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Integrating Business with Technology
By completing the projects in this text, students will be able to demonstrate business knowledge, application software
proficiency, and Internet skills. These projects can be used by instructors as learning assessment tools and by students
as demonstrations of business, software, and problem-solving skills to future employers. Here are some of the skills
and competencies students using this text will be able to demonstrate:
Business Application skills: Use of both business and software skills in real-world business applications.
Demonstrates both business knowledge and proficiency in spreadsheet, database, and Web page/blog creation tools. Chapter 7: Securing Information Systems
You're On Facebook? Watch Out!
Internet skills: Ability to use Internet tools to access information, conduct research, or perform online calculations
Stuxnet and the Changing Face of Cyberwarfare
and analysis.
How Secure Is Your Smartphone?
Analytical, writing and presentation skills: Ability to research a specific topic, analyze a problem, think creatively, Sony: The World's Largest Data Breach?
suggest a solution, and prepare a clear written or oral presentation of the solution, working either individually or with
others in a group.
Chapter 8: Achieving Operational Excellence and
* Dirt Bikes Running Case in MyMISLab Customer Intimacy: Enterprise Applications
Cannondale Learns to Manage a Global Supply Chain
Southwest Airlines Takes Off With Better Supply Chain Management
Business Application Skills Customer Relationship Management Heads to the Cloud
Business Skills Software Skills Chapter Summit Electric Lights Up with a New ERP System

Finance and Accounting

Financial statement analysis Spreadsheet charts Chapter 2* Chapter 9: E-commerce: Digital Markets, Digital Goods
Spreadsheet formulas Chapter 9 Groupon's Business Model: Social and Local
Spreadsheet downloading and formatting Walmart, Amazon, eBay: Who Will Dominate Internet Retailing?
Pricing hardware and software Spreadsheet formulas Chapter 4 Social Commerce Creates New Customer Relationships
To Pay or Not to Pay: Zagat's Dilemma
Technology rent vs. buy decision Spreadsheet formulas Chapter 4*
Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) Analysis
Analyzing telecommunications services and costs Spreadsheet formulas Chapter 6 Chapter 10: Improving Decision Making and Managing Knowledge
Risk assessment Spreadsheet charts and formulas Chapter 7 What to Sell? What Price to Charge? Ask the Data
Colgate-Palmolive Keeps Managers Smiling with Executive Dashboards
Human Resources
IBM's Watson: Can Computers Replace Humans?
Employee training and skills tracking Database design Chapter 11*
Zynga Wins with Business Intelligence
Database querying and reporting

Manufacturing and Production

Chapter 11: Building Information Systems and Managing Projects
Analyzing supplier performance and pricing Spreadsheet date functions Chapter 2
A New Ordering System for Girl Scout Cookies
Data filtering
Honam Petrochemical's Quest for Better Management Reports
Database functions
DST Systems Scores with Scrum and Application Lifecycle Management
Inventory management Importing data into a database Chapter 5
JetBlue and WestJet: A Tale of Two IS Projects
Database querying and reporting
Bill of materials cost sensitivity analysis Spreadsheet data tables Chapter 10*
Spreadsheet formulas Chapter 12: Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems
Behavioral Targeting and Your Privacy: You’re the Target
Sales and Marketing
Life on the Grid: iPhone Becomes iTrack
Sales trend analysis Database querying and reporting Chapter 1
Too Much Information?
Customer reservation system Database querying and reporting Chapter 3 When Radiation Therapy Kills
Customer sales analysis Database design
Marketing decisions Spreadsheet pivot tables Chapter 10
Customer profiling Database design Chapter 5*
Database querying and reporting
 Customer service analysis Database design Chapter 8
Database querying and reporting
Sales lead and customer analysis Database design Chapter 11
Database querying and reporting
Blog creation and design Blog creation tool Chapter 12

Internet Skills
Using online software tools for job hunting and career development Chapter 1

Using online interactive mapping software to plan efficient Chapter 2

transportation routes

Researching product information Chapter 3

Evaluating Web sites for auto sales

Researching travel costs using online travel sites Chapter 4

Searching online databases for products and services Chapter 5

Using Web search engines for business research Chapter 6

Researching and evaluating business outsourcing services Chapter 7

Researching and evaluating supply chain management services Chapter 8

Evaluating e-commerce hosting services Chapter 9

Using shopping bots to compare product price, features, and Chapter 10

availability

Analyzing Web site design Chapter 11

Using Internet newsgroups for marketing Chapter 12

Analytical, Writing, and Presentation Skills *

Business Problem Chapter

Management analysis of a business Chapter 1

Value chain and competitive forces analysis Chapter 3

Business strategy formulation

Employee productivity analysis Chapter 6

Disaster recovery planning Chapter 7

Locating and evaluating suppliers Chapter 8

Developing an e-commerce strategy Chapter 9

Formulating a corporate privacy policy Chapter 12

 Essentials of
Management
Information Systems
Tenth Edition

Kenneth C. Laudon
New York University

Jane P. Laudon
Azimuth Information Systems

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the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Information is Available

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ISBN 10: 0-13-266855-6

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-266855-2
About the Authors

Kenneth C. Laudon is a Professor of Information Systems at New York University’s

Stern School of Business. He holds a B.A. in Economics from Stanford and a Ph.D. from
Columbia University. He has authored twelve books dealing with electronic commerce,
information systems, organizations, and society. Professor Laudon has also written over
forty articles concerned with the social, organizational, and management impacts of infor-
mation systems, privacy, ethics, and multimedia technology.
Professor Laudon’s current research is on the planning and management of large-scale
information systems and multimedia information technology. He has received grants from
the National Science Foundation to study the evolution of national information systems at
the Social Security Administration, the IRS, and the FBI. Ken’s research focuses on enter-
prise system implementation, computer-related organizational and occupational changes in
large organizations, changes in management ideology, changes in public policy, and under-
standing productivity change in the knowledge sector.
Ken Laudon has testified as an expert before the United States Congress. He has been a
researcher and consultant to the Office of Technology Assessment (United States Congress),
Department of Homeland Security, and to the Office of the President, several executive
branch agencies, and Congressional Committees. Professor Laudon also acts as an in-house
educator for several consulting firms and as a consultant on systems planning and strategy
to several Fortune 500 firms.
At NYU’s Stern School of Business, Ken Laudon teaches courses on Managing the
Digital Firm, Information Technology and Corporate Strategy, Professional Responsibility
(Ethics), and Electronic Commerce and Digital Markets. Ken Laudon’s hobby is sailing.

Jane Price Laudon is a management consultant in the information systems area

and the author of seven books. Her special interests include systems analysis, data manage-
ment, MIS auditing, software evaluation, and teaching business professionals how to design
and use information systems.
Jane received her Ph.D. from Columbia University, her M.A. from Harvard University,
and her B.A. from Barnard College. She has taught at Columbia University and the New
York University Stern School of Business. She maintains a lifelong interest in Oriental lan-
guages and civilizations.
The Laudons have two daughters, Erica and Elisabeth, to whom this book is dedicated.
iii
Brief Contents
Preface xi

I Information Systems in the Digital Age 1

1 Business Information Systems in Your Career 2
2 Global E-Business and Collaboration 36
3 Achieving Competitive Advantage with Information Systems 74

II Information Technology Infrastructure 107

4 IT Infrastructure: Hardware and Software 108
5 Foundations of Business Intelligence: Databases and Information Management 146
6 Telecommunications, the Internet, and Wireless Technology 178
7 Securing Information Systems 220

III Key System Applications for the Digital Age 259

8 Achieving Operational Excellence and Customer Intimacy: Enterprise Applications 260
9 E-commerce: Digital Markets, Digital Goods 290
10 Improving Decision Making and Managing Knowledge 330

IV Building and Managing Systems 367

11 Building Information Systems and Managing Projects 368
12 Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems 404

