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Introduction to Energy Carriers

There are two main types of energy carriers: particles and waves.

Properties of Particles
Particles can carry energy from one point to another point. For example, a bullet
fired from a gun can transfer kinetic energy from one point to another point by
moving in the direction of energy flow. The bullet has mass and velocity, which
allows it to carry momentum along the direction of motion.

Properties of Waves
On the other hand, waves transfer energy through oscillation, which means repeated
regular movements. For example, a string attached to a wall can transfer energy to a
mass attached to the other end by oscillating up and down. The string acts as a
medium for the energy to flow, but each point on the string only oscillates up and
down, without moving in the direction of energy flow.

A medium is a substance that allows energy to flow through it, such as a

string, water, or air.

Comparison of Particles and Waves

The main difference between particles and waves is the way they transfer energy.
Particles move in the direction of energy flow, while waves oscillate in a direction
perpendicular to the energy flow.

Particles Waves

Energy Move in the direction of Oscillate in a direction perpendicular to

Transfer energy flow energy flow
Have momentum along the Have momentum, but direction of
Momentum
direction of motion momentum changes continuously
Medium Do not require a medium Require a medium to transfer energy

Examples of Waves
Some examples of waves include:

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Water waves: formed when a stone is thrown into a lake or ocean, causing the
water molecules to oscillate up and down.
Sound waves: formed when air particles oscillate back and forth, transferring
energy from one point to another.
Slinky waves: formed when a slinky is oscillated along its length, causing each
loop to oscillate up and down.

Key Points
Some key points to remember about waves and particles:

Waves transfer energy through oscillation, while particles move in the

direction of energy flow.
Waves require a medium to transfer energy, while particles do not.
Waves can be found in various forms, such as water waves, sound waves, and
slinky waves.## Energy Transfer Energy can be transferred through particles or
waves. When particles transfer energy, they physically move from one point to
another, carrying kinetic energy. The amount of energy transferred by a
particle depends on its mass and speed.

Wave Energy Transfer

On the other hand, waves transfer energy through a field, such as an electric field or
magnetic field. The strength of the field varies periodically, allowing energy to be
transferred. This is known as an electromagnetic wave.

A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy through a medium or a field,

with no physical movement of the medium.

The amount of energy carried by a wave depends on its amplitude, which is the
maximum displacement of a particle from its equilibrium position. The amplitude of a
wave is denoted by the capital letter A.

Comparison of Particle and Wave Energy

Transfer
The following table summarizes the key differences between particle and wave
energy transfer:

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Particle Wave

Energy Dependence Mass and speed Amplitude

Medium Physical movement of medium Field electricormagnetic
Energy Transfer Kinetic energy Electromagnetic wave

Behavior of Particles and Waves

When a particle moves through a medium, it slows down due to drag force or
friction. In contrast, a wave does not slow down when moving through a medium,
but its amplitude may decrease if energy is absorbed by the medium.

The following bullet points highlight the key differences in behavior between
particles and waves:

When a particle moves from one medium to another, it slows down due to
drag force.
When a wave moves from one medium to another, its speed may increase or
decrease, but its amplitude may change.
When two particles collide, their velocities change according to the
conservation of momentum.
When two waves overlap, their behavior is governed by the principle of
superposition, resulting in a different outcome than particle collisions.

Principle of Superposition
The principle of superposition states that when two or more waves overlap, the
resulting wave is the sum of the individual waves. This principle is used to analyze
the behavior of waves when they overlap or pass through a slit.

Properties of Waves
The properties of waves will be summarized and introduced in more detail in the
next unit, including:

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Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a particle from its equilibrium

position.
Frequency: The rate of oscillation of a wave, which determines the rate of
energy transfer.
Speed: The speed at which a wave travels through a medium, which may
change when moving from one medium to another.## Introduction to Waves
When energy is transferred from one point to another, oscillation occurs. The
method used to transfer energy is called a wave. There are two types of waves:
mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves.

Mechanical Waves
A mechanical wave is a wave that requires a medium to propagate. The particles of
the medium oscillate, transferring energy from one point to another.

A mechanical wave is a wave that requires a physical medium, such as a

string or air, to propagate.

Electromagnetic Waves
An electromagnetic wave is a wave that can propagate through a vacuum. It
consists of electric and magnetic fields that oscillate at right angles to each other.

An electromagnetic wave is a wave that can propagate through a

vacuum, consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields.

Types of Oscillation
There are many types of oscillation, but one common type is simple harmonic
motion.

Simple harmonic motion is a type of oscillation where the displacement

of an object from its equilibrium position is proportional to the force acting
upon it.

Simple Harmonic Motion

In simple harmonic motion, the displacement of an object from its equilibrium
position is given by the equation: y = a sin(Ωt) where:

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y is the displacement from the equilibrium position

a is the amplitude maximumdisplacement
Ω is the angular frequency $Ω = 2πf$
t is time
f is the frequency numberofoscillationspersecond

Characteristics of Waves
The following table summarizes the characteristics of mechanical and
electromagnetic waves:

Characteristic Mechanical Wave Electromagnetic Wave

Medium Requires a physical medium Can propagate through a vacuum

Particles of the medium
Oscillation Electric and magnetic fields oscillate
oscillate
Frequency of oscillation of Frequency of variation of electric and
Frequency
each point magnetic fields

Graphical Representation of Waves

The displacement of a point on a wave can be graphed against time to produce a
sine or cosine shape. This graph can be used to find the time period and frequency
of the wave.

Some key points to note about the graphical representation of waves:

The time period is the time taken for one full oscillation
The frequency is the number of oscillations per second
The amplitude is the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position

Key Concepts
Some key concepts to remember:

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Frequency: the number of oscillations per second

Time period: the time taken for one full oscillation
Amplitude: the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position
Simple harmonic motion: a type of oscillation where the displacement of an
object from its equilibrium position is proportional to the force acting upon it
Mechanical wave: a wave that requires a physical medium to propagate
Electromagnetic wave: a wave that can propagate through a vacuum,
consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields## Introduction to Wave
Motion The frequency of oscillation of each point in a wave is the same, and this
frequency is also the frequency of the wave.

Types of Waves
There are two main types of waves:

Transverse waves: The direction of oscillation is perpendicular to the direction

of wave motion.
Longitudinal waves: The direction of oscillation is parallel to the direction of
wave motion.

Simple Harmonic Motion

In both types of waves, the oscillation of a point can be described as simple
harmonic motion.

A motion that is repetitive and sinusoidal, where the force acting on the
object is proportional to its displacement from its equilibrium position.

Displacement-Time Graph
A displacement-time graph is a graph that shows how the displacement of a point
varies with time. The graph is typically a sine or cosine shape, and it can be used to
measure the time period of oscillation. The time period is the time it takes for one
complete oscillation, and it is related to the frequency of the wave by the equation:
f = T1

Displacement-Distance Graph

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A displacement-distance graph is a graph that shows how the displacement of

different points varies with distance. The graph is also typically a sine or cosine
shape, and it can be used to measure the wavelength of the wave. The wavelength
is the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs.

Key Terms
Term Definition

Crest The maximum displacement position of a wave

Trough The minimum displacement position of a wave
Wavelength The distance between two adjacent crests or troughs
Frequency The number of oscillations per unit time
Time period The time it takes for one complete oscillation

Measuring Displacement
To measure the displacement of each point in a wave, you can use a ruler or
measuring tape to record the initial position of each point, and then take a
photograph of the wave to compare the positions. This method can be used to
measure the displacement of each point in a longitudinal wave or a transverse
wave.

Wave Patterns
Not all waves have a sine or cosine shape, but any repeated wave pattern can be
shown as a sum of many sine waves with different frequencies and amplitudes. This
is known as Fourier analysis, and it is a powerful tool for analyzing complex wave
patterns.

Summary

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In summary, waves can be described by their displacement-time and displacement-

distance graphs, which are typically sine or cosine shapes. The time period and
frequency of a wave can be measured from the displacement-time graph, and the
wavelength can be measured from the displacement-distance graph. Understanding
these concepts is essential for analyzing and describing wave motion.## Wave
Patterns and Phase Difference The wave pattern can be represented as the sum of
many different S waves with different frequency and amplitude. The sine wave is
taken as the fundamental wave pattern in wave theories.

Phase and Phase Difference

Phase indicates the state of oscillation of a point during one full oscillation or one
cycle of oscillation.

The phase of a wave is a measure of the position of the wave in its cycle,
and it is usually measured in radians or degrees.

The phase difference between two waves at a point, or between two points on a
wave, represents the difference in the state of oscillation of the two points.

The phase difference is a measure of how much one wave is shifted

relative to another wave, and it is usually measured in radians or degrees.

In-Phase and Anti-Phase Oscillations

Two points on a wave are said to be in-phase if they have the same direction of
displacement with the same magnitude of displacement.

In-phase oscillations occur when two points on a wave have a phase

difference of 0, 2π, 4π, or any integer multiple of 2π.

Two points on a wave are said to be anti-phase if they have opposite directions of
displacement with the same magnitude of displacement.

Anti-phase oscillations occur when two points on a wave have a phase

difference of π, 3π, 5π, or any odd integer multiple of π.

Conditions for In-Phase and Anti-Phase

Oscillations

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The conditions for in-phase and anti-phase oscillations are summarized in the
following table:

Condition Phase Difference

In-Phase 0, 2π, 4π, ... evenintegermultipleofπ

Anti-Phase π, 3π, 5π, ... oddintegermultipleofπ

Identifying In-Phase and Anti-Phase Points

To identify in-phase and anti-phase points on a wave, we need to look at the
displacement-distance graph.

If two points on a wave have a phase difference of 0, 2π, 4π, or any integer
multiple of 2π, they are in-phase.
If two points on a wave have a phase difference of π, 3π, 5π, or any odd integer
multiple of π, they are anti-phase.
If two points on a wave do not meet either of these conditions, they are said to
be out of phase.

Key Concepts
Wave pattern: the sum of many different S waves with different frequency and
amplitude
Phase: the state of oscillation of a point during one full oscillation or one cycle
of oscillation
Phase difference: the difference in the state of oscillation of two points
In-phase: two points on a wave with the same direction of displacement and
the same magnitude of displacement
Anti-phase: two points on a wave with opposite directions of displacement and
the same magnitude of displacement
Out of phase: two points on a wave that do not meet the conditions for in-
phase or anti-phase oscillations## Phase Difference and Wavelength The
phase difference between two points on a wave is the difference in the phase
of the wave at those two points.

The phase of a wave is the initial angle of the wave at a given point,
measured from the equilibrium position.

The wavelength of a wave is the distance between two consecutive points on the
wave that are in phase with each other.

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The wavelength of a wave is the distance over which the wave's shape
repeats, and is typically denoted by the Greek letter lambda λ.

Relationship Between Phase Difference and

Wavelength
The phase difference between two points on a wave is related to the wavelength of
the wave by the following equation: Δϕ = 2πλ
Δx where Δϕ is the phase difference, λ
is the wavelength, and Δx is the distance between the two points.

Key Points
The phase difference between two consecutive crests or troughs on a wave is
2π.
The phase difference between two points on a wave that are one wavelength
apart is 2π.
The phase difference between two points on a wave can be calculated using
the equation Δϕ = 2πλ Δx.

Examples
Point 1 Point 2 Phase Difference

X Y 2π
Y Z 2π
X Z 4π
X L π
L M 2π
X M 3π

Empirical Equation
The empirical equation for calculating the phase difference between two points on a
wave is: Δϕ = 2π
λ
Δx This equation can be used to calculate the phase difference
between any two points on a wave, given the wavelength and the distance between
the points.

Problem-Solving

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To solve problems involving phase difference and wavelength, follow these steps:

Identify the wavelength of the wave

Identify the distance between the two points
Use the empirical equation to calculate the phase difference For example, given
a wave with a wavelength of λ and two points P and Q that are 34 λ apart, the
phase difference between P and Q can be calculated as:
Δϕ = 2π λ Δx = λ 4 λ = 2 ## Phase Difference and Distance The phase
2π 3 3π

difference between two points on a wave is the difference in the phase of the
wave at those two points. The distance between two points on a wave is
related to the phase difference between them.

If the phase difference between two points is 45°, the distance between them is λ
8
,
where λ is the wavelength of the wave.

Relationship Between Phase Difference and

Distance
The relationship between phase difference and distance can be summarized as
follows:

If the phase difference between two points is 0, the distance between them is
an integer multiple of λ.
If the phase difference between two points is π, 3π, 5π, . . ., the distance
between them is an odd multiple of λ2 .
If the distance between two points is λ2 , 3λ
2 , 2 , . . ., the phase difference
5λ

between them is π, 3π, 5π, . . ..

Measuring Speed of Sound

The speed of sound in air can be measured using a signal generator, a loudspeaker,
and two microphones connected to a dual beam oscilloscope.

The speed of sound is given by the equation V = fλ, where V is the

speed of sound, f is the frequency of the sound, and λ is the wavelength
of the sound.

The steps to measure the speed of sound are:

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Set the frequency of the signal generator to a known value.

Measure the distance between the two microphones when the wave patterns
on the oscilloscope overlap.
Use the equation V = fλ to calculate the speed of sound.

Types of Waves
There are two types of waves:

Transverse waves: The particles of the medium move perpendicular to the

direction of propagation of the wave.
Longitudinal waves: The particles of the medium move parallel to the direction
of propagation of the wave.

The speed of a wave is given by the equation V = fλ, where V is the speed of the
wave, f is the frequency of the wave, and λ is the wavelength of the wave.

Key Concepts
Concept Definition

The difference in the phase of a

Phase difference
wave at two points.
The distance between two
consecutive points on a wave
Wavelength
that are in phase with each
other.
The number of oscillations or
Frequency
cycles of a wave per second.
The speed at which sound
Speed of sound waves propagate through a
medium.
The wave equation is given by v = fλ, where v is
the velocity, f is the frequency, and λ is the
wavelength. The frequency is defined as 1/T ,
where T is the period.

Distance Traveled by a Wave

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The distance traveled by a wave during one period of time is equal to one
wavelength. During half a period of time, the wave will travel a distance equal to λ/2,
and during a quarter period of time, the wave will travel a distance equal to λ/4.

Wavefronts
A wavefront is defined as the surface that passes through points with the
same phase.

The concept of wavefronts can be applied to various types of waves, including water
waves, sound waves, and light waves. Wavefronts are useful for analyzing
superpositions and diffractions.

Types of Wavefronts
There are two main types of wavefronts discussed in the syllabus:

Parallel wavefronts: generated by a straight edge source, resulting in parallel

lines
Circular wavefronts: generated by a point source, resulting in circular lines

Characteristics of Wavefronts
The following table summarizes the characteristics of wavefronts:

Type of Distance between

Description
Wavefront Wavefronts

Generated by a straight edge

Parallel Equal to one wavelength
source
Circular Generated by a point source Equal to one wavelength

Rays
A ray indicates the direction of wave motion and is represented by a straight line. For
parallel wavefronts, the rays are parallel to each other, while for circular wavefronts,
the rays are in all directions.

Crests and Troughs

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The crest is the highest point of the wave, while the trough is the lowest point. The
distance between two adjacent crests is equal to one wavelength, and the region
between two crests is the trough.

Future Lessons
The following topics will be discussed in future lessons:

Intensity: the amount of energy passing through unit area per second
Diffraction
Refraction
Interference or superposition
Diffraction grating

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Intensity of a Wave
The intensity of a wave is defined as the amount of energy passing through a unit
area per second, perpendicular to the surface.

The intensity of a wave is the amount of energy passing through a unit

area per second, perpendicular to the surface.

This can be represented by the equation: I = P

A
where I is the intensity, P is the
power, and A is the area.

The unit of intensity is Watts per square meter W /m², which is a measure of the
power per unit area.

Key Points
The intensity of a wave is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude
of the wave.
The intensity of a wave is also known as the radiation flux.
The notation used for intensity is I.

Examples
The following examples illustrate how to calculate intensity:

Unknown
Question Given Values
Value

1 Energy = 3 J, Time = 60 s, Area = 0.01 m² Intensity I

2 Intensity I = 80 W/m², Area = 6 m² Power P
Efficiency = 15%, Intensity I = 210 W/m², Power output =
3 Area A
500 W

Solutions
Question 1: I = P
A = E
t⋅A = 3J
60s⋅0.01m²
= 5W /m²
Question 2: P = I ⋅ A = 80W /m² ⋅ 6m² = 480W
Question 3: P = η ⋅ I ⋅ A, where η is the efficiency. Rearranging to solve for A:
P 500W
/m²
A = η⋅I = 0.15⋅210W

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Important Equations
Equation Description

P Definition of
intensity
I= A

Relationship
between power,
efficiency, intensity,
P =η⋅I⋅A
and area
The efficiency of a solar panel is given by the equation:
Efficiency = Useful Output P ower
Input P ower
× 100. This equation can be
used to calculate the input power required to produce a certain
amount of output power.

Calculating Surface Area

To calculate the surface area of a solar panel, we can use the equation:
Intensity = PAreaower
. Rearranging this equation to solve for area, we get:
Area = Intensity .
P ower

Example Problem 1
Given:

Efficiency of the solar panel: 15%

Output power: 500 W
Intensity of the solar radiation: 210 W/m²

We can calculate the input power required using the efficiency equation: 15 Solving
for input power, we get: Input P ower = 3333.33 W

Then, we can calculate the surface area of the solar panel using the intensity
equation: Area = 3333.33 W
210 W /m²
= 15.87 m²

Example Problem 2
Given:

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Intensity of the solar radiation: 500 W/m²

Efficiency of the solar panel: 8%
Surface area of the solar panel: 0.5 m x 0.3 m

We can calculate the input power using the intensity equation:

Input P ower = Intensity × Area = 500 W /m² × (0.5 m × 0.3 m) = 75 W

Then, we can calculate the useful output power using the efficiency equation: 8
Solving for useful output power, we get: Useful Output P ower = 6 W

Energy Storage and Usage

The solar panel generates electrical energy that is stored in a battery. The battery
is used to power a warning sign that requires 100 J of electrical energy to flash.

The following table summarizes the energy storage and usage:

Category Value

Useful Output Power 6W

Energy stored per day 172,800 J
Number of flashes per day 1,728

Overall Efficiency
The overall efficiency of a system is defined as:

The ratio of the useful output energy to the input energy, expressed as a
percentage.

It can be calculated using the equation:

Overall Efficiency = Useful Output Energy
Input Energy
× 100

The following are the steps to calculate the overall efficiency:

Calculate the input energy from the solar panel

Calculate the useful output energy from the LED
Use the overall efficiency equation to calculate the overall efficiency

The following table summarizes the given values for the overall efficiency
calculation:

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Category Value

Electrical power input to LED 0.042 W

210 mm x
Dimension of solar cell
120 mm
Radiation flux of sunlight 680 W/m²
Efficiency of LED 90%
To calculate the overall efficiency of a system, we need to consider the
input energy and the output energy. The system in question consists of a
solar panel, a rechargeable battery, and an LED light.

Input Energy
The input energy is the energy received by the solar panel from the sunlight. We
can calculate the input power using the equation: P = AI , where I is the intensity of
the sunlight and A is the surface area of the solar panel.

Given values:

Intensity $I$ = 680 W/m²

Surface area $A$ = 120 × 200 m² = 24,000 m²

We can calculate the input power as follows: P = 680

24,000
= 0.0283 W/m² × 24,000 m²
= 174 W

Since the battery is charged for 5 minutes, we can calculate the input energy:
E = P × t = 174 × 5 × 60 = 52, 200 J

Output Energy
The output energy is the energy emitted by the LED light. We are given the
efficiency of the LED light as 90% and the input power to the LED light as 0.034 W.

We can calculate the useful output power using the equation:

Efficiency = Useful output power
Input power
× 100 0.9 = Useful output
0.034
power
× 100
Useful output power = 0.034 × 0.9 = 0.0306 W

Since the LED light emits light for 80 minutes, we can calculate the useful output
energy: E = P × t = 0.0306 × 80 × 60 = 146.88 J

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Overall Efficiency
The overall efficiency of the system is the ratio of the useful output energy to the
input energy: Efficiency =
Useful output energy
Input energy
× 100
146.88
Efficiency = 52,200
× 100 = 2.85

Intensity and Distance

The intensity of light is measured using an apparatus called a light meter. As the
distance from the light source increases, the intensity of the light decreases.

The intensity of light is defined as the amount of power per unit area.

We can imagine a wave source that emits radiation or light equally in all directions.
The power output of the source is denoted as P .

Some key points to note:

The intensity of light decreases with increasing distance from the light source.
The power output of the source remains constant.
The area over which the power is distributed increases with distance from the
source.

The relationship between intensity and distance can be summarized in the following
table:

Distance from Source Intensity

Close High
Far Low

The exact relationship between intensity and distance will be explored further in the
next section.## Introduction to Radiation and Intensity The power emitted by a
power source is equally distributed in all directions in three dimensions. The
radiation travels at the same speed in all directions, and its intensity can be
calculated using the conservation of energy principle.

Conservation of Energy and Intensity

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The total power emitted by the power source is equal to the total power coming out
through a virtual sphere surrounding it. This is based on the assumption that there is
no absorption of power or radiation by the medium.

The intensity of radiation is defined as the power per unit area.

The intensity at a distance D from the power source can be calculated using the
equation:

P
I=
4πD2
where I is the intensity, P is the power emitted by the power source, and D is the
distance from the power source.

Measuring Intensity and Efficiency

To measure the intensity of radiation, a light meter can be used. The light meter is
placed at a known distance D from the power source, and the reading is recorded.
The distance D is varied, and the intensity readings are recorded for each distance.

The following table summarizes the steps to measure intensity and calculate
efficiency:

Step Description

1 Place the light meter at a known distance D from the power source
2 Record the intensity reading
3 Vary the distance D and record the intensity readings for each distance
4 Plot a graph of intensity against 1/D^2
5 Calculate the gradient of the graph, which is equal to P/4π
Calculate the efficiency of the power source using the formula: Efficiency =
6
UsefulOutputP ower/InputP ower x 100%

Inverse Square Law

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The intensity of radiation follows the inverse square law, which states that the
intensity is proportional to 1/D^2. This can be expressed mathematically as:

1
I∝
D2
The inverse square law can be demonstrated by plotting a graph of intensity against
distance.

Some key points about the inverse square law are:

The intensity of radiation decreases with increasing distance from the power
source
The intensity is proportional to 1/D^2
The inverse square law can be used to calculate the intensity of radiation at a
given distance from the power source

Key Concepts
Some key concepts related to radiation and intensity are:

Power source: the source of radiation

Radiation: the energy emitted by the power source
Intensity: the power per unit area
Conservation of energy: the principle that the total power emitted by the
power source is equal to the total power coming out through a virtual sphere
surrounding it
Inverse square law: the law that states that the intensity of radiation is
proportional to 1/D^2## Intensity of Light The intensity of light is defined as
the amount of light energy per unit area per unit time. It can be calculated using
the equation: I = 4πd
P
2 , where I is the intensity, P is the power output, and d is

the distance from the light source.

