CHAPTER 5

Life Processes

H ow do we tell the difference between what is alive and what is not

alive? If we see a dog running, or a cow chewing cud, or a man
shouting loudly on the street, we know that these are living beings.
What if the dog or the cow or the man were asleep? We would still
think that they were alive, but how did we know that? We see them
breathing, and we know that they are alive. What about plants? How do
we know that they are alive? We see them green, some of us will say.
But what about plants that have leaves of colours other than green?
They grow over time, so we know that they are alive, some will say.
In other words, we tend to think of some sort of movement, either
growth-related or not, as common evidence for being alive. But a plant
that is not visibly growing is still alive, and some animals can breathe
without visible movement. So using visible movement as the defining
characteristic of life is not enough. Movements over very small scales
will be invisible to the naked eye – movements of molecules, for
example. Is this invisible molecular movement necessary for life? If
we ask this question to professional biologists, they will say yes. In
fact, viruses do not show any molecular movement in them (until
they infect some cell), and that is partly why
there is a controversy about whether they are truly alive or not.
Why are molecular movements needed for life? We have seen in
earlier classes that living organisms are well-organised structures; they
can have tissues, tissues have cells, cells have smaller components in
them, and so on. Because of the effects of the environment, this
organised, ordered nature of living structures is very likely to keep
breaking down over time. If order breaks down, the organism will no
longer be alive. So living creatures must keep repairing and maintaining
their structures. Since all these structures are made up of molecules,
they must move molecules around all the time.
What are the maintenance processes in living organisms?
Let us explore.

5.1 WHAT ARE LIFE PROCESSES

The maintenance functions of living organisms must go on even when
they are not doing anything particular. Even when we are just sitting in

2024-
25
class, even if we are just asleep, this maintenance job has to go on.
The processes which together perform this maintenance job are
life processes.
Since these maintenance processes are needed to prevent
damage and break-down, energy is needed for them. This energy
comes from outside the body of the individual organism. So there must
be a process to transfer a source of energy from outside the body of
the organism, which we call food, to the inside, a process we
commonly call nutrition. If the body size of the organisms is to grow,
additional raw material will also be needed from outside. Since life
on earth depends on carbon- based molecules, most of these food
sources are also carbon-based. Depending on the complexity of
these carbon sources, different organisms can then use different
kinds of nutritional processes.
The outside sources of energy could be quite varied, since the
environment is not under the control of the individual organism. These
sources of energy, therefore, need to be broken down or built up in the
body, and must be finally converted to a uniform source of energy that
can be used for the various molecular movements needed for
maintaining living structures, as well as to the kind of molecules the
body needs to grow. For this, a series of chemical reactions in the
body are necessary. Oxidising-reducing reactions are some of the most
common chemical means to break-down molecules. For this, many
organisms use oxygen sourced from outside the body. The process
of acquiring oxygen from outside the body, and to use it in the process
of break-down of food sources for cellular needs, is what we call
respiration.
In the case of a single-celled organism, no specific organs for taking
in food, exchange of gases or removal of wastes may be needed
because the entire surface of the organism is in contact with the
environment. But what happens when the body size of the organism
increases and the body design becomes more complex? In multi-
cellular organisms, all the cells may not be in direct contact with the
surrounding environment. Thus, simple diffusion will not meet the
requirements of all the cells.
We have seen previously how, in multi-cellular organisms,
various body parts have specialised in the functions they perform. We
are familiar with the idea of these specialised tissues, and with their
organisation in the body of the organism. It is therefore not
surprising that the uptake of food and of oxygen will also be the
function of specialised tissues. However, this poses a problem, since
the food and oxygen are now taken up at one place in the body of the
organisms, while all parts of the body need them. This situation creates
a need for a transportation system for carrying food and oxygen from
one place to another in the body.
When chemical reactions use the carbon source and the oxygen for
energy generation, they create by-products that are not only useless
for the cells of the body, but could even be harmful. These waste by-
products are therefore needed to be removed from the body and
discarded outside by a process called excretion. Again, if the basic rules
for body

2024-
25
80 Science

2024-
25
design in multi-cellular organisms are followed, a specialised tissue
for excretion will be developed, which means that the transportation
system will need to transport waste away from cells to this excretory
tissue.
Let us consider these various processes, so essential to maintain
life, one by one.

5.2 NUTRITION
When we walk or ride a bicycle, we are using up energy. Even when
we are not doing any apparent activity, energy is needed to maintain
a state of order in our body. We also need materials from outside in
order to grow, develop, synthesise protein and other substances
needed in the body. This source of energy and materials is the food
we eat.