Glossary G-1
References R-1
Index I-1

iv
Complete Contents
I Information Systems in the Internet to Locate Jobs Requiring Information Systems
Knowledge 33
Digital Age 1 Video Cases 33 • Collaboration and Teamwork: Creating
a Web Site for Team Collaboration 33
1 Business Information Systems in Your Business Problem-Solving Case
Career 2 Are Electronic Medical Records a Cure for Health
Chapter-Opening Case: Care? 33
Shortening Lines at Disney World: Technology to the
Rescue 3 2 Global E-Business and Collaboration 36
1.1 The Role of Information Systems in Business Chapter-Opening Case:
Today 5 America's Cup 2010: USA Wins with Information
How Information Systems Are Transforming Business 5 Technology 37
• What’s New In Management Information Systems? 6 2.1 Components of a Business 39
Interactive Session: Organizations Organizing a Business: Basic Business Functions 39
Running the Business from the Palm of Your Business Processes 40 • Managing a Business and Firm
Hand 8 Hierarchies 42 • The Business Environment 43 • The
Globalization Challenges and Opportunities: A Role of Information Systems in a Business 44
Flattened World 9 • Business Drivers of Information
2.2 Types of Business Information Systems 45
Systems 11
Systems for Management Decision Making and Business
1.2 Perspectives on Information Systems and Intelligence 45
Information Technology 13 Interactive Session: Technology
What Is an Information System? 13 • It Isn’t Simply Can Airlines Solve Their Baggage Handling? 47
Technology: The Role of People and Organizations 15
Systems for Linking the
• Dimensions of Information Systems 16 Enterprise 51
1.3 Understanding Information Systems: A Business Interactive Session:
Problem-Solving Approach 18 Organizations
Interactive Session: Technology Piloting Valero with Real-
UPS Competes Globally with Information Time Management 52
Technology 19 Intranets and Extranets
The Problem-Solving Approach 55 • E-Business,
21 • A Model of the Problem- E-commerce, and E-Government 55
Solving Process 21 • The Role
2.3 Systems for Collaboration and Teamwork 56
of Critical Thinking in Problem
What is Collaboration? 56 • Business Benefits
Solving 23 • The Connection
of Collaboration and Teamwork 57 • Building a
Between Business Objectives,
Collaborative Culture 57 • Tools and Technologies for
Problems, and Solutions 24
Collaboration and Teamwork 59
1.4 Information Systems and Your Career 25
2.4 The Information Systems Function in Business 65
How Information Systems Will Affect Business Careers
The Information Systems Department 65 • Information
25 • Information Systems and Your Career: Wrap-Up 28
Systems Services 66
• How This Book Prepares You For the Future 28
Learning Tracks 66 • Review Summary 66 • Key Terms
Learning Tracks 29 • Review Summary 30 • Key Terms
67 • Review Questions 68 • Discussion Questions 69 •
31 • Review Questions 31 • Discussion Questions 32 •
Hands-on MIS Projects 69
Hands-on MIS Projects 32
Management Decision Problems 69 • Improving
Management Decision Problems 32 • Improving
Decision Making: Using a Spreadsheet to Select
Decision Making: Using Databases to Analyze Sales
Suppliers 69 • Achieving Operational Excellence: Using
Trends 32 • Improving Decision Making: Using the
Internet Software to Plan Efficient Transportation
Routes 70
v
Video Cases 70 • Collaboration and Teamwork: II Information Technology
Describing Management Decisions and Systems 70
Business Problem-Solving Case
Infrastructure 107
Collaboration and Innovation at Procter & Gamble 71
4 IT Infrastructure: Hardware and
3 Achieving Competitive Advantage with Software 108
Information Systems 74 Chapter-Opening Case:
Chapter-Opening Case: BART Speeds Up with a New IT Infrastructure 109
Verizon or AT&T: Which Digital Strategy Will
4.1 IT Infrastructure: Computer Hardware 111
Prevail? 75
Infrastructure Components 111 • Types of Computers
3.1 Using Information Systems to Achieve Competitive 113 • Storage, Input, and Output Technology 115 •
Advantage 77 Contemporary Hardware Trends 116
Porter’s Competitive Forces Model 77 • Information Interactive Session: Technology
System Strategies for Dealing with Competitive Forces Green Data Centers: Good for Business? 121
79
4.2 IT Infrastructure: Computer Software 123
Interactive Session: Technology
Operating System Software 123
Technology Helps Starbucks Find New Ways to
Application Software and Desktop Productivity Tools
Compete 82
125 • Software for the Web: Java and HTML 129 •
The Internet’s Impact on HTML5 130 • Web
Competitive Services 130 • Software
Advantage 84 • The Business Value Trends 131
Chain
Model 85 • Synergies, Core 4.3 Managing Hardware
Competencies, and Network- and Software
Based Strategies 87 • Disruptive Technology 133
Technologies: Riding the Wave 89 Capacity Planning and
3.2 Competing on a Global Scale 90 Scalability 133 • Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) of
The Internet and Globalization 91 • Global Business Technology Assets 134 • Using Technology Service
and System Strategies 91 • Global System Configuration Providers 135 • Managing Mobile Platforms 136 •
92 Managing Software Localization for Global Business
136
3.3 Competing on Quality and Design 93
Interactive Session: People
What Is Quality? 93 • How Information Systems
Should You Use Your iPhone for Work? 137
Improve Quality 94
Learning Tracks 139 • Review Summary 139 • Key
3.4 Competing on Business Processes 95
Terms 140 • Review Questions 141 • Discussion
What Is Business Process Management? 96
Questions 142 • Hands-on MIS Projects 142
Interactive Session: Organizations Management Decision Problems 142 • Improving
Burton Snowboards Speeds Ahead with Nimble Decision Making: Using a Spreadsheet To Evaluate
Business Processes 99 Hardware and Software Options 142 • Improving
Learning Tracks 100 • Review Summary 100 • Key Decision Making: Using Web Research to Budget for a
Terms 101 • Review Questions 101 • Discussion Sales Conference 143
Questions 102 • Hands-on MIS Projects 102 Video Cases 143 • Collaboration and Teamwork:
Management Decision Problems 102 • Improving Evaluating Server and Mobile Operating Systems 143
Decision Making: Using a Database to Clarify Business Business Problem-Solving Case
Strategy 103 • Improving Decision Making: Using Web Should Businesses Move to the Cloud? 144
Tools to Configure and Price an Automobile 103
Video Cases 104 • Collaboration and Teamwork: 5 Foundations of Business Intelligence:
Identifying Opportunities for Strategic Information Databases and Information
Systems 104 Management 146
Business Problem-Solving Case Chapter-Opening Case:
Will Technology Save the Publishing Industry? 104 Banco de Credito del Peru Banks on Better Data
Management 147
vi
5.1 The Database Approach to Data Management 149 6.2 Communications Networks 186
Entities and Attributes 149 • Organizing Data in a Signals: Digital vs. Analog 186 • Types of Networks 186
Relational Database 150 • Establishing Relationships • Physical Transmission Media 188
151
6.3 The Global Internet 190
5.2 Database Management Systems 153 What Is the Internet? 190 • Internet Addressing and
Operations of a Relational Architecture 191
DBMS 155 • Capabilities Interactive Session: Organizations
of Database Management The Battle Over Net Neutrality 193
Systems 157 • Object-
Internet Services and Communication Tools 195
Oriented Databases 158 •
Databases in the Cloud 159 Interactive Session: People
Monitoring Employees on Networks: Unethical or Good
5.3 Using Databases Business? 197
to Improve Business Performance and Decision
The Web 200
Making 159
Data Warehouses 159 • What is a Data Warehouse? 160 6.4 The Wireless Revolution 206
Tools for Business Intelligence: Multidimensional Data Cellular Systems 207 • Wireless Computer Networks
Analysis and Data Mining 161 • Data Mining 162 and Internet Access 207 • RFID and Wireless Sensor
Interactive Session: People Networks 209
Asking the Customer by Asking the Database 163 Learning Tracks 212 • Review Summary 212 • Key
Databases and the Web 165 Terms 213 • Review Questions 214 • Discussion
Questions 215 • Hands-on MIS Projects 215
5.4 Managing Data Resources 166 Management Decision Problems 215 • Improving
Establishing an Information Policy 166 Decision Making:
Interactive Session: Organizations Using Spreadsheet
Controversy Whirls Around the Consumer Product Safety Software to Evaluate
Database 167 Wireless Services 215 •
Ensuring Data Quality 168 Achieving Operational
Excellence: Using Web
Learning Tracks 170 • Review Summary 170 • Key
Search Engines for
Terms 171 • Review Questions 171 • Discussion
Business Research 216
Questions 172 • Hands-on MIS Projects 172
Video Cases 216 • Collaboration and Teamwork:
Management Decision Problems 172 • Achieving
Evaluating Smartphones 216
Operational Excellence: Building a Relational
Database for Inventory Management 173 • Improving Business Problem-Solving Case
Decision Making: Searching Online Databases for Apple, Google, and Microsoft Battle for Your Internet
Overseas Business Resources 173 Experience 217
Video Cases 174 • Collaboration and Teamwork:
Identifying Entities and Attributes in an Online 7 Securing Information Systems 220
Database 174 Chapter-Opening Case:
Business Problem-Solving Case You're On Facebook? Watch Out! 221
Text Mining For Gold? 174
7.1 System Vulnerability and Abuse 223
Why Systems Are Vulnerable 223 • Malicious Software:
6 Telecommunications, the Internet, and Viruses, Worms, Trojan Horse, and Spyware 226 •
Wireless Technology 178 Hackers and Computer Crime 228 • Identity
Chapter-Opening Case: Theft 230 • Internal Threats: Employees 232
Hyundai Heavy Industries Creates a Wireless Interactive Session: Organizations
Shipyard 179 Stuxnet and the Changing Face of Cyberwarfare 233
6.1 Telecommunications and Networking in Today’s Software Vulnerability 234
Business World 181 7.2 Business Value of Security and Control 235
Networking and Communication Trends 181 • What Is Legal and Regulatory Requirements for Electronic
a Computer Network? 182 • Key Digital Networking Records Management 235 • Electronic Evidence and
Technologies 184 Computer Forensics 236
vii
7.3 Establishing a Framework for Security and The Supply Chain 266 • Information Systems and
Control 237 Supply Chain Management 267 • Supply Chain
Information Systems Controls 237 • Risk Assessment Management Software 269 • Global Supply Chains
237 • Security Policy 239 • Disaster Recovery and the Internet 270
Planning and Business Continuity Planning 240 • The Interactive Session: Organizations
Role of Auditing 241 Southwest Airlines Takes Off With Better Supply
7.4 Technologies and Tools for Protecting Information Chain Management 271
Resources 242 Business Value of Supply Chain Management Systems
Identity Management 273
and Authentication 242
8.3 Customer Relationship Management Systems 273
• Firewalls, Intrusion
What Is Customer
Detection Systems, and
Relationship
Antivirus Software 243 •
Management? 274 •
Securing Wireless Networks
Customer Relationship
245 • Encryption and Public Key Infrastructure 245
Management Software
• Ensuring System Availability 247 • Security Issues
275 • Operational and
for Cloud Computing and the Mobile Digital Platform
Analytical CRM 277
248
• Business Value of
Interactive Session: Technology Customer Relationship Management Systems 278
How Secure Is Your Smartphone? 249
8.4 Enterprise Applications: New Opportunities and
Ensuring Software Quality 250
Challenges 278
Learning Tracks 251 • Review Summary 251 • Key Enterprise Applications Challenges 279 • Next-
Terms 252 • Review Questions 252 • Discussion Generation Enterprise Applications 280
Questions 253 • Hands-on MIS Projects 253
Interactive Session: Organizations
Management Decision Problems 253 • Improving Customer Relationship Management Heads to the
Decision Making: Using Spreadsheet Software to Cloud 281
Perform a Security Risk Assessment 254 • Improving
Decision Making: Evaluating Security Outsourcing Learning Tracks 282 • Review Summary 283 • Key
Services 254 Terms 284 • Review Questions 284 • Discussion
Questions 285 • Hands-on MIS Projects 285
Video Cases 255 • Collaboration and Teamwork
Evaluating Security Software Tools 255 Management Decision Problems 285 • Improving
Decision Making: Using Database Software to
Business Problem-Solving Case
Manage Customer Service Requests 285 • Achieving
Sony: The World's Largest Data Breach? 255
Operational Excellence: Evaluating Supply Chain
Management Services 286
III Key System Applications for Video Cases 286 • Collaboration and
the Digital Age 259 Teamwork Analyzing Enterprise Application Vendors
286
Business Problem-Solving Case
8 Achieving Operational Excellence Summit Electric Lights Up with a New ERP
and Customer Intimacy: Enterprise System 287
Applications 260
Chapter-Opening Case:
9 E-commerce: Digital Markets, Digital
Cannondale Learns to Manage a Global Supply
Goods 290
Chain 261
Chapter-Opening Case:
8.1 Enterprise Systems 263 Groupon's Business Model: Social and Local 291
What Are Enterprise Systems? 263 • Enterprise
Software 264 • Business Value of Enterprise Systems 9.1 E-commerce and the Internet 293
265 E-commerce Today 293 • Why E-commerce Is
Different 296 • Key Concepts in E-commerce: Digital
8.2 Supply Chain Management Systems 266 Markets and Digital Goods in a Global Marketplace
298