The power output of a light source is the total amount of energy emitted
by the source per unit time.

Calculating Intensity

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To calculate the intensity of light at a given distance, we can use the equation:
2 . For example, if we have a light bulb with a power output of 60 W and we
P
I = 4πd
want to find the intensity at a distance of 4 m, we can plug in the values to get:
2 = 0.298 W/m².
60
I = 4π(4)

Multiple Light Sources

When dealing with multiple light sources, we can use the same equation to calculate
the intensity of each source. For example, if we have two light bulbs with power
outputs of 2π W and 3π W, and we want to find the intensity of the second bulb at a
distance of 2D from the first bulb, we can use the equation:
2 = 16 ⋅ πD2 = 8 I .
3π 3 π 3
I1 = 4π(2D)

Efficiency of Light Bulbs

The efficiency of a light bulb is defined as the percentage of electrical energy
converted to light energy. It can be calculated using the equation:
Efficiency = Useful:output:power
Input:power × 100.

Efficiency Input Power Useful Output Power

60% 200 W 120 W

65% 1000 W 650 W

Solar Panels
A solar panel is a device that converts light energy to electrical energy. The efficiency
of a solar panel can be calculated using the equation:
Efficiency = Output:electrical:power
Input:light:energy
× 100.

The surface area of the solar panel is given as 3 m².

The distance from the light bulb to the solar panel is given as 4 m.
The power output of the light bulb is given as 650 W
calculatedfromtheefficiencyandinputpower.

Calculating Output Electrical Power

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To calculate the output electrical power from the solar panel, we need to first
calculate the intensity of the light at the solar panel. We can use the equation:
2 , where P is the useful output power of the light bulb 650W and d is the
P
I = 4πd
distance from the light bulb to the solar panel 4m. Once we have the intensity, we
can calculate the output electrical power using the efficiency of the solar panel.

Distance Intensity Output Electrical Power

4m I= 650
4π(4)2 Pout = Efficiency × I × Surface : area

Orbit of Planets
The orbit of planets around the Sun is elliptical in shape. The intensity of the
radiation received by the top of the Earth's atmosphere varies as the Earth orbits the
Sun.

The maximum intensity is given as 1.41 kW/m².

The minimum intensity is given as a value to be calculated.
The power output of the Sun is given as 3.83 × 10²⁶ W.

Calculating Minimum Distance

To calculate the minimum distance from the Sun to the Earth, we can use the
equation: I = P
4πd2
. We can rearrange the equation to solve for d: d = √ 4πI
P
. Plugging

in the values, we get: d = √ 4π×1.41×10 11 m.## Calculating Intensity and

3.83×10 26
3 = 1.47 × 10

Power To calculate the intensity of the light at the position of the solar panel, we
use the equation:

P
I=
4πD2
where I is the intensity, P is the power output of the light source, and D is the
distance between the light source and the solar panel.

Efficiency of the Bulb

The efficiency of the bulb is given as 65%, which means that 65% of the input
power is converted to output power in the form of light. The input power is 1000 W,
so the output power is:

Pout = 0.65 × 1000 = 650, W

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Calculating Intensity at the Solar Panel

Using the equation I = P
4πD2
, we can calculate the intensity at the solar panel:

650
I= 2
= 3.23, W/m2
4π(4)

Power Received by the Solar Panel

The power received by the solar panel can be calculated using the equation:

P =I×A

where A is the surface area of the solar panel. Given that the surface area is 3 m²,
the power received by the solar panel is:

P = 3.23 × 3 = 9.69, W

Efficiency of the Solar Panel

The efficiency of the solar panel is given as 18%, which means that 18% of the input
power is converted to output power in the form of electricity. The output power can
be calculated using the equation:

Pin × η
Pout =
100
where η is the efficiency. Given that the input power is 9.69 W, the output power is:

9.69 × 18
Pout = = 1.74, W
100

Assumptions for the Equation

The equation I = P
4πD2
assumes that:

The radiation source emits energy equally in all directions

There is no absorption of energy by the medium

Torch Light Example

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In the case of a torch light with a reflector, the equation I = 4πD

P
2 cannot be used

because the reflector reflects the light towards the wall, concentrating the power on
a small area.

The intensity of a light source is defined as the power per unit area.

The following table summarizes the key points:

Quantity Value Unit

Input power 1000 W

Efficiency of the bulb 65 %
Output power of the bulb 650 W
Distance to the solar panel 4 m
Intensity at the solar panel 3.23 W/m²
Surface area of the solar panel 3 m²
Power received by the solar panel 9.69 W
Efficiency of the solar panel 18 %
Output power of the solar panel 1.74 W

Some key points to note:

The efficiency of the bulb and the solar panel are important factors in
determining the output power.
The distance between the light source and the solar panel affects the intensity
of the light.
The surface area of the solar panel affects the power received by the solar
panel.
The reflector in a torch light concentrates the power on a small area, making
the equation I = 4πDP
2 invalid.## Calculating Power of the Light on the Wall To

find the power of the light on the wall, we need to calculate the area of the
circle formed by the light. The area of a circle is given by the formula: A = πr2,
where r is the radius of the circle.

Given that the radius is 0.2 m, we can substitute this value into the formula:
A = π(0.2)2.

The area of a circle is the amount of space inside the circle, and it is
measured in square units, such as square meters.

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The area of the circle is calculated as: A = π(0.2)2 = 0.04π m². However, in this case,
we are given that p/πr2 = 3.6, and r = 0.2 m. So, p/π(0.2)2 = 3.6, which implies that
p = 3.6 × π × (0.2)2.

Power Output of the Bulb

The power output of the bulb is the same as the power of the light on the wall, since
the reflector focuses all the power emitted by the bulb towards the wall.

The power of the light on the wall is calculated as: 0.452 W, which is also the output
power of the bulb.

Efficiency of the Bulb

The efficiency of the bulb is the ratio of the output power to the input power.

Input Power Output Power Efficiency

1.5 W 0.452 W 30.1%

The efficiency of the bulb is calculated as: 0.452

1.5
× 100.

Some key points to note:

The power emitted by the bulb is not emitted in all directions, but is focused
towards the wall by the reflector.
The formula used to calculate the power output of the bulb is different from the
one used when the power is emitted in all directions, which is I × 4πD 1
2 .

The reflector plays a crucial role in focusing the power emitted by the bulb
towards the wall, similar to a torch light.

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Introduction to Diffraction
Diffraction is a phenomenon where a wave passes through an aperture or meets an
obstacle, causing it to spread out. This behavior is a fundamental property of waves.

Diffraction is defined as the spreading out of a wave when it passes

through an aperture or meets an obstacle.

Key Characteristics of Diffraction

The following characteristics are essential to understanding diffraction:

The wavelength of the wave remains the same before and after diffraction
The frequency of the wave remains the same before and after diffraction
The speed of the wave remains the same before and after diffraction, assuming
the wave is traveling in the same medium

Comparison of Wavelength and Slit Size

When a wave passes through a slit, the size of the slit compared to the wavelength
of the wave is crucial in determining the diffraction pattern. The following table
summarizes the possible scenarios:

Diffraction
Slit Size Wavelength
Pattern

Much larger than Small diffraction, wave passes through with

wavelength minimal spreading
Comparable to Significant diffraction, wave spreads out
wavelength noticeably
Much smaller than Large diffraction, wave spreads out
wavelength extensively

Experimental Setup
To demonstrate diffraction, consider an experimental setup with a microwave
transmitter, aluminium plates, and microwave probe receivers. The setup consists
of:

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A microwave transmitter emitting parallel wave fronts

Two aluminium plates with a slit between them
Two microwave probe receivers, R1 and R2, placed at different positions to
measure the intensity of the received wave

Measuring Diffraction
By varying the width of the slit and measuring the intensity of the received wave at
R1 and R2, we can observe the effects of diffraction. When the slit width is:

Much larger than the wavelength, R1 receives a strong signal, while R2

receives a weak signal
Comparable to the wavelength, both R1 and R2 receive significant signals,
indicating noticeable diffraction
Much smaller than the wavelength, R1 receives a weak signal, while R2
receives a strong signal, indicating extensive diffraction

Importance of Diffraction in Exams

Diffraction is a crucial concept in exams, with questions often focusing on:

Defining diffraction
Comparing the wavelength of the wave and the size of the slit or obstacle
Describing the effects of diffraction on wave behavior## Diffraction and Slit Size
The behavior of microwaves as they pass through a slit is dependent on the
size of the slit relative to the wavelength of the microwaves.

When the size of the slit is much larger than the wavelength of the microwaves, most
of the energy emitted by the transmitter passes through the slit with very little
diffraction.

As the size of the slit is reduced to be almost equal to the wavelength of the
microwaves, the amount of energy passing through the slit decreases and the energy
that does pass through is subject to significant diffraction.

The amount of energy that passes through the slit is directly related to
the size of the slit, with smaller slits allowing less energy to pass through.

The following table summarizes the behavior of the R1 and R2 readings as the size
of the slit is reduced:

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Slit Size R1 Reading R2 Reading Diffraction

Much larger than wavelength High Zero Little to none

Almost equal to wavelength Decreasing Increasing Significant
Much smaller than wavelength Decreasing Decreasing More significant

Some key points to note about this behavior include:

The amount of energy passing through the slit decreases as the size of the slit
is reduced
The energy that does pass through the slit is subject to increasing diffraction as
the size of the slit is reduced
The R1 reading decreases as the size of the slit is reduced due to the decreased
amount of energy passing through the slit
The R2 reading increases as the size of the slit is reduced to be almost equal to
the wavelength, but then decreases as the size of the slit is reduced further

Energy Reflection
The amount of energy reflected by the metal plate increases as the size of the slit is
reduced, since less energy is able to pass through the slit.

This behavior is not unique to microwaves, but can be applied to any type of wave,
including:

Sound waves
Water waves
Light waves

However, the wavelength of light is very small, making it difficult to observe

diffraction effects.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the behavior of waves as they pass through a slit is dependent on the
size of the slit relative to the wavelength of the waves.

By understanding this behavior, we can better appreciate the principles of diffraction

and how they apply to different types of waves.

The key points to remember are:

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The size of the slit affects the amount of energy that passes through
The energy that passes through the slit is subject to diffraction
The amount of energy reflected by the metal plate increases as the size of the
slit is reduced
This behavior applies to all types of waves, not just microwaves.## Diffraction
and Wave Behavior When a wave passes through a slit, most of the energy will
pass through with very little defraction if the wavelength is much smaller than
the slit size. The gap between the wave fronts before and after defraction
should be the same.

A wave front is the surface in a medium where the wave has the same
phase, or where the particles of the medium are vibrating in the same
direction.

The amount of defraction that occurs depends on the ratio of the wavelength to the
slit size. If the slit size is much larger than the wavelength, there will be very little
defraction. However, if the slit size is almost equal to the wavelength, there will be
significant defraction.

Comparison of Wave Behavior

The following table summarizes the behavior of waves passing through a slit under
different conditions:

Energy Passing
Wavelength to Slit Size Ratio Defraction Reflection
Through

Wavelength much smaller than slit

Little Most Little
size
Wavelength almost equal to slit size Significant Less More
Wavelength much larger than slit
More Less Most
size

Some key points to note:

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When the wavelength is much smaller than the slit size, most of the energy
will pass through with little defraction.
When the wavelength is almost equal to the slit size, there will be significant
defraction and less energy will pass through.
When the wavelength is much larger than the slit size, most of the energy will
be reflected back.

Application to Real-World Scenarios

This concept is used in microwave ovens. The wavelength of microwaves used in
microwave ovens is around 12 CM. The door of the microwave oven has a mesh of
wires with a gap size much smaller than 1 mm. Since the wavelength of the
microwaves is much larger than the gap size, most of the microwaves are reflected
back into the oven and do not pass through the door.

In contrast, the wavelength of visible light is around 500 nanom or500x10( − 9 M),
which is much smaller than the gap size of the mesh. Therefore, most of the visible
light can pass through the door and be seen by the user.

Sound Waves
The concept of wavelength and frequency also applies to sound waves. The speed
of sound in air is given as 330 M per second. The frequency of a sound wave is
related to its wavelength by the equation: v = fλ, where v is the speed, f is the
frequency, and λ is the wavelength.

For example, if the peak frequency of a male voice is around 300 Hz, the peak
wavelength would be around 1 M. Similarly, if the peak frequency of a female voice
is around 1000 Hz, the peak wavelength would be around 0.3 M.

Some key points to note about sound waves:

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The frequency of a sound wave is the number of oscillations or cycles per

second.
The wavelength of a sound wave is the distance between two consecutive
points in phase.
The speed of a sound wave is the distance traveled per unit time.## Diffraction
Diffraction is a phenomenon where a wave passes through an aperture or
meets an obstacle, causing it to spread out.

Diffraction is the behavior of a wave as it encounters an obstacle or

aperture, resulting in the bending of the wave around the obstacle
or through the aperture.

The amount of diffraction depends on the conditions, such as the size of the
aperture and the wavelength of the wave.

Hearing Voices through a Doorway

When a person talks from the other side of an open door, their voice can be heard
even if they are not in the line of sight. This is due to diffraction. The sound waves
emitted by the person pass through the doorway and bend around the corner,
allowing the voice to be heard.

The effectiveness of diffraction in this scenario depends on the wavelength of the

sound waves. A male voice has a longer wavelength approximately1m compared to
a female voice approximately0.3m.

Voice Type Wavelength

Male 1m
Female 0.3 m

In the case of a doorway with a width of 90 cm 0.9m, the male voice will experience
significant diffraction, allowing it to be heard more clearly. On the other hand, the
female voice will experience less diffraction due to its shorter wavelength, making it
harder to hear.

Microwave Radiation Experiment

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In an experiment, a microwave transmitter and detector are used to measure the

effect of diffraction on microwave radiation. The microwave radiation passes
through a gap between two metal plates, and the detector measures the output.

The results of the experiment are plotted on a graph, showing the detector output
against the size of the gap. The graph shows an initial increase in detector output as
the gap size increases, followed by a decrease.

The detector output is zero when the gap size is zero, indicating that no
microwave radiation is passing through.
The detector output increases as the gap size increases, reaching a peak at a
gap size of approximately 4 cm.
The detector output decreases as the gap size increases further.

The shape of the graph can be explained by the diffraction of the microwave
radiation as it passes through the gap. The wavelength of the microwave radiation
can be estimated based on the gap size at which the detector output reaches its
peak.

Estimating Wavelength
The wavelength of the microwave radiation can be estimated using the gap size at
which the detector output reaches its peak. In this case, the gap size is
approximately 4 cm, which is likely to be related to the wavelength of the
microwave radiation.

Gap Size Detector Output

0 cm 0
4 cm Peak
> 4 cm Decreasing

By analyzing the graph and the diffraction phenomenon, we can estimate the
wavelength of the microwave radiation used in the experiment.## Diffraction and Its
Effects Diffraction occurs when a wave encounters an obstacle or a gap, causing the
wave to bend around it. The amount of diffraction depends on the size of the obstacle
or gap compared to the wavelength of the wave.

Factors Affecting Diffraction

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The following factors affect the amount of diffraction:

Size of the gap or obstacle

Wavelength of the wave
Amount of defraction bendingofthewave

Relationship Between Wavelength and Obstacle Size

The relationship between the wavelength and the size of the obstacle determines
the amount of defraction.

When the wavelength is larger than the size of the obstacle, there will be
more defraction, resulting in a smaller shadow region. When the
wavelength is smaller than the size of the obstacle, there will be less
defraction, resulting in a larger shadow region.

Examples of Diffraction

Wavelength Obstacle Size Amount of Defraction

Larger Smaller More

Smaller Larger Less

Radio Transmission and Diffraction

In the case of radio transmission, the wavelength of the wave is typically larger than
the size of obstacles such as buildings. This means that there will be more defraction
around these obstacles, allowing the signal to be received even if there are buildings
in the way.

The speed of electromagnetic waves is 3 x 10^8 m/s, and can be used to

calculate the wavelength of a wave using the formula: V = Fλ

Calculating Wavelength

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The wavelength of a wave can be calculated using the formula: V = Fλ, where V is
the speed of the wave, F is the frequency, and λ is the wavelength. For example, if
the frequency of a radio wave is 198 KHz, the wavelength can be calculated as
follows: V = 3 x 10^8 m/s F = 198 KHz λ = V / F = 1.515 x 10^3 m

Effects of Obstacle Size on Radio Signal Reception

The size of obstacles such as buildings can affect the reception of radio signals.

If the wavelength of the signal is larger than the size of the obstacle, there will
be more defraction, allowing the signal to be received even if there are
buildings in the way.
If the wavelength of the signal is smaller than the size of the obstacle, there
will be less defraction, resulting in a weaker signal.

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Refraction of Waves
Refraction is a phenomenon that occurs when a wave moves from one medium to
another medium. The speed of the wave changes, and due to this change in speed,
the direction of motion of the wave also changes.

Refraction is the change in direction of a wave as it passes from one

medium to another with a different optical density.

The key points to note about refraction are:

The frequency of the wave remains the same, as it is a property of the wave
itself.
The speed and wavelength of the wave depend on the medium it is traveling
through.
When a wave travels from one medium to another, the speed and wavelength
change, but the frequency remains the same.

Factors Affecting Refraction

The following factors affect refraction:

Speed of the wave in the two media

Frequency of the wave
Wavelength of the wave in the two media

The relationship between these factors can be summarized in the following table:

Factor Description

Speed Changes as the wave moves from one medium to another

Frequency Remains the same, as it is a property of the wave
Changes as the wave moves from one medium to another, due to the
Wavelength
change in speed

Diagrammatic Representation

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To understand refraction, consider a diagram with two media, Medium 1 and

Medium 2, with different speeds of the wave. The wave moves from Medium 1 to
Medium 2, and the speed of the wave decreases. The wave fronts slow down, and
the distance between the wave fronts decreases, resulting in a change in direction
of the wave.

The ray is a line perpendicular to the wave front, and it indicates the direction of
wave motion. The normal is a line perpendicular to the boundary between the two
media. The incident wave and the refracted wave have different directions, due to
the change in speed and wavelength.

Key Concepts
To summarize, the key concepts related to refraction are:

Refraction: the change in direction of a wave as it passes from one medium to

another
Frequency: the number of waves per second, which remains the same
Speed: the distance traveled by a wave per second, which changes as the wave
moves from one medium to another
Wavelength: the distance between two consecutive wave fronts, which
changes as the wave moves from one medium to another

By understanding these concepts, you can better appreciate the phenomenon of

refraction and its importance in the behavior of waves.## Refraction of Waves When
a wave travels from one medium to another, it can change direction. This change in
direction is known as refraction. The wave front is the surface where the wave is
propagating, and the ray is a line perpendicular to the wave front.

Refraction and Wave Speed

When a wave travels from a higher speed medium to a lower speed medium, it will
move towards the normal. The normal is an imaginary line perpendicular to the
boundary between the two media. On the other hand, when a wave travels from a
lower speed medium to a higher speed medium, it will move away from the normal.

The following table summarizes the behavior of waves during refraction:

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Initial Medium Final Medium Direction of Refraction

Higher Speed Lower Speed Towards the Normal

Lower Speed Higher Speed Away from the Normal

Refraction and Wavelength

When a wave travels from a higher speed medium to a lower speed medium, its
wavelength decreases. Conversely, when a wave travels from a lower speed
medium to a higher speed medium, its wavelength increases.

Special Case: No Refraction

If the ray meets the boundary such that the direction of motion of the wave is
perpendicular to the boundary, there is no change in direction of motion. In this case,
the wave will continue to move in the same direction, but its wavelength will change.

Refractive Index
The refractive index of a medium is defined as:

The ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in the
medium.

Mathematically, this can be expressed as: $n = \frac{c}{v}$, where $n$ is the

refractive index, $c$ is the speed of light in vacuum, and $v$ is the speed of light in
the medium.

Some key points to note about refractive index are:

The refractive index is always greater than or equal to 1.

The refractive index of a medium is a measure of how much it bends light.
The refractive index is an important property of a medium that affects the
behavior of light as it passes through it.

The following table lists the refractive indices of some common media:

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Refractive
Medium
Index

Vacuum 1
approximately
Air
1
approximately
Glass
1.5
approximately
Water
1.33
The refractive index is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to
the speed of light in a medium. It is a measure of how much a
medium slows down the speed of light. The refractive index is
always greater than one, because the speed of light in a medium is
always less than the speed of light in a vacuum.

The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of

light in a vacuum to the speed of light in that medium. It is a
dimensionless quantity, as it is the ratio of two speeds with the same
units.

Relationship between Refractive Index and

Speed of Light
If the refractive index of a medium is higher, it means that the speed of light in that
medium is lower. Conversely, if the refractive index is lower, it means that the speed
of light in that medium is higher. This can be summarized in the following table:

Refractive Index Speed of Light

Higher Lower
Lower Higher

Comparison of Media
When comparing two different media, X and Y, we can say that:

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If the speed of light in X is greater than the speed of light in Y, then X is an

optically less dense medium and Y is an optically more dense medium.
If the refractive index of X is smaller than the refractive index of Y, then X is an
optically less dense medium and Y is an optically more dense medium.

Optically Dense Media

A medium with a higher refractive index is an optically more dense medium, where
the speed of light is lower. A medium with a smaller refractive index is an optically
less dense medium, where the speed of light is higher.

Snell's Law
Snell's Law relates the refractive indices of two different media at a boundary and
the angles of incidence and refraction. It states that: $N_1 \sin \Theta_1 = N_2 \sin
\Theta_2$ where $N_1$ and $N_2$ are the refractive indices of the two media, and
$\Theta_1$ and $\Theta_2$ are the angles of incidence and refraction, measured
with respect to the normal to the boundary.

Some key points to note about Snell's Law:

The angles must be measured with respect to the normal to the boundary.
The equation is valid regardless of the direction of the light ray.
The equation can be used to relate the refractive indices and angles of
incidence and refraction for any two media.

Refractive Index of Air

The refractive index of air is approximately 1.00, because the speed of light in air is
very close to the speed of light in a vacuum. For the purpose of calculations, we can
assume that the refractive index of air is 1.00.

Key Concepts
Some key concepts to remember:

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Refractive index: a measure of how much a medium slows down the speed of
light.
Optically dense medium: a medium with a higher refractive index, where the
speed of light is lower.
Optically less dense medium: a medium with a smaller refractive index, where
the speed of light is higher.
Snell's Law: a equation that relates the refractive indices of two different media
at a boundary and the angles of incidence and refraction.## Refraction and
Snell's Law The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the
speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the medium.

The refractive index or absolute refractive index of a medium is

defined as n = c/v, where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is
the speed of light in the medium.

The refractive index of air is taken as 1. When light travels from one medium to
another, it follows Snell's Law, which states that: N1 sin(Theta 1) = N2 sin(Theta 2)
where N1 and N2 are the refractive indices of the two media, and Theta 1 and Theta
2 are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively.

