit his nationality.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬كل المواطني ٌن سواسيةٌ امام القانون‪.‬‬
‫‪Citizens are all equal before law.‬‬
‫طة أن يبٌلغ صاحب العمل عن ذلك‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .4‬ي ٌجوز للموظف أن يأٌخذ أجازة عرضيةٌ شري ٌ‬
‫‪An employee may take a casual leave, provided that he shall inform/notify the‬‬
‫‪employer of that.‬‬
‫طة أن يٌفع لهم تعو يضٌا‪.‬‬ ‫سرح الموظفي ٌن شري ٌ‬ ‫‪ .5‬ي ٌجوز للمدي ٌر أن ي ٌ‬
‫‪The manager may lay off the employees provided that he shall pay them a‬‬
‫‪compensation.‬‬
‫‪ .6‬تنطبق على المدي ٌر األحكام الواردة في هذا القانون‪.‬‬
‫‪The provisions herein shall apply to the manager.‬‬
‫‪The provisions of this law shall apply to the manager.‬‬
‫‪ .7‬أشهد بصحة المعلومات الواردة في هذه الوثيقٌة‪.‬‬
‫‪I certify that the information herein is correct.‬‬

‫‪12‬‬
 Chapter 2: The Translation of Legal Texts

Since legal translation is bound by each language’s culture, it is not merely the
transcoding between the SL and the TL or the ‘rendering of legal texts from the SL
into the TL’. It is rather ‘a translation from one legal system into another – from the
source legal system into the target legal system’. It involves all the legal sub-text
types which are used in various legal settings, whether a court, a national or
international organization, a law book, a legal report, a birth certificate, a contract,
among many others.
Awareness of the role of legal translation increased from the nineteenth century
onwards up until the advent of the twentieth century. During the first decade of the
nineteenth century, Napoleon established his civil code known as the Napoleonic
Code (1804) which, though not the first code, has been so successful that it has left
its impact on the law of many other countries such as Germany. The second half of
the twentieth century witnessed the progress in the translation movement in general
and legal translation in particular. Legal translation has long been playing a vital role
in communication both nationally and internationally. This role has become even
more important due to globalization and the establishing of international bodies (for
example the UN). Thus, the need for multilingual legal translation has increased
significantly.
A number of features distinguish legal texts not only from those with general
language but also from other specialized texts. The avoidance of the use of standard
textual norms in favour of ‘deviant’ options is not at all arbitrary, but derives from
the main pragmatic principles typical of the legal field. The most important of these
principles concerns avoidance of ambiguity and precision of interpretation. This
criterion also explains the high degree of conservatism typical of the law. Fear that
new terms may lead to ambiguity favors the permanence of traditional linguistic

13
traits, which are pre- served even when they disappear from general language. Old
formulae are preferred to newly coined words because of their centuries-old history
and highly codified, universally accepted interpretations. The reverence for tradition
observed in legal language also reflects its close link with the ancient practice of
using special formulae for oaths or appointments, for drafting edicts and statutes, for
issuing laws, conferring honors, or assigning property. In this context, formulaic
language is used to ensure the action’s validity. These ‘frozen’ patterns of
language—which are sometimes referred to as ‘routines’ allow little variation in
form and can only be rendered by the means of similar routines in the target
language.
Another consequence of this principle is the high level of redundancy which
characterizes legal texts, generally due to the pleonastic use of lexical items. This
involves a violation of the principle of conciseness (which is a distinctive feature of
specialized discourse, since the number of lexemes employed is far higher than
necessary. For example, English legal drafters often employ two interchangeable
terms for the same concept: for example, new and novel, false and untrue, made and
signed, terms and conditions, able and willing. There is a historical reason for this
habit: each of these pairs often consists of a neo-Latin term coupled with an Anglo-
Saxon parallel—a practice rooted in the age following the Norman Invasion, when
England had two spoken languages: English (which accounts for the Anglo-Saxon
term) and Norman French. The naming of concepts through both languages ensured
comprehension by all sectors of the population. These historical considerations are
specific to the English tradition, so they may cause some problems to translators into
other languages that are not so richly equipped with synonymic terms.
One factor that characterizes legal texts is their great length and complexity. Written
legal discourse is encoded by far longer sentences than those found in general

14
language. For example, in one corpus of English legal texts, average sentence length
is around 55 words, twice as long as scientific texts and eight times longer than oral
texts. The considerable sentence length of legal texts is due to the high number of
items required to minimize ambiguity and misunderstandings. Each mention is
supported by specifications that clarify its identity.
Moreover, legal texts exhibit a high number of postmodifiers and relative clauses, in
contrast to other kinds of specialized discourse, which instead prefer pre-
modification. The rare elimination of relative clauses and the frequent use of long
postmodifiers lead to very long and syntactically complex sentences of this kind:
The Tenant will [...] pay for all gas and electric light and power which shall
be consumed or supplied on or to the Property during the tenancy and the
amount of the water rate charged in respect of the Property during the tenancy
and the amount of all charges made for the use of the telephone on the
Property during the tenancy or a proper proportion of the rental or other
recurring charges to be assessed according to the duration of the tenancy.
As can be seen, the considerable length of sentences in English legal writing is due
to the rare occurrence of devices that in ordinary language would condense the
surface length of a sentence, such as nominal attributes, pre-modification, main
clauses reduced to subordinates, omission of relative clauses, frequent use of non-
finite rather than finite verbs, and so on. If alongside such syntactic phenomena one
also considers the cases of lexical redundancy discussed above, the greater length
and complexity of sentences in English legal discourse becomes quite evident.
The need for clarity, with the continuous insertion of postmodifying clauses, also
gives rise to frequent syntactic discontinuities, determining the separation of main
verbs from their subjects or auxiliaries, as can be seen in the following sentence ,
whose main elements are highlighted:

If the Life Insured shall pay or cause to be paid to the Society or to the duly
authorized Agent or Collector thereof every subsequent premium at the due

15
 date thereof the funds of the Society shall on the expiration of the term of
years specified in the Schedule hereto or on the previous death of the Life
Insured become and be liable to pay to him/her or to his/her personal
representative or next-of-kin or assigns as the case may be the sum due and
payable hereunder in accordance with the Table of Insurance printed hereon
and the terms and conditions of the said Table (including any sum which may
have accrued by way of reversionary bonus) subject to any authorized
endorsement appearing hereon and to the production of this policy premium
receipts and such other evidence of title as may be required.
Although many legal texts could be redrafted in a more concise form with no loss of
meaning or increased ambiguity, compliance with tradition is stronger in legal
discourse than is the search for conciseness. Even though there are movements in
many countries advocating use of more ordinary language, most legal specialists
continue to follow the practices codified by centuries of use. Indeed, in many cases
translators are faced with the dilemma of whether to render the text imitating the
archaic and complex style of the original, or whether to adopt a simpler kind of
discourse, in line with the indications suggested by the supporters of the Plain
Language Movement.
The need for precision lies at the base of another relevant characteristic of legal texts:
the frequent references to parts of the text itself, specifying in the clearest way the
textual element being referred to. Note, for example, the frequent use of the ‘textual-
mapping’ adverbials such as hereto, herein, hereof, and thereto in legal texts. These
adverbials generally refer to a document or a part of it and specify its exact location
or identification; in other cases they accompany past participles which otherwise
might be interpreted erroneously.
The Translation of Legal Texts
Legal translation has been in great demand in the last few decades around the world
owing to globalization and increased contact and exchange between people and

16
states. A legal translation is mainly assessed on the basis of its adequacy to its
communicative purpose in the target culture. Indeed, in many multilingual countries,
all translations of a statute have the same authentic status and are considered parallel
texts. Thus, the principle of legal equivalence has emerged, which underlines the
consideration of the legal effects that a translated text will have in the target culture.

Although legal documents in all languages address similar issues, they do so in

distinctive ways, because of the different languages in which they are constructed
and the cultural differences of the societies in question and of their legal systems. A
legal translation is particularly challenging not only because of the culture-laden
nature of legal discourse, but also because of a need for formal correspondence
between equally authoritative versions of the same text. As Simms observes,
[…] the law must be seen to be the law, the same in all cases, regardless of
the language in which it is expressed. This means that both literality and
functionality are demanded of the translation: literality, because accuracy of
semantic substitution is what lends the law credibility as a single entity; and
functionality, since the law must (by definition of justice) perform the same
function for all those who live under it. But […] literality and functionality
tend to pull in opposite directions.
Legal translation is a very complex process, as it relies on many factors, the most
important being linguistic and legal interpretation of the source legal text as a whole
and its rendering in an appropriate equivalent text in another language. As Chromá
rightly asserts:
Translating legal texts means transferring legal information from one
language and culture into another language and culture, considering the
differences in the legal systems and the purpose of translation. […] Since the
legal information contained in the source text (ST) is often vague, indefinite,
and may also be ambiguous, it should be interpreted within the source
language (SL) first, the interpreted information translated into the target

17
 language (TL), and, finally, the translated information conformed to the
purpose of translation and genre of the target text (TT).
Therefore, the translator is required to undertake a process of conceptual analysis by
means of which he is able to identify and assess the most important differences
between the source and target legal systems as they are expressed in the text to be
translated. This conceptual analysis will enable the translator to find the most
suitable equivalent in the target language that will best serve the purpose of
translation.

(A) Linguistic Constraints

The lack of correspondence of specific features from different linguistic systems
may create considerable problems in the formulation and interpretation of legal texts.
For example, two linguistic features stand out in Chinese when compared with
European languages:
1. The absence of inflection (e.g. plural = singular nouns/verbs)
2. The possible omission of grammatically significant indicators (e.g. definite/
indefinite articles)
Therefore, when translating Chinese texts into English, important decisions have to
be made as regards the articles to be inserted and whether nouns are to be rendered
by a singular or plural form. The following example of a clause, which is literally
translated from Chinese would look like this:
cause serious environmental pollution accident.
This may be rendered in English in two different ways:
→cause a serious environmental pollution accident
→cause serious environmental pollution accidents
The adoption of either of these formulations is not at all neutral as it would imply a
different kind of responsibility on the part of the offender: does a person have to

18
cause more than one such accident to be criminally liable or just one accident is
sufficient?
Another translation problem caused by the linguistic structures of Chinese is that
words in a noun phrase can be linked without using a conjunction such as the English
and or or. This may create structural ambiguity. For example, the following literal
translation from Chinese:
resulting in serious loss to public private property.
Two interpretations of these words may be given, with very different legal
consequences:
→to public and private property
→to public or private property
Another example of ambiguity is provided by the following words: personal injury
death, which could be rendered as personal injury and death or personal injury or
death. This double possibility of translation is relevant when deciding whether death
must be involved in committing the offence.
The different structural features of the source and target languages may also induce
the translator to alter the phrasing and word order of the original formulation.
(B) Drafting Traditions
Important elements of a particular legal system are its drafting tradition and its
stylistic conventions. These may influence legal discourse significantly, as can be
seen in the differentiation between civil law and common law texts: the former are
mainly characterized by generality, while the latter prefer particularity. This stylistic
difference derives from a basic conceptual differentiation underlying the two legal
systems: in the civil law system the judiciary is entrusted with the task of applying
the general principles out- lined in the civil code to specific real-life situations; this
requirement therefore privileges stylistic choices such as generality and simplicity
of expression. The common law system, instead, is based on the principle of

19
precedence, by means of which the decisions taken by one judge become binding on
all subsequent similar cases; this system therefore regards certainty of expression as
the most valued quality in legal drafting. This conceptual differentiation is reflected
in the drafters’ stylistic choices: in common law legislation sentences are very long,
consisting of three or more main clauses, each modified by many subordinate
clauses; this remarkable sentence length depends on the great number of details to
be inserted and the need that specifications should be precise and clear. Civil law
sentences are shorter, with a less strict use of paragraphing; this makes the
understanding of the sentences easier, but renders the reconstruction of the
relationship between the various sentences more complex. This wide differentiation
between the two legal systems implies that the rendering of a text from one system
to the other requires a procedure that does not correspond to mere translation but to
a more complex process of ‘legal transposition’.

(C) Legal Terminology

Legal terminology is so culture-bound (the reasons being at the same time historical,
sociological, political, and jurisprudential) that a satisfactory translation of all the
legal terms of a text from one context to another is at times impossible. For example:
To translate into English technical words used by lawyers in France, in Spain, or in
Germany is in many cases an impossible task, and conversely there are no words in
the languages of the continent to express the most elementary notions of English
law. The words common law and equity are the best examples thereof; we have to
keep the English words […] because no words in French or in any other language
are adequate to convey the meaning of these words, clearly linked as they are to the
specific history of English law alone. Even the interpretation of such common legal
terms as contract, consumer, and damage may differ from country to country. As
regards the term damage, it points out that the type of damage which qualifies for

20
compensation in one legal system is not necessarily recognized as such in another,
even in legal systems that are closely related and even share the same language, such
as Austria and Germany. Another example of a common term having various
meanings is guarantee/garantie/ garanzia/Garantie, a term of frequent usage in
many European countries, which may however have several interpretations:
warranty, legal rights, extra rights of a buyer in case of defective goods
added to the buyer’s legal rights, a security, a pure consumer guarantee, or
a confirmation that something will not change. The adoption of a particular
term instead of another may give rise to ambiguity and misinterpretation.
Other excellent examples of translation discrepancies can easily be found in
texts relating to the process of building a common European legal framework.

Conclusion
As can be seen from the analysis carried out above, the translation of legal texts is
greatly conditioned by specific factors strictly depending on the different cultural,
linguistic, and legal environments in which it takes place. The discussion of certain
linguistic and textual aspects of legal texts carried out in this paper has provided
interesting insights into how translation procedures may be influenced by different
target readers with their own legal culture and drafting traditions. The analysis
reported here has thus favoured a better understanding of linguistic and textual
phenomena closely linked to a cross-cultural perspective. Translations of legal texts
have often been shown to display significant traces of the adjustment and adaptation
of the source documents to the legal language and culture of the target users. The
rendering of the final text is the result of the conscious and deliberate decisions taken
by translators, thus confirming the important conditioning role that local constraints
play in the translation of legal texts. As globalization trends intensify, the role of
national legal systems is likely to be diminished by transnational legal frameworks.
However, contrary to the general expectation, legal translation has not been

21
simplified, as a complex scheme of reference has become necessary that includes
both legal and linguistic competence on various levels.

Exercises
I. Translate the following passages into Arabic:
1. A course in legal translation is generally offered at graduate level or during
the fourth year of the undergraduate curriculum in the US (possibly in the
third year in European institutions). As the results of the student survey
suggest, students experience a wide gap between general translation courses
and the course on legal translation, leading to a possible cognitive overload.
Even though students indicate that their proficiency is adequate to take this
course, the high level of task complexity and the lack of a legal background
may lead to an increasing number of hours for completing tasks and weekly
assignments. High levels of task complexity (including the professional
workshop) may result in a lack of motivation and in discouragement toward
the translation profession.
2. The standards for translating texts in specialized fields have become
particularly rigorous with the increasing complexity of material and growing
demand for its translation. While translations simply aimed at communication
and produced by machine translation are proliferating, the need for reliable
and high-quality translations is also increasing. The demand for expert-
dependable legal translation is higher than ever, requiring competence-based
training in the field of legal translation. The integral development of legal
translation competence to be determined by an integrative process-oriented
approach based on specific interdisciplinary methodologies for practical
problem solving.
3. One common obstacle that stems from the specific nature of legal texts is a
degree of complexity in concept-term connection. Indeed, a flawed
understanding of a legal term may hamper the comprehension of the source
text and lead to concept distortion in the subsequent transfer. From an
intralinguistic perspective, legal terms can designate different
realities/concepts, depending on the legal context. From an interlinguistic
perspective, the absence of correspondence or subtle variation between

22
 concepts in source and target legal systems may result in terminological
incongruence. This is a distinct difficulty in legal translation, due to the variety
of realities and traditions in which laws evolve. From a comparative
perspective, terms are determined by system-bound meanings and should be
viewed within their conceptual systems for the purpose of terminological
consistency. Nevertheless, the choice of translation strategy must be guided
by the definition of the translation purpose and target system; translation
decisions are therefore primarily determined by extra-linguistic factors.
4. Legal translation does not systematically imply recourse to comparison
between laws. The use of neutral terminology and phraseology within some
supranational settings is recommended. In other cases, a pretranslation
exercise may be the first step in a comparative examination of the legal
systems involved. It might reveal divergent degrees of terminological
correspondence or simply the absence of legal concepts in the target legal
system. In the specific case at hand, the mapping of the national judiciaries
referred to highlights specificities related to the roles and functions of
prosecutorial and judicial authorities. It also brings to light an asymmetrical
organization of the judiciary. In essence, the transition from one judicial
national setting to another highlights variances in court degrees and
incompatibilities in legal roles and functions.
5. Like it or not, the law pervades every area of our lives, from accepting terms
and conditions when downloading an app to withdrawing money from an
ATM. We spend much of our lives completing administrative forms and being
processed on the basis of preexisting administrative categories, which support
and influence the decisions that will be taken and finally affect our personal
and professional lives. The law—and, as a consequence, the legal system of
any country—is a result of the historical, political, and cultural development
of its people. Legal texts are intricately connected to this development and
reflect the complexity of the legal, political, administrative, and social systems
they represent. Even in one’s own language, legal texts can be obscure and
incomprehensible, because legal language has a tendency to present even
simple ideas in complex, archaic language. If we take into account
globalization and increased population mobility in the 21st century, legal
translators undeniably have a vital role to play.

23
II. All the following VERBS relate to legal matters. Use them to complete the
sentences.
adjourn approve arbitrate bribe Dismiss
earn employ evict issue obligate
reach recommend rescind testify withhold

1. The jury was unable to ---------- a unanimous decision.

2. The new landlord has started proceeding to ---------- all the tenants.
3. I am sure the board will ---------- your proposal; it’s just the sort of thing
they’re looking for at the moment.
4. The policeman warned him that it was illegal to ---------- evidence.
5. How much dividend to these shares ----------?
6. The minister was desperate and even tried to ---------- the policeman to get the
charges dropped.
7. Unfortunately the committee has had to ---------- its earlier decision on the use
of local government premises.
8. This tribunal will now ---------- until tomorrow at ten a.m.
9. How many people does the company ----------?
10. Are you ready to ---------- in court that this is what happened?
11. The company is going public and they are going to ---------- 25,000 shares.
12. Do you realize that this contract will ---------- you to buy a minimum quantity
of goods each year?
13. This evidence is hearsay and I call upon the court to ---------- it.
14. The prisoner's behavior has been good and I am going to ---------- him for
parole.
15. The management and the union could not agree and they called in an industrial
tribunal to ----------.