How do living things get their food?

The general requirement for energy and materials is common in all
organisms, but it is fulfilled in different ways. Some organisms use
simple food material obtained from inorganic sources in the form of
carbon dioxide and water. These organisms, the autotrophs, include
green plants and some bacteria. Other organisms utilise complex
substances. These complex substances have to be broken down into
simpler ones before they can be used for the upkeep and growth of the
body. To achieve this, organisms use bio-catalysts called enzymes. Thus,
the heterotrophs survival depends directly or indirectly on autotrophs.
Heterotrophic organisms include animals and fungi.

5.2.1Autotrophic Nutrition
Carbon and energy requirements of the autotrophic organism are
fulfilled by photosynthesis. It is the process by which autotrophs
take in substances from the outside and convert them into stored
forms of energy. This material is taken in the form of carbon dioxide
and water which is converted into carbohydrates in the presence of
sunlight and chlorophyll. Carbohydrates are utilised for providing
energy to the plant. We will study how this takes place in the next
section. The carbohydrates which are not used immediately are stored
in the form of starch, which serves as the internal energy reserve to
be used as and when required by the plant. A somewhat similar
situation is seen in us where some of the energy derived from the
food we eat is stored in our body in the form of glycogen.

2024-
25
Life Processes 81

2024-
25
 Let us now see what actually happens during the process of
photosynthesis. The following events occur during this process –

(i) Absorption of light energy by

chlorophyll.
(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical
energy and splitting of water molecules
into hydrogen and oxygen.
(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to
carbohydrates.
These steps need not take place one after
the other immediately. For example, desert
plants take up carbon dioxide at night and
prepare an intermediate which is acted upon
by the energy absorbed by the chlorophyll
during the day.
Let us see how each of the components
of the above reaction are necessary for
photosynthesis.
If you carefully observe a cross-section of
a leaf under the microscope (shown in Fig.
5.1), you will notice that some cells contain
green dots. These green dots are cell
organelles called chloroplasts which contain
Figure 5.1 chlorophyll. Let us do an activity which
Cross-section of a leaf demonstrates that chlorophyll is essential
for photosynthesis.

Activity 5.1
■ Take a potted plant with variegated leaves – for example, money plant
or crotons.
■ Keep the plant in a dark room for three days so that all the starch
gets used up.
Figure 5.2
Variegated leaf (a) before
■ Now keep the plant in sunlight for about six hours.
and (b) after starch test ■ Pluck a leaf from the plant. Mark the green areas in it and trace them
on a sheet of paper.
■ Dip the leaf in boiling water for a few minutes.
■ After this, immerse it in a beaker containing alcohol.
82 ■ Carefully place the above beaker in a water-bath and heat till the
alcohol begins to boil.
■ What happens to the colour of the leaf? What is the colour of the
solution?
■ Now dip the leaf in a dilute solution of iodine for a few minutes.
■ Take out the leaf and rinse off the iodine solution.
■ Observe the colour of the leaf and compare this with the tracing of
the leaf done in the beginning (Fig. 5.2).
■ What can you conclude about the presence of starch in various areas
of the leaf?

Science

2024-
25
 Now, let us study how the plant
obtains carbon dioxide. In Class IX,
we had talked about stomata (Fig.
5.3) which are tiny pores present on
the surface of the leaves. Massive
amounts of gaseous exchange takes
place in the leaves through these
pores for the
purpose of photosynthesis. But it is
important to note here that exchange
of gases occurs across the surface of
stems, roots and leaves as well.
Since large amounts of water can also Figure 5.3 (a) Open and (b) closed stomatal pore
be lost through these stomata, the
plant closes these pores when it
does not
need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. The opening and closing of the
pore is a function of the guard cells. The guard cells swell when
water flows into them, causing the stomatal pore to open. Similarly
the pore closes if the guard cells shrink.

Activity 5.2
■ Take two healthy potted plants
which are nearly the same size.
■ Keep them in a dark room for
three days.
■ Now place each plant on
separate glass plates. Place a
watch-glass containing potassium
hydroxide by the side of one of
the plants. The potassium
hydroxide is used to absorb
carbon dioxide.
■ Cover both plants with separate
bell-jars as shown in Fig. 5.4. (a) (b)
■ Use vaseline to seal the bottom
of the jars to the glass plates so Figure 5.4 Experimental set-up (a) with potassium
that the set-up is air-tight. hydroxide (b) without potassium hydroxide
■ Keep the plants in sunlight for
about two hours.
■ Pluck a leaf from each plant and check for the presence of starch as in the above activity.
■ Do both the leaves show the presence of the same amount of starch?
■ What can you conclude from this activity?