Key Concepts
Optically less dense medium: a medium with a higher speed of light, resulting
in a lower refractive index.
Optically more dense medium: a medium with a lower speed of light, resulting
in a higher refractive index.
When light travels from an optically less dense medium to an optically more
dense medium, it moves towards the normal.
When light travels from an optically more dense medium to an optically less
dense medium, it moves away from the normal.

Example Problems
The following table summarizes the given information for the example problems:

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Problem Medium 1 Medium 2 Angle of Incidence

1 Air Glass -
2 Air Glass 42°
38° (with the
3 Glass Water
boundary)
Medium 1 (v = 2.40 x 10^8 Medium 2 (v = 1.9 x 10^8
4 36°
m/s) m/s)

Solutions
For problem 1, the refractive index of glass is given as 1.5. Using the definition of
refractive index, we can find the speed of light in glass: n = c/v 1.5 = (3 x 10^8 m/s) /
v v = (3 x 10^8 m/s) / 1.5 v = 2 x 10^8 m/s

For problem 2, we are given the angle of incidence and the refractive indices of air
and glass. We can use Snell's Law to find the angle of refraction: 1 sin(42°) = 1.53
sin(Theta 2) sin(Theta 2) = sin(42°) / 1.53 Theta 2 = 25.9°

For problem 3, we are given the angle with the boundary and the refractive indices of
glass and water. We can use Snell's Law to find the angle of refraction: 1.54 sin(52°)
= 1.33 sin(Theta 2) sin(Theta 2) = (1.54 sin(52°)) / 1.33 Theta 2 = 65.8° The angle of
deviation is the difference between the angle of refraction and the angle of incidence:
angle of deviation = 65.8° - 52° angle of deviation = 13.8°

For problem 4, we are given the speeds of light in the two media and the angle of
incidence. We can use the definition of refractive index to find the refractive indices of
the media: n1 = c / v1 n1 = (3 x 10^8 m/s) / (2.40 x 10^8 m/s) n1 = 1.25 n2 = c / v2
n2 = (3 x 10^8 m/s) / (1.9 x 10^8 m/s) n2 = 1.58 We can then use Snell's Law to find
the angle of refraction: 1.25 sin(36°) = 1.58 sin(Theta 2) sin(Theta 2) = (1.25 sin(36°))
/ 1.58 Theta 2 = 28.4° Since the light is traveling from an optically less dense
medium to an optically more dense medium, it will move towards the normal.##
Snell's Law Snell's Law is a fundamental concept in optics that describes the
relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction when light passes from
one medium to another. The law is given by the equation: $N1 \sin \Theta 1 = N2 \sin
\Theta 2$, where $N1$ and $N2$ are the refractive indices of the two media, and
$\Theta 1$ and $\Theta 2$ are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively.

The refractive index of a medium is a measure of how much it bends light

that passes through it. It is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a
vacuum to the speed of light in the medium.

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Applying Snell's Law

To apply Snell's Law, we need to know the refractive indices of the two media and
the angle of incidence. We can then use the equation to find the angle of refraction.

Step 1: Identify the refractive indices of the two media.

Step 2: Identify the angle of incidence.
Step 3: Plug the values into the equation and solve for the angle of refraction.

Example Problems
The following are some example problems that demonstrate how to apply Snell's
Law:

Unknown
Problem Given Values
Value

$N1 = 1$, $V1 = 2.4 \times 10^8$ m/s, $\Theta 1 =

1 $\Theta 2$
36^\circ$
$V1 = 2.84 \times 10^8$ m/s, $\Theta 1 = 47^\circ$,
2 $V2$
$\Theta 2 = 32^\circ$
3 $N1 = 1$, $\Theta 1 = 72^\circ$, $\Theta 2 = 53^\circ$ $N2$

Solutions
The solutions to the example problems are as follows:

Problem 1: $\sin \Theta 2 = \frac{N1 \sin \Theta 1}{N2} = \frac{1 \sin 36^\circ}
{1} = 0.470$, so $\Theta 2 = 28^\circ$.
Problem 2: $\frac{1}{V1} \sin \Theta 1 = \frac{1}{V2} \sin \Theta 2$, so $V2 =
\frac{\sin \Theta 2}{\sin \Theta 1} V1 = \frac{\sin 32^\circ}{\sin 47^\circ} \times
2.84 \times 10^8$ m/s = $2.06 \times 10^8$ m/s.
Problem 3: $\frac{\sin \Theta 1}{\sin \Theta 2} = \frac{N1}{N2}$, so $N2 =
\frac{\sin \Theta 2}{\sin \Theta 1} N1 = \frac{\sin 53^\circ}{\sin 72^\circ} \times 1
= 1.24$.

Prism Problems
Prism problems involve applying Snell's Law to a prism, which is a transparent
optical element with flat, polished surfaces that refract light.

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Step 1: Identify the refractive indices of the prism and the surrounding
medium.
Step 2: Identify the angle of incidence and the prism angle.
Step 3: Apply Snell's Law to find the angle of refraction.
Unknown
Problem Given Values
Value

$N1 = 1$, $N2 = 1.52$, $\Theta 1 = 40^\circ$, prism angle

4 $\Theta 2$
= $60^\circ$

Solution
The solution to the prism problem is as follows:

Problem 4: Apply Snell's Law to find the angle of refraction: $\sin \Theta 2 =
\frac{N1 \sin \Theta 1}{N2} = \frac{1 \sin 40^\circ}{1.52} = 0.434$, so $\Theta 2
= 25.8^\circ$.## Refraction and Total Internal Reflection The concept of
refraction is crucial in understanding how light behaves when passing from one
medium to another.

Snell's Law
Snell's Law states that the ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction
is equal to the ratio of the velocities of the two media, or equivalently, the inverse
ratio of the refractive indices. This can be expressed as: $N_1 \sin \Theta_1 = N_2
\sin \Theta_2$ where $N_1$ and $N_2$ are the refractive indices of the two media,
and $\Theta_1$ and $\Theta_2$ are the angles of incidence and refraction,
respectively.

Example Problem
Consider a prism with an angle of 60° and a refractive index of 1.52. If the angle of
incidence on the first side is 40°, we can use Snell's Law to find the angle of
refraction on the second side. First, we find the angle of refraction on the first side: $1
\sin 40° = 1.52 \sin R_1$ Solving for $R_1$, we get: $R_1 = 25°$

Finding the Angle of Refraction on the Second Side

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To find the angle of refraction on the second side, we need to find the angle between
the two normals, denoted as Alpha. We know that the sum of the angles in a
quadrilateral is 360°, so we can write: $60° + 90° + 90° + \Alpha = 360°$ Solving for
Alpha, we get: $\Alpha = 120°$

Using Snell's Law Again

Now we can use Snell's Law again to find the angle of refraction on the second side:
$1.52 \sin 35° = 1 \sin \Theta$ Solving for $\Theta$, we get: $\Theta = 60.7°$

Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection

When light moves from an optically denser medium to an optically less dense
medium, the light ray will move away from the normal. As defined:

The critical angle is the angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction
becomes 90°.

The following table summarizes the key points:

Medium Refractive Index Angle of Incidence Angle of Refraction

Air 1 40° 25°

Glass 1.52 25° 35°
Air 1 35° 60.7°

Some key points to note:

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When light moves from an optically denser medium to an optically less dense
medium, the light ray will move away from the normal.
The critical angle is the angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction
becomes 90°.
Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence is greater than the
critical angle.
The refractive index of a medium is a measure of how much it bends light.
Snell's Law can be used to find the angle of refraction when the angle of
incidence and the refractive indices of the two media are known.## Critical
Angle and Total Internal Reflection The critical angle is the angle of incidence
in the less dense medium at which the angle of refraction in the more dense
medium becomes 90°. This occurs when light travels from an optically more
dense medium to an optically less dense medium.

The critical angle is the specific angle of incidence at which the angle of
refraction is 90°, and it is denoted by the symbol C.

The Snell's Law equation can be used to find the critical angle: N1 sin(C) = N2
sin(90°) Since sin(90°) = 1, the equation becomes: sin(C) = N2 / N1 C = sin^(-1) (N2 /
N1)

Factors Affecting Critical Angle

The critical angle depends on the refractive indexes of both media, N1 and N2. It is a
property of the boundary between the two media, not a property of one medium
alone.

Medium Refractive Index

N1 (more dense) greater than N2

N2 (less dense) less than N1

Total Internal Reflection

Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence is greater than the
critical angle. In this case, the light is completely reflected back into the more dense
medium, with no light emerging into the less dense medium.

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The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle (C)

The light is completely reflected back into the more dense medium
No light emerges into the less dense medium
The law of reflection is followed: angle of incidence = angle of reflection

Key Points to Remember

The critical angle is a property of the boundary between two media, not a
property of one medium alone.
The Snell's Law equation can be used to find the critical angle.
Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence is greater than the
critical angle.
The law of reflection is followed during total internal reflection.## Refraction
and Reflection When light passes from one medium to another, it can be
refracted (or bent) or reflected. The amount of bending that occurs depends on
the angle of incidence and the refractive indices of the two media.

Refractive Index
The refractive index is a measure of how much a medium bends light. It is defined
as:

The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the
medium.

Snell's Law
Snell's Law describes the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle
of refraction: $N_1 \sin \Theta_1 = N_2 \sin \Theta_2$ where $N_1$ and $N_2$ are
the refractive indices of the two media, and $\Theta_1$ and $\Theta_2$ are the
angles of incidence and refraction, respectively.

Critical Angle
The critical angle is the angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction is 90°. If
the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the light will be totally
internally reflected. Some key points about the critical angle:

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It occurs in the optically denser medium.

It is a property of the boundary between two media, not of a single medium.
It can be calculated using Snell's Law.

Total Internal Reflection

Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence is greater than the
critical angle. In this case, all of the light is reflected back into the optically denser
medium. Total internal reflection is used in:

Optical fibers: to confine light within the fiber.

Prisms: to reflect light and create a spectrum.

Examples
Some examples of calculating the critical angle:

Medium Refractive Index Critical

Medium 1 Refractive Index 1
2 2 Angle

Glass Air 1.52 1.00 41.1°

calculated from speed of
Water Air 1.00 49.9°
light
Transparent
Glass 1.64 1.52 67.97°
sheet

Calculating the Critical Angle

To calculate the critical angle, we can use Snell's Law: $N_1 \sin \Theta_1 = N_2 \sin
\Theta_2$ We can rearrange this equation to solve for $\Theta_1$ (the critical
angle): $\sin \Theta_1 = \frac{N_2}{N_1} \sin \Theta_2$ Since $\Theta_2$ is 90°, $\sin
\Theta_2 = 1$: $\sin \Theta_1 = \frac{N_2}{N_1}$

Angle of Incidence and Refraction

Some key points about the angle of incidence and refraction:

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The angle of incidence is the angle at which light hits a surface.

The angle of refraction is the angle at which light bends as it passes through a
surface.
The angle of incidence and refraction are related by Snell's Law.
If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the light will be
totally internally reflected.## Refraction and Total Internal Reflection When
light passes from one medium to another, it can be refracted or totally
internally reflected. The angle of incidence is the angle at which light hits the
boundary between two media.

Critical Angle
The critical angle is the angle of incidence above which total internal reflection
occurs. It can be calculated using Snell's Law: $N_1 \sin(\Theta_1) = N_2
\sin(\Theta_2)$ where $N_1$ and $N_2$ are the refractive indices of the two media,
and $\Theta_1$ and $\Theta_2$ are the angles of incidence and refraction.

The critical angle is the angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction
is 90°, and the light is completely reflected back into the first medium.

Example: Light Passing from Air to Glass

When light passes from air to glass, the refractive index of air is approximately 1,
and the refractive index of glass is approximately 1.52. If the angle of incidence is
45°, the critical angle can be calculated as: $\sin(C) = \frac{1}{1.52}$ $C = 41.1°$
Since the angle of incidence (45°) is greater than the critical angle (41.1°), total
internal reflection occurs.

Example: Light Passing from Glass to Transparent Sheet

When light passes from glass to a transparent sheet with a refractive index of 1.26,
the critical angle can be calculated as: $\sin(C) = \frac{1.26}{1.52}$ $C = 56°$ Since
the angle of incidence (45°) is less than the critical angle (56°), the light will refract
into the transparent sheet.

Comparison of Refraction and Total Internal Reflection

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The following table summarizes the conditions for refraction and total internal
reflection:

Condition Refraction Total Internal Reflection

Angle of Incidence Less than Critical Angle Greater than Critical Angle
Angle of Refraction Less than 90° 90°
Light Path Refracted into second medium Reflected back into first medium

Finding the Maximum Angle of Theta

When light passes from air to glass and then to water, the maximum angle of theta
can be found by calculating the critical angle for the glass-water boundary. The
refractive index of water is approximately 1.33, and the refractive index of glass is
approximately 1.52. The critical angle can be calculated as: $\sin(C) = \frac{1.33}
{1.52}$ $C = 61.1°$ The maximum angle of theta is the angle at which the light can
still refract into the water, which is slightly less than the critical angle.

Some key points to consider when finding the maximum angle of theta:

The angle of incidence increases as the angle of refraction decreases

The critical angle is the angle at which the angle of refraction is 90°
The maximum angle of theta is the angle at which the light can still refract
into the second medium, which is slightly less than the critical angle##
Refraction and Total Internal Reflection When light passes from a denser
medium to a rarer medium, it is possible for the light to be completely reflected
back into the denser medium. This phenomenon is known as total internal
reflection.

Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence is greater than
the critical angle, which is the angle of incidence at which the angle of
refraction is 90°.

The critical angle can be calculated using the equation: $N_1 \sin C = N_2 \sin 90$
where $N_1$ is the refractive index of the denser medium and $N_2$ is the
refractive index of the rarer medium.

Calculating Critical Angle

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For a glass-water boundary, the refractive indices are:

$N_1 = 1.52$ (glass)

$N_2 = 1.33$ (water)

Using the equation, we can calculate the critical angle: $1.52 \sin C = 1.33 \sin 90$
$\sin C = \frac{1.33}{1.52}$ $C = 61°$

Maximum Angle of Incidence

The maximum angle of incidence for which light can emerge into the water is equal
to the critical angle. If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the
light will be completely reflected back into the glass.

Medium Refractive Index

Glass 1.52
Water 1.33

Dispersion of White Light

White light consists of all colors, from violet to red. When white light passes
through a prism, it is split into its individual colors because each color has a different
speed and refractive index in the prism.

The frequency of light remains the same when it travels from one medium to
another.
The speed of light is different for each color in a medium.
The refractive index of each color is different in a medium.

Refractive Index of Colors

The refractive index of each color can be calculated using the equation: $N =
\frac{\sin I}{\sin R}$ where $N$ is the refractive index, $I$ is the angle of incidence,
and $R$ is the angle of refraction.

Color Refractive Index

Red $N_R = \frac{\sin I}{\sin R_R}$

Violet $N_V = \frac{\sin I}{\sin R_V}$

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Note that the angle of refraction for red is greater than the angle of refraction for
violet, so the refractive index of red is less than the refractive index of violet.##
Refractive Index and Color The refractive index of a medium is a measure of how
much it bends light. Different colors have different refractive indices. For example,
the refractive index of violet is greater than that of red.

The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of

light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the medium. It can be calculated
using the formula: $n = \frac{c}{v}$, where $n$ is the refractive index, $c$
is the speed of light in a vacuum, and $v$ is the speed of light in the
medium.

When light passes from one medium to another, its frequency remains the same, but
its speed and wavelength change. In the case of light passing from air to glass, the
speed of the light decreases, causing the wavelength to decrease as well.

The following table summarizes the relationship between refractive index and color:

Color Refractive Index in Glass

Red $n_R$
Violet $n_V$
Note: $n_R < n_V$

Since the refractive index of red is less than that of violet, the speed of red light in
glass is greater than that of violet light. This can be expressed as: $v_R > v_V$.

Some key points to note:

Red light has the highest speed in glass compared to other colors.
The speed of light in glass decreases as we move from red to violet.
The refractive index of glass is typically around 1.52, which corresponds to the
refractive index of yellow light.
The refractive index of water is typically around 1.33, which also corresponds
to the refractive index of yellow light.

The following table summarizes the refractive indices of different media:

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Medium Refractive Index

Glass 1.52 (average for yellow light)

Water 1.33 (average for yellow light)
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Wave Interference
Wave Superposition
The principle of superposition states that when two or more waves overlap at a
point, the resultant displacement is the vector sum of the individual wave
displacements at that point. This means we add the displacements together,
considering their directions.

Constructive Superposition
Occurs when waves overlap in phase.
In phase means crests align with crests, and troughs align with troughs.
The waves reinforce each other.
Resultant wave has a larger amplitude.
The frequency and wavelength remain the same.
Phase difference between waves is a multiple of 2π radians (0, 2π, 4π, 6π, etc.).

Destructive Superposition
Occurs when waves overlap out of phase (anti-phase).
Anti-phase means the crest of one wave overlaps with the trough of another.
The waves partially cancel each other out.
Resultant wave has a smaller amplitude (the difference between the
amplitudes of the individual waves).
If the waves have equal amplitudes, complete cancellation occurs, resulting in a
resultant amplitude of zero.
The frequency and wavelength remain the same.

Conditions for Superposition Types

Superposition
Phase Relationship Resultant Amplitude
Type

Constructive In phase (0, 2π, 4π... radians) Sum of individual amplitudes

Out of phase (π, 3π, 5π... Difference of individual
Destructive
radians) amplitudes

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If two waves with equal amplitudes overlap out of phase, complete

cancellation occurs, resulting in a net displacement of zero. This is referred
to as complete cancellation.

Phase and Phase Difference

The phase of a wave is typically measured in radians or degrees. The phase
difference between two waves at a specific point determines whether constructive or
destructive interference will occur at that point.

Superposition of Waves: A Study Guide

Wave Interference: In Phase
If two waves overlap in phase, their phase difference is a multiple of 2π: 2nπ,
where 'n' is an integer (0, 2, 4, 6...).
This results in constructive interference, leading to a wave with increased
amplitude.

Wave Interference: Out of Phase

If two waves overlap out of phase (antiphase), their phase difference is an odd
multiple of π: (2n + 1)π, where 'n' is an integer (1, 3, 5...).
This results in destructive interference, leading to a wave with decreased or
zero amplitude.

Applications of Superposition
Superposition of waves, specifically constructive and destructive interference, has
several key applications:

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Determining Wavelength: By observing the interference pattern created by the

superposition of monochromatic light, we can determine the wavelength of that
light. The same principle applies to sound waves.
Thin Film Coatings: Thin coatings on lenses minimize unwanted reflections by
causing destructive interference of reflected waves.
Interferometers: These devices utilize wave interference to measure extremely
small lengths, down to the nanometer scale. This is crucial in microchip design
and other technologies.
Communication Technology: Superposition helps filter unwanted noise in
communication systems.
Color Filters: Many color filters rely on the principle of wave superposition.

We primarily focus on constructive and destructive interference because

these are the types of superposition with the most significant applications.
Other phase differences are less practically relevant.

Superposition Patterns
A superposition pattern visually represents the result of overlapping waves. It can
be shown as:

A graph: Plotting wave amplitude against distance.

A diagram: Showing regions of constructive and destructive interference in
space.

Example: Two loudspeakers (L1 and L2) emitting the same frequency of sound.

At points where waves overlap in phase, a louder sound is heard (constructive

interference).
At points where waves overlap out of phase, a quieter sound or no sound is
heard (destructive interference).

The resulting pattern of louder and quieter regions forms the superposition pattern.
This pattern must remain stable throughout the experiment for reliable analysis.
Using this pattern, we can determine the wavelength and speed of the sound waves.

Lecture Notes: Stable Superposition

Patterns

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Stable Superposition Patterns

For useful applications, we need stable superposition patterns. If the pattern
changes randomly over time, it's not useful. Applications of stable superposition
patterns include:

Thin film coatings

Reflecting surfaces on lenses
Holograms
Interferometers (used for precise measurements in microchip design)
Communication technologies (filtering noise)

Conditions for Stable Superposition Patterns

To achieve a stable superposition pattern, the waves emitted by the sources must be
coherent. This means:

1. Same Frequency: The waves must have the same frequency.

2. Constant Phase Relationship: The phase relationship between the waves must
remain constant at a point.

Coherent waves: Waves with the same frequency and a constant phase
relationship. When coherent waves overlap, their crests and troughs align
predictably, leading to a stable interference pattern.

Imagine a point where destructive superposition consistently occurs. If the waves

have the same frequency and speed, when a crest from one wave reaches this point,
a trough from the other will always arrive simultaneously. This consistent destructive
interference creates a stable pattern. Conversely, if the phase relationship changes,
the pattern becomes unstable, and constructive interference might replace
destructive interference.

Coherent Wave Sources

A source emitting coherent waves is called a coherent wave source. If waves are
incoherent (not coherent), superposition still occurs, but the pattern is unstable and
not useful for applications.

Obtaining Coherent Sound Waves

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How do we generate coherent sound waves?

Challenge: Can we use two loudspeakers connected to two different signal

generators?
Condition 1: The waves must have the same frequency.
Condition 2: The phase relationship between the two sound waves must
remain constant.

A signal generator produces an AC signal (e.g., 2000 Hz). When connected to a

loudspeaker, the diaphragm vibrates at that frequency, emitting sound at the same
frequency. The question is whether two loudspeakers, each connected to a separate
signal generator, can create coherent sound.

Lecture Notes: Creating Coherent Waves

Coherent Sound Waves
To create coherent sound waves, both loudspeakers must be connected to the same
signal generator. If two loudspeakers are connected to different signal generators,
even if both generators produce the same frequency (e.g., 2000 Hz), the phase
relationship between the outputs won't remain constant. This is because signal
generators are independent electronic devices, and slight variations in their internal
components can lead to changes in phase.

Coherent Waves: Waves with a constant phase relationship. This means

the peaks and troughs of the waves are aligned consistently.

Connecting both loudspeakers to a single generator ensures that any phase

changes affect both equally, maintaining a constant phase relationship.
The sound waves emitted by the loudspeakers will then be coherent.

Coherent Light Waves

Creating coherent light waves is more complex. Using two different light sources
with the same color (monochromatic) doesn't guarantee coherence.

Monochromatic: Light of a single wavelength (or color).

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Light sources emit light in continuous, random bursts. This means different
points on the bulb emit light at different times.
Therefore, the phase relationship between two different light sources will
randomly change, making the waves incoherent.
If you were to shine light from two incoherent sources through a double slit
onto a screen, you wouldn't observe a clear interference pattern; the pattern
would change too rapidly to be seen.

To create coherent light waves from two slits (e.g., in a Young's double-slit
experiment):

Don't shine the light directly onto both slits from a single light bulb. Instead,
use a single slit to first diffract the light.
Then, allow the light from this single slit to pass through the double slit.
Since both slits now receive light that has passed through the single slit, any
phase changes in the initial light source will affect both equally.
The light passing through the double slit will thus be coherent and will produce
a consistent interference pattern on a screen.