III. ALL the following verbs relate to legal matters. Use the past tense forms to
complete the sentences.
accuse acquit arrest award confess
charge drop engage fine grant

24
 imprison plead release seize serve

1. After six hours of questioning the accused man ----------.

2. The government ---------- an amnesty to all political prisoners.
3. Her Boss ---------- her of stealing £ 250.
4. The secret police ---------- him for six months in a high security jail.
5. We ---------- the best commercial lawyer we could find to represent us but we
still lost the case.
6. The prisoner ---------- guilty to all charges.
7. On 12 August they ---------- of murder.
8. The policeman stopped the car and ---------- the driver.
9. The president ---------- the opposition leader from prison.
10. The court ---------- him ˆ$ 2000 for obtaining money by false pretenses.
11. After consideration, the plaintiff ---------- the case against his neighbor.
12. The customs ---------- the shipment of books.
13. He ---------- six months in local prison.
14. The Crown Court ---------- the plaintiff £ 75,000 in damages plus costs.
15. Two of the men were sent to prison, but the judge ---------- the third.

IV. Translate the following sentences into English.

‫المدير الدعوة الى انعقاد الجمعيةٌ العموميةٌ اذا طلب ذلك عدد من الشركاء ي ٌملكون ما ال يقٌل‬ ٌ ‫ ي ٌوجه‬.1
.‫عن نصف رأس المال‬
ٌ‫ السنة المالية‬: ۱٤ ‫ المادة‬.2
‫سمبر من كل‬ ٌ ‫تبدأ السنة الماليةٌ للشركة في األول من ينا ير وتنتهي في الحادي والثالثي ٌن من د ي‬
‫ باستثناء السنة الماليةٌ األولى والتي تبدأ من تاري ٌخ قيدٌ الشركة بالسجل التجاري وتنتهي في‬،‫عام‬
.‫سمبر من السنة نفسها‬ ٌ ‫الحادي والثالثي ٌن من د ي‬
‫شمل أي ترتيبٌ أو تفهم بي ٌن طرفي ٌن أو أكثر بخصوص حقوقهما‬ ٌ ‫ ”االتفاق“هو مفهوم موسع؛ ي‬.3
.‫ومسؤولياٌتهما نحو بعضهم البعض‬
.‫طلبه‬ٌ ‫ القاضي ال ي ٌمنح أي طرف أكثر مما‬.4
‫ تتغي ٌر اللغة القانونيةٌ بالفعل و يلٌجأ الكثي ٌر من المحامي ٌن والصائغي ٌن في هذه اآلونة إلى استخدام اللغة‬.5
‫اإلنجلي ٌزيةٌ المعاصرة عند كتابة المذكرات القانونيةٌ لكن هناك بعض المصطلحات التي مازالت‬
‫مستخدمة والتي ي ٌمكن االستعاضة عنها بالمصطلح اإلنجلي ٌزي لتعذر التوصل إلى مرادف دقي ٌق في‬
. ‫بعض األحوال‬

25
 Chapter 3: Legal Translation and Translation Theory

Introduction
In this age of globalization, the need for competent legal translators is greater than
ever. This perhaps explains the growing interest in legal translation not only by
linguists but also by lawyers, the latter especially over the past 10 years. In the past,
both linguists and lawyers have attempted to apply theories of general translation to
legal texts, such as Catford’s concept of situation equivalence, Nida’s theory of
formal correspondence; and more recently, Vermeer’s skopos theory.
While some legal translators seem content to apply principles of general translation
theory, others dispute the usefulness of translation theory for legal translation. The
latter view is not surprising since special methods and techniques are required in
legal translation, a fact that recognizes the importance of establishing a theory or at
least a theoretical framework that is practice oriented. By analyzing legal translation
as an act of communication in the mechanism of the law, this paper attempts to
provide a theoretical basis for legal translation within the framework of modern
translation theory. Thus, like other areas of translation, the translation of legal texts
is (or ought to be) receiver oriented.
Vested with the force of law, authenticated translations enable the mechanism of the
law to function in more than one language. Translations of legislation, treaties and
conventions, judicial decisions, and contracts are authoritative only if they have been
approved and/or adopted in the manner prescribed by law. In accordance with the
theory of original texts, all authenticated translations are just as inviolate as the
original text(s). Hence, they are not regarded as “mere translations” but as originals
and are not even referred to as translations.

26
Role of the Receiver in Modern Translation Theory
One of the main tasks of translation theorists is to identify criteria to aid translators
select an adequate translation strategy. This presupposes, of course, that the
translator is vested with the authority to make such decisions. For a long time the
main factor determining translation strategy was text type, thus leading to the
creation of text typologies, the first of which were based on subject matter. In 1971
Katherina Reiss made a significant contribution to general translation theory by
proposing a text typology that takes into account not only the subject matter but also
the function of the particular text type. The new emphasis on function turned the
attention of translation theorists to the pragmatic aspects of texts, causing many of
them to turn their backs on linguistic theories of translation. Shifting the emphasis
from interlingual to cultural transfer, German scholars, like Vermeer, now view
translation as a “cross-cultural event” (Snell- Hornby) embedded in an act of
communication. Released from his/her commitment to reproduce the source text, the
translator is a text producer who creates a new text on the basis of the communicative
factors of reception in each situation. At first it was believed that translation strategy
is determined primarily by the type of audience to whom the target text is directed,
thus leading to the “discovery” that the same text can be translated in different ways
for different receivers. Thereafter, the main emphasis was shifted to the
communicative function or purpose of a translation. As in Hans Vermeer’s skopos
theory, the functional approach requires translators to produce a new text that
satisfies the cultural expectations of the target receivers for texts with the intended
skopos.
Skopos Theory
In essence, the skopos theory has modernized translation theory by offering an
alternative to traditional translation. In traditional translation, where the translator is

27
expected to reconstruct the form and substance of the source text in the target
language, the function of the target text is always the same as that of the source text.
While Vermeer insists that the skopos theory also applies to traditional translations
without a shift in function, it clearly focuses on translations whose function differs
from that of the source text. Departing from tradition, the functional approach
presumes that the same text can be translated in different ways depending on the
communicative function of the target text. Guided by loyalty to the skopos, the
translator is free to produce a new text that differs considerably from the source text
in both form and substance.
Vermeer’s claim that the skopos theory applies to all texts has recently been
criticized by many people. Vermeer insists that it is a general theory, meaning that
“no exceptions are known”. In earlier publications Vermeer used the example of an
insurance contract to prove his point. Attempting to show that contracts can be
translated in different ways depending on their communicative function, he
concluded that target-language formulae are to be used in translations intended for
use in practice, whereas source language ones are to be imitated if the translation is
to be used as court evidence . Vermeer’s example oversimplifies the decision-
making process of legal translators to the point that it is misleading. By suggesting
that the translation strategy for contracts is determined primarily by function, he
disregards the fact that legal texts are subject to legal rules governing their usage in
the mechanism of the law. When selecting a translation strategy for legal texts, legal
considerations must prevail. In regard to contracts, the decision whether and to what
extent target-language formulae are adequate is determined primarily by the law
governing the particular contract, not function.

28
Legal Translation and Translation Strategy
For the sake of preserving the letter of the law, legal translators have traditionally
been bound by the principle of fidelity to the source text. As a result, it was generally
accepted that the translator’s task is to reconstruct the form and substance of the
source text as closely as possible. Thus literal translation (the stricter the better) was
the golden rule for legal texts and is still advocated by some lawyers today. For
example, Didier maintains that translations of legislation and other normative texts
require absolute literalness. At the same time he says that judgments can be
translated more freely, thus recognizing that text type also plays a role in determining
the strategy of a legal. In regard to translation strategy, literal translation is advocated
regardless of text type and function. In particular, little to no room is given to
freedom in translations of texts of national legislation (authentic or non-authentic),
international treaties and conventions, as well as instruments of primary and
secondary Community law (treaties, regulations, directives, etc.).
In view of the special nature of legally binding texts, it is agreed that substance must
always prevail over form in legal translation. Nonetheless, the issue of whether
authenticated translations should be literal or free is controversial. As practice
shows, translation techniques and methods often vary from jurisdiction to
jurisdiction, even for the same type of text. In regard to legislative texts, it is agreed
that authenticated translations must be comprehensible. It is the words that count in
translations of normative texts.
Unlike Vermeer’s example, there is no shift of function in authenticated translations
of legislation, and other normative instruments for that matter. Nonetheless, as seen
above, authentic legislative texts are translated differently in different jurisdictions,
thus suggesting that generalizations about translation strategy based primarily on
function are insufficient in legal translation. In order to identify which criteria are

29
decisive in determining a translation strategy for legal texts, it is necessary to analyze
the communicative factors in each situation.
Plurilingual Communication in the Mechanism of the Law
For our purpose, translation is regarded as an act of communication between text
producers and text receivers. As in general communication, a distinction is made in
legal communication between direct and indirect receivers or addresses. The indirect
receivers of legislation include all persons affected by the particular instrument,
including the general public. On the other hand, the direct receivers are the
specialists empowered to interpret and apply the particular instrument, i.e., the
competent law-applying organ(s). The groups of direct receivers include persons
trained to administer the law (public officers in government and administrative
agencies), as well as persons responsible for the administration of justice, i.e., the
judiciary. Since most legal disputes are ultimately adjudicated by a court of law, it
follows that the primary receivers of legislative texts are judges. Thus it can be said
that communication in the legislative process occurs primarily between two groups
of specialists: lawmakers who make the law (policymakers, drafters, legislators) and
lawyers who interpret and apply the laws (administrators, judges). In plurilingual
jurisdictions there is a third group of participants: translators, revisers, and
coordinators.
Traditionally, the translator has been regarded as a mediator between the source text
producer(s) and the target text receivers. In fact, this is still the case in linguistically
oriented theories of translation in which translation is generally regarded as a two or
three-step process of transcoding. Today, the notion of the translator as a mediator
has been challenged by theorists who regard the translator as an independent text
producer who produces a new text based on criteria determined by the target
receivers. Turning their backs on the source text, Vermeer now views the translator

30
as a text designer whose task is to “design a target text capable of functioning
optimally in the target culture” (Vermeer).
Today, all the authenticated texts of a legal instrument are usually equally authentic.
This means that each authentic text is deemed independent for the purpose of
interpretation by the courts and that no single text (not even the original) should
prevail in the event of an ambiguity or textual diversity between the various language
versions. As equally authentic instruments of the law, parallel legal texts can be
effective only if all indirect addresses are guaranteed equality before the law,
regardless of the language of the text. To guarantee the underlying principle of equal
treatment, plurilingual communication in the law is based on the presumption that
all the authentic texts of a legal instrument are equal in meaning, effect, and intent.

While it is generally accepted that translators cannot be expected to produce parallel

texts that are equal in meaning, they are expected to produce texts that are equal in
legal effect. To produce a text that leads to the same results in practice, the translator
must be able “to understand not only what the words mean and what a sentence
means, but also what legal effect it is supposed to have, and how to achieve that legal
effect in the other language”.
Whereas the presumption of equal meaning is subordinate to that of equal effect,
both are subordinate to the presumption of equal intent. Hence, the translator should
strive to produce a text that expresses the intended meaning and achieves the
intended legal effects in practice. In jurisprudence this usually implies the legislative
intent (legislation), the intent of the States parties (treaties, conventions), or the will
of the contracting parties (contracts). This issue raises sensitive questions about the
translator’s role as interpreter. It suffices to say that it is generally accepted that the
translator must understand the source text but not interpret it in the legal sense.
Above all, the translator must avoid value judgments (to the extent possible). In this

31
sense, the view is generally held that the translator’s task is to convey what “is said”
in the source text and not what he/she believes it “ought to say.” This principle is
currently being challenged in jurisdictions where translator/co-drafters enjoy greater
decision-making authority. Similarly, the principle of fidelity to the source text is
losing ground to the principle of fidelity to the single instrument. From the legal
point of view, all authentic language versions of a particular legal instrument are
regarded as constituting a single instrument. Thus the translator’s task is to produce
a text that preserves the unity of the single instrument, i.e., its meaning, legal effect,
and intent. Since the success of an authenticated translation is measured by its
interpretation and application in practice, it follows that perfect communication
occurs when all the parallel texts of a legal instrument are interpreted and applied by
the courts in accordance with the uniform intent of the single instrument. Thus it can
be said that the ultimate goal of legal translation is to produce parallel texts that will
be interpreted and applied uniformly by the courts. This is known as uniform
interpretation and application.
Obstacles to Uniform Interpretation and Application
The greatest obstacle to uniform interpretation and application is undoubtedly the
incongruity of legal systems. The fact that each national law has its own
terminological apparatus and underlying conceptual structure, its own rules of
classification, sources of law, methodological approaches and socio-economic
principles, makes it extremely difficult—in some cases impossible—to achieve
uniform interpretation and application in practice. Since a legal text derives its
meaning from a particular legal system or systems, it follows that the chances of
judges attaching the same meaning to the authentic texts of a single instrument are
greatest when all language versions derive their meaning from the same legal
system. In such cases, the source and target legal systems are the same, thus greatly

32
simplifying the interpretation process. This is the case when receivers interpret the
parallel texts of the national legislation of plurilingual countries with one legal
system, as in Switzerland, Belgium, and Finland. The process of interpretation is
considerably more complex when more than one legal system comes into play. In
such instances, the source and target legal systems differ, thus posing the threat that
the text or parts thereof will be interpreted according to conflicting legal systems.
This occurs in plurilingual countries with two legal systems or a mixed legal system,
such as Canada, India, Israel, South Africa, Sri Lanka, and, more recently, China. In
such cases the chances of achieving uniform interpretation and application are
greater if the legal systems in question belong to the same legal family.
The situation is similar in international law and European law. Despite efforts to
unify international law and develop a European law, international and even
European instruments are forced to resort to institutions and concepts from national
legal systems or legal families. As a result, such instruments frequently derive their
meaning from a number of legal systems. Above all, however, it is the changed
circumstances of the communication process that pose the greatest threat to
interpretation and application in international and supranational law. It is generally
accepted that each increase in the number of authentic texts complicates not only the
production but also the interpretation of parallel texts, increasing the chances of
linguistic diversity and placing additional burden on judges, who are expected to
consult all the language versions and determine the common meaning of the single
instrument. Even more detrimental, however, is the increased number of States
parties and hence courts participating in the interpretation process. Whereas
plurilingual countries have succeeded in promoting uniform interpretation and
application by establishing effective controls in their municipal judicial systems, this
has not yet been achieved in international law where most disputes are resolved by

33
national courts. Diversity in the decisions of national courts is inevitable and can
have devastating effects on international treaties and conventions.
Judicial Control and Translation Strategy
Lawyers realized at an early date that one of the best ways to promote uniform
interpretation and application is to establish effective judicial control over the
interpretation process. To avoid the mistake of international lawyers, European
lawyers created an effective judicial mechanism that limits the jurisdiction of
national courts and also makes them accountable to a specialized court (European
Court of Justice) with special powers to ensure the uniform interpretation and
application of European law. This, in turn, has affected translation strategy in the
EU, enabling translators to enjoy a certain amount of freedom despite the large
number of parallel texts of EU instruments. Moreover, the European Court has
developed special methods of plurilingual interpretation that focus on broad
principles rather than narrow wording; this is also said to have a notable impact on
translation.
For their part, translators are encouraged to limit judicial discretion by producing
texts that are clear and unambiguous. Since most disputes involving textual diversity
turn on terminological questions, translators need to exercise special caution
especially when selecting equivalents. By favoring a certain type of equivalent, the
translator effectively sends a signal to the courts as to how that term should be
interpreted, i.e., according to which legal system it should be defined. Confusion
arises when the signal is unclear or imprecise, thus forcing judges to use their
discretion to ascertain the intended meaning.
Exercises
I. Translate the following passages into Arabic.
1. Translation, like interpretation, is not the automatic conversion of words from
English into the non-English language. Rather, the translator or interpreter

34
 identifies the meaning of what is stated in English and finds the most
appropriate equivalent in the non-English language (or vice versa when
translating/interpreting into English). The importance of conveying meaning
instead of translating words is especially crucial in the legal setting because
non-English languages often lack direct translations of the words used in the
U.S. courts. Both seemingly basic concepts like “domestic abuse” as well as
complex terms such as “stare decisis” can be challenging to translate
depending on the language, and different translators may come up with
different, yet equally accurate translations.
2. It is important that the terminology used in various versions of translations
match. For example, the term “domestic abuse” may appear in translated
materials such as an informational brochure, order for protection application,
summons, courthouse signage, etc. If different translators work on these
translations at different times, it could be that each will contain different
equivalents of “domestic abuse.” To avoid confusion it is essential to develop
and maintain a translation glossary that is available to everyone in the
organization who works with translators. This will ensure that terminology is
consistent among translators and translations in your jurisdiction.
3. Culture-specific terms pose difficulties when translating between two
different languages. Because of this, the TR is confronted with a whole range
of Islamic concepts that are very specific and require a strong legal
background. The solution we may suggest is that the translator can provide an
explanation in the form of a footnote. It is proposed that the technique of
adaptation can be an effective means of overcoming the differences between
two incongruent cultures.
4. I state that my aforementioned wife with whom I have not consummated the
marriage and have not been alone is irrevocably divorced from my
matrimonial authority and my contract of marriage once and for all and I
request that be recorded and that she be notified. Whereas a state of matrimony
previously existing between them, non-consummation of the marriage and not
being together have been ascertained to us by his avowal and the testimony of
the aforementioned identifiers, I have informed him he has concluded an
irrevocable divorce of his aforementioned wife.
II. Translate the following passages into English.