viii
9.2 E-commerce: Business and Technology 301 What is Business Intelligence? 336 • The Business
Types of E-commerce 301 • E-commerce Business Intelligence Environment 337 • Business Intelligence
Models 302 • E-commerce Revenue Models 304 and Analytics Capabilities 338 • Business Intelligence
Interactive Session: Organizations Users 340 • Group Decision-Support Systems 343 •
Walmart, Amazon, eBay: Who Will Dominate Internet Interactive Session: People
Retailing? 305 Colgate-Palmolive Keeps Managers Smiling with
Web 2.0, Social Networking, and the Wisdom of Executive Dashboards 344
Crowds 307 • E-commerce Marketing 308 • B2B
10.3 Intelligent Systems for Decision Support 346
E-commerce: New Efficiencies and Relationships 313
Expert Systems
Interactive Session: People 346 • Case-Based
Social Commerce Creates New Customer Reasoning 347 • Fuzzy
Relationships 314 Logic Systems 348 •
Neural Networks 349
9.3 The Mobile Digital Platform and Mobile
• Genetic Algorithms
E-commerce 317
350 • Intelligent
M-commerce Services and Application 318
Agents 351
9.4 Building an E-commerce Presence 320
10.4 Systems for Managing Knowledge 352
Pieces of the Site-Building Puzzle 320 • Business
Objectives, System Functionality, and Information Interactive Session: Technology
Requirements 320 • Building the Web Site: In-House IBM's Watson: Can Computers Replace Humans? 353
Versus Outsourcing 321 Enterprise-Wide Knowledge Management Systems 354
Learning Tracks 323 • • Knowledge Work Systems 357
Review Summary 323 • Learning Tracks 359 • Review Summary 359 • Key
Key Terms 324 • Review Terms 361 • Review Questions 361 • Discussion
Questions 325 • Discussion Questions 362 • Hands-on MIS Projects 362
Questions 325 • Hands-on Management Decision Problems 362 • Improving
MIS Projects 326 Decision Making: Using Pivot Tables to Analyze
Management Decision Sales Data 363 • Improving Decision Making: Using
Problems 326 • Improving Intelligent Agents for Comparison Shopping 363
Decision Making: Using Spreadsheet Software Video Cases 363 • Collaboration and Teamwork
to Analyze a Dot-Com Business 326 • Achieving Designing a University GDSS 363
Operational Excellence: Evaluating E-commerce Business Problem-Solving Case
Hosting Services 326 Zynga Wins with Business Intelligence 364
Video Cases 327 • Collaboration and Teamwork:
Performing a Competitive Analysis of E-commerce
Sites 327 IV Building and Managing
Business Problem-Solving Case Systems 367
To Pay or Not to Pay: Zagat's Dilemma 327
11 Building Information Systems and
10 Improving Decision Making and Managing Managing Projects 368
Knowledge 330 Chapter-Opening Case:
Chapter-Opening Case: A New Ordering System for Girl Scout Cookies 369
What to Sell? What Price to Charge? Ask the
Data 331 11.1 Problem Solving and Systems Development 371
Defining and Understanding the Problem 372 •
10.1 Decision Making and Information Systems 333 Developing Alternative Solutions 373 • Evaluating
Business Value of Improved Decision Making 333 and Choosing Solutions 373 • Implementing the
• Types of Decisions 333 • The Decision-Making Solution 373
Process 335 • Quality of Decisions and Decision
Making 336
11.2 Alternative Systems-Building Approaches 376
Traditional Systems Development Lifecycle 376 •
10.2 Business Intelligence in the Enterprise 347 Prototyping 377

ix
Interactive Session: People Conduct 415 • Some Real-World Ethical Dilemmas
Honam Petrochemical's Quest for Better Management 415
Reports 378
12.3 The Moral Dimensions of Information
End-User Development 379 • Purchasing Solutions: Systems 416
Application Software Packages and Outsourcing 380 • Information Rights: Privacy and Freedom in the
Mobile Application Development 382 • Internet Age 416
Rapid Application Development for E-business 383
Interactive Session: Technology
11.3 Modeling and Designing Systems 383 Life on the Grid: iPhone Becomes iTrack 423
Structured Methodologies 383 Property Rights: Intellectual Property 424 •
Interactive Session: Technology Accountability, Liability,
DST Systems Scores with Scrum and Application and Control 427 •
Lifecycle Management 384 System Quality: Data
Object-Oriented Development 386 • Computer-Aided Quality and System
Software Engineering (CASE) 388 Errors 428 • Quality of
Life: Equity, Access, and
11.4 Project Management 388 Boundaries 429
Project Management
Interactive Session: People
Objectives 388 • Selecting
Too Much Information? 434
Projects: Making the Business
Case for a New System 389 Learning Tracks 433 • Review Summary 436 • Key
• Managing Project Risk and Terms 436 • Review Questions 437 • Discussion
System-Related Change 391 Questions 437 • Hands-on MIS Projects 437
• Managing Projects on a Management Decision Problems 437 • Achieving
Global Scale 395 Operational Excellence: Creating a Simple Blog
Learning Tracks 397 • Review Summary 398 • Key 438 • Improving Decision Making: Using Internet
Terms 399 • Review Questions 399 • Discussion Newsgroups for Online Market Research 438
Questions 400 • Hands-on MIS Projects 400 Video Cases 439 • Collaboration and Teamwork
Management Decision Problems 400 • Improving Developing a Corporate Ethics Code 439
Decision Making: Using Database Software to Design Business Problem-Solving Case
a Customer System for Auto Sales 401 • Achieving When Radiation Therapy Kills 439
Operational Excellence: Analyzing Web Site Design
and Information Requirements 401
Video Cases 401 • Collaboration and Teamwork:
Preparing Web Site Design Specification 401
Business Problem-Solving Case
JetBlue and WestJet: A Tale of Two IS Projects 402

12 Ethical and Social Issues in Information

Systems 404
Chapter-Opening Case:
Behavioral Targeting: Your Privacy Is the Target 405

12.1 Understanding Ethical and Social Issues Related

to Systems 408
A Model for Thinking about Ethical, Social, and
Political Issues 409 • Five Moral Dimensions of the
Information Age 410 • Key Technology Trends that
Raise Ethical Issues 411
12.2 Ethics in an Information Society 413
Basic Concepts: Responsibility, Accountability, and
Liability 413 • Ethical Analysis 414 • Candidate
Ethical Principles 414 • Professional Codes of

x
Preface

We wrote this book for business school students who want an in-depth look at how today's
business firms use information technologies and systems to achieve corporate objectives.
Information systems are one of the major tools available to business managers for achieving
operational excellence, developing new products and services, improving decision making,
and achieving competitive advantage. Students will find here the most up-to-date and com-
prehensive overview of information systems used by business firms today.
When interviewing potential employees, business firms often look for new hires who
know how to use information systems and technologies to achieve bottom-line business
results. Regardless of whether you are an accounting, finance, management, operations
management, marketing, or information systems major, the knowledge and information you
find in this book will be valuable throughout your business career.

What’s New in This Edition

CURRENCY
The 10th edition features all new opening, closing and “Interactive Session” cases. The text,
figures, tables, and cases have been updated through November 2011 with the latest sources
from industry and MIS research.

NEW FEATURES
• New Video Cases Package: 24 video case studies (2 per chapter) and 12 instructional
videos are available online.
• Additional discussion questions are provided for each chapter.
• Management checklists are found throughout the book; they are designed to help future
managers make better decisions.
• Over 40 Learning Tracks are available online for additional coverage.