Incoherent Waves: Waves whose phase relationship is constantly

changing. The peaks and troughs are not aligned consistently.

Summary Table
Type of Method for Creating
Reason for Coherence
Wave Coherent Waves

Connect both loudspeakers

Sound Ensures any phase change affects both
to the same signal
Waves equally.
generator
All light passing through the double slit
Light Use a single slit before the
originates from the same point after being
Waves double slit
diffracted by the single slit.

Lecture Notes: Wave Superposition

Coherent Light Sources

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Two slits, S1 and S2, act as coherent sources because the light emitted from
them acts as coherent waves.
Two different laser torches cannot be used as coherent light sources because
the phase relationship between the two waves changes randomly.
However, a single laser torch can be used. While the phase might change at
different points along the beam, the phase change between any two points is
constant. Therefore, light from a single laser torch passing through two slits
will create a superposition pattern.
A single slit is not needed when using a laser because the light from the laser
is already coherent. It is only needed when using an incoherent source like a
standard light bulb.
Similarly, to generate coherent water waves in a ripple tank, both dippers must
be connected to the same electric motor.

Path Difference
Path difference: The difference in distance traveled by two waves to
reach a point.

Phase difference is not directly measurable; path difference is.

The type of superposition (constructive or destructive) at a point depends on
the path difference.
Example: Two loudspeakers at different locations - at some points, sound will
be louder (constructive interference), and at others, quieter (destructive
interference).
Path difference is calculated as the difference between the distances each
wave travels to reach a point.

Calculating Path Difference

Consider two coherent sources, S1 and S2, emitting waves that overlap at point
P.
Measure the distances from each source to point P (S1P and S2P). These
distances can be expressed in terms of wavelengths (λ).
Path difference = S2P - S1P

Example:

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Source Distance to Point P Distance in Wavelengths

S1 4.5λ
S2 5λ

Path difference = 5λ - 4.5λ = 0.5λ = λ/2

In the example above, if the path difference is λ/2, it results in destructive

superposition at point P because a trough overlaps with a crest.

Lecture Notes: Wave Superposition

Wave Superposition
Path difference: The difference in distance traveled by two waves from their
sources to a specific point. This is a measurable quantity.
Constructive superposition: Occurs when crests and crests, or troughs and
troughs, overlap. This results in a wave with increased amplitude.
Destructive superposition: Occurs when crests and troughs overlap. This
results in a wave with decreased amplitude, or even cancellation.
Coherent wave sources: Wave sources that maintain a constant phase
relationship.

Example: Imagine two speakers emitting sound waves. The path

difference between the waves reaching a specific point in the room
determines whether constructive or destructive interference will occur at
that point.

Conditions for Constructive Superposition

To achieve constructive superposition, the path difference must be an integer multiple
of the wavelength (λ):

0, λ, 2λ, 3λ, . . . , nλ

where n is an integer.

Conditions for Destructive Superposition

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To achieve destructive superposition, the path difference must be an odd multiple of

half the wavelength (λ/2):

λ/2, 3λ/2, 5λ/2, 7λ/2, . . . , (2n + 1)λ/2

where n is an integer.

Relationship Between Path Difference and

Phase Difference
Phase difference: The difference in phase between two waves at a specific
point. This is not directly measurable.
The relationship between phase difference (Δφ) and path difference (Δx) is
given by:
2π
Δφ = λ
∗ Δx

Summary Table
Superposition Type Path Difference (Δx) Phase Difference (Δφ)

Constructive nλ 2nπ
Destructive (2n + 1)λ/2 (2n + 1)π

where n is an integer.

Note: The path difference is a measurable quantity, while the phase

difference is not directly measurable but can be calculated using the
equation above.

Lecture Notes: Wave Superposition

Central Maximum

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The central maximum occurs where the path difference is zero, resulting in
constructive superposition. Past exam questions on superposition are typically
straightforward, often involving calculating the path difference. This might require
using geometry (e.g., the Pythagorean Theorem) to determine distances from
sources (S1, S2) to a point (P). The key is to find the difference in distances and
compare it to the wavelength to determine the type of superposition. Explanations in
past papers often focus on the path difference.

Wavefront Analysis
This diagram shows two coherent wave sources, S1 and S2, emitting waves. The lines
(e.g., blue and green) represent wavefronts. The distance between adjacent
wavefronts represents the wavelength (λ). Overlapping wavefronts cause
superposition:

Constructive superposition: occurs when crests overlap.

Destructive superposition: occurs when a crest and a trough overlap.

At point X:

S1X = 5λ
S2X = 6λ
Path difference: 6λ − 5λ = λ (Constructive superposition)

At point Y:

S1Y = 4.5λ
S2Y = 5λ
Path difference: 5λ − 4.5λ = λ/2 (Destructive superposition)

At point Z:

S1Z = 3.5λ
S2Z = 3.5λ
Path difference: 3.5λ − 3.5λ = 0 (Constructive superposition; central maximum)

In general:

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Constructive superposition occurs where the path difference is a whole number

multiple of the wavelength (nλ, where n is an integer).
Destructive superposition occurs where the path difference is an odd multiple of
half the wavelength ((2n + 1)λ/2, where n is an integer).

The path difference between waves from S1 and S2 determines the type of
superposition.

Superposition Patterns
Constructive and destructive superposition alternate, creating a pattern of
interference. In a water wave example (e.g., a ripple tank), constructive interference
shows as high amplitude waves (vibrations), while destructive interference appears
calm.

Phase Change During Reflection

Fixed-end reflection: When a wave reflects from a fixed point, there is a phase
change of π radians (180°). A crest reflects as a trough, and vice versa.
Free-end reflection: (Further discussion to follow)

Lecture Notes: Wave Superposition and

Interference
Wave Reflection
Scenario: A heavier rope is attached to a lighter rope. A pulse is sent down the
heavier rope.
Boundary Behavior: At the boundary between the two ropes (different media),
partial reflection and partial transmission occur.
Reflection at a Free End: The reflected wave has zero phase change.
Light Reflection:
Reflection from a lower refractive index medium to a higher refractive
index medium (e.g., air to glass): 180° (π radians) phase change.
Reflection from a higher refractive index medium to a lower refractive
index medium (e.g., glass to air): 0° phase change.

Superposition of Waves 叠加

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Coherent Sources: Two coherent wave sources (e.g., speakers, slits) produce an
interference pattern.
Path Difference: The difference in distances from the two sources to a point in
the interference pattern.
Interference Pattern:
Path Difference Type of Interference

0 Central Maximum (Constructive)

λ/2 First Minimum (Destructive)
λ First Maximum (Constructive)
3λ/2 Second Minimum (Destructive)
2λ Second Maximum (Constructive)
5λ/2 Third Minimum (Destructive)
3λ Third Maximum (Constructive)
... ...

The pattern is symmetrical around the central maximum. 'd' represents

destructive interference, and 'c' represents constructive interference.

Example Problems
Problem 1: Two coherent sources emit waves of wavelength λ in phase. At a point
where the waves meet, they have a phase difference of π/2. What is the path
difference?

Relevant Equation: Δφ = 2π λ
Δd where Δφ is the phase difference and Δd is
the path difference.
Solution: Solving for Δd, we get Δd = λ4

Problem 2: In a double-slit experiment with microwaves, the first minimum is

observed at point P. Which equation correctly gives the path difference?

Solution: S1P − S2P = λ

2

Problem 3: Two loudspeakers, L1 and L2, are connected to a signal generator

producing a 1425 Hz signal. A microphone detects the resulting wave pattern.

Coherent Waves: L1 and L2 emit coherent waves because they are connected
to the same signal generator.
Frequency: Both speakers produce sound waves with a frequency of 1425 Hz.

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Lecture Notes: Wave Superposition and

Interference
Sound Wave Interference
Two loudspeakers, L1 and L2, are placed close together. A microphone is
positioned midway between them.
When L1 and L2 are equidistant from the microphone, the path difference is
zero, resulting in constructive superposition and a clear wave pattern on the
screen.
When L2 is moved 12 cm towards the microphone (keeping L1 fixed), the wave
pattern disappears. This indicates destructive superposition.

Constructive Superposition: When waves combine to produce a wave

with a larger amplitude.

Destructive Superposition: When waves combine to produce a wave

with a smaller amplitude, or even zero amplitude.

The first instance of destructive superposition occurs when the path difference
is λ/2 (lambda/2), where λ represents the wavelength.

Therefore, λ/2 = 12 cm, implying λ = 24 cm = 0.24 m.

Using the formula v = fλ (v = fλ), where v is the speed of sound, f is the

frequency (1425 Hz), and λ is the wavelength (0.24 m), the speed of sound is
calculated as 342 m/s.

Microwave Interference

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A microwave source reflects from two points and reaches point S. The problem
assumes only two waves reach S.

The path lengths are:

Wave 1: 18 cm + 6 cm = 24 cm
Wave 2: 12 cm + 30 cm = 42 cm

Path difference at point S = 42 cm - 24 cm = 18 cm

Given that the wavelength is 12 cm, the path difference can be expressed as:
18 cm = (3/2) * 12 cm = (3/2)λ

Since the path difference is an odd multiple of λ/2, destructive interference

occurs at point S, resulting in a "cold spot" (no heat).

Cold Spot: A location where waves interfere destructively resulting in

zero amplitude.

Sound Wave Interference: Example 2

Two loudspeakers, L1 and L2, are 20 cm apart and connected to a signal
generator emitting coherent sound waves at 3385 Hz.
A microphone is placed 50 cm from the line connecting L1 and L2.
When the microphone is moved 30 cm from the center (point O), the first
minimum is detected. This corresponds to a path difference of λ/2.
Further calculations are needed to determine the speed of sound using the path
difference and frequency. These calculations are not included in the provided
transcript.

Lecture Notes: Wave Superposition and

Interference
Path Difference Calculation
We need to find the path difference between two waves, but this requires some
geometry. We'll use point o as the central maximum (where the path difference is
zero).

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The distance between the two speakers (L1 and L2) is 20 cm.
A point P is 30 cm from the midpoint between the speakers.

To find the distance from each speaker to point P (L1P and L2P), we'll use the
Pythagorean theorem:

L1P 2 = L1Q2 + QP 2

Where:

L1Q = 50 cm
QP = 20 cm

Therefore:

L1P 2 = 502 + 202 = 2900

L1P = √2900 ≈ 53.9cm

Similarly, for L2P:

L2P 2 = L2R2 + RP 2

Where:

L2R = 50 cm
RP = 40 cm

Therefore:

L2P 2 = 502 + 402 = 4100

L2P = √4100 ≈ 64cm

The path difference is:

Path difference = L2P - L1P = 64 cm - 53.9 cm = 10.1 cm = 0.101 m

Since this is the first minimum, the path difference equals λ/2:
λ
2
= 0.101m

λ = 0.202m

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Using the wave equation, v = fλ, and given a frequency (f) of 1693 Hz:

v = 1693Hz × 0.202m = 341m/s

Analyzing Superposition with a Diagram

A diagram shows the results of a superposition experiment with two speakers, X1
and Y1, playing a single note. Students noted positions of louder sound (L) and
quieter sound (Q). The wavelength (λ) of the note is 0.8 m.

We'll use the following measured distances:

Distance from X1 Distance from Y1 Path Difference Multiple of

Position
(m) (m) (m) λ

L1 1.6 2.4 0.8 1λ

Q1 1.7 2.1 0.4 λ/2

Constructive interference: occurs when waves overlap in phase, resulting

in a louder sound. The path difference is an integer multiple of the
wavelength (nλ, where n is an integer).

Destructive interference: occurs when waves overlap out of phase,

resulting in a quieter sound. The path difference is an odd multiple of half
the wavelength ((2n+1)λ/2, where n is an integer).

At L1: The path difference (0.8 m) is equal to λ, resulting in constructive

interference and a louder sound.
At Q1: The path difference (0.4 m) is equal to λ/2, resulting in destructive
interference and a quieter sound.

Diffraction and Superposition in Water Waves

A photograph shows water waves passing through gaps between rocks and then
overlapping on a beach. The uneven surface of the sand is a result of diffraction and
superposition of waves.

Diffraction: The bending of waves as they pass through an opening or

around an obstacle.

Superposition: The principle that when two or more waves overlap, the
resultant displacement is the sum of the individual displacements.

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The uneven sand surface is due to the constructive and destructive interference of
the waves after they diffract through the gaps between the rocks. Areas with
constructive interference experience a larger build-up of sand, while areas with
destructive interference have less.

Superposition Explained: Path Difference &

Interference
The key to understanding superposition questions lies in analyzing path difference.

Wave Interference through Gaps

Waves are deflected through gaps (e.g., between rocks).
Waves overlap at a point. The distance of this point from each gap is crucial.

Constructive Interference
If the path difference is an integer multiple of λ (wavelength),
constructive interference occurs.

Waves overlap in phase.

Amplitude is large.
Water particles push soil away from each other. P ath; Difference = nλ, where
n is an integer (0, 1, 2, 3...).

Destructive Interference
If the path difference is an odd multiple of λ/2 (half-wavelength),
destructive interference occurs.

Waves overlap out of phase.

Amplitude is near zero.
The region is calm; soil is undisturbed. P ath; Difference = (n + 1
2 )λ, where n
is an integer (0, 1, 2, 3...).

Answering Superposition Questions

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To answer superposition questions:

1. Calculate the path difference.

2. Compare the path difference to integer multiples of λ and odd multiples of λ/2.
3. If it's an integer multiple of λ, it's constructive interference (large amplitude).
4. If it's an odd multiple of λ/2, it's destructive interference (near zero amplitude).

Summary Table

Path Difference Interference Type Amplitude Result

nλ Constructive Large Waves add; soil disturbed

(n + 12 )λ Destructive Near Zero Waves cancel; soil undisturbed

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Sixth Lesson: Diffraction Grating

What is a Diffraction Grating?
A diffraction grating is a component used in wave experiments. It's similar to a
double slit (Young's slit experiment), but with many more slits.

A diffraction grating consists of hundreds of slits (e.g., 300-500 slits)

within a 1 mm width.

Comparison to Double Slits

Double Slits: Creates alternating bright and dark fringes. Measuring the
distance between fringes requires a traveling microscope because they are very
close together. The equation used to find the wavelength (λ) is not included in
your syllabus, but it is: λ = xs
D
, where x is fringe separation, s is the distance
between slits, and D is the distance to the screen.
Diffraction Grating: Produces well-separated bright fringes (or bands), making
measurement with a simple ruler possible. Dark fringes are not considered in
diffraction grating analysis.

Diffraction Grating: Bright Fringes

The bright fringes produced by a diffraction grating are called bright bands or bright
fringes. These are formed because light passing through each slit diffracts, and the
diffracted waves superpose constructively. The width of the light ray used must cover
all the slits in the grating; otherwise, not all slits contribute to the final outcome.

It is important to note that while diagrams may simplify the illustration, in

reality, light passes through all the slits in a diffraction grating.

Diffraction Grating: Order of Bright Fringes

Zeroth Order: The bright fringe along the same line as the initial light ray.
First Order: The bright fringes on either side of the zeroth order.
Second Order (and higher): Subsequent bright fringes further from the zeroth
order.

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The order of a bright fringe is denoted by n:

Order (n) Description

0 Zeroth order bright fringe

1 First order bright fringe
2 Second order bright fringe
... Higher order bright fringes

The bright bands are symmetrical about the zeroth order.

Diffraction Grating Study Guide

Diffraction Angles
The bright bands (or bright fringes) in a diffraction pattern are well-separated. The
light ray along the initial direction is called the zeroth order.

The angle of diffraction is measured relative to the initial direction of the light
ray.
The angle of diffraction for the first order is denoted as θ₁.
The angle of diffraction for the second order is denoted as θ₂. And so on...

The angle of diffraction is the angle of deviation from the initial direction
of the light ray.

We measure the angles using trigonometry, not a protractor.

The distance from the diffraction grating to the screen is D.

The distance of the nth order bright band from the zeroth order is Xn.
Then, tan θn = Xn / D

The Diffraction Grating Equation

The equation relating wavelength, slit separation, diffraction angle, and order is:

D sin θ = nλ

Where:

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D: The distance between adjacent slits on the diffraction grating. If the slits are
drawn like this: | | | | ... then D is the distance between any two adjacent slits.
θ: The angle of diffraction (or deviation) for the nth order.
n: The order of the bright band (n = 1 for first order, n = 2 for second order, etc.).
λ: The wavelength of light.

If white light is used, each wavelength will form its own bright fringes
because different wavelengths will have different amounts of diffraction.

Diffraction Grating Calculations and

Observations
Calculating the Slit Separation (D)
If the number of slits per millimeter is given (e.g., 500 slits/mm), the slit separation
(D) can be calculated as follows:

Understanding the given information: 500 slits/mm means that within a

length of 1 mm, there are 500 slits.

Calculating D in millimeters: D = 1 mm
500
= 2 × 10−3 mm

Calculating D in meters: It's generally better to work with meters because

wavelengths are usually given in meters. D = 1×10
−3
m
500 = 2 × 10−6 m

The units of D should match the units of the wavelength (λ) in the
equation d sin θ = nλ for consistency.

Understanding Diffraction Patterns on the

Screen

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Zeroth order: The central bright fringe.

First order, second order, etc.: Bright fringes located on either side of the
central fringe.
Distance between fringes: The distance between adjacent bright fringes
increases as the order number increases. The distance from the zeroth order to
the first order (X₁) is less than the distance from the first order to the second
order (X₂ - X₁).

This unequal spacing is due to the trigonometric relationship in the

equation d sin θ = nλ and the shape of the sine curve.

The Relationship Between Wavelength and

Angle of Diffraction
Increasing Wavelength: For the same order (n), a longer wavelength (λ) leads
to a larger angle of diffraction (θ).

Example: If blue and red light pass through a diffraction grating, the red light
(longer wavelength) will have a larger angle of diffraction than the blue light
(shorter wavelength). This results in the formation of separate diffraction
patterns for each color, potentially with some overlap.

The red light's greater diffraction angle means that the red bright fringes
will appear further from the central bright fringe compared to the blue
fringes.

Diffraction Grating and Bright Bands

Analyzing the First-Order Bright Bands
The equation sinθ = nλ
d
describes the angle (θ) of diffracted light, where:

n = order of the bright band

λ = wavelength of light
d = distance between slits in the grating

For the first order (n=1), sinθ1 = λ

d .

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Since the wavelength of red light (λr) is greater than the wavelength of blue light (λb
), sinθ1r > sinθ1b. This means the angle of diffraction for red light is larger than for
blue light (θ1r > θ1b).

The Role of Tangent

To find the distance (x) of the bright bands from the zeroth-order (central) band on
the screen, we use the equation tanθ = D x
, where D is the distance between the
grating and the screen.

Since θ1r > θ1b, we have tanθ1r > tanθ1b. Therefore, the distance of the first-order red
band from the central band (x1r) is greater than that of the blue band (x1b). In other
words, the red band appears farther from the center than the blue band.

The zeroth-order band, however, is at the same position for all wavelengths (because
when n = 0, the equation is independent of λ).

Effect of Screen Distance

The equation Dsinθ = nλ shows that for a given wavelength (λ), grating spacing (d),
and order (n), the angle θ is constant, regardless of the distance D between the
grating and screen.

However, the distance x of the bright band from the central band is given by
tanθ = Dx . Therefore, if D increases, x increases proportionally, and if D decreases, x
decreases proportionally. In a practical setting, a larger D reduces the percentage
uncertainty in the measurement of x because we are dealing with larger distances.

Summary Table
Color Wavelength sin θ₁ θ₁ tan θ₁ Distance from zeroth-order (x₁)

Blue λb λb
d
θ1b tanθ1b x1b
Red λr λr
d
θ1r tanθ1r x1r

Diffraction Grating: Effects of Parameters

Impact of Distance Between Slits and Screen

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To maximize the distance (X₁) of the bright bands on the screen, increase the distance
between the diffraction grating and the screen. A larger X₁ leads to a smaller
percentage error in the measurement of θ₁.

Effect of Increasing Slits per Millimeter

Scenario: A diffraction grating experiment is conducted twice using the same
laser (monochromatic light source) and wavelength, but with different
diffraction gratings: one with 300 lines/mm and another with 600 lines/mm.

Analysis: The equation D sin θ = nλ governs this phenomenon. D is calculated

as number 1×10
of lines per mm . Increasing the lines per millimeter increases the
−3

denominator, thus decreasing D.

Result: With a decreased D, sin θ increases (sin θ = nλ

D
), leading to an increased
θ. Consequently, since tan θ = D , and X1 = D tan θ, X1 will increase.
X1

Conclusion: Increasing the number of slits per millimeter increases the distance
of the bright bands from the zeroth order.

When the number of slits per millimeter increases, the distance (D)
between adjacent slits decreases, causing an increase in the angle (θ) and
therefore the distance (X1) of the bright bands from the central maximum.

Small Angle Approximation

When the angle θ is less than or equal to 10°, the small-angle approximation
can be used: sin θ ≈ θ (in radians).

Conversion: To convert degrees to radians: Radians = π

180∘ × Degrees

Example: sin 5∘ ≈ 0.087, and 5∘ in radians is also approximately 0.087.

For angles less than 10°, the sine of the angle is approximately equal to
the angle measured in radians. This simplification can be used in
calculations involving diffraction gratings.

Example Exam Question

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A question on the January 2023 WPH 02 exam asked how to decrease the distance
(X) between the central maximum and the first-order maximum in a diffraction
grating experiment.

Option A: Decreasing the distance from the laser to the grating has no effect
because the equations (D sin θ = nλ and tan θ = Dx
) are independent of this
distance.

Option B: Increasing the distance from the grating to the screen will increase X,
therefore it is not the correct answer. For a first-order maximum (n = 1), λ and
D remain constant, thus θ is constant. Therefore, increasing D will increase X.

Diffraction Grating Problems

Diffraction Grating Equation
The fundamental equation governing diffraction gratings is:

D sin θ = nλ

Where:

D: Spacing between slits (m)

θ: Angle of diffraction
n: Order of the bright fringe (integer)
λ: Wavelength of light (m)

Problem 1: Reducing X
Given a constant angle of diffraction (θ), increasing the slit spacing (D) will increase
the distance to the bright fringe (X). Conversely, decreasing D will decrease X. Using
a grating with more lines per mm (increasing n) decreases D, thus increasing θ and
subsequently increasing X. Using light with a smaller wavelength (decreasing λ)
decreases θ and therefore decreases X.