Based on the two activities performed above, can we design an

experiment to demonstrate that sunlight is essential for
photosynthesis?
So far, we have talked about how autotrophs meet their energy
requirements. But they also need other raw materials for building their
body. Water used in photosynthesis is taken up from the soil by the
roots in terrestrial plants. Other materials like nitrogen, phosphorus,
iron and magnesium are taken up from the soil. Nitrogen is an
essential element used in the synthesis of proteins and other
compounds. This is

2024-
25
Life Processes 83

2024-
25
 taken up in the form of inorganic nitrates or nitrites. Or it is taken up
as organic compounds which have been prepared by bacteria from
atmospheric nitrogen.

5.2.2Heterotrophic Nutrition
Each organism is adapted to its environment. The form of nutrition
differs depending on the type and availability of food material as well
as how it is obtained by the organism. For example, whether the food
source is stationary (such as grass) or mobile (such as a deer), would
allow for differences in how the food is accessed and what is the
nutritive apparatus used by a cow and a lion. There is a range of
strategies by which the food is taken in and used by the organism. Some
organisms break-down the food material outside the body and then
absorb it. Examples are fungi like bread moulds, yeast and mushrooms.
Others take in whole material and break it down inside their bodies.
What can be taken in and broken down depends on the body design
and functioning. Some other organisms derive nutrition from plants or
animals without killing them. This parasitic nutritive strategy is used
by a wide variety of organisms like cuscuta (amar-bel), ticks, lice,
leeches and tape-worms.

5.2.3 How do Organisms obtain their NutritionY

Since the food and the way it is obtained differ, the digestive system is
different in various organisms. In single-celled organisms, the
food may be taken in by the entire surface. But as the complexity
of the organism increases, different parts become specialised to
perform different functions. For example, Amoeba takes in food
using temporary finger-like extensions of the cell surface which
fuse over the food particle forming a food-vacuole (Fig. 5.5).
Inside the food- vacuole, complex substances are broken down
into simpler ones which then diffuse into the cytoplasm. The
remaining undigested material is moved to the surface of the cell
and thrown out. In Paramoecium, which is also a unicellular
organism, the cell has a definite shape and food is taken in at a
specific spot. Food is moved to this spot by the movement of cilia
which cover the entire surface of the cell.

Figure 5.5 5.2.4Nutrition in Human Beings

Nutrition in
Amoeba The alimentary canal is basically a long tube extending from the
mouth to the anus. In Fig. 5.6, we can see that the tube has different
parts. Various regions are specialised to perform different functions.
What happens to the food once it enters our body? We shall discuss
this process here.

84 Science

2024-
25
 Activity 5.3
■ Take 1 mL starch solution (1%) in two test tubes (A and B).
■ Add 1 mL saliva to test tube A and leave both test tubes
undisturbed for 20-30 minutes.
■ Now add a few drops of dilute iodine solution to the test tubes.
■ In which test tube do you observe a colour change?
■ What does this indicate about the presence or absence of starch
in the two test tubes?
■ What does this tell us about the action of saliva on starch?

We eat various types of food which has to pass through the same
digestive tract. Naturally the food has to be processed to generate
particles which are small and of the same texture. This is achieved by
crushing the food with our teeth. Since the lining of the canal is soft, the
food is also wetted to make its passage smooth. When we eat
something we like, our mouth ‘waters’. This is actually not only
water, but a fluid called saliva secreted by the salivary glands. Another
aspect of the food we ingest is its complex nature. If it is to be absorbed
from the alimentary canal, it has to be broken into smaller molecules.
This is done with the help of biological catalysts called
enzymes. The saliva contains an
enzyme called salivary amylase that
breaks down starch which is a
complex molecule to give simple
sugar. The food is mixed thoroughly
with saliva and moved around the
mouth while chewing by the
muscular tongue.
It is necessary to move the food
in a regulated manner along the
digestive tube so that it can be
processed properly in each part.
The lining of canal has muscles that
contract rhythmically in order to
push the food forward. These
peristaltic movements occur all
along the gut.
From the mouth, the food is
taken to the stomach through the
food-pipe or oesophagus. The
stomach is a large organ which
expands when food enters it. The
muscular walls of the
stomach help in mixing the food Figure 5.6 Human alimentary canal
thoroughly with more digestive
juices. The digestion in stomach is
taken
care of by the gastric glands present in the wall of the stomach.
These release hydrochloric acid, a protein digesting enzyme called
pepsin, and mucus. The hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium
which facilitates the action of the enzyme pepsin. What other function
do you think is served by the acid? The mucus protects the inner
lining of the stomach from the action of the acid under normal