NEW TOPICS
• Expanded coverage of business intelligence and business analytics
• Expanded coverage of cloud computing and cloud software tools
• Private and public clouds
• Social graph
• Social e-commerce
• Social marketing
• Social search
• Social CRM
• Apps ecosystem
• Windows 8
• Android, iOS, and Chrome operating systems
• Multitouch interface

xi
 • Tablet computers
• Microblogging
• IPv6
• Expanded coverage of collaboration systems and tools
• Identity management
• Augmented reality
• Mobile application development
• Cloud and mobile security
• HTML5

What’s New in MIS?

Plenty. In fact, there’s a whole new world of doing business using new technologies for
managing and organizing. What makes the MIS field the most exciting area of study in
schools of business is the continuous change in technology, management, and business pro-
cesses. (Chapter 1 describes these changes in more detail.)
A continuing stream of information technology innovations is transforming the tradi-
tional business world. Examples include the emergence of cloud computing, the growth of a
mobile digital business platform based on smartphones, tablet computers, and not least, the
use of social networks by managers to achieve business objectives. Most of these changes
have occurred in the last few years. These innovations are enabling entrepreneurs and inno-
vative traditional firms to create new products and services, develop new business models,
and transform the day-to-day conduct of business. In the process, some old businesses, even
industries, are being destroyed while new businesses are springing up.
For instance, the emergence of online media and entertainment stores—driven by mil-
lions of consumers who prefer iPods and smartphones—has forever changed the older busi-
ness model of distributing music on physical devices, such as records and CDs. Online video
rentals are similarly transforming the old model of distributing films through theaters and
then through DVD rentals. New high-speed broadband connections to the home have sup-
ported these two business changes.
E-commerce is back, generating over $310 billion in revenues in 2010, and estimated to
grow to over $435 billion in 2015 at about 10% annually. Amazon's revenues grew 40 per-
cent in 2010, despite the recession, while offline retail grew by 4 percent. E-commerce is
changing how firms design, produce and deliver their products and services. E-commerce
has reinvented itself again, disrupting the traditional marketing and advertising industry and
putting major media and content firms in jeopardy. Facebook and other social networking
sites such as YouTube, Twitter, and Tumblr, exemplify the new face of e-commerce in the
21st Century. They sell services. Social e-commerce, and social network marketing, where
consumers rely on friends for product news and purchases, are increasingly a normal part
of business at major Fortune 500 firms. When we think of e-commerce we tend to think
of selling physical products. While this iconic vision of e-commerce is still very power-
ful and the fastest growing form of retail in the U.S., growing up alongside is a whole new
value stream based on selling services, not goods. It’s a services model of e-commerce.
Information systems and technologies are the foundation of this new services-based e-com-
merce.
Likewise, the management of business firms has changed: With new mobile smart-
phones, high-speed wireless Wi-Fi networks, and wireless tablet computers, remote sales-
people on the road are only seconds away from their managers’ questions and oversight.
Managers on the move are in direct, continuous contact with their employees and customers.
The growth of enterprise-wide information systems with extraordinarily rich data means
that managers no longer operate in a fog of confusion, but instead have online, nearly instant,
access to the really important information they need for accurate and timely decisions. In
xii
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Fourth Gospel is essentially based upon this idea, and works it out in
a form that is also determined by the Old Testament. The significant
combination of Life and Light, which is so characteristic of the
Prologue and which so runs through the Gospel, can hardly have any
other ultimate source than Ps. xxxvi. 9: ‘With thee is the fountain of
life; in thy light shall we see light,’ the first half of which has an
important parallel in Jer. ii. 13, ‘my people have committed two evils;
they have forsaken me the fountain of living waters, and hewed
them out cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold no water.’ There is
of course the difference that what in the Old Testament is ascribed
directly to Jehovah, in the Gospel is ascribed to the Logos. That is
part of the Evangelist’s method, which we may assume to be at work
all through. But not only does the combination of Life and Light
belong essentially to the Old Testament and not to Philo, but each of
these ideas taken separately has without doubt an Old Testament
and not a Philonic basis. It is true enough that Philo makes use of
metaphors derived from ‘Life’ and ‘Light,’ and applies them to the
Logos, as he is indeed profuse in metaphors of this character; they
are part of his literary embroidery. It is also quite possible that the
metaphors were in the first instance suggested to him by the same
Old Testament passages. But the use in the Fourth Gospel is far
deeper and more pregnant with meaning. It is also rightly urged that
the use in the Gospel, more particularly of the conception of Life, is
really incompatible with Philo’s system. The teaching of Philo is at
bottom dualistic; for him matter is evil, and his object is to remove
God from contact with it. In St. John there is no dualism. The writer
conceives of matter as penetrated with the divine. Alike God and the
Word of God work downwards and outwards, through spirit to the
material envelope and vesture of spirit. There is no inconsistency
between the spiritual and the material quickening, both of which are
taught distinctly in the Gospel. ‘As the Father raiseth the death and
quickeneth them, even so the Son also quickeneth whom he will’
(John v. 21); ‘As the Father hath life in himself, even so gave he to
the Son also to have life in himself’ (ver. 26). Both Father and Son
are a principle of life which takes possession at once of soul and
body, which imparts alike ethical and spiritual vitality to the disciple
of Christ on earth, and that eternal life which is not something
distinct from this but really the continuation of it in the world to
come. No one can fail to see the powerful comprehensiveness of this
idea, which incorporates and assimilates with ease such Jewish
notions as that of the resurrection of the body, where Philo’s dualism
makes a break and condemns his system either to superficiality or
inconsequence.
Another point that would be of importance if the facts were really as
is often alleged, is the use of the term Paraclete. Philo, like St. John,
has this term; and if it were true that with him too it is a designation
of, or directly in connection with, the Logos, that would greatly
strengthen the case for the view that St. John was really borrowing
from him. But the doubts on this head, first raised by Heinze, and
more recently enforced by Dr. Drummond and Dr. Grill, appear to be
perfectly valid[59]. It is not the Logos that is called Paraclete, but the
Cosmos[60].
We observe that the Cosmos, which is compared to the high priest’s
vestments, is also described as ‘son (of God).’ This is very contrary
to the usage of the Evangelist, for whom the Cosmos (in the sense
in which he uses the word) is far more the enemy of God than His
son.
All these points together make up a wide divergence between Philo’s
doctrine and that of the Fourth Gospel. They go far to justify
Harnack’s epigrammatic saying that ‘even the Logos has little more
in common with that of Philo than the name, and its mention at the
beginning of the book is a mystery, not the solution of one’ (History
of Dogma, i. 97). We may discount the epigram a little, as one has
to discount all epigrams; but when we have done this, there remains
in it a large and substantial truth.
 iv. Possible avenues of connexion.

It does not follow that I would deny all connexion between the
Philonian Logos and St. John’s. My doubt is whether this connexion
can have been literary. I find it difficult to picture to myself the
Evangelist sitting down to master the diffuse tomes of Philo. Where
is the interest that would impel him to do this? Philo is a student and
a philosopher. He is a philosopher who operates with a sacred text,
and therefore has unlimited opportunity for applying and expounding
his philosophy. But the Evangelist is interested in none of his
theorems for their own sake. There is only one thing that he seeks.
He wants a formula to express the cosmical significance of the
Person of Christ. When he has got that, he is satisfied. For the
purpose of filling up his formula and working out its meaning, he
goes not to Philo but to the Old Testament. There, and in his own
experience, he finds all the data that he needs.
I believe that there is a connexion between Greek, or Hellenistic,
speculation and the Fourth Gospel. But I can conceive of this best
through the medium of personal intercourse and controversy. How
did St. Paul get his first knowledge of Christianity? Doubtless
through his own vehement attacks upon Christians, which he found
so calmly and steadfastly resisted; or, it may be, through the
disputations in the synagogues and in the law courts, of which he
was the witness. We may well believe that St. John extended his
knowledge in the same way. Partly he would learn from foe, and
partly from friend. In a place like Ephesus he would from time to
time hold controversy with philosophers of the stamp of Justin. But,
apart from this, in the Christian community itself he would find
germs of teaching such as had been planted by the Alexandrian Jew
Apollos. We are left to conjecture; and we have so few positive data
to go upon, that our conjectures are of necessity vague. The
Evangelist need not have waited for his arrival in Ephesus to come in
contact with the idea of the Logos, not perhaps in its full Philonian
form but in a form that might lead up to the Philonian. Philo (as we
have seen) drew largely from the Stoics; and there were Stoics in
the cities of Decapolis[61]. At a centre like Antioch they would be
found in greater numbers; and at such a centre it would be quite
possible to fall in with a wandering disciple or disciples of Philo. I
have long thought that it would facilitate our reconstruction of the
history of early Christian thought, if we could assume an anticipatory
stage of Johannean teaching, localized somewhere in Syria, before
the Apostle reached his final home at Ephesus. This would account
more easily than any other hypothesis for the traces of this kind of
teaching in the Didaché, and in Ignatius, as well as in some of the
earliest Gnostic systems.
We cannot verify anything. We have no materials for the purpose.
We can only deal a little with probabilities. But behind all
probabilities it is enough for us to know that there must have been
many avenues by which the conception of the Logos may well have
reached the Apostle besides that of the direct and systematic study
of the writings of Philo.
II. Relation of the Prologue to the rest of the Gospel.
 1. View of Harnack.