Problem 2: Angle Between Zeroth and First

Order Fringes

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Given:

λ = 650 x 10⁻⁹ m
n = 1 (first order)
Number of lines per mm = 50
Distance to screen = 4 m (This information is not used in the calculation of
the angle, only in determining x)

Calculations:
−3
D = 1×1050
m
= 2 × 10−5m
−9
sin θ = nλ
D
= 1×650×10
2×10−5
= 0.0325

Since θ < 10°, we can approximate: θ ≈ sin θ = 0.0325 radians

The expression for the angle in radians is: θ = 650 × 10−6 × 50 radians

Problem 3: Angle Between Bright Fringes

Given:

λ = 450 nm = 450 x 10⁻⁹ m

Number of lines per mm = 600

Calculations:

1×10−3
D= 600 ≈ 1.667 × 10−6m

First order (n=1): sin θ1 = 1×450×10−9

1.667×10−6
θ1 = arcsin(sin θ1) ≈ 15.7∘

Second order (n=2): sin θ2 = 2×450×10−9

1.667×10−6
θ2 = arcsin(sin θ2) ≈ 32.7∘

Angle between fringes: θ2 − θ1 = 32.7∘ − 15.7∘ = 17∘

The number of bright fringes visible on the screen can't be determined from this
segment of the transcript.

Diffraction Grating Problems

Maximum Order and Number of Bright Fringes

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Problem 1: A diffraction grating has a slit separation (D) of 1.667 x 10⁻⁶ m. Light of
wavelength (λ) 450 x 10⁻⁹ m is used. Find the total number of bright fringes.

The maximum order (nmax) occurs when θ = 90°.

We use the equation: D sin θ = nλ
Substituting and solving for nmax: nmax = D sin 90°
λ
= 1.667×10−6
450×10−9
= 3.7
Since the order must be an integer, the maximum order is 3.
Total number of fringes = 2(nmax) + 1 = 2(3) + 1 = 7

Problem 2: A diffraction grating has 400 lines per mm. It is 1 m from a screen. Light
of wavelength 600 nm is used. Find the total number of bright fringes.

First, find the slit separation (D): D = 1×10

−3
m
400
= 2.5 × 10−6m
Use the equation D sin θ = nλ with θ = 90° to find nmax:
D sin 90° 2.5×10−6
nmax = λ
= 600×10−9
= 4.17
The maximum integer order is 4.
Total number of fringes = 2(nmax) + 1 = 2(4) + 1 = 9

Distance Between Bright Fringes

Problem 2 (continued): Find the distance between the first and second bright
fringes.

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We use the equations:

D sin θ = nλ
tan θ = Lx (where x is the distance from the central maximum and L is the
distance to the screen)

For the first order (n=1):

λ 600×10−9
sin θ1 = D
= 2.5×10−6
= 0.24
θ1 = arcsin(0.24) ≈ 13.9°
x1 = L tan θ1 = 1m × tan(13.9°) ≈ 0.25m

For the second order (n=2):

sin θ2 = 2λ
D
= 2(0.24) = 0.48
θ2 = arcsin(0.48) ≈ 28.7°
x2 = L tan θ2 = 1m × tan(28.7°) ≈ 0.55m

Distance between fringes: x2 − x1 = 0.55m − 0.25m = 0.30m

Determining Grating Properties

Problem 3: Light of wavelength 700 nm is used with a diffraction grating. The
second-order bright fringe (n=2) is 0.46 m from the central maximum on a screen 1 m
away. Find the number of lines per mm on the grating.

Use tan θ2 = x2
L = 0.46
1 = 0.46, so θ2 = arctan(0.46) ≈ 24.7°
From D sin θ = nλ, we have D = nλ 2(700×10−9)
sin θ2
= sin 24.7°
≈ 3.4 × 10−6m
Lines per mm = 1×10−3
D
= 1×10−3
3.4×10−6
≈ 294 lines/mm

Diffraction Grating Problems

Finding Lines per Millimeter
Given:

Distance from grating to screen: 1 m

Distance of second bright band from zero order: 46 cm = 0.46 m
Wavelength (λ): 700 nm = 700 × 10⁻⁹ m
Order (n): 2

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1. Find the angle θ₂:

tanθ₂ = 0.46m
1m

θ₂ = tan⁻¹(0.46) ≈ 24.7°

2. Use the equation Dsinθ = nλ to find D:

2∗700∗10⁻⁹m
D= nλ
sinθ₂
= sin24.7° ≈ 3.35×10⁻⁶m

3. Convert D to millimeters:

D = 3.35×10⁻⁶m ∗ 1000 mm
m
= 3.35×10⁻³mm

4. Find the number of lines per millimeter (N):

1 1
3.35×10⁻³mm
N= D = ≈ 299lines/mm ≈ 300lines/mm

The distance (D) represents the spacing between adjacent slits on the
diffraction grating. The number of lines per millimeter (N) is the reciprocal
of D when D is expressed in millimeters.

January 2021 Exam Question

This question is similar to the previous one, but with different numbers. It focuses on
finding the number of lines per millimeter on a diffraction grating using the given
measurements of the distance between maxima and the distance from the grating to
the screen. The process involves calculating the angle of diffraction and subsequently
using the grating equation (Dsinθ = nλ) to determine the slit separation. The final
answer is obtained by converting the slit separation into millimeters and taking its
reciprocal.

October 2022 Exam Question

This problem involves a student using a diffraction grating and a laser to observe
bright maxima. The key here is improving the accuracy of the number of lines per
millimeter calculation.

Improving Accuracy of Measurement

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To improve the accuracy of the measurement of lines per millimeter, two methods are
suggested:

Measure the distance between the first-order maxima on both sides of the
central maximum and divide by two. This increases the overall measurement,
reducing percentage uncertainty.
Increase the distance between the screen and the grating. This also increases
the measurement and thus reduces percentage uncertainty.

Percentage uncertainty is calculated as: ( measurement

uncertainty
) ∗ 100

Diffraction Grating Problems

Calculating Theta 2
Given:

θ₁ = 14° (first-order diffraction)

Equation: sinθ = nλ
D

To find θ₂ (second-order diffraction), we use the following steps:

1. From the equation for first-order diffraction: sin 14° = D

λ

2. For second-order diffraction: sin θ₂ = 2λ

D = 2 sin 14°
3. Solve for θ₂: θ₂ = arcsin(2 sin 14°)
4. Substituting the value of sin 14° and solving gives: θ₂ = arcsin(0.484) ≈ 29°

Graphical Method for Determining

Wavelength
Equation: D sin θ = nλ
Rearrange: sin θ = D λ
n
This equation is in the form of y = mx, where:
y = sin θ
x=n
m = Dλ (gradient)

Procedure:

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1. Plot a graph of sin θ against n.

2. The graph will be a straight line passing through the origin.
3. Calculate the gradient (m) of the line from the graph.
4. Since m = D λ
and D is known, solve for λ.

Analyzing Diffraction Grating Labeling

Given:

Distance between n=0 and n=2 maximums on the screen: 0.397 m

Distance between the grating and the screen (x): 2.0 m
Wavelength (λ): 650 nm = 650 x 10⁻⁹ m
Labeled lines per mm: 300

Procedure:

1. Use trigonometry to find the angle θ: tan θ = 0.397

2.0 , θ = arctan(0.397/2.0) ≈
11.2°
2. Use the diffraction grating equation for the second order (n=2): D sin θ = nλ
3. Solve for D: D = sin
2λ
θ
= 2(650×10−9)
sin 11.2°
≈ 6.693 x 10⁻⁶ m = 6.693 x 10⁻³ mm
4. Calculate lines per mm: 1
D
= 6.693×10−3 ≈ 149 lines/mm
1

Conclusion: The labeling of 300 lines per mm is incorrect. The actual value is
approximately 149 lines per mm.

Overlapping Bright Fringes of Blue and

Orange Light
Given:

Wavelength of blue light (λb): 400 nm

Wavelength of orange light (λo): 600 nm
Grating lines per mm: 300
Grating spacing (D): 10 = 3.33 × 10−6 m
−3

300

Finding Maximum Order:

The maximum order (nmax) is determined when θ = 90°

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Blue: nbmax = D sin 90° −6

λb = 3.33×10
400×10 −9 ≈ 8
Orange:
−6
nomax = D sin λo
90°
= 3.33×10
600×10 −9 ≈5

Overlapping Orders: Overlapping occurs when the angle of diffraction is the same
for both wavelengths. This happens when nD
bλb
= nD
oλo
.

Therefore, nbλb = noλo, leading to nb

no = λo
λb = 600
400 = 3
2 .

Hence, overlaps occur for blue orders that are multiples of 3 and orange orders that
are multiples of 2 (e.g., nb = 3, no = 2; nb = 6, no = 4).

Diffraction Grating: Overlapping Orders

Diffraction and Overlapping Orders
The angle of diffraction for the first order of orange light will be greater than that of
blue light. Higher orders (e.g., second or third order) of different colors may overlap.
For overlapping to occur, the angle of deflection (θ) must be the same for both
bands.

If θ is the same, then x (the distance from the zeroth order) will also be
the same because tanθ = x/D, where D is a constant.

This means that different orders of blue and orange light could overlap, but they
must have the same θ.

Mathematical Condition for Overlap

The condition for overlap is given by the equation: Dsinθ = nλ, where:

D is the slit separation

θ is the angle of diffraction
n is the order of the bright band
λ is the wavelength of light

For overlapping orders of blue and orange light, we must have:

nblueλblue = norangeλorange

Assuming:

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λ(blue) = 400 nm
λ(orange) = 600 nm

Then:
nblue 600 3
norange
= 400
= 2

This implies that the third order of blue and the second order of orange will overlap,
as will the sixth order of blue and the fourth order of orange.

Maximum Overlap
The maximum number of orders for blue light is 8 and for orange light is 5 (this
information was given earlier in the lecture and is not derived here). Therefore, higher
order overlaps beyond the sixth order of blue and fourth order of orange are not
possible.

Summary of Overlapping Orders

Blue Order Orange Order

3 2
6 4

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Seventh Lesson: Stationary Waves

Stationary Waves: An Introduction
This lesson discusses stationary waves, a phenomenon resulting from the
superposition of two coherent waves traveling in opposite directions. Unlike
previous discussions of two-source superposition (e.g., light creating bright and dark
fringes, sound creating areas of constructive and destructive interference), stationary
waves are a special case where the superposition occurs in one dimension.

Generating Stationary Waves

Stationary waves can be generated in various mediums:

String: A stretched string or rubber cord.

Air column: Within a column of air.
Water waves: Using a straight-edge dipper in a ripple tank.
Microwaves: Using microwave radiation and a reflecting surface.
Light waves: Although possible, stationary waves generated by light are
difficult to detect due to their short wavelengths.
Slinky: A stretched slinky can also produce stationary waves, demonstrating
both longitudinal and transverse wave behavior.

Why "Stationary Wave"?

Students often question the term "stationary wave." While the superposition creates
a pattern of constructive and destructive interference, the waves themselves aren't
stationary. The term refers to the pattern formed by the superposition appearing to
be stationary.

The term "stationary wave" is a bit of a misnomer. It describes the result

of two oppositely traveling waves interfering, not a new type of wave.

Classifying Waves

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It's important to understand that a stationary wave is not a classification of waves in

itself. You can't classify a wave as simply "stationary" or "traveling." Stationary waves
can be transverse or longitudinal, and result from the superposition of either type of
wave.

Stationary waves are not a fundamental wave type like transverse or

longitudinal waves. They are a consequence of wave superposition.

Visible vs. Detectable Stationary Waves

The visibility of stationary waves depends on the medium and wavelength:

Medium Visibility Detectability

String Visible Yes

Water waves Visible Yes
Air column Not Visible Yes
Microwaves Not Visible Yes
Light waves Not Visible Difficult

Past exam questions typically focus on stationary waves in strings and air columns.
While microwave stationary waves are detectable in a lab setting, they are not
commonly tested.

Stationary Waves
Generating Stationary Waves
Oppositely traveling coherent waves are typically produced using a single wave
source and its reflection. For instance, in a string:

An electrical vibrator generates a wave.

The wave reflects off a fixed end, such as a wall or a pulley with a weight.
This creates two oppositely traveling coherent waves that superpose.

A fixed end reflection causes a 180° (or π radians) phase change. A crest
becomes a trough upon reflection. Destructive superposition occurs at the
fixed end, resulting in zero amplitude.

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Different Mediums
The principle of generating stationary waves through reflection applies across
various mediums:

Strings: A fixed end reflection (180° phase change) creates a stationary wave
pattern.
Water Waves: A straight-edge dipper creates parallel waves that reflect from a
fixed end, producing a stationary wave with a 180° phase change upon
reflection.
Slinky: Whether it's a transverse or longitudinal wave, a fixed end produces a
180° phase change upon reflection.
Microwaves: Reflection at a fixed point results in a 180° phase change.

In all these cases:

The reflected wave at the point of reflection has a 180° (or π radians) phase
difference compared to the approaching wave.
Destructive superposition occurs at the reflection point, leading to zero
amplitude if the reflection is perfect.

Air Columns
Air columns in pipes behave differently depending on the ends:

One closed end, one open end: A longitudinal wave generated (e.g., by a
tuning fork) reflects off the closed end (fixed end reflection; 180° phase
change). A stationary wave is formed.
Both ends open: Reflection occurs at the open ends due to pressure
differences, causing partial reflections. This is a free end reflection with no
phase change (0° or 0 radians). Constructive superposition leads to maximum
amplitude at the open ends.

A free end reflection is a partial reflection, meaning the wave continues

to propagate beyond the boundary while a portion reflects back.

Stationary Wave Patterns

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A progressive or traveling wave is typically represented as a sine wave, showing a

moving pattern of crests and troughs. In contrast, a stationary wave exhibits a fixed
pattern where the crests and troughs don't move.

Lecture Notes: Superposition and

Stationary Waves
Wave Patterns
When a traveling wave is generated using a straight edge dipper in water, the
ripples create a sine-wave pattern. This is different from how electromagnetic
waves are depicted, as the energy flow is the concept shown, not the wave
pattern itself.
A stretched slinky also demonstrates a sine-wave pattern when a transverse
wave is generated.
The superposition pattern produced by two sources does not resemble the
individual wave patterns. With a double slit and a coherent light source, bright
and dark fringes form.
Similarly, the superposition of two coherent water waves (from two dippers)
creates a pattern with constructive and destructive interference points. This
pattern differs from the individual wave patterns.
Superposition patterns on a stretched membrane also do not resemble the
individual wave patterns.

Stationary Waves

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A stationary wave (also called a standing wave) is formed by the superposition

of two oppositely traveling waves.

On a string, the resulting pattern resembles a traveling wave, but the crests and
troughs do not move. Only oscillation up and down occurs. The maximum and
minimum points remain at rest.

A stationary wave has the appearance of a traveling wave, but the

wave pattern itself is not moving.

In a water wave, parallel wavefronts in a traveling wave will move. However, in

a stationary wave (created by reflection), the ripples will not move. Again, the
pattern resembles a traveling wave, but is stationary.

The same concept applies to other wave types (e.g., microwaves, sound waves
in air columns), even though the patterns may not be directly visible. The term
"stationary wave" is used to describe the superposition of oppositely traveling
waves in any medium.

Stationary Waves on a Stretched String

An electrical vibrator, connected to a signal generator, can create a wave on a
string.
The signal generator's frequency determines the frequency of the vibrator and
thus the wave.
A traveling wave is generated, which reflects at a fixed end (e.g., where the
string touches a pulley). This reflection causes a phase change of π radians
(180°).
The reflected wave and the original wave are coherent (constant phase
relationship, same frequency), resulting in a stationary wave.
Increasing the signal generator's frequency gradually will eventually produce
stationary wave patterns of increasing complexity.

Stationary Waves on a String

Stationary Wave Formation
The energy from an electrical vibrator flows left to right along a string, reflecting
back from a fixed end. This creates oppositely traveling waves.

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Superposition: At the center, the waves overlap. Different points have different
amplitudes of oscillation. The string vibrates between two extreme positions.
Nodes: Points with zero amplitude of oscillation, where destructive
superposition occurs. Energy is not lost; it's transferred to other regions of the
string.
Antinodes: Points with maximum amplitude of oscillation, where constructive
superposition occurs. These points have maximum energy.
Fundamental Mode (First Harmonic): The simplest stationary wave pattern,
with one antinode in the center and nodes at the ends.

Wave Speed and Frequency

The speed (V ) of a transverse wave on a stretched string is given by:

V = √ Tμ

Where:

T = Tension (in Newtons)

μ = Mass per unit length (in kg/m)

We can also use the equation:

V = fλ

Where:

f = Frequency
λ = Wavelength (of the traveling waves)

The distance between adjacent nodes is λ

2
. For a string of length L:
λ
2 = L ⟹ λ = 2L

Fundamental Frequency and Resonance

Substituting λ = 2L into V = fλ, and using V = √ Tμ , we get the fundamental
frequency (f 0 ):

1
f0 = 2L √ Tμ

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f 0 represents the natural frequency of the string (discussed further in Unit 5).
When the frequency of the electrical vibrator (f ) equals the natural frequency (
f 0 ), resonance occurs. This leads to a large energy transfer to the string and the
formation of a stationary wave.

Higher Harmonics
Increasing the frequency of the electrical vibrator beyond the fundamental frequency
will produce other stationary wave patterns with more nodes and antinodes. These
are called higher harmonics. These patterns only appear at specific, discrete
frequencies, unlike superposition from two independent sources.

Stationary Waves on a String

Wave Superposition and Frequency
The superposition pattern of waves on a string doesn't occur for just any frequency.
Only specific, discrete frequencies can create a standing wave pattern.

Initially, a standing wave pattern is observed at a particular frequency. Increasing the

frequency causes this pattern (the fundamental mode or first harmonic) to vanish,
resulting in a disturbed wave pattern due to overlapping waves traveling in opposite
directions. At certain frequencies, distinct stationary wave patterns reappear.

Fundamental mode (First Harmonic): The simplest standing wave

pattern, where the string vibrates in a single segment.

Nodes and Antinodes

Nodes: Points on the string where the waves overlap out of phase, resulting in
destructive interference and zero displacement.
Antinodes: Points on the string where the waves overlap in phase, resulting in
constructive interference and maximum displacement.

The distance between adjacent nodes (or antinodes) is always λ/2, where λ is the
wavelength of the traveling waves.

Wavelength and Frequency Relationships

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For the fundamental mode:

λ/2 + λ/2 = l

λ=l

Where:

λ = wavelength
l = length of the string

Using the wave equation, v = fλ, for one of the traveling waves (v is constant for a
given string), and knowing that v = √T /μ (where T is tension and μ is mass per unit
length):

1
f1 = 2l √ Tμ

This is the fundamental frequency (f 1 ), also called the first harmonic frequency. It
represents the natural frequency of the string. Resonance occurs when the frequency
of the vibrator matches this natural frequency, leading to maximum energy transfer
and the formation of a stationary wave.

Higher Harmonics
First overtone (Second harmonic): The frequency is 2f₁. The string vibrates in
two segments.
Second overtone (Third harmonic): The frequency is 3f₁. The string vibrates in
three segments.

In general, the frequency of the nth harmonic is given by:

f n = nf 1 = n( 2l1 √ Tμ )

The distance between adjacent nodes remains λ/2 for all harmonics. For the second
overtone:

λ/2 + λ/2 + λ/2 = l

3λ/2 = l
2l
λ= 3

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Therefore:

3
f3 = 2l
√ Tμ = 3f 1

Two-Source Interference vs. Standing Waves

Two-source interference (like in the double-slit experiment or with two
loudspeakers) produces interference patterns regardless of the frequency of the
wave. The pattern changes with frequency but always exists.

In contrast, standing waves on a string only occur at discrete frequencies

(harmonics), creating distinct standing wave patterns. The frequency must match the
string's natural frequencies for standing waves to form.

Stationary Waves on a String and in Air

Columns
Summary of Stationary Waves on a String
Fundamental mode (first harmonic): One loop.
Second harmonic (first overtone): Two loops, frequency 2f₀ (twice the
fundamental frequency).
Third harmonic (second overtone): Three loops, frequency 3f₀.
The number of loops increases with higher harmonics.

The speed of a transverse wave on a string is given by:

v = √ Tμ

where:

v is the speed of the wave (m/s)

T is the tension in the string (N)
μ is the mass per unit length of the string (kg/m)

The equation is homogeneous; the units work out to m/s.

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Stationary Waves in a One-End Closed Pipe

In a pipe closed at one end, a stationary wave is formed when a sound source (like a
tuning fork) generates a longitudinal wave.

Particles at the open end oscillate with large amplitude, parallel to the tuning
fork's vibrations.
Particles at the closed end are at rest (zero amplitude).
A stationary wave forms due to the interference of the initial wave and its
reflection from the closed end.
Stationary waves are only formed at specific, discrete frequencies.

A stationary wave is characterized by a louder sound compared to a

traveling wave because the energy is sustained within the air column,
leading to continuous oscillation.

The lowest frequency that produces a stationary wave is called the

fundamental mode or first harmonic. This creates a pattern with one quarter
wavelength.
Higher harmonics create more complex patterns.

Determining the Fundamental Frequency

To find the fundamental frequency (lowest frequency that creates a stationary wave)
experimentally:

Use a pipe with a variable length (e.g., using a movable piston or a water
column).
Keep the frequency of the tuning fork constant.
Adjust the length of the air column.
A louder sound indicates a stationary wave has formed. The length of the air
column at this point allows calculation of the fundamental frequency.

Graphical Representation of Amplitude

A graph of amplitude versus length in a closed pipe shows:

Large amplitude at the open end.

Zero amplitude at the closed end.

Stationary Waves in Air Columns

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Stationary Wave Patterns

The stationary wave pattern in a closed pipe is not directly visible because air
molecules are invisible. What we draw is a graph of amplitude against the length of
the pipe.

A stationary wave, also known as a standing wave, is a wave that remains

in a constant position. This is in contrast to a traveling wave which moves
in a direction.

Nodes: Points of zero amplitude.

Antinodes: Points of maximum amplitude.

The distance between two adjacent nodes is λ/2. The distance between two adjacent
antinodes is λ. The distance between a node and an antinode is λ/4.

Fundamental Frequency
For a pipe closed at one end:

The length of the pipe (L) is equal to λ/4 for the fundamental frequency.
Therefore, λ = 4L.
Using the equation v = fλ, where v is the speed of sound, f is the frequency,
and λ is the wavelength, we get: f = 4L v
.

Higher Harmonics
The next possible stationary wave pattern in a closed pipe has a wavelength such
that:
3λ
4 =L

Therefore:
4L
λ= 3

The frequency (f 1 ) for this harmonic is:

3v
f1 = 4L
= 3f

This is three times the fundamental frequency.

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Speed of Sound in Air

The speed of a longitudinal wave (sound) in air is given by:

γRT
v=√ M

Where:

γ is the ratio of molar heat capacities (CP/CV). For air, γ = 1.4.

R is the universal gas constant.
T is the temperature in Kelvin.
M is the molar mass of air.

Note: While this equation is provided for context, it's not typically included in the
syllabus. At a constant temperature, the speed of sound is constant.

Resonance
Resonance occurs when the frequency of an external source (like a tuning fork or
vibrator) matches a natural frequency of the air column in the pipe. This leads to a
much louder sound. The natural frequencies are multiples of the fundamental
frequency.