35
 ‫‪ .1‬نشهد أن السيدٌ فالن عمل لد ينٌا بوظيفٌة محاسب من ‪ ۲۲۱۲/۲/۱‬الى ‪۲۲۱۱/۲/۱‬م‪.‬‬
‫‪ .2‬باإلشارة إلى الموضوع أعاله‪ ،‬نرفق لكم الوكالة القانونيةٌ المطلوبة‪.‬‬
‫طال ة ٌ حسب األصول‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .3‬ي ٌجب توثي ٌق الشهادة لدى الكاتب بالعدل ثم تصد يقٌها لغا يةٌ السفارة اإل ي ٌ‬
‫‪ .4‬يؤٌسفنا أن نخبركم برفض طلبكم‪.‬‬
‫طكم علما أن القاضي قد أصدر حكما لمصلحتكم‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .5‬نحي ٌ‬
‫‪ .6‬نٌشأ عن العقد التزامات تقع على الطرفي ٌن‪.‬‬
‫‪ .7‬لم ي ٌكن لدى المدان المال الكافي ليعٌترض على قرار المحكمة فسمح له تأجي ٌل دفع الرسوم المذكورة‬
‫سابقا‪.‬‬
‫‪ .8‬ينٌظم هذا القانون شؤون األسرة‪.‬‬
‫‪ .9‬تقبل المحكمة شهادة المترجم بصفته خبي ٌرا إذا كان عالما باللغتي ٌن بعد حلفه الي ٌمي ٌن‪.‬‬
‫طلب إلى المحكمة إ يقٌاع الحجر على أحد أقاربه المصاب بالعته أو‬ ‫‪ .11‬ي ٌحق ألي شخص يتٌمتع باألهليةٌ أن ي ٌ‬
‫الجنون‪.‬‬
‫‪ .11‬يتٌولى إدارة الشركة مجلس إدارة متكون من عشرة أعضاء‪.‬‬
‫‪ .12‬مسؤوليةٌ المساهمي ٌن محدودة بقدر قي ٌمة أسهمهم‪.‬‬
‫‪ .13‬لغة الدولة الرسميةٌ هي اللغة العربيةٌ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .14‬ي ٌحدد القانون علم الدولة وشعارها وأوسمتها ونشيدٌها الوطني‪.‬‬
‫‪ .15‬المبادئ السياٌسيةٌ‪ :‬المحافظة على االستقالل والسياٌدة‪ ،‬وصون كياٌن الدولة وأمنها واستقرارها‪ ،‬والدفاع‬
‫عنها ضد كل عدوان‪.‬‬
‫‪ .16‬ال ي ٌجوز تشغي ٌل األحداث من الجنسي ٌن قبل سن الخامسة عشرة‪.‬‬
‫شهر إفالس التاجر بناء على طلبه أو طلب أحد دائنيهٌ أو االدعاء العام‪ ،‬و ي ٌجوز للمحكمة أن تقضي‬ ‫‪ .17‬ي ٌ‬
‫بإشهار إفالس التاجر من تلقاء ذات‪.‬‬
‫ير أن يقٌوم بجمي ٌع التصرفات التي تتفق وغرض الشركة ما لم ينٌص عقد الشركة على تقييدٌ‬ ‫‪ .18‬للمد ٌ‬
‫سلطته‪.‬‬
‫‪III. Choose the correct translation.‬‬
‫‪ .1‬القانون مجموعة من القواعد الرسميةٌ‪.‬‬
‫‪a) Law is group of official rules.‬‬
‫‪b) Law is a group of official rules.‬‬
‫‪ .2‬تجاوز االشارة الحمراء مخالف للقانون‪.‬‬
‫‪a) Running red light is against the law.‬‬
‫‪b) Running a red light is against the law.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬تهدف القوان ٌ‬
‫ين إلى الحفاظ على السالم في المجتمع‪.‬‬
‫‪a) Laws are keep peace in the society‬‬
‫‪b) Laws they are keep peace in the society.‬‬
‫‪c) Laws keep peace in the society.‬‬

‫‪36‬‬
d) D. Keep peace in the society.
.‫ لم ي ٌكن في الماض السحي ٌق قواني ٌن مكتوبة‬.4
a) Long ago, there were no laws written.
b) Long ago, there were no written laws.
.‫ أصبحت القواني ٌن ذات طبيعٌة رسميةٌ ثم أصبحت مكتوبة‬.5
a) Laws became formal and then written.
b) Laws became formal then they were written
.‫ هذا هو القانون المعد ل للقانون سابق الذكر‬.6
a) This is the law amend the aforementioned law.
b) This is the law amended the aforementioned law.
c) This is the law amending the aforementioned law.
.‫ دون الرومان في القدم قوانينهم‬.7
a) Romans in ancient times, they wrote down their laws.
b) Romans, in ancient times, they wrote down their laws.
c) In ancient times, wrote down their laws.
d) Romans, in ancient times, wrote down their laws.
.ٌ‫ تستمد قوانيننٌا جذورها من المنظومة القانونيةٌ الرومانية‬.8
a) Our laws from the Roman legal system.
b) Our laws are derived from the Roman legal system.
c) Our laws they are derived from the Roman legal system.
d) Are derived from the Roman legal system.
.‫ ي ٌجب فصل القضيةٌ وفقا للقضا يا ٌ السابقة المشابهة لها‬،‫ بموجب القانون اإلنجلي ٌزي‬.9
a) Under the English law, a case according to previous similar cases.
b) Under the English law, a case must be decided according to previous similar
cases.
.‫ البرلمان هو الذي يقٌر القوانين‬.11
a) The parliament it passes laws.
b) The parliament is pass laws.
c) The parliament passes laws.
.‫ ما زال القانون االنجلي ٌزي مهما حتى ي ٌومنا هذا‬.11
a) Until today, the English law it is important.
b) Until today, the English law important.
c) Until today, the English law is important.
.‫ عادة ما نجد األحكام القانونيةٌ في التشريعٌات والدساتي ٌر واالجتهادات القضائية‬.12

37
Legal provisions ---------- in legislation, constitutions and judicial opinions.
a) find b) found c) are found d) finding

.‫ هناك جهات مختصة في الدولة تصدر القوانين‬.13

Special authorities in the state ---------- laws.
a) enact b) enacting c) are enacted d) have enacted

.‫ اختلفت وظائف القانون عبر التاريخ‬.14

The functions of the law ---------- throughout history.
a) varied b) vary c) have varied d) are varying

.‫ يفٌرض القانون في المجتمع من خالل مؤسسات مختصة‬.15

The law ---------- in the society by competent authorities.
a) enforce b) to enforce c) enforcing d) is enforced

.‫ هناك فرق بي ٌن القانون والعرف‬.16

Law ---------- from customs.
a) is distinguished b) distinguishes c) distinguished d) distinguishing

.‫ تساعد قواني ٌن العقوبات في حفظ األمن بالمجتمع‬.17

Penal codes help in ---------- peace in the society.
a) maintain b) maintained c) maintaining d) is maintained

.‫ استخدم القانون كأداة إلحداث التغي ٌر االجتماعي‬.18

The law ---------- as a tool of social change.
a) has been used b) used c) using d) uses

.‫ بعض القواني ٌن تحظر التمي ٌز‬.19

Some laws ---------- discrimination.
a) are prohibit b) prohibiting c) prohibited d) prohibit

.ٌ‫ تسري أحكام القانون التجاري على المعامالت التجارية‬.21

38
 Commercial transactions ---------- by the provisions of the Trade Law.
a) govern b) are governed c) governing d) governed

.‫صبح القانون مفرغا من مضمونه ما لم ي ٌمتثل له الناس‬

ٌ ‫ ي‬.21
A law is empty if it ---------- by people.
a) not obeyed b) does not obeyed c) is not obeyed d) not obeying

.‫ المحاكم هي مؤسسات يلٌجأ الي ٌها الناس لحل خالفاتهم‬.22

Courts ---------- institutions to which people resort to have their disputes resolved.
a) are b) is c) have d) has

.‫ يتٌطور القانون بتطور الناس‬.23

Law ---------- as people develop.
a) evolve b) evolving c) is evolved d) evolves

.‫ قبل انشاء منظومة السجن الحد ثٌة كانت بعض المجتمعات تطبق عقوبة االعدام على كث ٌر من الجرائم‬.24
Before the development of the prison system, many societies ---------- the death
punishment on several crimes.
a) were applied b) are applying c) had been applied d) applied

.‫ من مبادئ العدالة ضرورة القصاص من القاتل‬.25

It is justice that a killer must ----------.
a) dead b) dying c) die d) died

.‫ للقاضي أن ي ٌجبر الشاهد على الحضور‬.26

The judge may compel the witness to ---------- before the court.
a) appear b) appearing c) appeared d) was appear

.‫ لم يتٌمكن المشتكى عليهٌ من اثبات حجة غياٌبه‬.27

The respondent ---------- to prove an alibi.
bailed appeared pleaded failed

39
 .‫ على الغرامات المالية‬۱۲ ‫ تطبق أحكام المادة‬.28
The provisions of Article (10) shall ---------- to fines.
a) applying b) applied c) apply d) had applied

.‫ في بعض الحاالت ي ٌكون قرار المحكمة قطعيا‬.29

In some cases, the ---------- is final.
a) decision court b) court of the decision c) court’s decision

.‫ األهم من المحاكمة هي قدرة الشرطة على تنفيذٌ قرار القاضي‬.31

What is more important than the trial is the police’s ability to ---------- the judge’s
decision.
a) executing b) execute c) executed d) execution

.‫ قبل تسلم المي ٌراث على الورثة أن ي ٌحضروا حجة حصر ارث من المحكمة‬.31
Before ---------- their inheritance, the heirs must bring a deed of settlement of a
succession.
a) receive b) they receiving c) received d) receiving

32.The petition has been accepted by the judge.

.‫ قبل القاضي االستدعاء‬.33
.‫) تم قبول االستدعاء من قبل القاضي‬a
34.The law firm filed a petition after it was conflicted out of the case.
---------- ‫ قدمت شركة المحاماة استدعاء بعد أن‬.35
.‫ استبعدت من القضيةٌ لتضارب المصالح‬.a
.‫) تم استبعادها من القضيةٌ لتضارب المصالح‬b
36.The case was heard and decided by X judge.
.‫) نظر في القضيةٌ وفصلها القاضي‬a
.‫) تم النظر في القضيةٌ والفصل في ٌها بواسطة القاضي‬b
37.The case was remanded to the Court of First Instance.
. ٌ‫) تم اعادة أوراق القضيةٌ الى محكمة البدا ية‬a
.‫) اعيدٌت أوراق القضيةٌ الى محكمة البداية‬b

40
 Chapter 4: General Features of English Legal Language

It is hard to fully appreciate the nature of legal language without having some
familiarity with its features. The following sections describe the general
characteristic features of English and Arabic legal language.
I. Lexical Features of English Legal Language:
English legal terminology is naturally Anglo-Saxon with all the characteristic
features of native vocabulary. The range of vocabulary in legal language is
extremely wide, since almost anything may become the subject of legislation. Legal
language has the following lexical features:
1. Frequent use of Old and Middle English words:
Archaic expressions borrowed from old English, and are not normally used in
modern Standard English, except for legal documents and perhaps poetry, are one
of the distinctive features of legal language. Words such as, hereof, thereof, and
whereof (and further derivatives, including -at, -in, -after, -before, -with, -by, -
above, -on, -upon etc.) are not often used in ordinary English. They are used in
legal English primarily as a way of avoiding the repetition of names of things in
the document, very often, the document itself, for example, "the parties hereto"
instead of “the parties to this contract”. Moreover, -er, -or, and -ee name endings
in names and titles, such as employer and employee, or lessor and lessee, in which
the reciprocal and opposite nature of the relationship is indicated by the use of
alternative endings. This practice is derived from Latin.
2. Use of argot:
Context plays an important role in determining the language of the law. For
instance, he came to a conclusion that the language used in contracts, notices, and
jury instructions, which is addressed to both lawyers and laymen is not the same

41
 language used among lawyers or in specialized legal documents, books or
articles, because in this case, the use of argot or specialized language was needed.
Amongst these are alleged, due care, purported etc.
3. Frequent use of formal words and phrases:
The use of “formal words” is a distinctive feature of the language of the law.
They are characterized by being dignified, ceremonial, and polite expressions.
The preference of “shall” over “will” is seen as a formal feature in “Law shall
prevail”. In legal drafting, non-standard terms are never used. Instead, highly
formal words are usually employed. For instance, the word deem instead of
consider, the word liable instead of responsible.
4. Deliberate use of words and expressions with flexible meanings:
Lawyers make use of a good number of flexible words and phrases in their legal
writings. Amongst these are the following: adequate, approximately, clean and
neat condition, promptly etc.
5. Terms of art:
Legal English employs a great deal of terminology that has a technical meaning
and is not generally familiar to the layman e.g. waiver, restraint of trade,
restrictive covenant, promissory estoppel, contributory negligence, judicial
notice, injunction, prayer etc.
6. Phrases expressing extreme precision:
a) absolute, such as: all, none, never;
b) restrictions, such as: and, no more and no other purpose;
c) unlimiting phrases, such as: including but limited to, shall not be deemed to
limit etc.
7. Everyday English words that when used in law have different meanings
from the everyday usage.

42
 For example, the familiar term consideration refers, in legal English, to contracts,
and means, an act, forbearance or promise by one party to a contract that
constitutes the price for which the promise of the other party is bought. Other
words often used in peculiar contexts in legal English include construction,
prefer, redemption, furnish, hold, and find.
8. Use of doublets and triplets.
There is a curious historical tendency in legal English to string together two or
three words to convey what is usually a single legal concept. Examples of this
include “will and bequeath,” “cease and detest,” “null and void,” “fit and proper,”
“perform and discharge”. Such constructions must be treated with caution, since
sometimes the words used mean, for practical purposes, exactly the same thing,
and sometimes they do not quite do so.
9. Unusual prepositional phrases:
There is a high frequency of “as to” in American legal English, and an intensive
occurrence of “in event of” instead of “if” and “any”.
10. Lack of punctuation:
One of the most unusual aspects of old legal drafting is the almost complete lack
of punctuation. This was due to a widespread belief among lawyers and judges
that punctuation was unimportant, potentially confusing, and that the meaning of
legal documents should be gathered solely from the words used and the context
in which they were used.
11. Use of unfamiliar pronouns:
For example, the same, the said, the aforementioned etc. The use of such
pronouns in legal texts is interesting since very frequently they do not replace the
noun, which is the whole purpose of pronouns, but are used to supplement them.
Legal drafter would rather repeat the same noun over and over again instead of

43
 using a pronoun. Such tendency is alleged to help with accuracy and precise
reference.
II. Syntactic Features of English Legal Texts
At the sentence level, legal English sentences “are, almost without exception,
complex”. Syntactically, English legal language is characterized by the following
features:
1. Nominalization:
Nominalization is the use of nouns in preference to verbs as in procedural
sections in passive clauses with agent deleted. There is a marked preference for
postmodification in the nominal groups, as in “any installment then remaining
unpaid of the rent” (postmodifiers are shown in italics).
2. Passives:
Legal drafters have a tendency to use passive forms rather than active forms
because passive permits an indirect and formal tone with which lawyers
instinctively feel comfortable. However, this can lead to lack of clarity.
3. Wh- deletion:
The deletion of wh-form is common in legal English e.g.: herein (which is).
4. Conditionals:
Complex conditionals are very common in legal English.
5. Prepositional phrases:
For example, to give time for the payment of any purchase.
6. Sentence length and complexity:
The length and complexity of sentences in legal register in English is seldom
found in other registers. For example: To sign agreements, conveyances,
transfer, declarations, affidavits, petitions, statements and another other

44
 documents in my name and on my behalf that are necessary to affect a sale of
the property.
7. Unique determiners:
For example: “such” and “said”.
8. Impersonality:
Texts are typically cast in the third person. It is inappropriate to use he/she in a
document to refer to a person whose sex is unknown. In such cases, a number of
gender-neutral pronouns such as anyone, everyone and no one and a number of
other workarounds can be used.
9. Negatives:
Multiple negatives are common in legal English register. They are expressed in
“unless,” “except” etc.
10. Binominal and multinominal expressions:
These are parallel structures, i.e. two words belonging to the same form or class.
Legal draftsmen attempt at precision both “by choice of particular words and
phrases, and by devices of composition such as numbering, lettering, indexing”.
11. Unusual word order:
At times, the word order used in legal documents appears distinctly strange. For
example, “the provisions for termination hereinafter appearing or will at the
cost of the borrower forthwith comply with the same.” There is no single clear
reason explaining this phenomenon, although the influence of French
grammatical structures is certainly a contributing factor.
12. Use of phrasal verbs:
Phrasal verbs play a large role in legal English, and are often used in a quasi-
technical sense. For example, “parties enter into contracts, put down deposits,
serve upon other parties, and write off debts”, and so on.

45
 13. The Usage of shall may and may not:
Shall is used in official documents to show a law, command, promise, etc. For
example, “All payments shall be made by the end of the month”, shall here is
different from the auxiliary verb which indicates the future tense." May is used
to refer to the possibility that someone may do something in a certain way, or that
something may be done in a certain manner. For instance, “The Second Party
may assign this Agreement to the third party without a prior written consent of
the First Party”. May not is used to indicate the opposite as in “The Second Party
may not assign this Agreement to the third party without a prior written consent
of the First Party.”
III. Discourse-level Features
In English legal discourse, the discourse level features substantially differ from
those of other forms of discourse in English. The formality of the style and its
strict wording design, long sentences, and intention of avoiding ambiguity, make
the English legal register a structure of its own, i.e. a unique fusion of scientific
and literary style. Legal English is characterized by the following features at
discourse level:
1. Anaphora- although pronouns are avoided in legal registers, repetition of
personal subject nouns are used to avoid ambiguity.
2. Connection; archaic terms referring to specific times, places, persons or
things such as “herein after” and “aforesaid”, work as cohesive devices.
3. Substitution and ellipsis are very rare in occurrence in legal English registers,
yet there are few examples of both cohesive devices Wh- deletion is seen as a
feature of ellipsis.
4. Lexical cohesion- lexical reiteration in English register is outstanding. Since
pronouns are avoided, lexical items are mostly repeated within the sentences
or successive sentences.

46
 Chapter 5: General Features of Arabic Legal Language

In comparison to English legal discourse discussed in Lecture 7, Arabic legal

discourse has its own idiosyncratic features and distinctive structures. Legal Arabic
texts are similar in many aspects to their English counterparts. Nonetheless, because
of the linguistic differences between the two languages in form, structure, style,
meaning, and organization etc., the two registers differ considerably.
A closer look at the legal register of the two languages will demonstrate that Arabic
legal texts make more use of grammatical cohesion through reference and
conjunction and of infinite sentences than their English counterparts do. Arabic legal
texts make less use of passive constructions and archaic expressions. The syntactic
choice, i.e. none-finite phrases which are found in English are non-existent in
Arabic, for Arabic possesses only clauses, i.e. finite clauses.
As regards layout i.e. text structure and organization, the legal register (and of course
other registers) in English and Arabic differ from each other to a large extent.
Whereas English relies heavily on paragraphing and organization of sentences in
terms of punctuation, capitalization and italicization, Arabic rarely does so.
Although Arabic has many forms: Kufic, Naskh, Diwani, etc., they all tend to follow
the same way of writing structure and paragraphing in different texts. The fact that
nearly all Arabic words are written in cursive and so separate letters are not used
(except in some acronyms and abbreviations), does not allow for capitalization.
I. Lexical Features
Arabic legal language, like English legal language, has its own technical
terminology. The following are most prominent lexical features of Arabic legal
language:
1. Doublets: In Arabic, word pairs used as redundancies to serve emphasis are
common as in:

47
 This establishment announces and declares
‫ان هذه المؤسسة تعلن وتصرح‬
2. Binominals: These are collocations of antonyms, synonyms or near-
synonym. In Arabic legal texts, binomials are not necessarily more common
than other Arabic registers. The motivation for using binominals in Modern
Written Arabic is primarily stylistic. Examples: “sooner or later”, “peace and
security”, “round trip”.
---------- ‫ ذهابا واياٌبا‬---------- ‫ األمن والسالم‬---------- ‫عاجال أم اجال‬
3. Descriptive epithets: such epithets are intended to lay emphasis on and
further modify the noun. For example: The two high contracting parities
confirm
‫يؤٌ كد الطرفان السمياٌن المتعاقدان‬
II. Syntactic Features
1. Nominalization: Arabic sentences can be classified into nominal sentences
(verbless sentences) and verbal sentences (having verbs). Like written legal
English, intensive use of long complicated nominals is a feature of legal
Arabic.
‫ما يقٌرره المجلس باإلجماع ي ٌكون ملزما لجمي ٌع الدول‬
In this example, the nominal group is introduced by the relative “‫”ما‬.
2. Verbal group: The imperfect past verb ‫ كان‬is equivalent to “shall” in legal
English and it may express condition or stipulation as in
‫يقٌبل في القوات المسلحة المصريةٌ من كان مصريا ٌ بالوالدة‬
Those to be recruited in the Egyptian armed forces should be Egyptian by
birth.