Mention has been made above of Harnack’s view as to the relation

of the Prologue to the main body of the Gospel. He holds that the
Prologue is really separable from this, that it is of the nature of a
postscript, or after-thought, rather than a preface. He regards it as
not so much the statement of a programme to be worked out in the
Gospel as a sort of ‘covering letter,’ intended to commend the work
to cultivated Gentile or Hellenistic readers.
This view has in its favour the obvious fact that the word λόγος,
wherever it occurs in the body of the Gospel, is used in its ordinary
and familiar sense, and not in the special sense given to it in the
Prologue. In face of this fact it seems at first sight difficult to treat
the Prologue as containing the leading idea that runs through and
determines the character of the rest of the Gospel. And yet it is well
known that many writers have so treated it—and conspicuously the
two French scholars, M. Jean Réville and the Abbé Loisy.
There are two ways of escaping the inference just referred to. One is
that of which I have just been speaking, the method adopted by Dr.
Julius Grill in his recent work on the origin of the Fourth Gospel, to
take as the leading idea, not the Logos but the combination of Life
and Light which the Evangelist gives as equivalent to the Logos[62].
The other is to follow in the track of M. Loisy, and to treat the
doctrine of the Logos as a summary name for the whole ‘theology of
the Incarnation[63].’
 2. View of Grill.

It is easy (as I have said) to bring under the head of Life and Light
all the miracles in the Gospel, from the miracle at Cana down to the
Raising of Lazarus and even the miraculous Draught of Fishes in
chap. xxi. Both the first ‘sign’ and the last are instances of the
assertion of creative power, and the Healing of the Blind Man in
chap. ix, where this aspect is more subordinate, illustrates the
activity of Christ as the Light of the World, a text on which the
concluding paragraph of the chapter enlarges.
Besides the miracles there are many other allusions to these ideas of
Life and Light: notably to the ‘living water’ in the discourse with the
Samaritan woman (John iv. 10-14); to the ‘bread of life’ in the
discourse in the synagogue of Capernaum (vi. 31-58); in the
comment apparently suggested by the libation at the Feast of
Tabernacles (vii. 37 f.); in the sayings on Light in viii. 12, xi. 9 f., as
well as in chap. ix.
There can be no doubt at all that these ideas of Light and Life are
quite fundamental to the Evangelist, and that they fill a large place
in his mind. But to say this is not quite the same thing as to say that
the Gospel is constructed upon them. The Evangelist has told us in
set terms on what the ground-plan of his Gospel is constructed;
‘these (things) are written, that ye may believe that Jesus is the
Christ, the Son of God; and that believing ye may have life in his
name’ (xx. 31). There is no need to seek for any other definition of
the object and plan of the Gospel than this.
 3. View of Loisy.

The same verse may help us to form an estimate of the theory of M.

Loisy. So far as ‘the theology of the Incarnation’ is meant to express
the same thing, the phrase is certainly justified. And if M. Loisy
intends it to be at the same time a paraphrase for the doctrine of
the Logos, we can have no objection. At least the only objection we
need have would be that he is using a vaguer and more general
term, when he might use one that is both definite and characteristic.
As a rule, one is more likely to get at the heart of a writer’s meaning
by laying stress on the peculiar and individual elements in his
teaching, and not on that which he shares with others.
But the question how far either M. Loisy or Dr. Grill has succeeded in
defining the root-idea of the Gospel is after all only secondary. The
real issue is not as to the accuracy of the definition, but as to the
nature of the relation which is pre-supposed between the root-idea,
the principle which covers the plan and object of the Gospel, and the
narrative of which the main body of the Gospel consists. If I may
speak for a moment of the leading idea, not of St. John but of M.
Loisy, I am afraid that the tendency, if not the purpose, of his whole
book is to convict the author of the Gospel of writing fiction where
he professes to write fact. ‘The theology of the Incarnation’ is a
euphemism which is meant to describe the Gospel as from end to
end allegory and symbol, the product of an idea and not of reality.
M. Loisy, we all know, occupies a peculiar position. His criticism is
radical and destructive, but he believes himself to bring back as faith
what his criticism has destroyed. Few recent writers have left less of
the Fourth Gospel standing as solid history; but at the same time he
is a dutiful son of his Church, and what the Church accepts he also
accepts as true. There can hardly be any doubt that the Church, as
far back as we can trace its convictions, regarded the Fourth Gospel
as strictly historical. If it had not done so, it is very questionable
whether the Church itself would have taken the shape it did. There
are many in these days who, if they followed M. Loisy as a critic,
would find it very hard to follow him as a theologian. They are not a
little perplexed to understand how he himself can reconcile the two
trains of his thinking. That, however, is his own affair, with which
outsiders are not concerned. But they are greatly concerned to know
whether or not his criticism is sound. There is no doubt at all that
the Fourth Gospel expresses the Evangelist’s ‘theology of the
Incarnation.’ It expresses it, but is it the product of it? Has it no
more substantial foundation than an idea? Is it history, or is it
fiction? That is the great and vital question to which we must
address ourselves more directly in the next lecture.
 LECTURE VII
The Christology of the Gospel
 1. The Gospel not a Biography.

Once more we fall back upon our main position. The Evangelist is
writing a spiritual Gospel, and his whole procedure is dominated by
that one fact. His object is to set forth Christ as Divine, not only as
Messiah but as Son of God, as an object of faith which brings life to
the believer.
It follows that all criticism which does not take account of this—and
how large a part of the strictures upon the Gospel does not take
account of it!—is really wide of the mark. M. Loisy, for instance,
brings a long indictment against the Gospel for not containing things
that it never professed to contain. It never professed to be a
complete picture of the Life of the Lord. It never professed to show
Him in a variety of human relationships. It never professed to give
specimens of His ethical teaching simply as such. It did not profess
to illustrate, and it does not illustrate, even the lower side of those
activities that might be called specially divine, as (e. g.) the casting
out of demons.
The Gospel is written upon the highest plane throughout. It seeks to
answer the question who it was that appeared upon earth, and
suffered on Calvary, and rose from the dead and left disciples who
revered and adored Him. And this Evangelist takes a flight beyond
his fellows inasmuch as he asks the question who Christ was in His
essential nature: What was the meaning—not merely the local but
the cosmical meaning—of this great theophany?
It is not surprising if in the pursuit of this object the Evangelist has
laid himself open to the charge of being partial or onesided. Those
who use such terms are really, as we have seen, judging by the
standard of the modern biography, which is out of place. The Gospel
is, admittedly and deliberately, not an attempt to set forth the whole
of a life, but just a selection of scenes, a selection made with a view
to a limited and sharply-defined purpose. The complaint is made that
it is monotonous, and the complaint is not without reason. The
monotony was involved, we might say, from the outset in the
concentration of aim which the writer himself acknowledges. And in
addition to this it is characteristic of the writer that his thought is of
the type which revolves more than it progresses. The picture has not
that lifelike effect which is given by the setting of a single figure in a
variety of circumstances. The variety of circumstance was included
among those bodily or external aspects (τὰ σωματικά) which the
writer considered to have been sufficiently treated by his
predecessors. He described for himself a narrower circle. And it was
because he kept within that circle, because he goes on striking the
same chord, that we receive the impression of repetition and
monotony. Perhaps the intensity of the effect makes up for its want
of extension. But at any rate the Evangelist was within his rights in
choosing his own programme, and we must not blame him for doing
what he undertook to do.
We may blame him, however, if within his self-chosen limits the
picture that he has drawn for us is misleading. That is the central
point which we must now go on to test. The object of the Gospel
would be called in modern technical language to exhibit a
Christology. Is that Christology true? Does it satisfy the tests that we
are able to apply to it? Can we find a suitable place for it in the total
conception that we form of the Apostolic Age? Does it belong to the
Apostolic Age at all; or must we, to understand it, come down below
the time of the Apostles? To answer these questions we must
compare the Christology of the Fourth Gospel with that of the other
Apostolic writings, and more particularly with that of the Synoptic
Gospels, of St. Paul, and of the Epistle to the Hebrews.
It does not take us long to see that the Christology of the Fourth
Gospel has the closest affinity with this group of Epistles—we may
say, with the leading Epistles of St. Paul and with that other
interesting Epistle of which we know, perhaps, or partly know, the
readers but do not know the author. It is worth while to bring in this
because the unmistakable quotation from it in Clement of Rome
proves it to belong to the Apostolic Age.
2. The Christology of St. John compared with that of
St. Paul and of the Epistle to the Hebrews.