Stationary Waves Study Guide

Stationary Waves in Open Pipes
Fundamental Frequency/First Harmonic: The lowest frequency at which a
stationary wave is formed. In an open pipe, both ends are antinodes.

The fundamental frequency is the first harmonic, and subsequent

frequencies are overtones or higher harmonics.

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Overtones/Harmonics: Higher frequencies at which stationary waves can be

formed. In an open pipe, these also have antinodes at both ends.

Wave Pattern: In an open pipe, the stationary wave pattern shows antinodes at
both open ends and nodes in between.

The distance between adjacent antinodes is λ/2 (where λ is the

wavelength).
For a pipe of length L, the wavelength of the fundamental frequency is λ =
2L.

Frequency Calculation: For an open pipe:

v v
f= λ
= 2L

where: * f = frequency * v = speed of sound (given by v = √ , constant at

γRT
M
constant temperature) * λ = wavelength * L = length of the pipe

Example: A tuning fork is used as a source of longitudinal waves in an open

pipe. The reflected waves from the open end undergo constructive
superposition with the incident waves, creating antinodes at both ends.

Stationary Waves and their Properties

Property Description

Open Pipe Antinodes at both ends; nodes in between.

Wavelength Distance between two adjacent antinodes is λ/2. For the fundamental
(λ) frequency in an open pipe, λ = 2L (where L is the pipe length).
Frequency (f) f = λv
Speed (v) M (constant at constant temperature)
v = √ γRT
Harmonics Multiples of the fundamental frequency.

Generating Stationary Waves

Methods: Stationary waves can be generated using various methods:
Air columns in open pipes (using a tuning fork).
Microwaves (using a microwave transmitter and a metal reflector; a probe
receiver detects the antinodes and nodes).
Water waves in a ripple tank (using a straight-edge dipper).

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Stationary Waves in Water

Observation: When stationary waves are formed in water, the wave fronts
appear stationary, unlike progressive waves where the wave fronts move.
Measurement: The distance between two adjacent antinodes (or nodes) in a
stationary water wave is λ/2. This can be used to determine the wavelength.
Example: If 5 wavefronts (antinodes) are observed within a 10 cm distance in a
ripple tank, the distance between adjacent antinodes is 2 cm (10 cm / 5).
Therefore, λ/2 = 2 cm, and λ = 4 cm.

Lecture Notes: Stationary Waves

Wavelength Calculation
Given: Distance between antinodes = 10 cm, Number of antinodes = 4

Formula: Distance between antinodes = λ/2 (where λ represents wavelength)

Calculation: 4 ∗ λ
2
= 10cm 2λ = 10cm λ = 5cm

Therefore, the wavelength (λ) is 5 cm. The frequency of the electrical vibrator
can be calculated using the formula: Speed = Frequency × Wavelength.

Stationary Waves and Light

Question: Is it possible to generate stationary waves using monochromatic
light?
Answer: Theoretically, yes, but practically, no.
Reason: The distance between antinodes in a stationary wave is λ/2. The
largest wavelength of visible light (red light) is 700 nm (7 x 10⁻⁷ m or 7 x 10⁻⁴
mm). This distance is too small to easily measure without specialized
equipment like a traveling microscope.
In contrast, microwave wavelengths (e.g., 4-6 cm) allow for easier
measurement of the distance between antinodes.

Musical Instruments and Stationary Waves

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Most musical instruments (string and wind instruments) produce sound through
stationary waves.
When a string vibrates, it creates stationary waves. The vibrations are
transferred to a sounding box (a chamber containing air). The air vibrates,
amplifying the sound. This is why we hear a louder sound.
The energy in stationary waves is sustained longer compared to traveling
waves. In traveling waves, energy dissipates quickly.
The frequencies of stationary waves in a string or wind instrument are discrete,
meaning only specific frequencies can be produced. If the frequency of a
stationary wave matches a note's frequency, that note is generated.

Phase Relationships in Stationary Waves

Points between two nodes: In phase (oscillate identically).
Points on either side of a node: Antiphase (oscillate in opposite directions).
Amplitude: Different points in a stationary wave have different amplitudes.

Distinguishing Sound Frequencies

The human ear can distinguish two sounds as separate frequencies only when
the difference in frequency is greater than 3%. If the percentage difference is
less than 3%, the two sounds are perceived as a single frequency.
Example: Two sounds with frequencies of 880 Hz and 882 Hz will be perceived
as the same frequency because the percentage difference is less than 3%. The
calculation is as follows:
882−880
P ercentageDifference = 880
∗ 100

This percentage difference is less than 3%, so the two sounds are indistinguishable
to the human ear.

Lecture Notes: Sound and Waves

Frequency Difference and Distinguishability

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Problem: Find the difference and percentage difference between two

frequencies: 880 Hz and 882 Hz. Determine if these frequencies are
distinguishable to the human ear.

Calculations:

Difference: ΔF = F₂ - F₁ = 882 Hz - 880 Hz = 2 Hz

Percentage Difference (for 880 Hz): (2 Hz / 880 Hz) * 100% ≈ 0.23%
Percentage Difference (for 882 Hz): (2 Hz / 882 Hz) * 100% ≈ 0.23%

Conclusion: Since both percentage differences are less than 0.3%, the
frequencies are indistinguishable to the human ear. They would be perceived as
the same sound.

Superposition of Incoherent Waves

Problem: Explain why the loudness of two sounds played simultaneously
increases and decreases repeatedly. Refer to coherence and phase difference.

Explanation:

Two waves are coherent if they have the same frequency and a
constant phase relationship. If waves are incoherent (different
frequencies), superposition occurs, but the resulting wave is
unstable.

The two sounds have different frequencies (880 Hz and 882 Hz), making
them incoherent.
At any point, the waves will overlap in phase at some instants, resulting
in constructive interference (louder sound).
At the same point, they will overlap out of phase at other instants,
resulting in destructive interference (quieter sound).
This fluctuation between constructive and destructive interference causes
the perceived increase and decrease in loudness.

Stationary Waves and Tension

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Problem: A wire of length 18.7 cm produces a sound at 882 Hz. The tension is
adjusted until the frequency becomes 880 Hz. Calculate the decrease in
tension. Given: mass per unit length (μ) = 5.08 x 10⁻³ kg/m.

Equations:

v = √ Tμ (velocity of wave on string)

v = fλ (relationship between frequency, velocity, and wavelength)

For a stationary wave with nodes at both ends, λ = 2L (where L is the length of
the string)

Calculations:

Initial Tension (T₁): The fundamental frequency is given by:

f1 = v
2L
= 2L 1
√ Tμ1 Solving for T 1 :
4L 2 f 12 μ
T1 = 1
= 4(0.187m) 2 (882Hz) 2 (5.08
× 10 −3 kg/m) ≈ 552.78N
Final Tension (T₂): Using the same formula, but with f 2 = 880Hz:
T 2 = 4(0.187m) 2 (880Hz) 2 (5.08 × 10 −3 kg/m) ≈ 550.3N
Decrease in Tension (ΔT): ΔT = T₁ - T₂ = 552.78 N - 550.3 N ≈ 2.48 N

Note: There appears to be a minor calculation error in the provided transcript.

The final answer was given as 2.5 Hz, which is a unit of frequency, not tension.
The correct unit for the change in tension is Newtons (N).

Tension and Frequency Relationship

Relationship: Tension (T) is directly proportional to the square of the frequency
(f²): T ∝ f 2

Application: This relationship can be used to calculate the percentage change

in tension given a change in frequency, even without knowing the length (L) or
mass per unit length (μ) of the string. This was the case in a January 2021 exam
question.

Lecture Notes: Sound and Stationary

Waves

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Frequency of Sound in a Recorder

Given:
Speed of sound in air (v) = 330 m/s
Length of the recorder (L) = 23.6 cm = 0.236 m
Finding the wavelength:
The distance between two adjacent nodes in a stationary wave is λ2 .
λ
2 = L = 0.236m
λ = 2 × 0.236m = 0.472m
Calculating the frequency:
The relationship between speed, frequency, and wavelength for a
traveling wave is v = fλ.
v 330m/s
f= λ = 0.472m ≈ 699Hz

Effect of Temperature on Sound Frequency

Scenario: The temperature increases, causing the speed of sound to increase.
The musician wants to maintain the same frequency.
Explanation:
The speed of sound is related to temperature by the equation: v = √ ,
γRT
M
where:
γ is the adiabatic index
R is the ideal gas constant
T is the temperature in Kelvin
M is the molar mass of the air
Since v = fλ, and λ = 2L, f = 2L v
. To keep the frequency constant when v
increases, L must also increase.
Solution: The musician should slide the sections of the recorder away from
each other to increase the effective length of the air column.

Percentage Increase in Violin String Tension

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Given:
Initial frequency (f 1 ) = 432 Hz
Final frequency (f 2 ) = 440 Hz
Assumptions:
The same mode of vibration is used.
The length of the string remains constant.
Derivation:
For a vibrating string, the speed of the wave is given by v = √ Tμ , where:
T is the tension
μ is the mass per unit length
Also, v = fλ, and for the fundamental mode, λ = 2L, so v = 2Lf .
Therefore, √ Tμ = 2Lf , which leads to T = 4L 2 μf 2 .
Since L and μ are constant, we can write .
T2 f 22
T1
= f 12
Percentage increase in tension:
T 2 −T 1
T1
× 100

Solve IT 440
Percentage Increase in Tension
A 3.74% increase in tension occurs when the frequency increases from 432 Hz to
440 Hz. This was calculated by solving 440s−432s
432s
.

Investigating String Vibration

This section details a student's investigation into how the frequency of a vibrating
string changes with tension.

Experimental Setup
An electrical vibrator was connected to a string.
The string passed over a pulley and had a mass attached.
The effective length (L) of the string was measured.
Different masses (W) were added to change the tension.
A signal generator controlled the vibrator's frequency (F).
The goal was to observe the creation of stationary waves.

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Nodes and Antinodes

Nodes: Points on the string with zero amplitude (no displacement).

Antinodes: Points on the string with maximum amplitude.

A traveling wave from the vibrator reflects at the pulley. The overlapping waves
create nodes (destructive interference) and antinodes (constructive interference).

Graph of f vs W
The student plotted frequency (f) against weight (W). The resulting graph was a
straight line through the origin.

Why a Straight Line? The speed of a wave on a string is given by

V = √ Tμ , where T is tension and μ is mass per unit length. Since T is
proportional to W, and V = fλ (where λ is wavelength), and λ is constant
for a given mode, then f is proportional to W. This results in a straight-line
graph with the form f = 4Lμ 1
W where L and μ are constants.

Confirming Signal Generator Frequency

To confirm the signal generator's frequency, connect it to an oscilloscope. Measure
the time period (T) of one oscillation from the displayed waveform. The frequency (f)
can then be calculated using f = T1 .

Calculating Mass per Unit Length

Given:

W = 80 N
f = 659 Hz
L = 0.328 m

Using the equation f = 1

4Lμ
W , we can calculate μ (mass per unit length):

W 80
μ= 4Lf 2
= 4×0.328×659 2
≈ 4.28 × 10 −4 kg/m

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Eighth Lesson: Polarization of Waves

Wave Energy Transfer
Energy transfer in waves is due to oscillation.
Two types of energy carriers:
Particles (e.g., bullet carrying kinetic energy)
Waves (energy transfer through oscillation)
In mechanical waves, oscillation is due to the oscillation of particles/molecules
of the medium.
In electromagnetic waves, oscillation refers to the variation in strength of
electric and magnetic fields.

Polarization: A Property of Transverse Waves

Polarization: The direction of oscillation of a transverse wave,
perpendicular to the direction of wave motion. Each direction of oscillation
constitutes a different polarization.

Polarization is a property of transverse waves only.

Longitudinal waves cannot be polarized because their oscillation is parallel to
the direction of wave motion. If the oscillation is stopped, there is no energy
transfer.

Directions of Oscillation
Transverse waves: Infinite possibilities of oscillation directions, all
perpendicular to the wave's direction of motion (e.g., vertical, horizontal, or any
angle in between).
Longitudinal waves: Only one possible direction of oscillation, parallel to the
wave's direction of motion.

Polarized Waves
Plane-polarized wave: A wave where the direction of oscillation is
confined to a single plane that includes the direction of wave motion. This
can also be described as the direction of oscillation being confined to one
direction perpendicular to the direction of wave motion.

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Vertically polarized wave: A transverse wave oscillating vertically.

Even if some oscillation directions are blocked in a transverse wave, energy can
still be transferred via other directions.

Table Summarizing Wave Properties

Wave Type Oscillation Direction Polarization?

Transverse Perpendicular Yes

Longitudinal Parallel No

Polarization of Waves
Defining Plane Polarized Waves
There are two equivalent ways to define a plane polarized wave:

The oscillations are only in one direction, perpendicular to the direction of wave
motion.
The oscillations are only in one plane, which includes the direction of wave
motion.

It is crucial to note the correct terminology: when using "direction," the oscillation
must be perpendicular; when using "plane," the plane must include the direction of
wave motion.

Unpolarized Waves
Unpolarized waves involve oscillations in many directions, all perpendicular to
the direction of wave motion.
Example: Imagine a transverse wave on a rope where you change the
oscillation direction randomly (vertical, horizontal, angled). This is an
unpolarized wave because the oscillation direction is not confined to a single
direction.

Types of Polarized Waves

Consider a transverse wave moving into the board (direction of wave motion):

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Type of Polarization Oscillation Direction

Vertically Plane Polarized Wave Vertical

Horizontally Plane Polarized Wave Horizontal
Plane Polarization at Angle θ At an angle θ to horizontal

In all cases, the oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of wave motion. The
angle θ polarization can be resolved into horizontal and vertical components.

Polarization of Light
While polarization concepts apply to various wave types, the most significant
applications are with electromagnetic waves, especially light. Light, as an
electromagnetic wave, consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. These
fields oscillate at the same frequency and are perpendicular to each other and to the
direction of wave motion. When discussing the plane of polarization, we typically
refer to the direction of the electric field oscillation.

The polarization of light can be resolved into its horizontal and vertical
components. However, the specific equations for this resolution are
beyond the scope of this syllabus.

Polarization of Light
Polarization Direction
The direction of oscillation of the electric field indicates the direction of polarization.
It is crucial to specify the electric field when discussing the polarization of light or
electromagnetic waves.

Plane Polarized Light

Definition: Oscillation of the electric field is in only one direction, perpendicular
to the direction of wave motion. You can also say that the oscillation is confined
to a single plane containing the direction of wave motion.

Unpolarized Light

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Definition: Oscillations of the electric field are in many different directions, each
perpendicular to the direction of wave motion.
Almost all naturally occurring light sources produce unpolarized light.

Creating Polarized Light

By passing unpolarized light through a Polaroid (or polarizing filter), we can produce
plane-polarized light.

Partially Plane Polarized Light částečně

polarizované světlo
Definition: There is a predominant direction of oscillation of the electric field
(perpendicular to the wave motion), but there are also weaker oscillations in
other directions, all perpendicular to the wave motion.
This type of light is produced when unpolarized light reflects from a non-
metallic surface (like glass or water) or is scattered by a medium.
In the syllabus, partially plane-polarized light and plane-polarized light are
often treated similarly. The exception is the May 2018 question 13 (WPH
0201), which involves a graph showing how the intensity of partially plane-
polarized light changes when viewed through a Polaroid filter.

Other Types of Polarization (Not Covered in

Syllabus)
Circular Polarization: Not covered in the syllabus; mainly used in satellite
communication and transmission.
Elliptical Polarization: Not covered in the syllabus; mainly used in radar
systems.

Polaroid or Polarizing Filter

Definition: An optical component that converts unpolarized light into plane-
polarized light.
Composition: Made of a polymer (polyvinyl alcohol, PVA), stretched in one
direction, and doped with iodine. This arrangement absorbs certain frequencies
of electric field oscillation, allowing only one direction to pass through.
Transmission Axis/Polaroid Axis/Polarization Axis: The direction parallel to
which the electric field is allowed to pass.

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Polarization and Polaroids

Polaroid Filters and Light Transmission
A Polaroid filter, or polarizing filter, only allows light oscillating in a specific
direction (the Polaroid axis or transmission axis) to pass through.

If light's electric field oscillation is parallel to the axis, it passes through.

If perpendicular, it's blocked.
At any other angle, only the component parallel to the axis passes through.

Since only a component of the electric field passes through, the intensity
of light decreases. Intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude
(as discussed in Lesson 2). Because the component (Cθ) is always less
than 1, the intensity will be reduced.

Intensity Changes Through a Polaroid

Unpolarized light: Light with oscillations in all directions.
Passing unpolarized light through a Polaroid results in plane-polarized light
(oscillations in one direction).
The intensity of light after passing through the Polaroid will be less than 50%
of the original intensity (less than 0.5I).

Polaroid Axis Orientation and Polarization

If the Polaroid axis is vertical, the output is vertically plane-polarized light.
If horizontal, the output is horizontally plane-polarized light.
At any angle θ, the output is polarized at angle θ.

Identifying Unpolarized Light with a Polaroid

To determine if light is unpolarized:

1. Pass the light through a Polaroid.

2. Rotate the Polaroid.
3. If the intensity remains constant, the light is unpolarized. If the intensity
changes, the light is polarized.

Two Polaroids and Unpolarized Light

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When unpolarized light passes through two polaroids:

1. The first polaroid produces plane-polarized light.

2. The second polaroid's orientation affects the intensity of the transmitted light.

Polarization of Light: A Comprehensive

Study Guide
Polarization Basics
The concept of polarization can be visualized using a three-dimensional diagram.
Imagine a light bulb; the direction of the light's oscillation is maintained by a
polarizing filter. Many different oscillation directions exist. If the polarizing axis is
vertical, the light passing through becomes vertically polarized.

Blocking and Rotating Polaroids

Scenario 1: If a second polarizer is placed with its axis horizontal (perpendicular
to the first), the vertically polarized light is completely blocked. No light passes
through.
Scenario 2: Rotating the second polarizer changes the angle between its axis
and the direction of oscillation of the polarized light. As the angle decreases, a
component of the light parallel to the second polarizer's axis is allowed to pass,
increasing brightness.
Scenario 3: At a 90° rotation, the axes are parallel, and the light passes through
completely.
Scenario 4: Rotating further increases the angle, decreasing the parallel
component and reducing intensity. At 180°, it's completely blocked again.

The intensity of light passing through the second polarizer is related to the angle θ
between the polarization axes by I = I0 cos2(θ), where I0 is the initial intensity.

Identifying Polarized vs. Unpolarized Light

Common Exam Question: How to determine if light is unpolarized or plane-
polarized?

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To check if light from a source is unpolarized or plane-polarized, view the

light through a polarizing filter and rotate it about an axis perpendicular to
the filter. If there's no change in intensity, the light is unpolarized. If the
intensity changes, decreasing to zero at a 90° rotation and increasing
again with further rotation, then it's plane-polarized.

Converting Unpolarized to Plane-Polarized

Light
To convert unpolarized light into plane-polarized light, simply pass the
unpolarized light through a polarizing filter. The emerging light will be
plane-polarized.

Applications of Polarized Light

Past Exam
Application Description
Relevance

Polarizing filters in sunglasses block unwanted

Reducing Glare High
reflected light (glare).
Polarimetry Measurement of polarization rotation. Medium
3D movies use polarized light to create a depth
3D Effects in Film Low
effect.
LCD screens use polarized light and liquid
Liquid Crystal
crystals to control light transmission and display Low
Displays (LCDs)
images.

Glare and Partially Polarized Light

Glare is unwanted light reflected from a surface (water, glass, etc.). This
reflected light is often partially plane-polarized. Partially plane-polarized
light has some components oscillating in a specific direction, but not all
oscillations are aligned. For example, when observing fish in a pond, glare
from the water's surface can obstruct the view. Polarizing filters can help
reduce this glare by blocking the polarized component of the reflected
light.

Polarization and Glare: A Study Guide

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Polarized Light and Glare

There's a predominant direction of oscillation in light waves, usually stronger
than other oscillations.
These oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of the wave's motion.
When light reflects off a surface like water, the predominant oscillation is
usually parallel to the surface.
A Polaroid filter blocks light oscillations perpendicular to its polarizing axis. By
blocking the strongest oscillation (the glare), a Polaroid filter reduces glare.

Past Paper Questions on Glare

May 2018, Question 13B

Question: Explains why the intensity of light from the sky varies when viewed
through a rotating polarizing filter. The intensity is highest at one angle and
lowest at an angle 90° away, but never reaches zero.
Answer: Light from the sky is partially plane-polarized. The predominant
oscillation is blocked when the polarizing axis is perpendicular to it, resulting in
minimum intensity. The intensity doesn't reach zero because other, weaker
oscillations still pass through the filter.

June 2017, Question 17

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Context: Fishermen struggle to see fish due to glare from sunlight reflecting off
the water. Polarizing sunglasses help.

Part A: Define polarized light. (Refer to the definition above)

Part B: Explain why fish look darker through polarizing sunglasses.

Polarizing filters only allow light with oscillations parallel to their

axis. This reduces the overall intensity, making objects appear
darker.

Part C: Determine which filter (vertical or horizontal polarizing axis) a fisherman

should use to see fish clearly.

The glare's predominant oscillation is parallel to the water's surface

(horizontal). A vertical polarizing filter will block this glare. Light
from the fish is unpolarized and will still pass through.

January 2014, Question 13

Context: Glare from a pond makes it hard to see underwater. Polarizing
sunglasses solve this.
This question likely asks about the principles of glare reduction using polarizing
sunglasses similar to June 2017, Question 17. Refer to the explanation above.

Understanding Unpolarized Light

Light reflected from a cloud is generally unpolarized because clouds have
irregular surfaces.
Rotating a polarizing filter over an unpolarized light source shows no change in
intensity.

Polarization and Polarimetry Study

Guide
Polarized vs. Unpolarized Light

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Unpolarized light: Oscillations of the electric field occur in many different

directions, perpendicular to the direction of wave motion.
Polarized light: Oscillations of the electric field are confined to a single plane. A
common example is light reflected from a surface, which is partially plane-
polarized.

Removing Glare with Polarizing Filters

To remove glare while still allowing light from below the surface to reach the
observer:

1. View reflected light through a polarizing filter.

2. Rotate the filter until its polarizing axis is perpendicular to the predominant
oscillation of the reflected light. This will block or reduce the intensity of the
glare.
3. Light from objects below the surface is unpolarized and will pass through the
filter.

Optical Rotation and Optically Active

Components
Optically active components: Substances that can rotate the direction of
oscillation of plane-polarized light. Examples include sugar dissolved in water.
This rotation is due to the molecule's arrangement.

The amount of rotation depends on the concentration of the

optically active substance.

Polarimeter: Determining Concentration

A polarimeter uses this principle to determine the concentration of optically active
substances. It consists of:

A light source (bulb emitting unpolarized light).

A polarizer: The first polarizing filter, creating plane-polarized light.
A sample cell containing the optically active solution (e.g., sugar water).
An analyzer: The second polarizing filter.

How it works:

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1. Unpolarized light passes through the polarizer, becoming plane-polarized.