48
 3. Conditionals: Arabic legal texts are usually crammed with conditionals,
stipulative terms, obligations or rights. The most common conditional particle
is ‫ اذا‬i.e. “if” e.g.
(should) if any of the two parties terminated the contract
‫اذا قام أي من الطرفي ٌن بإنهاء العقد‬
4. Passives: Although there is a general tendency to minimize passive
constructions in legal Arabic language, passives in Arabic legal register have
a special form, where auxiliaries are not used. Example:
The employee shall be appointed on a probationary basis for a period of six
months.
‫ي ٌكون تعيي ٌن الموظف تحت االختبار لستة أشهر‬
5. Modality: Modality in Arabic legal register is usually expressed by sentence
initial lexical verbs as in ‫ ي ٌحظر‬- ‫ ال ي ٌجوز‬- ‫ ي ٌجوز‬, and the preposition ‫ ل‬and ‫على‬
for rights and obligations respectively. For example:
‫للحكومة انهاء هذا العقد بدون انذار‬
‫على الموظف كجزء من مهام وظيفٌته أن يبٌذل قصارى جهده‬
III. Discourse-Level Features
1. Cohesion: Arabic legal language displays a larger tendency to serve lexical
cohesion in the form of repetition of the same lexical item, much more than
English legal language. Example:
‫ي ٌوقع الطرفان على هذا العقد و يلٌتزم الطرفان بنصوصه وعند حدوث خالف يلٌجأ الطرفان الى لجنة لتحكي ٌم‬
The (two) parties sign this contract and the (two) parties abide by its wordings
and in case of differences the (two) parties should consult an arbitration
committee.
2. Coherence: It is “the connectivity of the underlying content of the text” that
helps in making the whole text hang together. Legal Arabic is often overtly

49
cohesive through prominal reference. Further, since written Arabic is
generally more explicit than English, less information has to be recovered
from the context, and more detail is specified through prominal references.

50
 Unit II: UN Translation: Roles, Responsibilities, and
Challenges
Chapter 1: Introduction to UN Translation

Definition and Scope of UN Translation

Introduction
Translation plays a crucial role in the United Nations (UN), ensuring clear and
accurate communication among its 193 member states. The UN operates in a
multilingual environment, where official documents, speeches, and reports must be
available in multiple languages. UN translation is a highly specialized field that
extends beyond mere linguistic conversion—it involves diplomatic, legal, and
technical accuracy while maintaining cultural sensitivity.
This exploration provides a comprehensive definition of UN translation and
outlines its scope across different areas, including diplomacy, law, administration,
and specialized UN agencies.
1. Definition of UN Translation
UN translation is the specialized process of rendering written texts from one
language into another within the institutional framework of the United Nations.
It is a highly structured and regulated form of translation that ensures the
accuracy, neutrality, and clarity of international documents. Unlike standard
translation, UN translation adheres to stringent linguistic, legal, and diplomatic
standards, preserving the intended meaning while respecting the stylistic and
terminological norms of each official language. This form of translation is
essential for fostering multilingual communication among UN member states,
enabling them to participate fully in global discourse. It covers a wide range of
materials, including treaties, resolutions, reports, press releases, and conference
proceedings.

51
The core objective of UN translation is to promote inclusivity and equal
representation by ensuring that all six official languages—Arabic, Chinese,
English, French, Russian, and Spanish—convey identical meanings without
distortion or ambiguity. Given the legal weight and diplomatic sensitivity of UN
documents, translators must demonstrate exceptional linguistic proficiency,
cultural awareness, and subject-matter expertise. They work within a rigorous
process that involves thorough revision and quality control to maintain the
highest standards of consistency and reliability. By facilitating clear and precise
communication across different languages and cultures, UN translation plays a
fundamental role in international cooperation, peacekeeping, and policymaking.

UN translation refers to the process of converting written or spoken content from

one language into another within the United Nations system. It involves:
 Linguistic Accuracy: Ensuring fidelity to the original text while adapting it
to the target language.
 Diplomatic Sensitivity: Maintaining the intended tone and meaning,
especially in political and legal contexts.
 Cultural Adaptation: Addressing language-specific nuances to prevent
misinterpretation.
 Legal and Technical Precision: Accurately rendering treaties, resolutions,
and reports to maintain legal consistency.
UN translation is distinct from g UN translation is distinct from general
translation because it must adhere to strict standards that align with the principles
of international diplomacy and governance.

1.1. Official Languages of the UN

The UN operates with six official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English,
French, Russian, and Spanish. These languages were chosen based on
historical, diplomatic, and practical considerations. The principle of

52
 multilingualism ensures that all official documents, resolutions, and treaties
are equally accessible in these languages, promoting inclusivity and
effective participation by member states. However, maintaining linguistic
consistency across these languages presents challenges, as cultural
differences and language structures influence interpretation and translation.
For instance, English and French have historically been dominant in
international diplomacy, while Arabic, Chinese, Russian, and Spanish
ensure broader representation. The establishment of these six official
languages was a strategic decision aimed at balancing the need for
inclusivity with practical constraints. However, differences in grammatical
structure, idiomatic expressions, and legal terminology can result in
discrepancies. A notable case study is the Paris Agreement, which required
meticulous translation to ensure that environmental commitments were
accurately represented in each official language without ambiguity.
All official documents, resolutions, treaties, and reports must be translated
into these languages to ensure equal access and participation for all member
states.
1.2. Types of UN Translation
 Written Translation: Converting official documents, treaties, reports,
and resolutions into the six official languages.
 Simultaneous Interpretation: Real-time translation during meetings
and conferences.
 Consecutive Interpretation: Spoken translation delivered after the
speaker has finished.
 Machine-Assisted Translation: Use of AI tools to assist human
translators in document processing.

53
2. Scope of UN Translation
UN translation covers various fields and sectors, each with its own challenges
and requirements. The main areas include:
2.1. Political and Diplomatic Translation
One of the most sensitive areas of UN translation is diplomacy. Translators
must accurately render speeches, debates, and resolutions without altering
their political implications. This includes:
 General Assembly and Security Council Resolutions: Precise
translation is essential for enforcing international decisions.
 Treaties and Agreements: Any ambiguity in translated legal texts could
lead to misinterpretations and disputes.
 Speeches by World Leaders: Accuracy in translating political addresses
is crucial to maintaining diplomatic relations.
2.2. Legal Translation
The UN creates and enforces international laws, requiring legal translation
that maintains consistency across languages. Key aspects include:
 Human Rights Documents: Translating declarations like the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights.
 International Treaties and Conventions: Ensuring uniformity in legal
texts across multiple languages.
 War Crimes and Sanctions Reports: Precise translation is critical for
accountability in international law.
2.3. Administrative and Institutional Translation
The UN Secretariat and its agencies produce vast amounts of internal
documentation that require translation, including:
 Meeting Minutes and Reports: Documents summarizing UN
discussions.
 Internal Correspondence: Communications between departments and
international bodies.

54
  Financial and Budget Reports: Ensuring clarity in economic and
development reports.
2.4. Scientific and Technical Translation
Many UN agencies deal with specialized subjects such as health, climate
change, and economics. Translators must handle:
 Scientific Research Papers: Documents from bodies like the World
Health Organization (WHO) or the UN Environment Programme
(UNEP).
 Technical Manuals and Guidelines: Instructions for disaster relief,
public health, and peacekeeping operations.
 Data Reports and Statistics: Economic and environmental data
presented by UN agencies.
2.5. Humanitarian and Crisis Communication
During crises, accurate translation is crucial for emergency response and
public awareness campaigns. This includes:
 Disaster Response Reports: Coordination of relief efforts across nations.
 Health Guidelines and Warnings: Translation of public health advisories
during pandemics.
 Refugee and Migration Policies: Ensuring displaced populations receive
information in their native language.
3. The Importance of Translation in the UN System
Introduction
Translation is a cornerstone of the United Nations (UN), ensuring effective
communication among its 193 member states. As a global organization
committed to peace, security, development, and human rights, the UN operates
in a multilingual environment where precise and accurate translation is essential
for diplomatic negotiations, legal agreements, and international cooperation.
Without translation, misunderstandings could arise, diplomatic efforts could be
compromised, and global governance would be hindered. This exploration

55
examines the importance of translation in the UN system, emphasizing its role in
multilingualism, diplomacy, international law, administration, crisis
communication, and global engagement.
3.1. Ensuring Multilingualism and Equal Participation
Multilingualism is one of the UN’s fundamental principles, reinforcing the
equality of its member states and ensuring that no country is excluded from
international discussions due to language barriers. The UN has six official
languages—Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish—
through which all official documents, reports, and resolutions must be
available. Translation ensures that all nations can engage in meaningful
participation, fostering an inclusive international dialogue. Without this
system of translation, smaller or non-English-speaking nations might face
challenges in accessing crucial information, limiting their ability to
contribute effectively to global decision-making.
3.2. Facilitating Diplomatic Communication
Diplomatic negotiations at the UN require precise and nuanced translation
to avoid miscommunication and conflict. Translation allows representatives
from different linguistic backgrounds to express their positions clearly,
ensuring that debates, discussions, and agreements remain effective and
constructive. This is particularly important during high-stakes negotiations,
where any misinterpretation could lead to misunderstandings or even
diplomatic tensions. UN translators and interpreters play a vital role in
maintaining accuracy, preserving intent, and ensuring that political
discourse is accessible to all members. Furthermore, simultaneous
interpretation during UN meetings enables real-time multilingual

56
 communication, making diplomatic exchanges smoother and more
inclusive.
3.3. Supporting International Law and Legal Frameworks
The UN is responsible for drafting and enforcing numerous international
laws, treaties, and conventions, all of which require precise legal translation.
International legal documents must maintain consistency across languages
to prevent disputes and misinterpretations. For example, the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, which establishes fundamental rights and
freedoms, must be uniformly understood in all official languages to ensure
universal enforcement. Similarly, Security Council resolutions and peace
agreements must be accurately translated to avoid any ambiguity in legal
obligations. In cases of international disputes, translation ensures that all
parties have an equal understanding of the legal texts being referenced,
maintaining fairness and transparency in global governance.
3.4. Enhancing Administrative and Institutional Operations
Translation is not limited to diplomacy and law—it also plays a vital role in
the daily operations of the UN Secretariat and its specialized agencies. The
UN produces vast amounts of documentation, including reports, internal
communications, and budgetary plans, all of which must be translated to
ensure the smooth functioning of the organization. Effective translation
allows for seamless collaboration between different UN bodies, enabling the
exchange of information across linguistic boundaries. Without a robust
translation infrastructure, administrative inefficiencies could arise, leading
to delays in decision-making and implementation of global initiatives.
3.5. Enabling Humanitarian and Crisis Communication
During global crises—such as pandemics, natural disasters, or armed
conflicts—timely and accurate translation is critical in delivering essential

57
 information to affected populations and governments. UN agencies like the
World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) depend on translation to distribute
life-saving information in multiple languages. For example, during the
COVID-19 pandemic, health guidelines needed to be quickly translated into
numerous languages to ensure global awareness and compliance. In
humanitarian operations, translation facilitates coordination between
international organizations, NGOs, and local governments, enabling a faster
and more effective response to emergencies.
3.6. Promoting Global Public Awareness and Outreach
Beyond diplomacy and crisis communication, translation allows the UN to
engage with the global public by making information on peace, human
rights, and sustainable development widely accessible. Many of the UN’s
initiatives, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), require
widespread public engagement and education. Through translation, UN
reports, educational materials, and public campaigns reach diverse linguistic
communities, promoting awareness and encouraging international
cooperation. In an increasingly interconnected world, multilingual
communication ensures that people across different regions can actively
participate in and support the UN’s mission.
3.7. Addressing Challenges in UN Translation
Despite its crucial role, UN translation faces several challenges, including
the need for absolute accuracy, time constraints, and evolving political and
technical terminology. Translators must be highly skilled not only in
language but also in diplomacy, law, and subject-specific areas such as
climate change or public health. They must also work under intense

58
 pressure, especially when handling urgent resolutions or real-time
interpretations in diplomatic meetings. Furthermore, while technology and
artificial intelligence (AI) are being integrated into translation processes,
human translators remain indispensable due to their ability to understand
context, cultural nuances, and political sensitivities that machines cannot
fully grasp.
3.8. The Future of Translation in the UN
As global challenges continue to evolve, the role of translation in the UN
will only grow in importance. Advances in machine translation and AI-
assisted tools are helping improve efficiency, but human expertise remains
essential to ensure accuracy and cultural appropriateness. The increasing
demand for remote interpretation, particularly for virtual meetings, is also
shaping the future of UN translation. Additionally, as the world becomes
more multilingual, the UN may explore expanding its language services to
include more non-official languages to reach broader audiences.

Conclusion
Translation is an indispensable component of the UN system, ensuring that global
governance remains inclusive, effective, and transparent. By facilitating multilingual
diplomacy, supporting international law, enhancing administrative functions, and
enabling crisis communication, translation plays a fundamental role in maintaining
peace, security, and cooperation among nations. As the world becomes more
interconnected, the demand for high-quality UN translation will continue to rise,
reinforcing its critical role in fostering global understanding and unity.

59
4. The Difference Between General Translation and UN Translation
Introduction
Translation is a vital tool for communication across linguistic and cultural
boundaries. However, not all translation is the same, as different fields require
varying levels of precision, specialization, and linguistic adaptation. Two distinct
types of translation are general translation and United Nations (UN)
translation. While general translation covers a wide range of everyday texts and
documents, UN translation is a highly specialized field that serves international
diplomacy, law, governance, and global cooperation. This exploration provides
a detailed comparison of these two types of translation, focusing on their scope,
linguistic demands, subject matter, accuracy requirements, challenges, and
impact.
4.1. Scope and Purpose
General translation encompasses a broad range of texts, including business
correspondence, marketing materials, literary works, user manuals, and
news articles. Its primary goal is to convey meaning accurately while
ensuring readability and cultural appropriateness for the target audience. In
contrast, UN translation is strictly institutional and serves the diplomatic,
legal, and administrative functions of the United Nations. The purpose of
UN translation is not only to transfer meaning but also to maintain legal
precision, diplomatic neutrality, and political sensitivity in official
documents, treaties, and resolutions. This means that even minor errors in
UN translation can have significant consequences in international relations.
4.2. Linguistic and Stylistic Demands
General translation allows for some degree of flexibility in style, as it often
prioritizes readability and cultural adaptation. Translators working on

60
 general texts may rephrase sentences or use idiomatic expressions to make
the content more engaging for the target audience. In contrast, UN
translation requires absolute fidelity to the source text. The UN follows a
strict set of linguistic conventions that demand consistency, neutrality, and
legal accuracy. Translators must adhere to UN-specific terminology,
standardized phrasing, and a formal tone to ensure that documents remain
legally and politically unambiguous across all six official languages (Arabic,
Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish).
4.3. Subject Matter and Specialization
General translation covers diverse subjects depending on the needs of clients
or industries. A general translator may work on texts related to travel,
education, entertainment, or e-commerce. While this type of translation
requires strong linguistic skills, it does not always demand expertise in a
highly specialized field. On the other hand, UN translation is highly
specialized and requires deep knowledge of international law, diplomacy,
human rights, economics, environmental policies, public health, and
conflict resolution. Translators working for the UN must be familiar with
legal frameworks, geopolitical contexts, and institutional jargon to ensure
accuracy and coherence in all translated documents.
4.4. Accuracy and Legal Implications
In general translation, the primary concern is to preserve the original
message while adapting it to suit the cultural and linguistic norms of the
target audience. Minor errors in general translation may result in slight
misunderstandings but rarely have serious consequences. However, in UN
translation, even a single mistranslation can lead to diplomatic disputes,
legal misunderstandings, or violations of international agreements. For

61
 example, an inaccurate translation of a Security Council resolution could
affect peacekeeping missions, sanctions, or diplomatic negotiations.
Because of this, UN translators must exercise extreme caution and often
work in teams to cross-check translations for consistency and accuracy.
4.5. Translation Process and Workflow
The workflow in general translation is relatively flexible. A freelance or
agency translator typically works independently, translating a document and
proofreading it before delivering the final version to the client. While some
quality control measures, such as peer review or proofreading, may be
involved, the process is generally straightforward. In contrast, UN
translation follows a rigorous, multi-step process that includes initial
translation, peer review, legal verification, and final approval by expert
linguists. This ensures that every translated document meets the highest
standards of accuracy and consistency. Additionally, UN translators must
adhere to strict deadlines, especially when working on urgent Security
Council resolutions, General Assembly reports, or crisis response
documents.
4.6. Challenges Faced by Translators
General translators face challenges such as handling informal language,
cultural differences, and idiomatic expressions. They must ensure that their
translations remain engaging and accessible to the target audience. In
contrast, UN translators deal with legal and diplomatic complexities,
geopolitical sensitivities, and multilingual consistency. They must be able
to translate complex legal texts, maintain neutrality in politically charged
documents, and work under pressure to meet strict deadlines. Furthermore,
UN translators must constantly update their knowledge of evolving

62
 terminology in international relations, humanitarian law, and technical fields
such as climate science and public health.
4.7. Use of Technology in Translation
In general translation, many translators rely on machine translation tools
such as Google Translate, DeepL, and CAT (Computer-Assisted
Translation) tools like Trados or MemoQ to enhance efficiency and
accuracy. These tools help with terminology management and translation
memory, allowing translators to maintain consistency across projects.
However, in UN translation, machine translation is used cautiously, as
automated systems often fail to capture the legal, political, and cultural
nuances required in official UN documents. Human translators remain
indispensable in UN translation because they possess the necessary expertise
to interpret complex diplomatic and legal texts with precision.
4.8. Impact and Global Significance
The impact of general translation is largely commercial, educational, or
literary. It helps businesses expand into international markets, allows for
cultural exchange, and provides access to information in different languages.
However, the impact of UN translation is far-reaching and directly
influences global governance, international law, and diplomatic
relations. UN translation ensures that countries can negotiate treaties,
implement resolutions, and collaborate on global issues such as
peacekeeping, climate change, and humanitarian aid. Without accurate
UN translation, international cooperation would be severely hindered, and
misunderstandings could lead to diplomatic conflicts or policy failures.