The meeting-point of all the authorities just mentioned—indeed we

might say the focus and centre of the whole New Testament—is the
title ‘Son of God.’ But whereas the Synoptic Gospels work up to this
title, St. John with St. Paul and the Epistle to the Hebrews work
downwards or onwards from it. What I mean is this. The Synoptic
Gospels show us how, through the conception of the Messiah and
the titles equivalent to it, by degrees a point was reached at which
the faith of the disciples found its most adequate expression in the
name ‘Son of God.’ The culminating point is of course St. Peter’s
confession represented at its fullest in the form adopted by St.
Matthew, ‘Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God’ (Matt. xvi.
16). In the Synoptic Gospels, and we may say also in the historic
order of events, this confession is a climax, gradually reached; and
we are allowed to see the process by which it was reached. ‘Son of
God’ is the highest of all the equivalents for ‘Messiah.’ And in the
Synoptic Gospels we have unrolled before us, wonderfully preserved
by a remarkable and we may say truly providential accuracy of
reproduction with hardly the consciousness of a guiding idea, the
historic evolution, spread over the whole of the public ministry, by
which at its end the little knot of disciples settled upon this term as
the best and amplest expression of its belief in its Master. We have
seen that the Fourth Gospel is by no means wanting in traces of this
evolution. But these too are traces, preserved incidentally and
almost accidentally, without any deliberate purpose on the part of
the author: they are the product of his historical sense, as distinct
from the special object and the large idea that he had before his
mind in writing his Gospel. This special object and large idea
presuppose the title as it were full-blown. It was not to be expected
that an evangelist sitting down to write towards the end of the first
century should unwind the threads of the skein which, some fifty or
sixty years before, had brought his consciousness to the point where
it was. To him looking back, the evolutionary process was
foreshortened; and we have seen that as a consequence he allowed
the language that he used about the beginning of the ministry to be
somewhat more definite than on strictly historical principles it should
have been. That he should do so was natural and inevitable—indeed
from the point of view of the standards of his time there was no
reason why he should be on his guard against such anticipations. If
we distinguish between the gradual unfolding of the narrative and
the total conception present to the mind of the writer throughout
from the beginning, we should say that this conception assumes for
Christ the fullest significance of Divine Sonship.
More than this: we see, when we come to study the Gospel in detail,
that the writer not only assumes the full idea of Sonship but has also
dwelt upon it and thought about it and followed it out through all
the logic of its contents. We may say that it is not only he that has
done so but practically all the thinking portion of the Church of his
time. We may see this from the comparison of St. Paul and the
Epistle to the Hebrews, not to speak of other New Testament
writers. The Synoptists hardly come under the head of thinkers.
They are content to set down facts and impressions without analysis
and without reflection. But long before St. John sat down to write,
those who really were thinkers had evidently asked themselves what
was the meaning and what was the origin of that title ‘Son of God’
by which the Church was agreed to designate its Master. The more
active minds had evidently pressed the inquiry far home. They did
not stop short at the Baptism; they did not stop short at the Birth:
they saw that the Divine Sonship of Christ stretched back far beyond
these recent events; they saw that it was rooted in the deepest
depths of Godhead. It is true both of St. Paul and of the Epistle to
the Hebrews—that is, assuming that the Epistle to the Colossians is
St. Paul’s—that they have not only the doctrine of the Son but the
doctrine of the Logos, all but the name.
Now I know that there are many who will not agree with me; I know
also that the position is not easy to prove, though, as we shall see, I
believe that there are a number of definite facts that at least suggest
it. But for myself I suspect so strongly as to be practically sure that
in these processes of thought the apostolic theologians, as we may
call them, were not altogether original. They were not without a
precursor; they did not invent their ideas for the first time. I believe
that we shall most reasonably account for the whole set of
phenomena if we suppose that there had been intimations, hints,
Anhaltspunkte, in the discourses of our Lord Jesus Christ Himself.
We have as a matter of fact such hints or intimations in the Fourth
Gospel. The Evangelist may have expanded and accentuated them a
little—he may have dotted the i’s and crossed the t’s—but I believe
that it is reasonable to hold that they had been really there. The
Founding of Christianity is in any case a very great phenomenon;
and it seems to me simpler and easier, and in all ways more
probable, to refer the features which constitute its greatness to a
single source, to the one source which is really the fountain-head of
all. Without that one source the others would never have been what
they were.
The fact that St. Paul and the Epistle to the Hebrews had
substantially arrived at a Logos doctrine before any extant writing
has mentioned the name, seems to throw light on the order of
thought by which the Fourth Evangelist himself arrived at his
doctrine of the Logos. It is the coping-stone of the whole edifice, not
the foundation-stone. It is a comprehensive synthesis which unites
under one head a number of scattered ideas. From this point of view
it would be more probable that the Prologue to the Fourth Gospel
was a true preface, written after the rest of the work to sum up and
bind together in one mighty paragraph the ideas that are really
leading ideas, though scattered up and down the Gospel. Whether it
was actually written last does not matter. What I mean is that the
philosophic synthesis of the events recorded in the Gospel came to
the Evangelist last in the order of his thought; the order was, history
first and then philosophic synthesis of the history. No doubt the
synthesis was really complete before the Apostle began to write his
Gospel; the writing of the Prologue may or may not have followed
the order of his thought. It may have been, as Harnack thinks, a sort
of commendatory letter sent out with the Gospel; or it may be that
the Gospel was written out in one piece upon a plan present from
the first to the writer’s mind. The order of genesis and the order of
production do not always coincide; and it is really a very secondary
consideration whether in any particular instance they did or not.
We do not know exactly at what stage in his career the Evangelist
grasped the idea of the Logos. We should be inclined to think
comparatively late, from the fact that it has not been allowed to
intrude into the historical portion of the Gospel. The various ideas
which are summed up under the conception of the Logos appear
there independently and in other connexions. As we have just seen,
in St. Paul also and in the Epistle to the Hebrews the arch is fully
formed before the key-stone is dropped into it.
Whatever we may think about this, there is a close parallelism
between the whole theology, including the Christology, of St. Paul
and St. John. Both start from the thought of an Incarnation (John i.
14; Rom. viii. 3; Gal. iv. 4; Phil. ii. 7, 8; Col. i. 15; and with the latter
part of the same verse, cp. Col. i. 19; ii. 9). In both St. John and St.
Paul the union of the Son with the Father is not only moral but a
union of essential nature (cp. John i. 1, 2, 14; x. 30, 38; xiv. 10, 11,
20; xvii. 21, 23 with 2 Cor. v. 19; Col. i. 13, 15, 19; ii. 9). Between
the Son and the Father there is the bond of mutual love, of a love
supreme and unique (that is the real meaning of μονογενής in John
i. 14, 18; cp. xvii. 23, 24, 26 and Rom. viii. 3, 32; Eph. i. 6; Col. i.
13). As a consequence of this relation between the Son and the
Father, which has its roots in the eternal past (John i. 1, 2; xvii. 5,
24), there was also complete union of will in the work of the Son
upon earth (John v. 30; vi. 38; xiv. 31; xvii. 16: cp. Phil. ii. 8; Heb. v.
7, 8). Thus the acts of the Son are really the acts of the Father, the
natural expression of that perfect intimacy in which they stand to
each other (v. 19, 20; viii. 29; x. 25, 37, 38). The reciprocity
between them is absolute, it is seen in the perfection of their mutual
knowledge (vii. 29; viii. 19; x. 15; xvii. 25); so that the teaching of
the Son is really the teaching of the Father (vii. 16; viii. 26, 28, 38;
xii. 49, 50; xiv. 10, 24; xv. 15). What the Son is, the Father also is.
Hence the life and character and words of the Son, taken as a
whole, constitute a revelation of the Father such as had never been
given before (vi. 46; xiv. 7-10: cp. i. 14, 18)[64].
Thus we are brought to another central idea of the Fourth Gospel,
the function of the Son as revealing the Father. For this, again, we
have a parallel in an impassioned passage of St. Paul:

‘The god of this world hath blinded the minds of the unbelieving,
that the light of the gospel of the glory of Christ, who is the
image of God, should not dawn upon them. For we preach not
ourselves, but Christ Jesus as Lord, and ourselves as your
servants for Jesus’ sake. Seeing it is God, that said, Light shall
shine out of darkness, who shined in our hearts, to give the light
of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ’
(2 Cor. iv. 4-6).

It may be true that this idea, though central with St. John, is
subordinate with St. Paul; but it is distinctly recognized—just as,
conversely, the doctrine of the Atonement, though clearly implied, is
less prominent with St. John than with St. Paul.
The close resemblance between the teaching of St. John and St.
Paul does not end with the exposition of the character and mission
of the incarnate Son; it is exhibited no less in what is said about the
Holy Spirit. The teaching of the Fourth Gospel on the subject of the
Spirit repeats in a remarkable way certain leading features in its
teaching about the Son. The Father is in the Son (as we have seen),
and the Son is one with the Father; and yet the Son is distinct (in
the language of later theology, a distinct Person) from the Father;
and in like manner the Paraclete is ‘another’ than the Son (xiv. 16),
and is sent by the Son (xv. 26; xvi. 7); and yet in the coming of the
Spirit the Son Himself returns to His people (xiv. 18; cf. iii. 28).
Here again the parallel is quite remarkable between St. Paul and St.
John. If we take a passage like Rom. viii. 9-11 we see that, in this
same connexion of the work of the indwelling Spirit among the
faithful, He is described at one moment as the Spirit of God, at
another as the Spirit of Christ, and almost in the same breath we
have the phrase, ‘If Christ is in you’ as an equivalent for ‘If the Spirit
of Christ is in you.’ The latter phrase is fuller and more exact, but
with St. Paul, as well as with St. John, it is Christ Himself who comes
to His own in His Spirit.
No writer that I know has worked out the whole of this relation with
more philosophical and theological fulness and accuracy than Dr.
Moberly in his Atonement and Personality. And I am tempted to
quote one short passage of his (where I should like to quote many),
because it seems to me to sum up in few words the fundamental
teaching of St. Paul and St. John.

‘Christ in you, or the Spirit of Christ in you; these are not

different realities; but the one is the method of the other. It is in
the Person of Christ that the Eternal God is revealed in manhood
to man. It is in the Person of His Spirit that the Incarnate Christ
is Personally present within the spirit of each several man. The
Holy Ghost is mainly revealed to us as the Spirit of the
Incarnate[65].’

It is to the language of St. Paul and St. John that we go for proof
that the Holy Spirit is a Person; but it is also from their language that
we learn how intimately He is associated with the other Divine
Persons.
We are led up to what is in later theological language called the
doctrine of the Holy Trinity. It is well known that some of the most
important data for this doctrine are derived from the Fourth Gospel,
especially from the last discourse. And whatever is found in St. John
may be paralleled in substance from St. Paul.
 3. Comparison with the Synoptic Gospels.