2. The plane-polarized light passes through the sample cell. The optically active
substance rotates the plane of polarization.
3. The analyzer is rotated until it blocks the light again. The angle of rotation of
the analyzer is directly proportional to the concentration of the optically active
substance.

Angle of rotation ∝ Concentration

This relationship is used for quality control in various applications, such as measuring
sugar concentration and identifying impurities in chemicals.

Measuring Sugar Concentration Using

Polarized Light
Experimental Setup
To measure sugar concentration, you'll need:

A glass cube
A polarizer (first polarizing filter)
An analyzer (second polarizing filter)
A light source
An optically active liquid (e.g., sugar solution)

The setup involves passing light through the polarizer, then the liquid-filled cube,
and finally the analyzer. The analyzer is rotated until the light is blocked.

Procedure: Measuring Rotation

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1. Initial Measurement: With an empty cube, align the polarizer and analyzer so
that no light passes through (they are at a right angle to each other). This
establishes the baseline.

2. Adding the Liquid: Fill the glass cube with a known concentration of sugar
solution. Light will now pass through.

3. Measuring the Rotation: Rotate the analyzer until the light is again blocked.
The angle of rotation is the measurement of interest, denoted as θ. This angle
represents the rotation of the plane of polarization caused by the optically
active liquid. A protractor can be used to measure this angle.

4. Unknown Concentration: Repeat steps 2 and 3 with a solution of unknown

sugar concentration. Measure and record the angle of rotation θ.

5. Comparison: Compare the angle of rotation for the known and unknown
solutions. The amount of rotation is directly related to the sugar concentration.
Higher concentration leads to a larger angle of rotation.

Theory: Optical Activity

Optical activity is the ability of a substance to rotate the plane of
polarization of linearly polarized light. This property is exhibited by chiral
molecules, which are molecules that are not superimposable on their
mirror images. Sugar molecules are chiral.

Applications Beyond Sugar Concentration

Stretched Plastic Sheets: Stretched transparent plastic sheets can also rotate
the plane of polarization. The amount of rotation is related to the amount of
stress applied to the sheet. An unstretched sheet will not change the
polarization.

3D Imaging: The 3D effect we perceive is due to our two eyes seeing slightly
different orientations of an object. 3D movies are made by filming the same
scene from two slightly different angles. These images are then processed to
create a 3D effect. This relies on the same principles as polarization.

3D Movie Projection and Polarization

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3D Projection Basics
The creation of 3D movies involves projecting two slightly different images onto the
screen. These images are simultaneously projected and focused on the same screen
position but with different polarizations of light. One image uses horizontally
polarized light, while the other uses vertically polarized light.

Polarization: The direction of oscillation of the electric field in a light

wave.

3D Glasses
To view the 3D effect, special glasses are worn. Each lens in these glasses acts as a
polarizing filter, allowing only light of a specific polarization to pass through. One
lens is horizontally polarized, allowing only horizontally polarized light to reach the
corresponding eye. The other lens is vertically polarized, allowing only vertically
polarized light.

The left eye sees only the horizontally polarized image.

The right eye sees only the vertically polarized image.

This ensures that each eye receives a different image, which is essential for the 3D
effect. The brain then combines these images to perceive depth.

The Importance of Perpendicular Polarization

It's crucial that the polarizations of the two images are perpendicular to each other. If
both eyes receive both images, the 3D effect will be lost. Only when one eye sees
one image and the other eye sees the other image will the brain interpret the scene in
three dimensions.

Alternative Polarization Angles

While the example used horizontal and vertical polarization, other angles can be
used. For instance:

One image could be polarized at 45° to the horizontal.

The other image at 135° to the horizontal.

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These angles are chosen because they are 90° apart, ensuring that the polarizations
remain perpendicular.

The 45° and 135° angles are perpendicular, blocking the light intended for
one eye from reaching the other.

Issues with 3D Viewing

Reduced Brightness
One drawback of using polarized 3D glasses is that the images appear darker than in
ordinary films. This is because converting unpolarized light into plane-polarized light
reduces the intensity of the light. Only the component of the light parallel to the
polarizer's axis is allowed to pass.

Head Tilting
Tilting one's head while wearing polarized 3D glasses can cause the 3D effect to be
lost. If the head is tilted, the polarization axis of the glasses is no longer perfectly
perpendicular to the polarization of the unintended image. This means that some
light intended for the other eye will reach the eye, causing a blurring of the images
and the loss of the 3D effect.

Past Exam Question Example

A past exam question (June 2013, 6H02, Question 14) covered similar concepts,
further reinforcing the importance of these principles.

Polarization Study Guide

3D Effect and Polarization
To perceive a 3D effect, each eye must receive a slightly different image. If both eyes
receive the same image, the 3D effect is lost.

Polarization and Glare

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Polarizing filters are frequently used to reduce glare. This is a common

application of polarization.
Many exam questions focus on how polaroids block glare.

Polarimeters and 3D Glasses

Questions on polarimeters appear on past exams.
Questions on the use of polarization in 3D glasses also appear on past exams,
though less frequently than questions on glare reduction.

Exam Question Focus

The majority of exam questions relate to:

Blocking glare using polaroids

Polarimeters
The use of polarization in 3D glasses (less frequent)

There are minimal calculations involved in these concepts. Review past papers for
further examples.

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Ninth Lesson: Pulse-Echo Technique

Pulse-Echo Technique Explained
The pulse-echo technique is used to measure distances or sizes of objects, including
organs within the human body. This technique isn't limited to ultrasound; it can utilize
various forms of energy, including sound and light.

The pulse-echo technique uses the time it takes for a pulse of energy to
travel to a target and reflect back to determine the distance to that target.

Measuring Distance with Pulse-Echo

A simple example uses sound:

A person claps in front of a mountain.

A friend starts a stopwatch upon hearing the clap.
The friend stops the stopwatch when they hear the echo.
The time recorded (T) is the total travel time of the sound.

To calculate the distance (D) to the mountain:

2D = vT

Where:

v = the speed of sound

T = time taken for the echo to return.

Therefore:
1
D= 2
vT

To improve results, repeat the experiment multiple times and calculate the average
time (T).

Repeating the experiment helps to reduce the impact of random errors in

the measurement, providing a more accurate estimate of the distance.

Improving Accuracy and Applications

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In more advanced applications:

Multiple pulses: Instead of a single clap, we send repeated identical pulses at

set intervals. This is crucial for more precise measurements. The time between
pulses is called the pulse interval. The length of each pulse is called the pulse
duration.
Different energy types: Pulse-echo isn't limited to sound. Lasers and
microwaves are also used. Examples include:
Measuring the distance to the moon using laser pulses.
Speed guns used by traffic police, which emit microwaves to measure
vehicle speed.

Pulse Characteristics
Pulse duration (TD): The time the energy is emitted. The pulse might contain
several waves, depending on the frequency.
Pulse interval: The time between the start of successive pulses. This is
essential in applications requiring multiple pulses for accurate measurements.
Feature Description

Pulse Duration The length of time a pulse of energy is emitted.

Pulse Interval The time between the beginning of successive pulses.

Pulse-Echo Technique for Distance

Measurement
Pulse Interval and Duration
We typically measure distance from center to center of pulses. However, we can also
measure from the left edge of one pulse to the left edge of the next, or from the right
edge to the right edge, or from peak to peak (P to P).

The time gap between adjacent pulses is called the pulse interval (ti). Some texts
use a capital T (T ) for this.

Pulse Interval (ti or T): The time between consecutive pulses.

The time duration of a single pulse is called the pulse duration (td).

Pulse Duration (td): The length of time a single pulse lasts.

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A key condition is that the pulse interval must be greater than the pulse duration (
ti > td). This is clear from a visual representation of the pulses.

Applications of Pulse-Echo Technique

The pulse-echo technique, using repeated pulses and their reflections, is used in
various instruments and by some animals:

Ultrasound scanning machines: Measure distances to internal reflecting

surfaces within the body.
Range finders: (Used by surveyors) Employ laser pulses to determine the
distances to reflecting surfaces like buildings.
Speed guns: Utilize microwaves or infrared to measure the distance to a moving
vehicle, enabling speed calculation.
Animals (dolphins, whales, bats): Use echolocation (a form of pulse-echo
technique) to detect the distance to prey. This is also known as the pulse-echo
technique.

Avoiding Confusion with Multiple Echoes

To illustrate the importance of using discrete pulses (rather than continuous sound),
consider measuring the distance to a reflecting surface (e.g., a mountain):

Imagine two mountains. If you clap continuously, the echoes from both mountains
will overlap, making it difficult to determine which echo corresponds to which
mountain.

To avoid this confusion:

Single Claps: Wait for the echo from the first clap before producing the next
clap.
Multiple Reflecting Surfaces: Wait until all echoes from all surfaces have been
received before producing the next pulse. This ensures that echoes are not
confused with subsequent pulses.

Why use discrete pulses? Continuous sound creates confusion in

identifying which echo corresponds to which pulse and reflecting surface.
Using discrete pulses eliminates this ambiguity.

Echolocation and Pulse Intervals

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Avoiding Confusion in Echolocation

To avoid confusion when using echolocation with multiple reflecting surfaces, the
sound should be produced as discrete pulses. We must wait to receive all reflected
waves before producing the next pulse.

Mathematical Representation of Pulse Timing

Imagine multiple reflecting surfaces at varying distances. The farthest surface will
return the latest echo.

The pulse interval (TI )—the time between pulses—must be greater than or equal to
the time (T ) it takes for sound to travel to the farthest surface and back:

TI ≥ T

Alternatively:

T ≤ TI

This ensures that echoes from the previous pulse have been received before the next
pulse is emitted.

Maximum Distance and Pulse Interval

The maximum distance (Dmax) that can be measured with a given pulse interval (TI )
is:
1
Dmax = 2
vTI

Where v is the speed of sound.

This means that if a reflecting surface is farther away than Dmax, it cannot be
detected with the current pulse interval. Increasing the pulse interval (TI ) allows for
the detection of more distant objects.

The Transducer

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Instruments using pulse techniques for distance measurement often use a single
component that acts as both transmitter and receiver. This component is called a
transducer. Examples include ultrasound scanners and speed guns.

The transducer emits a pulse and then receives the reflected wave. A problem arises
if the pulse duration (TD) is longer than the time it takes for the reflected wave to
return. For example, if TD = 10 seconds and the return time is only 6 seconds, the
transducer is still transmitting when the reflection is received.

Pulse-Echo Technique and Ultrasound

Scanning
Time Constraints in Pulse-Echo
A transducer cannot emit and receive simultaneously.
The minimum time (T ) for a reflected wave to return must be greater than or
equal to the pulse duration (TD): T ≥ TD.
This ensures the transducer finishes emitting before receiving the reflected
wave.

Minimum and Maximum Measurable Distances

Minimum distance: The minimum distance (dmin) that can be measured is
determined by the pulse duration (TD) and the speed (v) of the wave:
dmin = 12 vTD
Maximum distance: The maximum distance (dmax) is limited by the pulse
interval and speed (v): dmax = 12 vTi where Ti is the pulse interval.

Biological Sonar: Nature's Pulse-Echo

Animals like whales and dolphins use echolocation, a natural pulse-echo
technique.
They adapt their pulse duration and interval depending on the proximity of their
target.

Ultrasound Scanning for Measuring Organ Size

Ultrasound uses a probe (transducer) that emits and receives ultrasound
waves. A gel is used to eliminate air interference.

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Ultrasound waves partially reflect at the boundaries of different tissues within

the body.
The time it takes for the reflections to return allows for the measurement of
distances.

Assumptions Made in Calculating Organ Size

We assume the speed of ultrasound is constant throughout the organ.
This is a simplification as different organs have different speeds of sound.

The time difference between reflected pulses from different surfaces helps to
determine the organ's size (D). D = D2 − D1 = 2v (T2 − T1) where:
v = speed of ultrasound
T1 = time for reflection from the first surface
T2 = time for reflection from the second surface

Resolution in Scanning Instruments

Resolution refers to the ability of an instrument to distinguish between
two closely spaced points. A higher resolution instrument can detect
smaller details.

For example, an instrument with 1 mm resolution is superior to one with 3 mm

resolution, providing greater detail.

Pulse-Echo Technique Study Guide

Ultrasound Resolution
The resolution of an instrument is the minimum distance between two points that
can be distinguished. For example, a resolution of 3 mm means the instrument
cannot distinguish points closer than 3 mm.

In ultrasound, resolution is determined by:

Wavelength (λ): Resolution ≈ λ. A shorter wavelength leads to higher

resolution.
Pulse duration: Shorter pulse duration leads to higher resolution. There's an
equation for this, but it's not in your syllabus.

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Ultrasound: Sound waves with frequencies greater than 20,000 Hz (20

kHz).

Increasing the frequency of ultrasound improves resolution (by decreasing

wavelength), but it also increases attenuation (absorption of the sound wave by the
medium), leading to energy loss. Therefore, a balance must be struck. The
wavelength is often chosen to be roughly equal to the size of the organ being
scanned.

Pulse-Echo Technique Limitations

In pulse-echo techniques (like ultrasound), the wave cannot be emitted as a
continuous wave. It must be emitted as discrete pulses. This is done to avoid
confusion in identifying reflected and transmitted waves.

Key Distances in Pulse-Echo

Minimum detectable distance: 1/2 × pulse duration × speed
Maximum detectable distance: 1/2 × pulse interval × speed

Resolution and Detail

Higher resolution means greater detail can be seen in a smaller distance.
Greater detail is obtained with higher resolution.

Example: Speed Gun

A speed gun emits infrared pulses every 0.25 seconds. This 0.25 seconds represents
the pulse interval.

Speed Gun and Range Finder Problems

Speed Gun
This problem involves a speed gun that emits infrared pulses to measure the speed
of a moving car.

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The pulse interval is 0.25 seconds.

The first pulse is received after 533 ns (nanoseconds).
The second pulse is received after 571 ns.
The speed of infrared light is 3 × 108m/s.

The car is moving away from the speed gun because the time taken to receive the
second pulse is greater than the time taken to receive the first pulse.

To find the speed of the car:

1. Calculate the distance (D1) of the car from the speed gun when the first pulse
was emitted: speed = 2D1 speed×T1 (3×108m/s)×(533×10−9s)
T1 D1 = 2 = 2 = 79.95m

2. Calculate the distance (D2) of the car from the speed gun when the second
pulse was emitted: speed = 2D2 speed×T2 (3×108m/s)×(571×10−9s)
T2
D2 = 2
= 2
= 85.65m

3. Calculate the distance (D) the car traveled during the pulse interval:
D = D2 − D1 = 85.65m − 79.95m = 5.7m

4. Calculate the speed of the car: speed = distance

time
= 5.7m
0.25s
= 22.8m/s

Therefore, the speed of the car is 22.8 m/s.

Range Finder
This problem involves a range finder that emits pulses of light and measures
distances between 50 cm and 1 km.

Minimum distance: 50 cm = 0.5 m

Maximum distance: 1 km = 1000 m
Speed of light: 3 × 108m/s

The question asks for the longest pulse duration. The minimum distance is related to
the shortest time it takes for the light pulse to travel to the object and back.

The longest pulse duration is determined by the shortest measurable

distance. If the pulse duration is too long, the range finder would not be
able to measure the shortest distance (50 cm).

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1. Calculate the longest pulse duration using the minimum distance:

Dmin = 12 × pulse duration × speed
pulse duration = 2×D min
speed
2×0.5m
= 3×108
m/s
= 3.33 × 10−9s

Therefore, the longest pulse duration is 3.33 × 10−9s or 3.33 ns.

Rangefinders and Reversing Sensors

Pulse Duration and Interval
We don't want to increase pulse duration more than 50 times the shortest
distance.
The longest pulse duration should not exceed 3.33 x 10−9 seconds.
Pulse interval is related to the maximum distance: DX = 12 ⋅ ti ⋅ speed.
For a 1 km distance, the shortest pulse interval (ti) is 6.67 x 10−6 seconds.
The pulse interval is always greater than the pulse duration.

Car Reversing Sensor

Problem: Determine if a pulse of duration 5 x 10−4 seconds can detect objects
as close as 10 cm. Speed of sound = 330 m/s.

Diagram: A car with a reversing sensor emits ultrasound pulses. A reflecting

surface is 10 cm behind the car.

Calculation: The minimum detectable distance (Dmin) is given by:

Dmin = 12 ⋅ pulse duration ⋅ speed of sound = 0.0825 m = 8.25 cm

Conclusion: Since 10 cm (object distance) > 8.25 cm (Dmin), the sensor will
detect the object. The pulse duration is suitable.

Why Ultrasound? Ultrasound's higher frequency leads to a smaller wavelength

and better resolution than audible sound. This allows it to detect smaller
objects, like thin wires, that audible sound would miss.

Steel Pipe Corrosion Test

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Problem: A steel pipe (wall thickness 4 cm) is tested for corrosion using
ultrasound. A pulse takes 5.1 x 10−4 seconds to reflect from the inner surface.
The speed of sound in steel is 5900 m/s. Determine if corrosion is present.

Diagram: A steel pipe with inner and outer surfaces. The ultrasound pulse
travels to the inner surface and back.

Calculation: The total distance traveled by the pulse is 2 x thickness. Therefore,

the thickness can be calculated as:
speed of sound⋅time 5900 m/s⋅5.1×10−4 s
T hickness = 2
= 2
= 1.5 m = 150 cm

Conclusion: The measured thickness (150 cm) is much larger than the actual
thickness (4 cm). This discrepancy indicates corrosion is likely present.

Ultrasound and Echolocation: A Study

Guide
Pipe Corrosion Detection
A 4 cm thick pipe is tested using ultrasound with a speed of 5900 m/s. The time
taken for the ultrasound wave to reflect is 5.1 x 10⁻⁴ s.

Using the equation: speed = 2D

T , where:

speed = speed of ultrasound

D = distance to reflecting surface
T = time taken for reflection

We find the distance (D) to the reflecting surface:

speed×T 5900×5.1×10−4
D= 2
= 2
= 1.5cm

Since the reflecting surface (1.5 cm) is less than the pipe thickness (4 cm), this
indicates corrosion within the pipe. The change in material properties due to
corrosion alters the speed of the ultrasound wave, causing partial reflection.

Pulse-Echo Ultrasound
Why pulses are used instead of continuous waves:

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Using a continuous wave would cause confusion in distinguishing between the

transmitted and reflected waves.
Using pulses allows the emission of a second pulse only after receiving all
reflections from the previous pulse, thereby avoiding this confusion.

Pulse duration and pipe thickness:

The minimum measurable thickness of a pipe is determined by the pulse

duration. A shorter pulse duration allows for the measurement of thinner
pipes. The minimum measurable distance is given by:
Minimum Distance = 12 × P ulse Duration × Speed

Dolphin Echolocation
A dolphin emits clicks (pulses) at a rate of 16 clicks per second.

1. Time between clicks:

Time interval = 1
16 s = 0.063 s

2. Maximum detectable distance:

Maximum distance (Dmax) = 1

2
× pulse interval × speed

Given a speed of 1530 m/s:

1
Dmax = 2
× 0.063 s × 1530 m/s = 48.2 m

3. Increasing click rate:

When a dolphin gets closer to prey, it increases its click rate from 16 to 125 clicks per
second. This is because:

As the dolphin gets closer, the maximum detectable distance decreases.

To maintain accurate monitoring of a potentially moving prey, the dolphin
increases the frequency of pulses to provide more frequent updates.

Bat vs. Dolphin Precision

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Both bats and dolphins use ultrasound with the same frequency and pulse duration,
but the speed of sound differs (330 m/s in air vs. 1530 m/s in water). The resolution
(ability to distinguish between closely spaced objects) is better in water due to the
higher speed of sound. Therefore, dolphins would locate their prey more precisely
than bats.

Ultrasound Resolution in Bats and

Dolphins
Speed of Sound & Wavelength
The speed of sound differs in different mediums. For example:

Speed of sound in air: ≈ 330 m/s

Speed of sound in water: ≈ 1530 m/s

The relationship between speed (v), frequency (f ), and wavelength (λ) is given by:

v = fλ

Therefore, λ = v
f
.

Assuming the same frequency (f ) of ultrasound for both a bat and a dolphin, the
dolphin, which emits ultrasound in water, will have a longer wavelength (λ) because
the speed of sound (v) is greater in water. Conversely, the bat, emitting ultrasound in
air, will have a shorter wavelength.

A longer wavelength corresponds to lower resolution, while a shorter

wavelength corresponds to higher resolution.

Resolution: Method 1

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Higher resolution means the ability to distinguish between closely spaced

objects or points.
Shorter wavelength leads to higher resolution.
Since the speed of sound is higher in water, the dolphin's ultrasound has a
longer wavelength and thus lower resolution compared to a bat's.
The bat, with its shorter wavelength due to the slower speed of sound in air,
possesses higher resolution and can detect smaller prey.

Resolution: Method 2
Resolution can also be calculated using the following equation:

Resolution = 1
2
× Pulse Duration × Speed

Assuming both the bat and the dolphin have the same pulse duration, the
dolphin will have a higher numerical value for resolution because the speed of
sound in water is greater.
However, a higher numerical value for resolution does not imply better
resolution. In this context, a smaller numerical value for resolution indicates a
better ability to distinguish between closely spaced objects.
Therefore, the bat, with a lower numerical resolution value due to the lower
speed of sound in air, has better resolution.

Summary
Feature Bat (Air) Dolphin (Water)

Speed of Sound Lower (~330 m/s) Higher (~1530 m/s)

Wavelength Shorter Longer
Resolution Higher (smaller value) Lower (larger value)
Prey Detection More precise Less precise

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Photoelectric Effect Study Guide

What is the Photoelectric Effect?
The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from a material when
electromagnetic radiation, such as light, hits it. Metals possess free electrons
(delocalized electrons), and when exposed to radiation (e.g., light, ultraviolet,
infrared), they release these electrons. The released electron is called a
photoelectron. This phenomenon was first observed by Heinrich Hertz in 1887 but
explained later by Albert Einstein, who received the Nobel Prize for this work in
1921.

Failure of Wave Theory to Explain the

Photoelectric Effect
Classical wave theory failed to explain several key observations of the photoelectric
effect. Here's a comparison of the theoretical predictions and experimental
observations:

Feature Wave Theory Prediction Experimental Observation

Any frequency should release Minimum frequency (threshold

Frequency
electrons. frequency) is required.
Lower intensity leads to delayed No delay observed, even at low
Intensity electron emission (energy intensity (above the threshold
accumulation). frequency).
Increased intensity increases the
Kinetic Increased intensity increases
number of photoelectrons, not their
Energy photoelectron kinetic energy.
kinetic energy.

Wave Theory Predictions:

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Any frequency: Electromagnetic radiation of any frequency should be able to

remove electrons from a metal.
Intensity and Delay: If the radiation intensity is low, electron emission could be
delayed as energy needs to accumulate.
Intensity and Kinetic Energy: Increasing the radiation intensity increases the
kinetic energy of the emitted electrons.