63
Conclusion
While general translation and UN translation share the fundamental goal of enabling
communication across languages, they differ significantly in scope, complexity,
accuracy requirements, and impact. General translation is flexible, culturally
adaptive, and diverse in subject matter, while UN translation is highly specialized,
legally binding, and essential for international diplomacy. The work of UN
translators ensures that all member states can participate in global decision-making
on an equal footing, reinforcing multilingualism and international cooperation. As
the world becomes increasingly interconnected, the role of UN translation will
continue to grow, shaping the future of diplomacy and global governance.

Practical Exercise: Translating short UN documents and resolutions

with model answers
Here’s a practical exercise designed for students learning UN translation. It includes
short UN texts for translation, followed by model answers in both English and
Arabic. The goal is to help students practice accuracy, terminology consistency, and
diplomatic tone.

Practical Exercise: Translating Short UN Documents and Resolutions

Exercise 1: UN General Assembly Resolution (Excerpt)
Source Text (English)
The General Assembly,
Recognizing the importance of international cooperation in addressing global
health crises,
Recalling its previous resolutions on public health and pandemic preparedness,
Emphasizing the need for equitable access to vaccines and medical resources,

64
 1. Urges Member States to strengthen their healthcare systems and share
medical technologies;
2. Calls upon international financial institutions to provide support for low-
income countries in acquiring vaccines;
3. Requests the Secretary-General to submit a report on global health initiatives
at the next session.
Model Answer (Arabic)
،‫الجمعية العامة‬
‫ وإذ تشير إلى قراراتها السابقة بشأن‬،‫إدراكا ألهمية التعاون الدولي في التصدي لألزمات الصحية العالمية‬
،‫ وتأكيدا على ضرورة الوصول العادل إلى اللقاحات والموارد الطبية‬،‫الصحة العامة والتأهب لألوبئة‬
‫ تحث الدول األعضاء على تعزيز أنظمتها الصحية وتبادل التقنيات الطبية؛‬.۱
‫ تدعو المؤسسات المالية الدولية إلى تقديم الدعم للبلدان منخفضة الدخل في الحصول على اللقاحات؛‬.۲
.‫ تطلب إلى األمين العام تقديم تقرير عن المبادرات الصحية العالمية في الدورة القادمة‬.۳

Exercise 2: UN Human Rights Council Statement (Excerpt)

Source Text (English)
The Human Rights Council expresses its deep concern over the rising violations
of fundamental human rights in conflict zones. It reaffirms the commitment of
the international community to protect civilians, uphold humanitarian law, and
ensure accountability for violations.
The Council calls upon all parties to the conflict to immediately cease hostilities
and engage in meaningful dialogue to achieve peace.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫يعرب مجلس حقوق اإلنسان عن قلقه العميق إزاء تزايد انتهاكات حقوق اإلنسان األساسية في مناطق‬
‫ وضمان المساءلة‬،‫ واحترام القانون اإلنساني‬،‫ ويؤكد من جديد التزام المجتمع الدولي بحماية المدنيين‬.‫النزاع‬
.‫عن االنتهاكات‬
.‫ويدعو المجلس جميع األطراف إلى وقف األعمال العدائية فورا واالنخراط في حوار جاد لتحقيق السالم‬

Exercise 3: UN Secretary-General’s Report (Excerpt)

Source Text (English)
In response to the global food security crisis, the Secretary-General emphasizes
the need for urgent international cooperation to address supply chain disruptions

65
 and rising food prices. He encourages governments to implement policies that
enhance agricultural productivity and ensure food distribution to vulnerable
communities.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫ يؤكد األمين العام على ضرورة التعاون الدولي العاجل لمعالجة‬،‫استجابة ألزمة األمن الغذائي العالمية‬
‫ كما يحث الحكومات على تنفيذ سياسات تعزز اإلنتاج‬.‫اضطرابات سالسل التوريد وارتفاع أسعار الغذاء‬
.‫الزراعي وتضمن توزيع الغذاء للمجتمعات األكثر ضعفا‬
Key Learning Points for Students
 Accuracy: Ensure legal and diplomatic terms are translated precisely.
 Terminology Consistency: Use standard UN terminology (e.g., “Urges”
= “‫”تحث‬, “Calls upon” = “‫)”تدعو‬.
 Formal Tone: Maintain a neutral and professional tone appropriate for
official UN texts.
 Structural Consistency: Follow the structure of UN resolutions and
reports to ensure clarity.
Here are additional UN translation exercises with varying levels of difficulty, along
with model answers to help students develop their translation skills further.

Advanced Practical Exercises in UN Translation

Exercise 4: UN Security Council Resolution (Intermediate Level)
Source Text (English)
The Security Council,
Reaffirming its commitment to maintaining international peace and security,
Expressing grave concern over the escalating violence in the region,
Condemning all acts of terrorism and violations of international humanitarian
law,
1. Demands an immediate cessation of hostilities by all parties involved;
2. Urges the deployment of humanitarian aid to affected populations without
obstruction;
3. Decides to remain actively seized of the matter.

66
 Model Answer (Arabic)
،‫مجلس األمن‬
‫ وإذ يعرب عن قلقه البالغ إزاء تصاعد أعمال‬،‫إذ يعيد تأكيد التزامه بالحفاظ على السلم واألمن الدوليين‬
،‫ وإذ يدين بشدة جميع أعمال اإلرهاب وانتهاكات القانون اإلنساني الدولي‬،‫العنف في المنطقة‬
‫ يطالب جميع األطراف بوقف األعمال العدائية فورا؛‬.۱
‫ يحث على إيصال المساعدات اإلنسانية إلى السكان المتضررين دون عوائق؛‬.۲
.‫ يقرر أن يظل معنيا بهذه المسألة‬.۳
Exercise 5: UN Climate Change Declaration (Advanced Level)
Source Text (English)
The United Nations underscores the urgent need for global action to combat
climate change. Scientific reports indicate that immediate measures are required
to limit global warming and mitigate its devastating effects.
Governments are encouraged to adopt sustainable energy policies, reduce
greenhouse gas emissions, and support climate resilience programs in vulnerable
communities.
The UN calls upon all stakeholders to cooperate in implementing the Paris
Agreement and mobilizing financial resources for climate adaptation initiatives.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫ وتشير التقارير‬.‫تشدد األمم المتحدة على الحاجة الملحة التخاذ إجراءات عالمية لمكافحة تغير المناخ‬
.‫العلمية إلى أن التدابير الفورية ضرورية للحد من االحترار العالمي والتخفيف من آثاره المدمرة‬
‫ ودعم برامج تعزيز‬،‫ وتقليل انبعاثات الغازات الدفيئة‬،‫ويُش َّجع الحكومات على تبني سياسات طاقة مستدامة‬
.‫القدرة على التكيف مع تغير المناخ في المجتمعات األكثر ضعفا‬
‫وتدعو األمم المتحدة جميع الجهات المعنية إلى التعاون في تنفيذ اتفاق باريس وحشد الموارد المالية لمبادرات التكيف‬
.‫المناخي‬

Exercise 6: UNHCR Statement on Refugees (Beginner Level)

Source Text (English)
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) expresses deep
concern over the increasing number of displaced persons worldwide.

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 The agency calls upon the international community to provide financial
assistance and ensure the protection of refugees' rights.
UNHCR stresses the importance of international solidarity in addressing the
global refugee crisis.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫( عن قلقها العميق إزاء تزايد أعداد النازحين‬UNHCR) ‫تعرب مفوضية األمم المتحدة لشؤون الالجئين‬
.‫على مستوى العالم‬
.‫وتدعو المفوضية المجتمع الدولي إلى تقديم المساعدات المالية وضمان حماية حقوق الالجئين‬
.‫كما تؤكد المفوضية على أهمية التضامن الدولي في مواجهة أزمة الالجئين العالمية‬

Exercise 7: UN Economic Development Report (Advanced Level)

Source Text (English)
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) highlights the crucial
role of inclusive economic policies in fostering sustainable development.
Governments are encouraged to invest in education, healthcare, and digital
infrastructure to promote economic growth and reduce inequalities.
The report recommends the implementation of fair trade agreements, investment
in green technologies, and policies that empower marginalized communities.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫( الضوء على الدور الحاسم للسياسات االقتصادية الشاملة‬UNDP) ‫يسلط برنامج األمم المتحدة اإلنمائي‬
.‫في تعزيز التنمية المستدامة‬
‫ويُش َّجع الحكومات على االستثمار في التعليم والرعاية الصحية والبنية التحتية الرقمية لتعزيز النمو‬
.‫االقتصادي وتقليل أوجه عدم المساواة‬
‫ ووضع سياسات تمكن‬،‫ واالستثمار في التقنيات الخضراء‬،‫ويوصي التقرير بتنفيذ اتفاقيات تجارية عادلة‬
.‫المجتمعات المهمشة‬
Key Learning Takeaways for Students
 Identify Standard Phrasing: UN documents use consistent terms like “Calls
upon” = “‫ ”يدعو‬and “Reaffirms” = “‫”يعيد تأكيد‬.
 Maintain Formality: Avoid casual or colloquial expressions—stick to
diplomatic and legal language.

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  Ensure Accuracy: Even small translation errors can change the legal and
diplomatic meaning of a UN text.
 Be Aware of Context: Understanding international law, politics, and
diplomacy is essential for accurate translation.
Here are specialized exercises focusing on legal UN documents and technical
reports, along with model answers to enhance students’ skills in precise, technical,
and diplomatic translation.

Specialized UN Translation Exercises: Legal and Technical Texts

Exercise 8: UN Legal Document – International Treaty (Advanced Level)
Source Text (English)
Article 5 – Legal Obligations of Member States
Member States shall take all necessary legislative and administrative measures
to ensure compliance with this treaty.
Any dispute arising from the interpretation or implementation of this treaty shall
be resolved through diplomatic channels or, if necessary, through arbitration.
States Parties undertake not to adopt national legislation that contradicts the
principles of this treaty.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫ – االلتزامات القانونية للدول األعضاء‬5 ‫المادة‬
.‫تتخذ الدول األعضاء جميع التدابير التشريعية واإلدارية الالزمة لضمان االمتثال لهذه المعاهدة‬
،‫ عند الضرورة‬،‫يتم تسوية أي نزاع ينشأ عن تفسير أو تنفيذ هذه المعاهدة عبر القنوات الدبلوماسية أو‬
.‫عن طريق التحكيم‬
.‫تتعهد الدول األطراف بعدم تبني تشريعات وطنية تتعارض مع مبادئ هذه المعاهدة‬

Exercise 9: UN Technical Report – Climate Change Adaptation (Advanced

Level)
Source Text (English)
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
emphasizes the urgent need for investment in climate adaptation strategies to
mitigate the adverse effects of global warming.

69
 Recent studies indicate that coastal regions face a high risk of flooding due to
rising sea levels. The report recommends strengthening early warning systems,
improving water resource management, and implementing reforestation
programs.
Developing countries are encouraged to seek financial and technical assistance
from international climate funds to enhance their resilience against climate-
related disasters.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫( على الحاجة الملحة لالستثمار في‬UNFCCC) ‫تشدد اتفاقية األمم المتحدة اإلطارية بشأن تغير المناخ‬
.‫استراتيجيات التكيف مع المناخ للتخفيف من اآلثار السلبية لالحترار العالمي‬
‫وتشير الدراسات الحديثة إلى أن المناطق الساحلية تواجه مخاطر عالية من الفيضانات بسبب ارتفاع مستوى‬
‫ وتنفيذ برامج‬،‫ وتحسين إدارة الموارد المائية‬،‫ ويوصي التقرير بتعزيز أنظمة اإلنذار المبكر‬.‫سطح البحر‬
.‫إعادة التشجير‬
‫ويُش َّجع البلدان النامية على السعي للحصول على المساعدات المالية والتقنية من صناديق المناخ الدولية‬
.‫لتعزيز قدرتها على مواجهة الكوارث المرتبطة بالمناخ‬

Exercise 10: UN Human Rights Report (Legal & Diplomatic Language)

Source Text (English)
The Human Rights Council expresses profound concern regarding reports of
arbitrary detention and enforced disappearances in conflict-affected regions.
International humanitarian law mandates that all detainees be treated with
dignity and afforded legal protections. The Council calls upon all parties to
adhere strictly to their obligations under international law and urges immediate
independent investigations into alleged violations.
The report recommends strengthening national human rights institutions and
providing legal assistance to victims.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫يعرب مجلس حقوق اإلنسان عن قلقه العميق إزاء التقارير المتعلقة باالحتجاز التعسفي واالختفاء القسري‬
.‫في المناطق المتأثرة بالنزاعات‬

70
 ‫وينص القانون اإلنساني الدولي على وجوب معاملة جميع المحتجزين بكرامة وضمان حصولهم على‬
،‫ ويدعو المجلس جميع األطراف إلى االلتزام الصارم بالتزاماتها بموجب القانون الدولي‬.‫الحماية القانونية‬
.‫ويحث على إجراء تحقيقات مستقلة فورية في االنتهاكات المزعومة‬
.‫ويوصي التقرير بتعزيز المؤسسات الوطنية لحقوق اإلنسان وتقديم المساعدة القانونية للضحايا‬
Exercise 11: UN Economic Development Report (Technical & Economic
Language)
Source Text (English)
The UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) recognizes the
transformative role of digital technologies in fostering sustainable economic
growth.
Data-driven policies and financial inclusion programs are critical to reducing
global inequalities. The report stresses the importance of investments in
broadband infrastructure, cybersecurity measures, and digital literacy programs
to empower underserved populations.
The Council encourages member states to adopt regulatory frameworks that
facilitate innovation while ensuring consumer protection and data privacy.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫( بالدور التحويلي للتقنيات الرقمية‬ECOSOC) ‫يعترف المجلس االقتصادي واالجتماعي لألمم المتحدة‬
.‫في تعزيز النمو االقتصادي المستدام‬
‫ ويؤكد‬.‫تعد السياسات القائمة على البيانات وبرامج الشمول المالي ضرورية للحد من التفاوتات العالمية‬
،‫ وتعزيز تدابير األمن السيبراني‬،‫التقرير على أهمية االستثمار في البنية التحتية لإلنترنت عريض النطاق‬
.‫وتنفيذ برامج محو األمية الرقمية لتمكين الفئات المحرومة‬
‫ويشجع المجلس الدول األعضاء على اعتماد أطر تنظيمية تسهل االبتكار مع ضمان حماية المستهلك‬
.‫وخصوصية البيانات‬
Key Learning Outcomes for Students
 Understanding Legal Terminology: Learn key phrases like “Shall take
measures” = “‫ ”تتخذ التدابير‬and “Undertake not to” = “‫”تتعهد بعدم‬.
 Precision in Technical Terms: Ensure accuracy when translating climate,
economic, or digital governance terminology.
 Maintaining Neutrality: UN texts must be diplomatic and unbiased in tone.

71
  Consistency Across Legal Texts: Certain phrases are always translated the
same way to maintain legal uniformity.

Here are sector-specific UN translation exercises in international law, humanitarian

aid, cybersecurity, and other specialized fields, along with model answers to help
students refine their translation skills in these areas.
Sector-Specific UN Translation Exercises
Exercise 12: International Law – Humanitarian Protection (Advanced Level)
Source Text (English)
In accordance with international humanitarian law, all parties to armed conflicts
must ensure the protection of civilians and the humane treatment of detainees.
The Geneva Conventions prohibit torture, inhumane treatment, and
collective punishment. Violations constitute war crimes and may be
prosecuted by the International Criminal Court (ICC).
The United Nations calls upon states to uphold their legal obligations and urges
the establishment of independent monitoring mechanisms to investigate alleged
violations.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫ يجب على جميع أطراف النزاعات المسلحة ضمان حماية المدنيين والمعاملة‬،‫وفقا للقانون اإلنساني الدولي‬
.‫اإلنسانية للمحتجزين‬
‫ وتُعتبر االنتهاكات جرائم‬.‫ والعقوبات الجماعية‬،‫ والمعاملة الالإنسانية‬،‫تحظر اتفاقيات جنيف التعذيب‬
(ICC). ‫حرب وقد تخضع للمحاكمة أمام المحكمة الجنائية الدولية‬
‫ وتحث على إنشاء آليات رقابة مستقلة للتحقيق‬،‫وتدعو األمم المتحدة الدول إلى الوفاء بالتزاماتها القانونية‬
.‫في االنتهاكات المزعومة‬

Exercise 13: Humanitarian Aid – Emergency Relief Operations (Intermediate

Level)
Source Text (English)

72
 The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
(OCHA) mobilizes resources to provide urgent assistance to populations affected
by natural disasters and armed conflicts.
Humanitarian actors must ensure that aid distribution is impartial, neutral, and
based on need. The report highlights the importance of strengthening local
response capacities and coordinating efforts among international agencies.
Governments are encouraged to facilitate humanitarian access and remove
bureaucratic barriers that delay emergency response.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫( بحشد الموارد لتقديم المساعدات العاجلة‬OCHA) ‫يقوم مكتب األمم المتحدة لتنسيق الشؤون اإلنسانية‬
.‫للسكان المتضررين من الكوارث الطبيعية والنزاعات المسلحة‬
،‫ وغير متحيزة‬،‫يجب على الجهات الفاعلة في المجال اإلنساني ضمان توزيع المساعدات بطريقة محايدة‬
‫ ويسلط التقرير الضوء على أهمية تعزيز قدرات االستجابة المحلية وتنسيق الجهود‬.‫ووفقًا لالحتياجات‬
.‫بين الوكاالت الدولية‬
‫ويُش َّجع الحكومات على تسهيل وصول المساعدات اإلنسانية وإزالة العوائق البيروقراطية التي تعرقل‬
.‫االستجابة الطارئة‬
Exercise 14: Cybersecurity – Digital Threats and Data Protection (Advanced
Level)
Source Text (English)
The United Nations recognizes the growing threat of cyberattacks against
critical infrastructure and personal data.
Member States are urged to adopt robust cybersecurity frameworks, strengthen
international cooperation, and implement legal safeguards to protect digital
rights.
The report emphasizes the need for greater investment in cybersecurity capacity-
building and the development of ethical guidelines for artificial intelligence (AI)
applications.