Now I am not going to maintain that, if one of us had been an eye-

witness of the Life of Christ, the profound teaching of which I have
just given an outline would have seemed to him to bear the same
kind of proportion to the sum total of His teaching that it bears in
the Fourth Gospel. By the essential conditions of the case it could
not be so. It is this particular kind of teaching which the Evangelist
specially wishes to enforce; and, in order to enforce it, he has
singled out for his narrative just those scenes in which it came up—
those and, broadly speaking, no others.
We have seen that in regard to this teaching there is a very large
amount of coincidence between St. Paul and St. John. We shall have
presently to consider what is the nature and ground of this
coincidence, how it arose and what relation it implies between the
two Apostles. But before going on to this, we must first ask
ourselves how far it can be verified by comparison with the Synoptic
Gospels. It is right to look for such verification, however much we
may be convinced that these Gospels are an extremely partial and
fragmentary representation of all that Christ said and did. Even a
modern biography, contemplated perhaps during the life-time of its
subject, and actually begun soon after his death, will only contain a
tithe (if he is a really great man) of his more significant acts and
sayings. But those who attempted to write what we wrongly call
Lives of Christ did not, as it would seem, for the most part even
begin to do so or make preparations for beginning for some thirty
years after the Crucifixion, when the company of the apostles and
intimate disciples was already dispersed, or at least in no near
contact with the writers[66]. We have only to ask ourselves what we
should expect in such circumstances. And I think we should find that
our expectations were fully borne out if we were to compare
together the contents of the oldest documents, those of the Logia
with the Mark-Gospel, and those of the special source or sources of
St. Luke with both. The amount and value of the gleanings which
each attempt left for those who came after tells its own story.
But if we do not expect that the Synoptic Gospels would be in the
least degree exhaustive in the materials they have preserved for us
from the Life of Christ, we might be sure that their defects would be
greatest in regard to the class of teaching with which we are at
present concerned. It is teaching of a kind that might perhaps haunt
the minds of a few gifted and far-sighted individuals, but would
certainly fall through the meshes of the mind of the average man. It
was this very fact, as we have seen, which prompted the Fourth
Evangelist to write his Gospel. The externals of the Lord’s Life he
recognized as having been adequately told; but it was just the
profoundest teaching and some of the most significant acts that had
escaped telling, and that he himself desired to rescue from oblivion.
We must therefore be content if we can verify a few particulars. We
must not from the outset expect to be able to do more. And we
must be still more content if these particulars show by their
character that they are fragments from a much larger wreckage, that
they are what we might call chance survivals of what had once
existed on a much larger scale.
We concluded our sketch of the Christology of the Fourth Gospel by
speaking of the data which it contained for the doctrine of the
Trinity. These however are only data. It is perhaps a little surprising
that the only approach to a formulation of the doctrine of the Trinity
occurs not in St. John but at the end of the Gospel of St. Matthew
(xxviii. 19). I am of course well aware that this part of the First
Gospel is vigorously questioned by the critics. I am prepared to
believe myself that the passage is a late incorporation in the Gospel;
and antecedently I should not say that we had strong guarantees for
its literal accuracy. But then—this is an old story, so far as I am
concerned, and I must apologize for introducing it, but I cannot
leave the point unnoticed—how are we to explain that other
remarkable verse that occurs at the end of the second Epistle to the
Corinthians (2 Cor. xiii. 14)? This familiar three-fold benediction must
have had antecedents; it must, I should say, have had a long train of
antecedents. The most adequate explanation of it seems to me to be
that the train of antecedents started from something corresponding,
something said at some time or other, in the teaching of our Lord[67].
I fully believe that the hints and intimations of a Trinity that we find
scattered about the New Testament have their origin ultimately in
the teaching of Christ. Apart from this, how could the conception
have been reached at so early a date? For 2 Corinthians must in any
case fall between 53-57 A.D.[68]
Let us work our way backwards through another of the hints. We
have seen that the coming of the Paraclete is described in the Fourth
Gospel as a return of Christ to His own. Are there any parallels for
this in the Synoptic Gospels? Not exactly, because the two things are
not brought into combination. But we have on the one hand distinct
predictions of the activity of the Holy Spirit after the departure of
Christ. For instance:

‘When they deliver you up, be not anxious how or what ye shall
speak.... For it is not ye that speak, but the Spirit of your Father
that speaketh in you’ (Matt. x. 19, 20).

And in St. Luke’s version of the promise as to answers to prayer, the

Holy Spirit is spoken of as imparted to the believer:

‘If ye then, being evil, know how to give good gifts unto your
children, how much more shall your heavenly Father give the
Holy Spirit to them that ask him?’ (Luke xi. 13).

The gift of the Holy Spirit in connexion with prayer is one of the
topics in the Last Discourse as recorded by St. John. On the other
hand there are in the Synoptics remarkable allusions to the
continued presence of Christ with His people. Such is that which
follows immediately upon the verse about Baptism in the threefold
Name: ‘Lo, I am with you alway, even unto the end of the world.’
And in Matt. xviii. 20, ‘Where two or three are gathered together in
my name, there am I in the midst of them[69].’ Wendt connects this
last passage with the instances in which acts done in the name of
Christ and for the benefit of His followers are spoken of as though
they were done to Him. For instance, ‘Whosoever shall receive one
of such little children in my name, receiveth me: and whosoever
receiveth me, receiveth not me, but him that sent me’ (Mark ix. 37;
cf. Luke x. 16; Matt. xxv. 40). Wendt goes on to dilute the meaning
of these allusions. He would make them mean no more than that
such actions have the same value and the same reward as though
they were done to Christ. But the ascending series is against this:
‘Whosoever receiveth Me, receiveth not Me, but Him that sent Me.’
And once again we have to ask, what is the origin of all those
passages in the Epistles, where St. Paul speaks of the solidarity
between Christ and the whole body of the faithful, so that in that
extraordinary phrase the sufferings of His Apostle actually fill up or
supplement the sufferings of Christ (ἀνταναπληρῶ τὰ ὑστερήματα
τῶν θλίψεων τοῦ Χριστοῦ, Col. i. 24)?
The existence of such passages suggests the probability—and indeed
more than probability—that there were others like them, but more
directly didactic and expository, which have not been preserved. The
Fourth Gospel contains some specimens of this teaching; but that
Gospel and the Synoptics together rather give specimens of a class
of teaching than make any approach to an exhaustive record of all
that our Lord must have said on these topics.
We have seen that the Synoptic Gospels distinctly represent our Lord
as the Jewish Messiah. They represent Him as filled from the first
with the consciousness of a mission that is beyond that of the
ordinary teacher or prophet. He taught as one having authority, and
not as the scribes. The demoniacs recognized in Him a presence
before which they were awed and calmed. He took upon Himself to
forgive sins, with the assurance that those whom He forgave God
also would forgive. He called Himself, in one very ancient form of
narrative, ‘Lord of the sabbath.’ He did not hesitate to review the
whole course of previous revelation, and to propound in His own
name a new law superseding the old. He evidently regarded His
work on earth as possessing an extraordinary value. He was Himself
a greater than Solomon, a greater than Jonah; and, what is perhaps
more remarkable, He seems to regard His own claim as exceeding
that of the whole body of the poor (‘Ye have the poor always with
you ... but Me ye have not always’). As His teaching went on, He
began to speak as though His relation to the human race was not
confined to His life among them, but as though it would be
continued and renewed on a vast scale after His death; He would
come again in the character of Judge, and He would divide mankind
according to the service which (in a large sense) they had rendered,
or not rendered, to Him.
These are a number of particulars which helped to bring out what
there was extraordinary in His mission. By what formula was it to be
described and covered? It was described under the Jewish name
‘Messiah,’ with its various equivalents. Among those equivalents, that
which the apostolic generation deemed most adequate was ‘the Son
of God.’ One of the Synoptic Gospels says expressly that He applied
this title to Himself (Matt. xxvii. 43), and it is quite possible that He
did so, but critical grounds prevent us from laying stress upon the
phrase. On two great occasions (the Baptism and Transfiguration)
the title is given to Him by a voice from heaven. But only in a single
passage (Matt. xi. 27; Luke x. 22) is there anything like an
exposition of what is contained in the title. The mutual relation of
the Father and the Son is expressed as a perfect insight on the part
of each, not only into the mind, but into the whole being and
character of the other.
Different critics have dealt with this saying in different ways.
Harnack, in his famous lectures, gave it the prominence that it
deserves, but at the same time reduced its meaning, in accordance
with his generally reduced conception of Christianity. His exegesis
tended to limit the peculiar knowledge of the Son to His special
apprehension of the truth of Divine Fatherhood. M. Loisy demurs to
this. He says:
 ‘There is clearly involved a transcendental relation, which throws
into relief the high dignity of the Christ, and not a psychological
reality, of which one cannot see the possibility in respect to God.
The terms Father and Son are not here purely religious, but they
have already become metaphysical; theological and dogmatic
speculation has been able to take hold of them without greatly
modifying their sense. There is only one Father and only one
Son, constituted, in a manner, by the knowledge that they have
of one another, absolute entities the relations of which are
almost absolute[70].’