Why Wave Theory Fails:

The wave theory's predictions do not match experimental observations. Specifically:

Minimum Frequency: A minimum frequency of electromagnetic radiation is

required to release electrons, contradicting the wave theory's prediction that
any frequency should work. This minimum frequency varies depending on the
metal.
No Delay: Even with low-intensity radiation (above the threshold frequency),
there's no delay in electron emission.
Kinetic Energy and Intensity: Increasing the intensity increases the number of
emitted electrons, not their kinetic energy. The kinetic energy depends on the
frequency of the radiation.

Failures of Classical Wave Theory to

Explain the Photoelectric Effect
The Delay in Electron Emission
Classical wave theory predicted a delay in electron emission from a metal surface
when exposed to low-intensity light. However, experiments showed that even very
low-intensity light could remove electrons instantaneously, provided the frequency
was above a certain threshold.

Intensity and Kinetic Energy

Classical wave theory suggested that increasing the intensity of light would increase
the kinetic energy of emitted electrons. Experiments showed this was not the case.
Increasing intensity at a frequency above the threshold frequency did not change the
kinetic energy of the emitted electrons.

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The Three Failures Summarized

The classical wave theory failed to explain the photoelectric effect because:

It predicted a delay in electron emission at low intensities (which was not

observed).
It predicted that the kinetic energy of emitted electrons should increase with
intensity (it didn't).
It could not explain the existence of a threshold frequency.

Max Planck's Quantum Hypothesis and the

Birth of the Photon
To resolve these issues, Max Planck proposed a revolutionary idea: the energy of
electromagnetic radiation is not continuous but exists in discrete packets called
photons.

A photon is the smallest discrete packet of energy of electromagnetic

radiation.

The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency (E = hf ), where:

E represents the energy of the photon.

h represents Planck's constant (6.63 × 10 −34 Js).
f represents the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation.

This concept is known as quantization.

Quantization: The energy of a photon can only take on certain discrete

values, depending on its frequency. It is not continuous.

Continuous vs. Discrete: An Analogy vs 🪜

Imagine climbing from the first floor to the second floor.

Continuous: Climbing a slope. You can stop at any point, having various
amounts of potential energy.
Discrete: Climbing a staircase. You can only stop on specific steps, having a
limited number of possible potential energy values.

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This is analogous to the difference between the classical wave theory's view of
energy and Planck's quantum hypothesis. The wave model suggests a continuous
range of energy, like the slope; Planck's model suggests discrete packets, like steps
on a staircase.

Photoelectric Effect Study Guide

Quantized vs. Continuous Energy
Discrete/Quantized Energy: A system can only possess specific, distinct energy
levels. Think of a staircase: you can only stand on specific steps, not between
them. Similarly, a climber on a staircase can only gain a specific amount of
gravitational potential energy with each step.
Continuous Energy: A system can possess any amount of energy within a
range. Imagine a slope: you can be at any height along the incline, gaining
gravitational potential energy continuously as you walk.

Einstein's Postulates on the Photoelectric

Effect
Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect relies on several key postulates:

1. One-to-One Interaction: One photon can interact with only one electron. It
cannot share its energy.
2. All or Nothing Energy Transfer: When a photon interacts with an electron, it
either gives all its energy to the electron or none at all. The photon doesn't
partially transfer its energy.
3. Particle-Like Behavior: Photons behave like particles. When a photon strikes
an electron, it immediately knocks it out; there's no delay. This contrasts with
classical wave behavior where energy could be absorbed gradually.
4. Energy Dependence: The ability to remove an electron from a metal depends
solely on the energy of the individual photon, not the total energy of the light
wave (intensity).

The Photoelectric Equation & Delocalized

Electrons

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Work Function (Φ): The minimum energy needed to remove an electron from
the surface of a metal. This is constant for a given metal.

The work function is the minimum amount of energy required to free an

electron from the surface of a given material.

Delocalized Electrons: In a metal, electrons aren't bound to specific atoms but

are free to move throughout the material. These are called delocalized electrons
and exist both on the surface and inside the metal.

Einstein's Photoelectric Equation:

K max = hν − Φ

Where:

* $K_{max}$ is the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electron.

* $h$ is Planck's constant.
* $ν$ is the frequency of the incident photon.
* $Φ$ is the work function of the metal.

The equation shows that the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electron
depends on the frequency (energy) of the incident photon and the work function of
the metal. If the photon energy is less than the work function, no electrons will be
ejected, regardless of the intensity of the light.

Photoelectric Effect Study Guide

Work Function
The work function is the minimum amount of energy needed to remove an electron
from the surface of a metal.

The minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from the

surface of a metal is called the work function.

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This is denoted by Φ. It's important to note that the work function applies only to
surface electrons. Inner electrons may require different amounts of energy to be
removed, as they are influenced by multiple nuclei. For a given metal, the work
function is constant. Different metals, however, have different work functions due to
variations in atomic arrangement and nuclear structure.

Threshold Frequency 🪫
The threshold frequency (f 0 ) is the minimum frequency of electromagnetic radiation
required to remove an electron from the surface of a metal. This is related to the
work function by the equation:

Φ = hf 0

where h is Planck's constant. A photon must have at least this much energy (hf 0 ) to
remove an electron. Einstein's theory posits that one photon interacts with only one
electron; either all of its energy is transferred, or none is.

Threshold Wavelength 🫙
The threshold wavelength (λ 0 ) is the maximum wavelength of electromagnetic
radiation that can remove an electron from the surface of a metal. Since c = fλ,
where c is the speed of light, we can also write:
hc
Φ= λ0

Therefore, λ 0 = hc
Φ . As the threshold frequency (f 0 ) is the minimum frequency
needed, λ 0 represents the maximum wavelength capable of causing the photoelectric
effect.

Intensity in the Photon Model

Intensity is defined as the amount of power (or energy per unit time) passing through
a unit area. In the photon model, intensity (I) is given by:

I = n ⋅ hf

Where:

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n = the number of photons passing through a unit area per second

hf = the energy of a single photon

This equation describes the intensity of electromagnetic radiation in terms of the

number of photons and the energy of each photon.

Photoelectric Effect Study Guide

Surface Electrons & Work Function
The minimum energy needed to remove an electron from a metal's surface is
called the work function, denoted as Φ.

The work function is the minimum amount of energy required to overcome

the attractive forces holding an electron within the metal.

A photon's energy (E = hf ), where h is Planck's constant and f is the

frequency of radiation, must be greater than or equal to the work function to
remove an electron.
If hf > Φ, the excess energy becomes the electron's kinetic energy.
Photons either give up all their energy or none at all to an electron.

Inner Electrons & Energy Levels

Removing an electron from inside the metal requires more energy (Φ 1 ) than
from the surface due to stronger attractive forces from multiple nuclei.
The work function can vary depending on the electron's location within the
metal.
Electrons from deeper within the metal may lose kinetic energy through
collisions before escaping.

Kinetic Energy & Photoelectric Equation

Surface electrons have the maximum kinetic energy (K max ) because:
They require the minimum energy to escape.
They avoid collisions with other electrons.
Einstein's photoelectric equation applies only to surface electrons:
1
hf = Φ + 2
mv 2max

where:

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h is Planck's constant
f is the frequency of the incident light
Φ is the work function of the metal
m is the mass of the electron
v max is the maximum speed of the electron.

The equation can also be written as:

hc 1
λ
=Φ+ 2
mv 2max

where:

c is the speed of light

λ is the wavelength of the incident light.

Failure of the Wave Model

Classical wave theory incorrectly predicted that any frequency of light could
remove electrons, regardless of intensity.
The photon model correctly explains that the ability to remove an electron
depends entirely on the energy of individual photons, not the intensity of the
wave.
To remove an electron, each photon's energy (hf ) must be at least equal to the
metal's work function (Φ): hf ≥ Φ.
This leads to the concept of a threshold frequency (f 0 = Φh ), below which no
electrons are emitted.

Photoelectric Effect Study Guide

️T he Dependence of Electron Removal
The ability to remove an electron does not depend on the total energy or
intensity of the radiation.
It depends only on the energy of each individual photon.
The energy of each photon (hf ) must be greater than the minimum energy
required to remove an electron from the surface. Therefore, hf > hf 0 , where f
is the frequency of the radiation and f 0 is the threshold frequency.
Each metal has a unique threshold frequency. Electrons are only removed if the
frequency exceeds this threshold.

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️ esolving Wave Theory Problems with the

R
Photon Model
The photon model successfully explains observations that wave theory could not:

First Problem: Threshold Frequency

Wave theory could not explain why electrons are only emitted above a
certain threshold frequency. The photon model explains this by stating
that a single photon must have enough energy (hf ) to overcome the work
function of the metal.

Second Problem: Instantaneous Electron Emission

Wave theory predicted a delay in electron emission, as energy needed to
accumulate. The photon model solves this: one photon knocks out one
electron without any delay, consistent with observations.

Third Problem: Intensity and Kinetic Energy

Wave theory incorrectly predicted that increasing the intensity would
increase the kinetic energy of emitted electrons.

Intensity in the Photon Model: Intensity (I ) is given by I = n ⋅ hf , where n is

the number of photons passing through a unit area per second, and hf is the
energy of a single photon.

Example: A monochromatic (single-frequency) green bulb connected to a

variable resistor. Reducing resistance increases current and power, thus
increasing the bulb's intensity (brightness). This increase in brightness, in the
photon model, means that n increases (more photons emitted per unit area per
second), but the energy of each photon (hf ) remains constant because the color
(and therefore frequency) of the light is unchanged.

Kinetic Energy Equation: hf = ϕ + K max , where ϕ is the work function

(minimum energy needed to remove an electron) and K max is the maximum
kinetic energy of the emitted electron.

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Since increasing intensity only increases n (number of photons) and not

the energy of individual photons (hf ), there is no change in kinetic energy
(K max ) according to the photon model. This aligns with experimental
observations.

Measuring Kinetic Energy of Fastest Electrons

& Photovoltaic Cells
A photovoltaic cell (solar cell) is used to measure the kinetic energy of the fastest
electrons.

It consists of an emitting electrode and a collecting electrode in a vacuum.

Radiation falling on the emitting electrode releases electrons via the
photoelectric effect.
These electrons flow to the collecting electrode, creating a photocurrent.
The current flows opposite the direction of electron flow.

Important Note: In a simple vacuum system with two metal plates and an
external battery, current will not flow unless an extremely high voltage is
applied to overcome the vacuum's insulation. This contrasts with the
photoelectric effect in a photovoltaic cell where the photons provide the
energy for electron release.

Measuring Kinetic Energy of the Fastest

Electron
Measuring Kinetic Energy with a Photovoltaic
Cell
To measure the kinetic energy of the fastest electron emitted from a material via the
photoelectric effect, we utilize a photovoltaic cell (or solar panel). This device
consists of an emitting electrode and a collecting electrode. Electromagnetic
radiation (light) of a known frequency is shone onto the emitting electrode. A circuit,
including a picoammeter (to measure the very low current), connects the electrodes.

️Opposing Voltage and Current Flow

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The key to measuring the kinetic energy of the fastest electron is introducing an
opposing voltage. This is achieved using a variable power supply. The power supply
creates an electric field between the electrodes. As the voltage increases, it creates
an opposing force against the electrons moving from the emitting to the collecting
electrode.

The opposing voltage acts like gravity when you throw a pen upwards:
the pen loses kinetic energy as it gains gravitational potential energy.
Similarly, electrons lose kinetic energy as they gain electrical potential
energy.

Current Decrease and Stopping Potential

As the opposing voltage increases, the photocurrent (current due to the flow of
photoelectrons) decreases. Electrons with lower kinetic energy are stopped first.
Eventually, a voltage, called the stopping potential (Vs), is reached where the
photocurrent becomes zero. This means even the fastest electron is stopped.

At the stopping potential, the loss in kinetic energy of the fastest electron
equals the gain in electrical potential energy.

Calculating Kinetic Energy

At the stopping potential (Vs), we can write:

K max = qV s

Where:

K max is the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons.

q is the charge of an electron (1.6 x 10-19 C).
V s is the stopping potential recorded by the voltmeter.

This allows us to determine the K max . Using the equation:

hf = Φ + K max

where:

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h is Planck's constant
f is the frequency of the incident light
Φ is the work function of the material

we can then determine the work function of the material.

Photoelectric Effect Study Guide

Graphing the Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect can be studied by plotting graphs of experimental data. Two
common graphs are:

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Stopping Potential vs. Frequency: This graph plots the stopping potential (V s )
on the y-axis and the frequency (f ) of the incident light on the x-axis.

The equation governing this relationship is:

h ϕ
Vs = q
f− q

Where:

h is Planck's constant
q is the charge of an electron
f is the frequency of incident light
ϕ is the work function of the metal

The work function (ϕ) is the minimum energy required to remove an

electron from the surface of a metal.

Key features of the graph:

The y-intercept is − q .
ϕ

The x-intercept is the threshold frequency (f 0 ).

The gradient is hq .

Maximum Kinetic Energy vs. Frequency: This graph plots the maximum
kinetic energy (K max ) of the emitted electrons on the y-axis and the frequency
(f ) of the incident light on the x-axis.

The equation governing this relationship is:

K max = hf − ϕ

Key features of the graph:

The y-intercept is −ϕ (the negative of the work function).
The x-intercept is the threshold frequency (f 0 ).
The gradient is h.

Threshold Frequency and Work Function

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Threshold Frequency (f 0 ): The minimum frequency of light required to eject

electrons from a metal surface. This is the x-intercept of both graphs.
Work Function (ϕ): The minimum energy needed to remove an electron from
the metal surface. This is directly obtainable from the y-intercept of the K max
vs. f graph and can be calculated from the y-intercept of the V s vs. f graph (− q
ϕ

).

At the threshold frequency, the stopping potential (V s ) is zero, meaning

the emitted electrons have no kinetic energy. Substituting V s = 0 into the
equation V s = hq f − q gives f = f 0 .
ϕ

Multiple Photovoltaic Cells

If you conduct the photoelectric effect experiment using different photovoltaic cells
(different metals as emitting electrodes) and plot the graphs on the same axes, you
will obtain multiple parallel lines.

Why are the lines parallel? Because the gradient of each line is h
q
(or h in the
K max vs. f graph). Since h and q are constants, the gradient will be the same for
all metals.
Differences between the lines: The lines will have different y-intercepts
(representing different work functions) and x-intercepts (representing different
threshold frequencies).
Lowest Threshold Frequency: The photovoltic cell with the lowest threshold
frequency will have a graph closest to the y-axis.

Summary Table
y-
Graph y-axis x-axis Gradient x-intercept
intercept

Stopping Potential (V s Frequency ( Threshold

V s vs. f h
− ϕq
) f) q
Frequency (f 0 )
K max vs. Maximum Kinetic Frequency ( Threshold
Energy (K max ) f) Frequency (f 0 )
h −ϕ
f

Photoelectric Effect Study Guide

Threshold Frequency and Work Function

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The lowest threshold frequency (F not ) corresponds to the photo-emitting

electrode closest to the origin on a graph. This electrode will have the smallest
F not value and the lowest work function.
All threshold frequencies will be parallel to each other on the graph.

Stopping Voltage/Potential
Stopping voltage or stopping potential: The minimum voltage or
potential required to stop all electrons, including the fastest.

Electron Volt (eV)

Electron Volt: The work done in moving an electron through a potential
difference of 1 volt. 1 eV = 1.6 x 10^-19 J.

To convert Joules (J) to electron volts (eV): Divide the energy in Joules by 1.6 x
10^-19.
To convert electron volts (eV) to Joules (J): Multiply the energy in eV by 1.6 x
10^-19.

Summary of Key Concepts

Failure of Wave Theory: Understand why the wave theory couldn't explain the
photoelectric effect.
Photon Energy: E = hf = hc λ
where h is Planck's constant, f is frequency, c is
the speed of light, and λ is wavelength.
Threshold Frequency (f not ): The minimum frequency required to remove an
electron from a metal surface.
Work Function (Φ): The minimum energy required to remove an electron from a
metal surface; Φ = hf not = λhcnot
.
Intensity: I = n ⋅ hf , where n is the number of photons passing through a unit
area per second.
Photoelectric Equation: hf = Φ + K max , where K max = 12 mv 2max is the
maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons. This equation applies only to
surface electrons.
Stopping Potential: The minimum potential (V s ) required to stop the fastest
electrons: K max = qV s = eV s (where q or e is the electron charge).
1 eV = 1.6 x 10^-19 J

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Example Problem 1: Work Function, Electron

Speed, and Stopping Potential
Given:

Threshold frequency of a metal: f not = 5.16 × 10 14 Hz

Light frequency: f = 6.2 × 10 14 Hz
Mass of electron: m e = 9.11 × 10 −31 kg (given in datasheet)
Electron charge: e = 1.6 × 10 −19 C (given in datasheet)
Planck's constant: h = 6.63 × 10 −34 J·s (given in datasheet)

Find:

1. Work function (Φ) in eV

2. Speed of the fastest photoelectron (v max )
3. Stopping potential (V s )

Solution:

1. Φ = hf not = (6.63 × 10 −34 J⋅s)(5.16 × 10 14 Hz) = 3.42 × 10 −19 J. To convert to

eV, divide by 1.6 × 10 −19 J/eV to get 2.14 eV.

2. Use hf = Φ + 12 m e v 2max to solve for v max . Remember to use the work function
in Joules. This yields v max = 3.89 × 10 5 m/s.

3. Use K max = eV s and 1

2 m e v 2max to solve for V s . This yields V s = 0.43 V.

Example Problem 2: Work Function

Calculation from Kinetic Energy
Given:

Light frequency: f = 6 × 10 14 Hz
Maximum kinetic energy: K max = 2 × 10 −19 J

Find: Work function (Φ)

Solution:

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Use hf = Φ + K max to solve for Φ. This yields Φ = 2.0 × 10 −19 J . You would need to
convert this value to eV if the question requires it.

Photoelectric Effect Study Guide

Problem 1: Ejecting Electrons
This problem involves a multi-part calculation related to the photoelectric effect.

Part 1: Work Function

The work function (ϕ) is the minimum energy needed to remove an electron from the
surface of a metal. In this problem, ϕ = 1.978 × 10 −19 J.

Part 2: Speed of the Fastest Electron

To find the speed (v max ) of the fastest electron, we use the equation for maximum
kinetic energy:
1
K max = 2
mv 2max

Where:

K max is the maximum kinetic energy (2 × 10 −19 J)

m is the mass of the electron (9.11 × 10 −31 kg)

Solving for v max , we get:

v max = 6.63 × 10 5 m/s

Part 3: Stopping Potential

The stopping potential (V s ) is the voltage needed to stop the fastest electron. We
use the relationship:

qV s = K max

Where q is the charge of an electron (1.6 × 10 −19 C). Solving for V s , we find:

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V s = 1.25 V

Part 4: Effect of Increased Intensity

Increasing the intensity of radiation without changing the frequency will not change
the stopping potential. This is because the frequency determines the energy of
individual photons (E = hf ), and thus the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
electrons. Intensity only affects the number of photons, not their individual energy.
Since K max remains constant, V s also remains constant.

Problem 2: Red vs. Blue Light

This problem compares the photoelectric effect using red and blue light of equal
intensity.

Part 1: Photocurrent Comparison

The photocurrent is the rate of flow of photoelectrons. Intensity (I ) is related to the
number of photons (n) and the frequency (f ) by:

I = n × hf

Since the intensity of the red and blue light is the same:

n blue f blue = n red f red

Because f blue > f red , it follows that n red > n blue . Since one photon ejects one electron,
the red light produces a greater photocurrent.

Part 2: Stopping Potential Comparison

Since the frequency of blue light is greater than that of red light, blue light photons
have greater energy. Therefore, the maximum kinetic energy (K max ) of electrons
emitted by blue light will be greater. Since K max = qV s , the stopping potential will be
greater for blue light.

Problem 3: UV Lamp and Photoelectrons 🫙

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This problem involves calculating the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons and
explaining the effect of increasing the intensity of the UV light.

Part 1: Maximum Kinetic Energy

The maximum kinetic energy (K max ) is found using:

hf = ϕ + K max

Where:

h is Planck's constant (6.63 × 10 −34 Js)

f is the frequency of the UV light (4.2 × 10 15 Hz)
ϕ is the work function (convert from eV to J by multiplying by 1.6 × 10 −19 J/eV)

Solving for K max , we find K max = 2.13 × 10 −18 J.

Part 2: Effect of Increased Intensity (Same Frequency)

Increasing the intensity of the UV light while keeping the frequency constant
increases the number of photons (n) per unit area per second. Since each photon can
eject one electron, increasing the number of photons results in more electrons being
emitted per second.

Photoelectric Effect Study Guide

Gold Leaf Electroscope and Photoelectric
Effect ️
The gold leaf electroscope detects charge; deflection depends on the charge on the
zinc plate and conducting rod. When a negatively charged zinc plate is exposed to
ultraviolet (UV) radiation, the deflection of the gold leaf decreases. This is because
the UV radiation causes electrons to be emitted from the zinc plate.

Energy Calculations and Explanations

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Problem: Explain why the deflection of the gold leaf reduced when a zinc plate,
initially charged negatively, was exposed to UV radiation of 2 x 1015 Hz. The
work function of zinc is given as 6.9 x 10-19 J.

Solution:

1. Calculate the energy of the UV photon:

E = hf = (6.63 × 10 −34 Js)(2 × 10 15 Hz) = 1.326 × 10 −18 J

2. Compare the energy of the photon to the work function: The energy of the
photon (1.326 x 10-18 J) is greater than the work function (6.9 x 10-19 J).

3. Explain the effect: Since the photon energy exceeds the work function,
one photon interacts with one electron in the zinc plate, causing electron
emission. The zinc plate loses electrons, becoming positively charged and
attracting electrons from the gold leaf and central stem. This reduces the
overall charge and subsequently the deflection.

Lower Intensity, Same Frequency

Problem: What would be observed if ultraviolet radiation of the same
frequency but lower intensity was used?

Solution: Lower intensity means fewer photons per unit area per second (n).
Since one photon interacts with one electron, fewer electrons are emitted per
second. Therefore, it takes longer for the gold leaf to return to its vertical
position.

n: Number of photons falling on the zinc plate per unit area per second.

Threshold Frequency and Particle Theory of

Light

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Wave Theory Failure: The wave theory predicts that any frequency of radiation
should remove electrons from a metal, which is not observed.

Particle Theory Explanation: To remove an electron, the photon's energy (hf )

must be greater than or equal to the work function (ϕ). This leads to the
concept of a threshold frequency (f 0 ), the minimum frequency required to
remove an electron.

Work Function (ϕ): The minimum energy needed to remove an electron

from the surface of a metal.

Threshold Frequency (f 0 ): The minimum frequency of light required to

initiate the photoelectric effect.

Relationship: hf ≥ ϕ, where f ≥ f 0 . One photon interacts with one electron;

thus, the frequency must be above the threshold for electron emission.

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