73
 Model Answer (Arabic)
.‫تعترف األمم المتحدة بتزايد التهديدات السيبرانية التي تستهدف البنية التحتية الحيوية والبيانات الشخصية‬
‫ وتنفيذ ضمانات‬،‫ وتعزيز التعاون الدولي‬،‫ويُحث الدول األعضاء على تبني أطر قوية لألمن السيبراني‬
.‫قانونية لحماية الحقوق الرقمية‬
‫ويؤكد التقرير على الحاجة إلى زيادة االستثمار في بناء القدرات في مجال األمن السيبراني وتطوير‬
.‫إرشادات أخالقية لتطبيقات الذكاء االصطناعي‬

Exercise 15: Sustainable Development – Renewable Energy Policies

(Intermediate Level)
Source Text (English)
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) supports national
efforts to transition to renewable energy sources as part of the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs).
Governments are encouraged to implement policies that promote solar and wind
energy, reduce carbon emissions, and enhance energy efficiency.
The report recommends expanding investment in green technologies and
ensuring equitable access to clean energy for all communities.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫( الجهود الوطنية للتحول إلى مصادر الطاقة المتجددة في‬UNDP) ‫يدعم برنامج األمم المتحدة اإلنمائي‬
(SDGs). ‫إطار أهداف التنمية المستدامة‬
،‫ وتقلل انبعاثات الكربون‬،‫ويُش َّجع الحكومات على تنفيذ سياسات تعزز استخدام الطاقة الشمسية والرياح‬
.‫وتحسن كفاءة الطاقة‬
‫ويوصي التقرير بتوسيع نطاق االستثمار في التقنيات الخضراء وضمان الوصول العادل إلى الطاقة النظيفة‬
.‫لجميع المجتمعات‬
Key Learning Takeaways for Students
 Sector-Specific Vocabulary: Learn legal, technical, and diplomatic terms
used in international law, humanitarian aid, cybersecurity, and sustainability.
 Precision and Clarity: Maintain accuracy in legal phrases and ensure proper
use of UN terminology.
 Formal and Neutral Tone: Keep translations professional and free from bias,
reflecting the diplomatic nature of UN documents.

74
  Structural Consistency: Follow UN report and resolution formats for
coherence and clarity.

Here are additional specialized UN translation exercises in gender equality,

international trade, and environmental law, with model answers to help students
refine their expertise in these critical areas.

Specialized UN Translation Exercises: Gender Equality, International Trade,

and Environmental Law
Exercise 16: Gender Equality – Women’s Empowerment and Rights (Advanced
Level)
Source Text (English)
The United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women
(UN Women) emphasizes the importance of eliminating all forms of
discrimination against women and girls.
The report calls for stronger legal frameworks to ensure equal pay, combat
gender-based violence, and increase women’s participation in decision-making
processes.
Governments are urged to implement policies that support gender equality in
education, employment, and political representation.
Model Answer (Arabic)
.‫تشدد هيئة األمم المتحدة للمرأة على أهمية القضاء على جميع أشكال التمييز ضد النساء والفتيات‬
‫ ومكافحة العنف القائم على النوع‬،‫ويدعو التقرير إلى تعزيز األطر القانونية لضمان المساواة في األجور‬
.‫ وزيادة مشاركة المرأة في عمليات صنع القرار‬،‫االجتماعي‬
‫ويُحث الحكومات على تنفيذ سياسات تدعم المساواة بين الجنسين في مجاالت التعليم والتوظيف والتمثيل‬
.‫السياسي‬
Exercise 17: International Trade – Trade Facilitation and Economic
Cooperation (Intermediate Level)

75
 Source Text (English)
The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
highlights the need for fair and inclusive international trade policies that promote
sustainable economic development.
The report recommends reducing trade barriers, improving customs
procedures, and strengthening regional economic partnerships.
Member States are encouraged to support small and medium-sized enterprises
(SMEs) and ensure equitable access to global markets.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫( الضوء على الحاجة إلى سياسات تجارية‬UNCTAD) ‫تسلط مؤتمر األمم المتحدة للتجارة والتنمية‬
.‫دولية عادلة وشاملة تعزز التنمية االقتصادية المستدامة‬
‫ وتعزيز الشراكات االقتصادية‬،‫ وتحسين إجراءات الجمارك‬،‫ويوصي التقرير بتقليل العوائق التجارية‬
.‫اإلقليمية‬
‫ويُش َّجع الدول األعضاء على دعم المؤسسات الصغيرة والمتوسطة وضمان وصولها العادل إلى األسواق‬
.‫العالمية‬

Exercise 18: Environmental Law – Climate Governance and Legal Obligations

(Advanced Level)
Source Text (English)
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) stresses that effective
climate governance requires legally binding commitments to reduce carbon
emissions and protect biodiversity.
International environmental law mandates that countries take precautionary
measures to prevent environmental degradation and ensure sustainable resource
management.
The report urges the adoption of stricter regulations on industrial pollution and
deforestation to safeguard ecosystems for future generations.

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 Model Answer (Arabic)
‫(على أن الحوكمة الفعالة للمناخ تتطلب التزامات قانونية‬UNEP) ‫يؤكد برنامج األمم المتحدة للبيئة‬
.‫ملزمة لتقليل انبعاثات الكربون وحماية التنوع البيولوجي‬
‫وينص القانون البيئي الدولي على وجوب اتخاذ الدول تدابير احترازية لمنع التدهور البيئي وضمان‬
.‫اإلدارة المستدامة للموارد الطبيعية‬
‫ويحث التقرير على تبني لوائح أكثر صرامة بشأن التلوث الصناعي وإزالة الغابات لحماية النظم البيئية‬
.‫لألجيال القادمة‬
Key Learning Takeaways for Students
 Mastering Specialized Terminology: Each sector—gender equality, trade,
and environmental law—has specific legal and policy terms.
 Understanding UN Legal Obligations: UN resolutions and reports often
reference international treaties and conventions.
 Maintaining Diplomatic and Formal Tone: Ensure translations remain
neutral, precise, and aligned with UN style guides.
 Developing Consistency in Legal and Economic Phrasing: Using standard
terminology ensures clarity and credibility.
Here are specialized UN translation exercises based on key treaties: CEDAW
(gender equality), WTO agreements (trade), and the Paris Agreement (climate law).
Each exercise includes a model answer to reinforce accuracy in translating UN legal
texts.
Specialized UN Treaty Translation Exercises
Exercise 19: CEDAW – Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (Advanced Level)
Source Text (English)
Article 2 – Obligations of State Parties
State Parties agree to adopt all appropriate legislative and policy measures to
eliminate discrimination against women in all its forms.
They shall ensure legal protection for women's rights on an equal basis with men
and take measures to prevent gender-based violence.

77
 Governments are required to modify or abolish laws, customs, and practices that
discriminate against women.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫ – التزامات الدول األطراف‬2 ‫المادة‬
‫تتعهد الدول األطراف باعتماد جميع التدابير التشريعية والسياساتية المناسبة للقضاء على التمييز ضد‬
.‫المرأة بجميع أشكاله‬
‫ واتخاذ التدابير الالزمة‬،‫ويجب عليها ضمان الحماية القانونية لحقوق المرأة على أساس المساواة مع الرجل‬
.‫لمنع العنف القائم على النوع االجتماعي‬
.‫يتعين على الحكومات تعديل أو إلغاء القوانين والعادات والممارسات التي تميّز ضد المرأة‬

Exercise 20: WTO Agreement – Trade Facilitation Agreement (Intermediate

Level)
Source Text (English)
Article 7 – Expedited Customs Procedures
Member States shall establish transparent and predictable customs procedures
to facilitate international trade.
The agreement requires the implementation of risk-based inspections and
electronic documentation to streamline border clearance.
Developing countries are encouraged to seek technical assistance to enhance
their customs administration.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫ – إجراءات الجمارك المعجلة‬7 ‫المادة‬
.‫يتعين على الدول األعضاء وضع إجراءات جمركية شفافة وقابلة للتنبؤ لتسهيل التجارة الدولية‬
‫يلزم االتفاق بتنفيذ عمليات التفتيش القائمة على المخاطر واستخدام الوثائق اإللكترونية لتبسيط إجراءات‬
.‫التخليص الجمركي‬
.‫يُش َّجع البلدان النامية على طلب المساعدة الفنية لتعزيز إدارة الجمارك‬

Exercise 21: Paris Agreement – Climate Change Commitments (Advanced

Level)
Source Text (English)

78
 Article 4 – Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
Each Party shall prepare, communicate, and maintain successive nationally
determined contributions (NDCs) that reflect its highest possible ambition.
Developed countries should continue taking the lead in reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and supporting adaptation efforts in developing nations.
The agreement stresses the importance of transparency, accountability, and
periodic review of climate action progress.
Model Answer (Arabic)
(NDCs) ً ‫ – المساهمات المحددة وطنيا‬4 ‫المادة‬
‫(التي تعكس أعلى‬NDCs) ‫يجب على كل طرف إعداد وتقديم والحفاظ على مساهماته المحددة وطنيا‬
.‫مستوى ممكن من الطموح‬
‫ينبغي على الدول المتقدمة مواصلة قيادة جهود الحد من انبعاثات الغازات الدفيئة ودعم جهود التكيف في‬
.‫البلدان النامية‬
.‫ويؤكد االتفاق على أهمية الشفافية والمساءلة والمراجعة الدورية لتقييم تقدم العمل المناخي‬

Key Learning Takeaways for Students

 Mastering Treaty Language: UN treaties use binding legal phrases like
“shall ensure” (“‫ )”يجب عليها ضمان‬and “shall establish” (“‫)”يتعين على‬.
 Maintaining Formal and Legal Consistency: Legal agreements require
precise terminology and structured translation.
 Understanding Obligations of States: Treaties often outline binding
obligations (shall/must) vs. non-binding recommendations
(should/encourages).
 Sector-Specific Legal Knowledge: Familiarity with key treaties (CEDAW,
WTO, Paris Agreement) helps in accurate translation of UN legal texts.

Here are specialized UN treaty translation exercises based on the Refugee

Convention, UNCLOS (maritime law), and the ICC Statute (international criminal
law). Each exercise includes a model answer to help students refine their legal
translation skills.

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Exercise 19: CEDAW – Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (Advanced Level)
Source Text (English)
Article 2 – Obligations of State Parties
Specialized UN Treaty Translation Exercises
Exercise 22: 1951 Refugee Convention – Rights of Refugees (Advanced Level)
Source Text (English)
Article 33 – Prohibition of Expulsion or Return (“Non-Refoulement”)
No Contracting State shall expel or return (“refouler”) a refugee to a territory
where their life or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion,
nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion.
This principle is recognized as a fundamental norm of international refugee
law and must be upheld by all State Parties.
Exceptions may apply in cases where the refugee poses a threat to national
security or public order.
Model Answer (Arabic)
)“‫ – حظر الطرد أو اإلعادة القسرية (”عدم اإلعادة القسرية‬33 ‫المادة‬
‫ال يجوز ألي دولة متعاقدة طرد أو إعادة (”إعادة قسرية“) الجئ إلى إقليم قد يتعرض فيه لخطر على حياته‬
.‫أو حريته بسبب عرقه أو دينه أو جنسيته أو انتمائه إلى فئة اجتماعية معينة أو آرائه السياسية‬
‫ ويجب على جميع الدول األطراف االلتزام‬،‫يُعترف بهذا المبدأ كقاعدة أساسية في القانون الدولي لالجئين‬
.‫به‬
.‫وقد تُطبق استثناءات في الحاالت التي يشكل فيها الالجئ تهديدا لألمن القومي أو النظام العام‬

Exercise 23: UNCLOS – United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(Intermediate Level)
Source Text (English)
Article 87 – Freedom of the High Seas
The high seas are open to all States, whether coastal or land-locked.

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 This freedom includes navigation, overflight, fishing, and scientific research,
subject to the conditions laid down in this Convention and other rules of
international law.
States shall exercise these freedoms with due regard for the interests of other
States and must refrain from actions that harm the marine environment.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫ – حرية أعالي البحار‬87 ‫المادة‬
.‫ سواء كانت ساحلية أو غير ساحلية‬،‫تكون أعالي البحار متاحة لجميع الدول‬
‫ وذلك وفقا للشروط المنصوص‬،‫ والبحث العلمي‬،‫ والصيد‬،‫ والتحليق الجوي‬،‫تشمل هذه الحرية المالحة‬
.‫عليها في هذه االتفاقية وقواعد القانون الدولي األخرى‬
‫ واالمتناع عن اتخاذ أي‬،‫ويجب على الدول ممارسة هذه الحريات مع مراعاة مصالح الدول األخرى‬
.‫إجراءات تضر بالبيئة البحرية‬

Exercise 24: ICC Statute – International Criminal Court Jurisdiction

(Advanced Level)
Source Text (English)
Article 5 – Crimes Within the Jurisdiction of the Court
The jurisdiction of the Court shall be limited to the most serious crimes of
concern to the international community as a whole.
The Court has jurisdiction over genocide, crimes against humanity, war
crimes, and the crime of aggression.
These crimes shall not be subject to any statute of limitations, and perpetrators
must be held accountable under international law.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫ – الجرائم التي تدخل في اختصاص المحكمة‬5 ‫المادة‬
.‫يقتصر اختصاص المحكمة على أشد الجرائم خطورة والتي تثير قلق المجتمع الدولي بأسره‬
‫ وجريمة‬،‫ وجرائم الحرب‬،‫ والجرائم ضد اإلنسانية‬،‫تختص المحكمة بالنظر في جرائم اإلبادة الجماعية‬
.‫العدوان‬
.‫ ويجب محاسبة مرتكبيها وفقا للقانون الدولي‬،‫وال تخضع هذه الجرائم ألي تقادم‬

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 Key Learning Takeaways for Students
 Understanding Legal Constraints: Treaties impose legal obligations on
states and use precise terminology.
 Recognizing Diplomatic Language: Phrases such as “shall not” (‫ )ال يجوز‬and
“must be held accountable” (‫ )يجب محاسبة‬require careful translation.
 Applying Consistent Legal Terminology: Legal texts use specific terms like
“non-refoulement” (‫ )عدم اإلعادة القسرية‬in refugee law and “jurisdiction”
(‫ )االختصاص‬in international criminal law.
 Balancing Clarity with Formality: UN legal documents must be translated
clearly while maintaining their formal and binding nature.
Here are specialized UN treaty translation exercises based on the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), Kyoto Protocol (climate law), and the Arms
Trade Treaty (disarmament). Each exercise includes a model answer to help students
refine their legal translation skills.

Specialized UN Treaty Translation Exercises

Exercise 25: Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) – Fundamental
Freedoms (Intermediate Level)
Source Text (English)
Article 1 – Equality and Freedom
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one
another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Discrimination shall not be permitted on the basis of race, color, sex, language,
religion, political opinion, or any other status.
Model Answer (Arabic)
‫ – المساواة والحرية‬1 ‫المادة‬
.‫أحرارا ومتساوين في الكرامة والحقوق‬
ً ‫يولد جميع البشر‬
.‫ ويجب أن يعامل بعضهم بعضا بروح اإلخاء‬،‫وقد ُمنحوا العقل والضمير‬

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 ‫وال يجوز التمييز على أساس العرق أو اللون أو الجنس أو اللغة أو الدين أو الرأي السياسي أو أي وضع‬
.‫آخر‬
Exercise 26: Kyoto Protocol – Climate Commitments (Advanced Level)
Source Text (English)
Article 3 – Greenhouse Gas Reduction Targets
Developed countries shall reduce their overall emissions of greenhouse gases by
at least 5% below 1990 levels during the commitment period.
Each Party must adopt national policies and measures to meet these emission
reduction targets.
The principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities” shall be applied
to ensure that developing countries receive financial and technical support.

Model Answer (Arabic)

‫ – أهداف خفض انبعاثات الغازات الدفيئة‬3 ‫المادة‬
‫ عن مستويات‬%5 ‫يجب على الدول المتقدمة خفض إجمالي انبعاثاتها من الغازات الدفيئة بنسبة ال تقل عن‬
.‫ خالل فترة االلتزام‬1991 ‫عام‬
.‫يتعين على كل طرف اعتماد سياسات وإجراءات وطنية للوفاء بأهداف خفض االنبعاثات‬
‫يجب تطبيق مبدأ ”المسؤوليات المشتركة ولكن المتباينة“ لضمان حصول الدول النامية على الدعم المالي‬
.‫والتقني‬
Exercise 27: Arms Trade Treaty – Regulating Weapons Transfers (Advanced
Level)
Source Text (English)
Article 6 – Prohibitions on Arms Transfers
A State Party shall not authorize any transfer of conventional arms if it has
knowledge that they will be used for genocide, crimes against humanity, or war
crimes.
Each State must establish national control measures to regulate arms exports,
imports, and transit.
The Treaty requires States to take all necessary measures to prevent illicit arms
trafficking and diversion.

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Model Answer (Arabic)
‫ – حظر نقل األسلحة‬6 ‫المادة‬
‫ال يجوز للدولة الطرف السماح بأي نقل لألسلحة التقليدية إذا كانت تعلم أنها ستستخدم في اإلبادة الجماعية‬
.‫أو الجرائم ضد اإلنسانية أو جرائم الحرب‬
.‫يتعين على كل دولة وضع تدابير رقابية وطنية لتنظيم صادرات واستيراد األسلحة وعبورها‬
‫يلزم المعاهدة الدول باتخاذ جميع التدابير الالزمة لمنع االتجار غير المشروع باألسلحة وتحويلها إلى جهات‬
.‫غير مصرح بها‬
Key Learning Takeaways for Students
 Mastering Treaty Language: Understanding key legal phrases like “shall
not authorize” (‫ )ال يجوز السماح‬and “must adopt” (‫ )يتعين على‬is essential.
 Recognizing Binding vs. Non-Binding Provisions: Treaties distinguish
between mandatory obligations (“shall/must”) and guiding principles
(“should”).
 Applying Formal and Legal Style: UN legal texts require precision, clarity,
and neutrality in translation.
 Understanding Treaty-Specific Terminology: Documents on human
rights, climate law, and disarmament use unique legal and technical terms.