Perhaps this is a little exaggerated in the opposite direction to

Harnack. Still I believe it to be in the main right. The mutual
knowledge of the Father and the Son rests upon their essential
community of nature. But, having recognized this, M. Loisy goes on,
with what I cannot but think singular levity, to cast doubt upon the
passage. He regards the whole context in St. Matthew as a sort of
psalm based upon the last chapter (li) of Ecclesiasticus; and he
ascribes it not to our Lord, but to the tradition of the early Church.
This is far from being a favourable specimen of Biblical criticism. We
have only to set the two passages side by side to estimate its value.
It is possible enough that there are reminiscences not only of this,
but of other passages of Ecclesiasticus and of other books in the
mind of speaker or writer[71]. We might conceive of a defining phrase
here or there being due to the Evangelist and suggested by such
reminiscences. Or we might conceive of Christ Himself going back in
thought (as well He might) to the invitation of personified Wisdom.
There would be nothing strange in either supposition. The New
Testament everywhere takes up the threads of the Old, and is not
confined to the Jewish Canon. But in any case the materials thus
supplied are entirely recast; and the whole passage (‘Come unto Me,’
&c.) bears the inimitable stamp of one Figure, and only one[72].
The truth is that in the Synoptic Gospels, as well as in the Fourth,
there is really a mysterious background, though we see less of the
attempt to pierce it. These simple-looking sayings are not so simple
as they seem. To take, for instance, one upon which we have
touched, ‘he that receiveth you, receiveth Me, and he that receiveth
Me, receiveth Him that sent Me.’ The words are almost childlike in
their simplicity, and yet they lead up to the highest heights, and
down to the deepest depths. No doubt we may rationalize it all
away, if we please. We may shut out the mystery from our minds.
But we shall not keep it out for long.

Just when we are safest, there’s a sunset-touch,

A fancy from a flower-bell, some one’s death,
A chorus-ending from Euripides—
And that’s enough for fifty hopes and fears
As old and new at once as nature’s self,
To rap and knock and enter in our soul.

There is a movement perhaps on a large scale, like the Bentham

period in England in the first half of the nineteenth century, or the
sceptical and deistical period a hundred years earlier, and it seems
as though everything were to be made clear and intelligible, and the
conscience and soul of men were not to be troubled by phantoms
any more. And then there come ‘Lake Poets,’ or an ‘Oxford
Movement,’ and the other world, the old world, all comes back
again; and the forces that try to restrain it are snapped like
Samson’s withes.
The reason appears to be that these very clear outlines are always
obtained by omissions or suppressions that are artificial, and do not
do justice to the wonderful richness and subtlety either of the
human mind or of the powers that work upon it.
 4. Interpretation of these Relations between the
Synoptic Gospels, St. Paul and St. John: Alternative
Constructions.

These comparisons that we have just been instituting between the

Synoptic Gospels, St. Paul, and St. John raise a very large question,
a question involving nothing less than our whole construction of the
history of the Apostolic Age.
It is becoming more and more the custom with the left wing of
critical writers to make the most fundamental part of Christianity, the
pivot teaching of the New Testament, an invention of St. Paul’s. St.
John is only the chief of his disciples. According to these writers
primitive Christianity, the genuine Christianity, loses itself in the
sands, or is represented, let us say, deducting the stress on the
Mosaic Law, by the sect of the Ebionites. It is St. Paul who strikes
out the new road; and the writer whom we call St. John follows him
in it. The attempt of this later writer to supply a historical basis for
Paulinism, holds good only in appearance. The teaching which it puts
into the mouth of Jesus is in no sense an antecedent of the teaching
of St. Paul, but a product of it.
Here, for instance, is a trenchant statement of the position.

‘The Fourth Gospel derived this importance, lasting long beyond

the time of his birth, from its having bridged over the chasm
between Jesus and St. Paul, and from its having carried the
Pauline Gospel back into the life and teaching of Jesus. It is only
through this gospel that Paulinism attains to absolute dominion
in the theology of the Church.... Jesus Christ, the Son of God,
the Redeemer of the world, is for John as well as Paul the core
and centre of Christianity. And, moreover, John’s Christology is
Pauline in all its important features—the Son of God who was
 with God in heaven, and was sent by God upon earth, the
Mediator of creation, the God of Revelation of the Old
Testament, the Son of Man from heaven, as Paul, too, called
Him. And the chief object of His coming into the world is the
atonement by means of His death.... The whole of the Johannine
theology is a natural development from the Pauline. It is
Paulinism modified to meet the needs of the sub-apostolic age.
Two important consequences follow from this. There is no
Johannine theology by the side of and independent of the
Pauline. Luther already felt this clearly, and he understood
something of the matter. John and Paul are not two theological
factors, but one. Were we to accept that St. John formed his
conception of Christianity either originally or directly from Jesus’
teaching, we should have to refuse St. Paul all originality, for we
should leave him scarcely a single independent thought. But it is
St. Paul that is original; St. John is not. In St. Paul’s letters we
look, as through a window, into the factory where these great
thoughts flash forth and are developed; in St. John we see the
beginning of their transformation and decay.’ Wernle, Beginnings
of Christianity, ii. pp. 262, 264, 274 f. (E. T.).

Nothing could be clearer. And by reason of his clearness and

boldness of statement Wernle is an excellent representative of the
whole school; for what he asserts in set terms is really presupposed
by a number of other writers who do not assert it. It remains for us
to ask, Is this construction of the early history of Christianity
tenable?
 Two Preliminary Remarks.

Before I attempt to answer this question, there are two remarks that
I should like to make upon it.
i. We observe here, as in so many other cases, that the theory
reflects, not so much the essential disposition and proportions of the
facts as the state of the extant evidence. Hardly anything has come
down to us from the early years, at least for the first three decades,
of the Mother Church; and from that which has come down to us,
the earlier chapters of the Acts and the Epistle of St. James, criticism
would make considerable deductions. I think that these deductions
are greater than ought to be made, but their existence cannot be
ignored. What we know of the Mother Church has to be pieced
together by inference and constructive imagination. On the other
hand for St. Paul we have in any case an impressive body of
certainly genuine epistles. It is natural enough that the mind should
be dominated by these, and that the assumption should be made—
for it is pure assumption—that the leading ideas of these epistles are
an original creation.
ii. But there is nothing really in the Epistles themselves to bear out
this assumption. St. Paul does not write as though he were a
wholesale innovator. He does not write as though he were founding
a new religion. On the contrary, he lays great stress in a familiar
passage (1 Cor. iii. 11) on the fact that the foundation is already laid.
In another place (1 Cor. xv. 11) he speaks as though it made no
difference whether he were the preacher or others, the belief of
Christians was the same. St. Paul has indeed his special views and
his special controversies, but they do not affect the main point. He
assumes that this is common to all Christians.
This brings me to some of the points on which we have to test the
theory, as it is stated by Wernle.
 5. Objections to the Critical Theory.

Let us think for a moment what the theory involves. It involves that
the Pauline Gospel not only conquered the West, but that it came
flooding back in a great reflux-wave all over the East. The East, on
this theory, has no power of resistance; it surrenders at discretion.
How does this accord with the evidence?
i. In order that there should be this conquest and annexation of the
whole Church by the Pauline Gospel it is implied, and it is of the
essence of the theory to imply, that there was a broad and well-
marked difference between this Pauline Gospel and the general
belief of the Church, more particularly of the Mother Church. But St.
Paul himself expressly disclaims any such difference; he was anxious
that there should not be any, and he took steps to guard against the
possibility that serious divergence might have come between them
unawares. He tells us that he compared notes with the leading
apostles at Jerusalem, to make sure that he and they were
preaching substantially the same thing: ‘I laid before them the
gospel which I preach among the Gentiles, but privately before them
who were of repute, lest by any means I should be running, or had
run in vain’ (Gal. ii. 2). And again, at the end of the conferences, he
tells us how James and Peter and John gave to him and Barnabas
the right hands of fellowship, as a pledge of their substantial
agreement (ibid. ver. 9).
It is true that there were points of discussion, which in other
sections of the Church amounted to controversy, between St. Paul
and the Judaean Christians. But the Epistle to the Galatians allows
us to see the full extent of these debatable matters; and, by defining
them, it also defines the extent of the common ground of
agreement. What we should call the doctrine of the Person of Christ
certainly comes under the latter head, and not under the former. The
Mother Church was not Ebionite, or St. Paul would have been in still
sharper antagonism to it than he was.
ii. It was this substantial agreement between St. Paul and the
leading Apostles that saved the Church from a formidable rupture.
Such glimpses as we have of the Judaean churches do not at all give
us the impression that they would have submitted meekly to Pauline
dictation. No doubt there was a considerable prejudice against St.
Paul personally; but it was a prejudice that turned upon other things
altogether than his teaching about Christ. We have in Acts xxi. 20-5
a graphic description, which is also full of verisimilitude, of the kind
of ways in which St. Paul came into collision with the Jewish
Christians; but his teaching about Christ was not one of them.
iii. We have seen that the confession that Jesus is the Christ, the Son
of God, was common ground for all Christians. It was on this ground
that St. Paul and the Judaean churches felt themselves one. They
also felt themselves one in what we ought not to call the doctrine of
the Trinity, but in those root-facts out of which the doctrine of the
Trinity afterwards came to be formulated. There was doubtless still
room for variety of speculation. There was room for different
interpretation of current terms and current beliefs. The doctrine of
the Church had as yet a certain fluidity. St. Paul might take one line,
and Cephas another, and Apollos a third. And yet Christ was not
divided. There was a consciousness of union underlying these
differences. There was a sense, that could not as yet be put
adequately into words, of certain great facts, of certain fundamental
beliefs, by virtue of which the Church was one.
iv. It is out of this common ground, and not out of the special
features of the Pauline theology, that the teaching of the Fourth
Gospel really sprang. True, there are resemblances and affinities
between details in the theologies of the Evangelist and the Apostle.
But it does not follow that these were borrowed by the one from the
other[73]. If they had been, we may be sure that there would have
been clearer evidence of the fact. Somewhere in the group of
Johannean writings there would have been a side-glance at St. Paul
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