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 Chapter 2: Roles and Responsibilities of UN Translation

The Role of Translation in the United Nations

Translation within the United Nations (UN) system plays a crucial role in
maintaining diplomatic communication, ensuring the effective dissemination of
information, and fostering international cooperation. Unlike general translation, UN
translation requires strict adherence to official terminology, legal precision, and
stylistic consistency. Translators in the UN do not merely convert words from one
language to another; they facilitate international discourse and help shape global
policies. The importance of UN translation is evident in major international
agreements, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), where
precise wording determines the legal implications of international law.
UN translation is not just about converting words but also about preserving meaning,
intent, and diplomatic nuances. The precision of language in international legal
documents directly impacts the rights and obligations of member states. Thus,
translation within the UN must be consistent with legal frameworks and policies,
ensuring that all member states receive accurate interpretations of global decisions.
1. The Role of a UN Translator
The role of a United Nations (UN) translator is fundamental to the organization’s
mission of fostering international cooperation and diplomacy. With six official
languages—Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish—the UN relies
on translators to ensure that all documents, treaties, reports, and resolutions are
accurately rendered in multiple languages. This guarantees that representatives from
different linguistic backgrounds can access and understand the same information,
promoting inclusivity and effective communication in global decision-making. The
work of UN translators goes beyond linguistic conversion; it involves preserving the

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meaning, intent, and legal precision of documents, which often have significant
diplomatic and political implications.
UN translators primarily work with written texts, ensuring that the content of official
documents remains clear, consistent, and faithful to the original language. Their
work involves translating legal agreements, Security Council and General Assembly
resolutions, official reports, and documents produced by UN agencies. These texts
must adhere to specific terminology and style guidelines, as accuracy is crucial in
maintaining the legal integrity and diplomatic impact of the content. Unlike
interpreters, who facilitate real-time spoken communication, translators
meticulously analyze each document, considering context, cultural nuances, and
precise terminology to produce reliable translations that serve as authoritative
references in international law and diplomacy.
In addition to translation, UN translators play an essential role in drafting, revising,
and editing documents to maintain linguistic coherence across different languages.
Many official texts require careful refinement to ensure clarity and consistency,
particularly in legal and diplomatic contexts where ambiguity can lead to
misinterpretation. Translators often collaborate with revisers and subject-matter
experts to validate their work, ensuring that the final version meets the highest
standards of accuracy and readability. This process is essential in upholding the
credibility and effectiveness of UN communications, as any discrepancies between
language versions could have far-reaching consequences in international relations.
The role of a UN translator also extends to terminology management and linguistic
standardization. Given the complexity and specificity of UN documents, translators
contribute to the development and maintenance of terminology databases such as
UNTERM, which help standardize key terms across multiple languages. This
ensures that official documents remain consistent over time and across different UN

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bodies, allowing for coherent legal and political discourse. Translators also stay
informed about evolving international terminology, adapting their work to reflect
new legal agreements, policies, and geopolitical developments.
Moreover, UN translators support the organization’s commitment to multilingualism
and cultural diversity. By providing accurate translations in all six official languages,
they help uphold the principle of linguistic equality, ensuring that all member states,
regardless of their native language, can fully participate in discussions, negotiations,
and policy implementation. Their work facilitates transparency, enabling
governments, diplomats, and the global public to engage with UN materials in their
preferred language. This reinforces the UN’s role as an inclusive and accessible
institution, promoting cooperation and understanding among nations.
Ultimately, UN translators serve as essential communicators in the international
arena, bridging linguistic divides and ensuring that the organization’s work reaches
a global audience. Their expertise allows for the smooth operation of the UN’s
legislative, diplomatic, and administrative functions, enabling effective policy-
making and international collaboration. By faithfully translating the words that
shape global governance, UN translators contribute significantly to peace, security,
human rights, and sustainable development, making their role indispensable in the
pursuit of a more just and cooperative world.
 Ensuring Accuracy and Neutrality
One of the most crucial responsibilities of a UN translator is ensuring absolute
accuracy and neutrality in all translations. Given that UN documents often
carry legal, political, and diplomatic weight, even a minor mistranslation or
ambiguity can lead to serious consequences, including misinterpretations of
international treaties, policies, or resolutions. Accuracy in translation requires
not only a deep understanding of both the source and target languages but also

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 a thorough knowledge of context, intent, and specialized terminology. UN
translators must carefully analyze every sentence to ensure that the translated
document faithfully represents the original without distortion or loss of
meaning.
Neutrality is equally essential, as UN translators must remain impartial and
avoid introducing any bias into their work. Since the UN deals with politically
sensitive topics, such as human rights, security, and conflict resolution, the
language used in official documents must be precise, objective, and
diplomatic. Translators must refrain from adding any subjective interpretation
or altering the tone in a way that could favor one perspective over another.
This is particularly important when translating resolutions, reports, or
statements that may have global political implications. The choice of words
can influence perceptions and international relations, making it essential for
translators to maintain a balanced and unbiased approach.
To uphold accuracy and neutrality, UN translators adhere to strict guidelines
and rely on established glossaries and terminology databases, such as
UNTERM, to ensure consistency in wording across multiple languages. They
also work closely with revisers and subject-matter experts to cross-check
translations, verify terminology, and eliminate any ambiguities or errors. By
doing so, they help maintain the credibility and reliability of UN
communications, ensuring that all stakeholders, from diplomats to
policymakers, can access accurate and impartial information in their
respective languages.
 Conveying Legal, Political, and Technical Terms Effectively
The United Nations covers a vast range of topics, from international law and
diplomacy to humanitarian aid, climate change, and economic development.

88
As a result, UN translators must be proficient in conveying legal, political,
and technical terms with precision and clarity. Legal texts, in particular,
require careful attention, as treaties, agreements, and resolutions must
maintain their legal force and meaning across multiple languages. A
mistranslation of a single legal term could alter the interpretation of a treaty
or compromise its enforceability, potentially leading to diplomatic disputes or
unintended policy outcomes.
In political contexts, UN translators must navigate the complexities of
diplomatic language, where specific phrases and expressions carry nuanced
meanings. Political documents often use terminology that reflects the
positions of different member states, and translators must be mindful of how
their translations might be perceived in various cultural and political settings.
The wording of resolutions, for example, must be handled with great care to
avoid unintended implications or misinterpretations that could affect
international negotiations.
Technical terminology presents another challenge, especially in specialized
fields such as international trade, environmental law, cybersecurity, and
disarmament. Each of these areas has its own lexicon, and translators must be
well-versed in the terminology used by experts in these fields. To ensure
accuracy, they consult specialized reference materials, UN agency
publications, and subject-matter specialists. Additionally, they must keep up
with evolving terminology, as new developments in science, technology, and
international policy continuously introduce new terms and concepts.
Ultimately, the ability to convey legal, political, and technical terms
effectively is a defining aspect of a UN translator’s role. By mastering these
specialized domains and maintaining consistency across languages,

89
 translators ensure that UN documents remain clear, authoritative, and legally
binding. Their work facilitates communication between nations, enabling
accurate interpretation of international laws, policies, and agreements that
shape global governance.
2. The Responsibilities of a UN Translator
United Nations (UN) translators play a pivotal role in facilitating international
communication by ensuring that official documents, treaties, resolutions, and reports
are accurately translated into the six official UN languages—Arabic, Chinese,
English, French, Russian, and Spanish. Their responsibilities extend far beyond
simple linguistic conversion; they must preserve the meaning, intent, and legal
precision of texts while maintaining neutrality and consistency. Additionally, UN
translators operate within a strict ethical framework that demands confidentiality,
impartiality, and adherence to established terminology and style guidelines. Their
work requires a high level of linguistic proficiency, subject-matter expertise, and
familiarity with translation tools and reference materials that enhance accuracy and
efficiency.
 Responsibilities and Ethical Considerations
The primary responsibility of a UN translator is to ensure that all translated
materials remain faithful to the original text in terms of meaning, tone, and
legal or diplomatic significance. This includes translating resolutions,
international treaties, General Assembly and Security Council reports,
meeting records, and specialized agency publications. Each translation must
be clear, precise, and free of ambiguities that could lead to misinterpretation
or legal disputes.
In addition to their linguistic duties, UN translators are bound by a strict
ethical code that governs their professional conduct. Ethical considerations

90
 include maintaining neutrality, avoiding any form of bias, and ensuring that
their translations do not alter the intent of the original document. Since UN
texts often deal with politically sensitive or legally binding matters, even
slight deviations in wording can have significant diplomatic consequences.
Translators must exercise due diligence in researching terminology and
verifying context to produce translations that uphold the integrity of UN
communications.
Another crucial ethical responsibility is respecting cultural sensitivities in
translation. UN translators must ensure that their work reflects cultural and
linguistic nuances without distorting the message. This requires a deep
understanding of both the source and target languages, as well as familiarity
with geopolitical contexts. By maintaining high ethical standards, UN
translators contribute to the credibility and transparency of international
diplomatic processes.
 Confidentiality and Impartiality
Given the nature of their work, UN translators often handle classified or
sensitive information, including draft resolutions, diplomatic
correspondences, legal agreements, and internal reports. As a result, they are
required to uphold strict confidentiality and avoid disclosing any information
they encounter in the course of their duties. Maintaining confidentiality is
essential to protecting the integrity of international negotiations, as premature
leaks of draft documents could influence diplomatic discussions or
compromise security matters.
Impartiality is another fundamental principle in UN translation. Translators
must remain neutral, ensuring that their translations do not reflect personal
opinions or introduce any bias. Since the UN represents a diverse array of

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 member states with varying political perspectives, maintaining impartiality
helps ensure that documents are universally accepted and respected. This
extends to word choice and phrasing, as even subtle linguistic variations can
carry political connotations. By strictly adhering to neutrality, UN translators
help preserve the UN’s reputation as an objective and fair international
organization.
 Adherence to UN Terminology and Style Guides
To maintain consistency and accuracy across all official documents, UN
translators must adhere to standardized terminology and style guidelines. The
UN has developed specialized databases and glossaries, such as UNTERM,
which provide established translations for key legal, political, and technical
terms. Consistent use of these terms ensures that UN documents remain clear
and legally sound in all official languages, preventing confusion or
misinterpretation among member states.
In addition to terminology databases, translators follow specific style guides
that dictate formatting, punctuation, and linguistic conventions. These guides
ensure uniformity across UN publications and help maintain the professional
quality of official documents. Adhering to these guidelines is particularly
important in legal and diplomatic contexts, where precise wording can affect
the interpretation of international agreements.
UN translators must also stay updated on evolving terminology, especially in
fields such as international law, human rights, climate change, and
cybersecurity. As new treaties and resolutions introduce novel concepts and
terms, translators are responsible for ensuring that these additions are
accurately reflected in all language versions. This requires continuous

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 professional development and close collaboration with terminology experts
within the UN.
 The Use of Translation Tools and Reference Materials
To enhance accuracy and efficiency, UN translators utilize a variety of
translation tools and reference materials. Computer-assisted translation
(CAT) tools, such as translation memory software, help maintain consistency
by storing previously translated phrases and suggesting standardized wording
for recurring terms. These tools are particularly useful for handling large
volumes of text while ensuring coherence across multiple documents.
Terminology databases, such as UNTERM and IATE (Inter-Active
Terminology for Europe), provide authoritative references for specialized
terminology used in UN documents. Translators also rely on legal
dictionaries, subject-matter glossaries, and official UN publications to verify
terminology and ensure precision. Additionally, they may consult experts in
fields such as international law, environmental policy, and human rights to
clarify complex concepts.
Beyond digital resources, UN translators often refer to past resolutions,
treaties, and official reports to ensure that new translations align with
previously established language conventions. Consistency across documents
is crucial for legal and diplomatic purposes, as even slight variations in
wording can lead to different interpretations. By leveraging advanced
translation tools and reference materials, UN translators uphold the highest
standards of accuracy, coherence, and professionalism in their work.
Conclusion
The responsibilities of a UN translator extend beyond linguistic expertise to
encompass ethical considerations, confidentiality, impartiality, and adherence to

93
strict terminology and style guidelines. Their work is essential in facilitating
international diplomacy, ensuring that all member states have equal access to
information in their respective languages. Through the use of advanced translation
tools and reference materials, UN translators maintain the accuracy, consistency, and
reliability of official UN documents, ultimately contributing to the effectiveness of
global governance and international cooperation.
 UN-Specific Terminology and Style
The UN operates within a highly structured linguistic framework, requiring
translators to follow standardized terminology and style guidelines to ensure
uniformity across all official documents. UN-specific terminology
encompasses legal phrases, diplomatic expressions, and technical terms
related to various sectors such as human rights, environmental law,
disarmament, and international trade. These terms must be consistently
applied across multiple languages to avoid discrepancies that could affect the
interpretation of resolutions, treaties, and reports.
To achieve this consistency, the UN has developed dedicated terminology
databases such as UNTERM and IATE (Inter-Active Terminology for
Europe), which provide authoritative translations of key terms. Translators
must regularly consult these resources to ensure that they use approved
terminology in all documents. Additionally, they work with subject-matter
experts and revisers to verify complex terms, particularly in specialized areas
like humanitarian law or economic policy.
The UN Editorial Manual and language-specific style guides further regulate
the structure, formatting, and stylistic preferences of official documents.
These guides specify rules regarding punctuation, capitalization,
abbreviations, and numbering conventions. For example, certain diplomatic

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 phrases must be translated in a precise manner to maintain their intended
nuance, and legal terminology must conform to internationally accepted
definitions. The use of passive or active voice, as well as preferred syntactic
structures, is also dictated by these guides to maintain a formal and
professional tone across all translations.
Adhering to UN style guidelines is particularly crucial when translating
resolutions and legal texts. Since these documents may be used as official
references in international courts or diplomatic negotiations, even the smallest
deviation from the prescribed wording can have legal consequences.
Therefore, translators must not only possess linguistic expertise but also a
deep understanding of diplomatic and legal phrasing within the UN
framework.
 Common Terminology Challenges and Solutions
Translating UN documents presents several terminology-related challenges,
given the complexity of international law, politics, and technical subjects. One
common difficulty arises from legal and diplomatic terms that have no
direct equivalent in the target language. For instance, certain legal concepts
recognized under common law systems may not have an exact counterpart in
civil law systems. In such cases, translators must find functionally equivalent
terms that preserve the legal meaning while ensuring that the translation aligns
with the legal traditions of different member states.
Another challenge is the ambiguity of certain terms, particularly in
diplomatic discourse. UN documents often employ deliberately vague
language to allow for broad interpretation among member states. Phrases such
as "as appropriate" or "within reasonable time" are intentionally flexible, but
their translation must reflect the same level of ambiguity. A translator must

95
avoid over-clarifying or altering such terms, as doing so could change the
intended diplomatic nuance.
Additionally, requires careful handling. Certain terms, politically sensitive
terminology especially those related to territorial disputes, sovereignty, and
conflict resolution, may carry different connotations depending on the
political stance of a given country. For example, terms such as "occupied
territories" or "disputed regions" must be translated in a manner that remains
neutral and aligns with UN policies. The translator must always refer to
official UN terminology databases and past resolutions to ensure that
politically charged terms are used consistently.
Consistency across multiple languages also presents a challenge, as different
languages have unique grammatical structures that may affect meaning.
Gendered language, for example, is a common issue in translations involving
languages such as French and Spanish, where nouns are gender-specific.
Translators must ensure that their translations align with the UN’s
commitment to gender-neutral language while still maintaining grammatical
correctness in the target language.

To address these challenges, UN translators employ several strategies:

1. Consultation of official UN databases and glossaries – Tools like
UNTERM provide standardized translations for key legal and technical
terms.
2. Collaboration with subject-matter experts – When dealing with highly
specialized texts, translators often consult legal professionals, scientists, or
economists to ensure accuracy.

96
 3. Cross-referencing past translations – By reviewing previously
translated resolutions and treaties, translators can maintain consistency
with established language usage.
4. Revising and proofreading with other language professionals – The
revision process ensures that translations meet the highest standards of
accuracy and neutrality before publication.
By navigating these challenges with precision and expertise, UN translators help
uphold the credibility and effectiveness of UN communications. Their ability to
master UN-specific terminology and solve complex linguistic issues ensures that
official documents remain legally sound, diplomatically neutral, and universally
accessible to all member states.
Practical Exercise: Translating and Analyzing UN Official
Documents from English into Arabic
Translating UN official documents requires precision, adherence to established
terminology, and an understanding of diplomatic, legal, and political language. This
exercise provides a practical application of translating UN texts from English into
Arabic, followed by model answers and an analysis of key translation choices.

Exercise 1: Translating a UN Resolution Excerpt

English Text
(Excerpt from a UN General Assembly Resolution on Human Rights)
“The General Assembly, reaffirming its commitment to the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and recognizing the fundamental importance of
promoting and protecting human rights and fundamental freedoms, urges all
Member States to take the necessary measures to ensure the full implementation
of international human rights instruments in accordance with their legal
obligations.”

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Arabic Translation
‫ وإذ تعترف باألهمية األساسية‬،‫ إذ تعيد تأكيد التزامها باإلعالن العالمي لحقوق اإلنسان‬،‫”إن الجمعية العامة‬
‫ تحث جميع الدول األعضاء على اتخاذ التدابير الالزمة‬،‫لتعزيز وحماية حقوق اإلنسان والحريات األساسية‬
. “ ‫لضمان التنفيذ الكامل لالتفاقيات الدولية لحقوق اإلنسان وفقا اللتزاماتها القانونية‬
Analysis of Key Translation Choices:
1. “Reaffirming its commitment to the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights”
 “‫”إذ تعيد تأكيد التزامها باإلعالن العالمي لحقوق اإلنسان‬
 The phrase “reaffirming its commitment” was translated as “ ‫إذ تعيد تأكيد‬
‫”التزامها‬, ensuring consistency with UN terminology. The verb “‫”تعيد تأكيد‬
aligns with formal diplomatic language used in UN resolutions.
2. “Recognizing the fundamental importance of promoting and protecting
human rights and fundamental freedoms”
 “‫”وإذ تعترف باألهمية األساسية لتعزيز وحماية حقوق اإلنسان والحريات األساسية‬
 The phrase “‫ ”إذ تعترف باألهمية األساسية‬correctly reflects the legal and
diplomatic nuance of "recognizing the fundamental importance."
 “Promoting and protecting” was accurately rendered as “‫”تعزيز وحماية‬,
following standard UN Arabic terminology.
3. “Urges all Member States to take the necessary measures”
 “‫”تحث جميع الدول األعضاء على اتخاذ التدابير الالزمة‬
 The verb “‫( ”تحث‬urges) accurately conveys the diplomatic tone used in UN
resolutions.
4. “To ensure the full implementation of international human rights
instruments in accordance with their legal obligations”
 “‫”لضمان التنفيذ الكامل لالتفاقيات الدولية لحقوق اإلنسان وفقا اللتزاماتها القانونية‬
 “Full implementation” was translated as “‫”التنفيذ الكامل‬, maintaining the
formal register required in legal documents.
 “International human rights instruments” was rendered as “ ‫االتفاقيات الدولية‬
‫”لحقوق اإلنسان‬, ensuring consistency with UN terminology.

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Exercise 2: Translating a UN Security Council Statement on Peacekeeping
English Text
“The Security Council underscores the importance of deploying peacekeeping
missions with clear mandates, adequate resources, and robust strategies to
address emerging threats. It further emphasizes the need for enhanced
cooperation between the United Nations and regional organizations to promote
stability and security in conflict-affected areas.”
Arabic Translation
‫ واستراتيجيات‬،‫ وموارد كافية‬،‫”يؤكد مجلس األمن على أهمية نشر بعثات حفظ السالم بتفويضات واضحة‬
‫ كما يشدد على ضرورة تعزيز التعاون بين األمم المتحدة والمنظمات‬.‫قوية لمواجهة التهديدات الناشئة‬
. “‫اإلقليمية لتعزيز االستقرار واألمن في المناطق المتأثرة بالنزاعات‬
Analysis of Key Translation Choices:
1. “Underscores the importance of deploying peacekeeping missions”
 “‫”يؤكد مجلس األمن على أهمية نشر بعثات حفظ السالم‬
 The verb “‫ ”يؤكد‬accurately conveys the meaning of “underscores,”
following the formal tone of UN documents.
 “Peacekeeping missions” was correctly translated as “‫”بعثات حفظ السالم‬,
maintaining consistency with UN peacekeeping terminology.
2. “With clear mandates, adequate resources, and robust strategies”
 “‫ واستراتيجيات قوية‬،‫ وموارد كافية‬،‫”بتفويضات واضحة‬
 “Clear mandates” was translated as “‫”تفويضات واضحة‬, following standard
Arabic legal terminology.
 “Robust strategies” was rendered as “‫”استراتيجيات قوية‬, ensuring clarity and
diplomatic precision.
3. “To address emerging threats”
 “‫”لمواجهة التهديدات الناشئة‬
 The phrase “‫ ”لمواجهة التهديدات الناشئة‬accurately captures the meaning of
“address emerging threats” while maintaining conciseness.
4. “Emphasizes the need for enhanced cooperation between the United
Nations and regional organizations”

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  “‫”يشدد على ضرورة تعزيز التعاون بين األمم المتحدة والمنظمات اإلقليمية‬
 The verb “‫( ”يشدد‬emphasizes) ensures a formal and diplomatic tone
appropriate for Security Council statements.
 “Enhanced cooperation” was translated as “‫”تعزيز التعاون‬, a standard phrase
in UN diplomatic language.
5. “To promote stability and security in conflict-affected areas”
 “‫”لتعزيز االستقرار واألمن في المناطق المتأثرة بالنزاعات‬
 “Promote stability and security” was rendered as “‫”تعزيز االستقرار واألمن‬, a
commonly used phrase in Arabic translations of UN resolutions.

Exercise 3: Translating a UN Report Excerpt on Climate Change

English Text
“Climate change remains a major global challenge that requires urgent action at
all levels. The United Nations calls on governments, businesses, and civil society
to implement sustainable policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions
and protecting vulnerable communities from environmental risks.”
Arabic Translation
.‫”ال يزال تغير المناخ يشكل تحديا عالميا رئيسيا يتطلب اتخاذ إجراءات عاجلة على جميع المستويات‬
‫وتدعو األمم المتحدة الحكومات والشركات والمجتمع المدني إلى تنفيذ سياسات مستدامة تهدف إلى الحد‬
. “‫من انبعاثات الغازات الدفيئة وحماية المجتمعات الضعيفة من المخاطر البيئية‬
Analysis of Key Translation Choices:
1. “Climate change remains a major global challenge”
 “‫”ال يزال تغير المناخ يشكل تحديا عالميا رئيسيا‬
 The phrase “‫ ”ال يزال تغير المناخ يشكل‬accurately captures the continuous nature
of climate change as an ongoing challenge.
2. “Requires urgent action at all levels”
 “‫”يتطلب اتخاذ إجراءات عاجلة على جميع المستويات‬
 “Urgent action” was translated as “‫”اتخاذ إجراءات عاجلة‬, maintaining the
formal tone required in UN environmental reports.
3. “Calls on governments, businesses, and civil society”
 “‫”وتدعو األمم المتحدة الحكومات والشركات والمجتمع المدني‬

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  “Calls on” was rendered as “‫”تدعو‬, an appropriate verb choice that aligns
with standard UN appeals.
4. “To implement sustainable policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and protecting vulnerable communities from environmental
risks”
 “ ‫إلى تنفيذ سياسات مستدامة تهدف إلى الحد من انبعاثات الغازات الدفيئة وحماية المجتمعات‬
‫الضعيفة من المخاطر البيئية‬.”
 “Sustainable policies” was translated as “‫”سياسات مستدامة‬, following
environmental UN terminology.
 “Greenhouse gas emissions” was rendered as “‫”انبعاثات الغازات الدفيئة‬,
ensuring technical accuracy.

Conclusion
These exercises demonstrate the importance of precise, contextually appropriate,
and UN-compliant translation. Translators must ensure that terminology, style, and
diplomatic tone are preserved to maintain the integrity of UN communications. By
practicing with real UN documents, translators can develop expertise in handling
legal, political, and technical language while maintaining consistency across
translations.

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 Chapter 3: Challenges in UN Translation

United Nations (UN) translation is a complex and demanding task that requires
accuracy, neutrality, and cultural sensitivity. Given the diverse nature of UN texts—
ranging from legal and diplomatic documents to policy reports and technical
resolutions—translators face numerous challenges. These difficulties can be
categorized into linguistic and cultural challenges, technical and legal
complexities, and technological challenges. Each of these aspects presents unique
obstacles that require specialized skills, strategies, and resources to ensure high-
quality translations.

1. Linguistic and Cultural Challenges

 Handling Culturally Sensitive Terms
One of the primary challenges UN translators encounter is navigating
culturally sensitive terminology. The UN deals with politically charged
issues such as human rights, territorial disputes, gender equality, and
religious freedoms, all of which require careful wording. A term that is
neutral in one language may carry unintended connotations in another.

For example, translating terms related to gender identity and rights can
be complex. Many languages, such as Arabic and Russian, have gendered
grammar structures that do not always accommodate gender-neutral
expressions commonly used in English and French. Similarly, politically
sensitive terms—such as “occupation” in territorial conflicts—can have
different legal and emotional implications depending on the context.

To address this challenge, UN translators rely on official UN terminology

databases like UNTERM, consult subject-matter experts, and adhere to

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 previously agreed-upon diplomatic phrasing. The use of neutral, carefully
crafted expressions ensures that translations do not introduce bias or
controversy.
 Addressing Variations in Dialects and Language Structures
Another linguistic challenge in UN translation is managing dialectical
variations and structural differences among languages. The six official
UN languages—Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish—
have significant internal variations that impact translation choices.

For instance, Arabic has distinct dialects across the Arab world, but
Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is used for official UN documents.
However, even within MSA, variations in legal, diplomatic, and scientific
terminology exist across different countries. Similarly, Spanish used in UN
documents must maintain neutrality between Latin American and
European Spanish variants, avoiding regionally specific vocabulary.

Moreover, language structures differ significantly. For example, English

follows a subject-verb-object (SVO) structure, whereas Arabic allows for
more flexible sentence structures. Chinese, which relies on context and
ideograms, presents additional challenges when converting legal and
technical terms into languages with phonetic alphabets. Translators must
ensure that meaning is conveyed accurately while preserving the natural
flow of the target language.

To tackle this, UN translators adhere to standardized style guides,

reference past translations, and collaborate with native speakers to ensure
clarity and consistency across dialects.
2. Technical and Legal Complexities
 Challenges in Translating Legal, Diplomatic, and Policy Texts

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 UN translators frequently work with legal, diplomatic, and policy
documents, including international treaties, Security Council resolutions,
and human rights reports. These texts require absolute precision, legal
consistency, and diplomatic neutrality.
Legal terminology often does not have direct equivalents across languages.
For instance, common law systems (used in the US and UK) and civil law
systems (used in much of Europe and Latin America) have different legal
frameworks. A term like “due process” in English may not have an exact
equivalent in Arabic or Chinese, requiring careful paraphrasing to preserve
legal intent.
Diplomatic language also presents challenges, as UN documents often use
intentionally ambiguous phrasing to allow flexibility in interpretation.
Phrases such as “as appropriate” or “within a reasonable time” must be
carefully translated to maintain their intended vagueness without altering
legal implications.
To ensure consistency and legal accuracy, UN translators refer to existing
treaties, conventions, and UN glossaries. Additionally, they often
collaborate with legal experts to verify the accuracy of translated legal
texts.
 The Importance of Precision in International Treaties and
Agreements
Precision in translating international treaties and agreements is critical, as
any misinterpretation can lead to diplomatic disputes, legal loopholes, or
misalignment in national policies. UN treaties must be legally binding
across multiple language versions, meaning that even a minor
mistranslation could alter a treaty’s obligations.

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 A notable example of translation ambiguity occurred in the UN Charter,
where the term “peoples” in English was rendered differently in various
official translations, leading to debates over self-determination rights.
Similarly, in climate agreements like the Paris Agreement, technical
terms such as “climate mitigation” and “adaptation” must be consistently
translated to avoid misinterpretation by policymakers.
To achieve precision, UN translators rely on bilingual legal experts,
parallel legal texts, and rigorous revision processes. Each treaty
undergoes multiple rounds of review to ensure all language versions carry
the exact same legal weight.
3. Technological Challenges and Solutions
 Use of Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) Tools in the UN
With the increasing volume of documents requiring translation, the UN
relies heavily on Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) tools to
enhance efficiency and maintain consistency. Tools like SDL Trados
Studio, MemoQ, and Wordfast help translators by providing translation
memories (TM)—databases of previously translated sentences that allow
for reuse in similar contexts.
However, while CAT tools improve speed and consistency, they also
present challenges. For example:

 Legal and diplomatic texts often require nuanced interpretation,

which CAT tools cannot provide.
 Over-reliance on translation memories may lead to outdated
terminology usage if not regularly updated.
 Proper segmentation of complex texts is crucial, as automated tools
may misinterpret sentence boundaries in languages with flexible
syntax, such as Arabic or Chinese.

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 To mitigate these issues, UN translators use CAT tools as an aid rather than a
replacement for human expertise, combining technology with manual review
and expert verification.

 Machine Translation and Post-Editing in UN Settings

The UN has experimented with machine translation (MT) systems, such
as Google Translate and DeepL, particularly for draft translations and
internal communication. While MT can speed up translation processes,
it is not yet reliable for legal, diplomatic, or technical texts, as these
require a high level of accuracy.

Some key challenges of machine translation in the UN context include:

 Loss of legal precision: Machine-generated translations may introduce
errors in legal terminology.
 Cultural and political misinterpretations: Automated translations
often fail to account for diplomatic sensitivities.
 Syntax and structure mismatches: Some languages require complex
restructuring, which machines may not handle well.

To address these challenges, the UN employs post-editing, where human

translators revise machine-generated drafts to ensure accuracy. Hybrid
approaches, combining MT with human expertise, are increasingly used for
less sensitive documents, but high-stakes texts still rely on human translation.

Conclusion
UN translation presents numerous challenges across linguistic, legal, and
technological domains. Translators must handle culturally sensitive terms,
navigate dialectal and structural variations, and ensure legal precision in treaties
and agreements. The complexity of diplomatic and legal language further increases

106
the need for expert verification and adherence to official terminology databases.
Meanwhile, advancements in CAT tools and machine translation have improved
efficiency but require human oversight to ensure accuracy.

Ultimately, the role of a UN translator demands not only linguistic fluency but also
deep knowledge of legal frameworks, political sensitivity, and technological
adaptability. By continuously refining their skills and leveraging the latest
translation tools, UN translators ensure that multilingual communication remains
clear, precise, and faithful to the UN’s mission of international diplomacy and
cooperation.

Practical Exercise: Identifying and Solving Translation Challenges in

UN Texts from English into Arabic
Translating UN texts requires more than just linguistic proficiency—it demands a
deep understanding of legal, diplomatic, and technical language, as well as
sensitivity to cultural and political nuances. This practical exercise focuses on
identifying and solving key translation challenges when translating UN documents
from English into Arabic. It provides examples of common challenges, model
translations, and explanations of the translation strategies used.

Exercise 1: Handling Ambiguous or Vague Diplomatic Language

English Text (Excerpt from a UN Security Council Resolution)
“The Security Council expresses its deep concern over the escalating situation
and calls upon all parties to exercise restraint and engage in meaningful dialogue
to reach a peaceful resolution.”
Key Challenges:

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 1. Diplomatic Ambiguity: The phrase “deep concern” is a standard
diplomatic expression that must be rendered appropriately in Arabic
without exaggeration.
2. Idiomatic Phrasing: The phrase “engage in meaningful dialogue” does
not have a direct equivalent in Arabic and must be paraphrased effectively.
3. Maintaining Neutrality: The translation must remain neutral without
favoring any party.

Arabic Translation
‫ ويدعو جميع األطراف إلى التحلي بضبط‬،‫” يعرب مجلس األمن عن قلقه العميق إزاء تصاعد األوضاع‬
. “ ‫النفس واالنخراط في حوار جاد من أجل التوصل إلى حل سلمي‬

Analysis of Translation Choices:

 “Expresses its deep concern” → “‫”يعرب عن قلقه العميق‬
- This phrase follows standard UN Arabic phrasing for diplomatic concerns.

 “Calls upon all parties” → “‫”يدعو جميع األطراف‬

- The verb “‫ ”يدعو‬is preferred over “‫ ”يطلب‬to maintain a neutral, non-coercive
tone.

 “Engage in meaningful dialogue” → “‫”االنخراط في حوار جاد‬

- “‫( ”انخراط‬engagement) captures the sense of active participation, and “‫”جاد‬
ensures that the dialogue is taken seriously.

Exercise 2: Translating Legal and Policy Terminology

English Text (Excerpt from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)
“Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.”
Key Challenges:
1. Legal Precision: The phrase “recognition everywhere as a person before
the law” must be accurately translated to align with established legal
terminology.
2. Structural Differences: Arabic syntax requires restructuring the sentence
for clarity.

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 Arabic Translation
. “ ‫”لكل فرد الحق في االعتراف به كشخص أمام القانون في كل مكان‬

Analysis of Translation Choices:

 “Recognition everywhere” → “‫”االعتراف به في كل مكان‬
- Maintains clarity while preserving the universality of the right.

 “As a person before the law” → “‫”كشخص أمام القانون‬

- The phrase “‫ ”أمام القانون‬ensures legal specificity without unnecessary
additions.

Exercise 3: Handling Cultural Sensitivity in Gender and Social Issues

English Text (UN Report on Gender Equality)
“Empowering women and girls is essential to achieving sustainable development
and ensuring equal opportunities for all.”
Key Challenges:
1. Gender Terminology: Some Arabic-speaking societies may interpret
“empowering women” differently.
2. Structural Differences: The phrase “equal opportunities for all” requires
careful restructuring.

Arabic Translation
. “ ‫”يعد تمكين المرأة والفتيات أمرا أساسيا لتحقيق التنمية المستدامة وضمان تكافؤ الفرص للجميع‬

Analysis of Translation Choices:

 “Empowering women and girls” → “‫”تمكين المرأة والفتيات‬
- The word “‫( ”تمكين‬empowerment) is widely accepted in UN Arabic
documents.

 “Equal opportunities for all” → “‫”تكافؤ الفرص للجميع‬

- “‫ ”تكافؤ الفرص‬is the established UN term for “equal opportunities.”

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Exercise 4: Addressing Technical and Scientific Terms
English Text (UN Climate Change Report)
“Carbon emissions must be significantly reduced to limit global warming to 1.5
degrees Celsius, in accordance with the Paris Agreement.”
Key Challenges:
1. Scientific Accuracy: The translation must use the correct technical term
for “carbon emissions.”
2. Numerical and Measurement Conventions: “Degrees Celsius” must be
formatted correctly in Arabic.

Arabic Translation
،‫ درجة مئوية‬1.5 ‫”يجب خفض انبعاثات الكربون بشكل كبير للحد من ارتفاع درجة الحرارة العالمية إلى‬
. “ ‫وفقا التفاق باريس‬

Analysis of Translation Choices:

 “Carbon emissions” → “‫”انبعاثات الكربون‬
- This is the standard UN Arabic term for “carbon emissions.”

 “Limit global warming” → “‫”الحد من ارتفاع درجة الحرارة العالمية‬

- Ensures clarity while maintaining the correct scientific meaning.

 “Degrees Celsius” → “‫”درجة مئوية‬

- Correct Arabic notation for temperature measurements.

Exercise 5: Addressing Structural Differences in Complex Sentences

English Text (UN Economic Report)
“While global economic growth remains steady, disparities between developed
and developing countries continue to pose significant challenges to achieving
inclusive and sustainable economic progress.”
Key Challenges:
1. Complex Sentence Structure: Arabic prefers a more linear structure.

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 2. Maintaining Formal Tone: The translation should align with formal UN
economic terminology.

Arabic Translation

‫ ال تزال الفجوات بين الدول المتقدمة والنامية تشكل‬،‫”في حين يظل النمو االقتصادي العالمي مستقرا‬
. “ ‫تحديات كبيرة أمام تحقيق تقدم اقتصادي شامل ومستدام‬

Analysis of Translation Choices:

 “While global economic growth remains steady” → “ ‫في حين يظل النمو‬
‫”االقتصادي العالمي مستقرا‬
- This reordering ensures clarity in Arabic while preserving meaning.

 “Disparities between developed and developing countries” → “ ‫الفجوات بين‬

‫”الدول المتقدمة والنامية‬
- The term "‫( "الفجوات‬gaps/disparities) is widely used in economic contexts.

 “Inclusive and sustainable economic progress” → “ ‫تقدم اقتصادي شامل‬

‫”ومستدام‬
- The phrase “‫ ”شامل ومستدام‬ensures alignment with UN terminology.

Conclusion

This exercise highlights key challenges in translating UN texts from English into
Arabic and provides solutions that maintain accuracy, neutrality, and consistency.
Translators must carefully navigate diplomatic ambiguity, legal terminology,
cultural sensitivities, and technical language while ensuring their translations
align with established UN standards. By practicing with real UN texts and referring
to official glossaries and style guides, translators can enhance their ability to produce
high-quality translations that support international communication and diplomacy.

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