2024-
25
conditions. We

Life Processes 85

2024-
25
 have often heard adults complaining about ‘acidity’. Can this be
related to what has been discussed above?
The exit of food from the stomach is regulated by a sphincter
muscle which releases it in small amounts into the small intestine.
From the stomach, the food now enters the small intestine. This is the
longest part of the alimentary canal which is fitted into a compact
space because of extensive coiling. The length of the small intestine
differs in various animals depending on the food they eat. Herbivores
eating grass need a longer small intestine to allow the cellulose to be
digested. Meat is easier to digest, hence carnivores like tigers have a
shorter small intestine.
The small intestine is the site of the complete digestion of
carbohydrates, proteins and fats. It receives the secretions of the
liver and pancreas for this purpose. The food coming from the
stomach is acidic and has to be made alkaline for the pancreatic
enzymes to act. Bile juice from the liver accomplishes this in addition
to acting on fats. Fats are present in the intestine in the form of large
globules which makes it difficult for enzymes to act on them. Bile salts
break them down into smaller globules increasing the efficiency of
enzyme action. This is similar to the emulsifying action of soaps on dirt
that we have learnt about in Chapter 4. The pancreas secretes
pancreatic juice which contains enzymes like trypsin for digesting
proteins and lipase for breaking down emulsified fats. The walls of the
small intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal juice. The
enzymes present in it finally convert the proteins to amino acids,
complex carbohydrates into glucose and fats into fatty acids and
glycerol.
Digested food is taken up by the walls of the intestine. The inner
lining of the small intestine has numerous finger-like projections
called villi which increase the surface area for absorption. The villi
are richly supplied with blood vessels which take the absorbed food
to each and every cell of the body, where it is utilised for obtaining
energy, building up new tissues and the repair of old tissues.
The unabsorbed food is sent into the large intestine where its
wall absorb more water from this material. The rest of the material is
removed from the body via the anus. The exit of this waste material
is regulated by the anal sphincter.

Dental caries
Dental caries or tooth decay causes gradual softening of enamel and dentine. It
begins when bacteria acting on sugars produce acids that softens or demineralises the
More to

enamel. Masses of bacterial cells together with food particles stick to the teeth to
*noV!

form dental plaque. Saliva cannot reach the tooth surface to neutralise the acid as
plaque covers the teeth. Brushing the teeth after eating removes the plaque
before the bacteria produce acids. If untreated, microorganisms may invade the
pulp, causing inflammation and infection.

2024-
25
86 Science

2024-
25
 Q U E S T I O N S

Y
1. What are the differences between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic
nutrition?
2. Where do plants get each of the raw materials required for photosynthesis?
3. What is the role of the acid in our stomach?
4. What is the function of digestive enzymes?
5. How is the small intestine designed to absorb digested food?

5.3 RESPIRATI
ON Pichkari
Activity 5.4
■ Take some freshly prepared lime
water in a test tube. Rubber
Tube
■ Blow air through this lime water. tube
■ Note how long it takes for the lime
water to turn milky.
■ Use a syringe or pichkari to pass air Test tube containing
through some fresh lime water Lime lime water
water
taken in another test tube (Fig. 5.7).
■ Note how long it takes for this lime
water to turn milky. (a) (b)
■ What does this tell us about the
amount of carbon dioxide in the air Figure 5.7
(a) Air being passed into lime water with a pichkari/
that we breathe out?
syringe, (b) air being exhaled into lime water

Activity 5.5
■ Take some fruit juice or sugar solution and add some yeast to
this. Take this mixture in a test tube fitted with a one-holed cork.
■ Fit the cork with a bent glass tube. Dip the free end of the glass
tube into a test tube containing freshly prepared lime water.
■ What change is observed in the lime water and how long does it
take for this change to occur?
■ What does this tell us about the products of fermentation?

We have discussed nutrition in organisms in the last section. The

food material taken in during the process of nutrition is used in cells
to provide energy for various life processes. Diverse organisms do
this in different ways – some use oxygen to break-down glucose
completely into carbon dioxide and water, some use other pathways
that do not involve oxygen (Fig. 5.8). In all cases, the first step is the
break-down of glucose, a six-carbon molecule, into a three-carbon
molecule called pyruvate. This process takes place in the cytoplasm.
Further, the pyruvate may be converted into ethanol and carbon
dioxide. This process takes place in yeast during fermentation. Since
this process takes place in the absence of air (oxygen), it is called
anaerobic respiration. Break- down of pyruvate using oxygen takes
place in the mitochondria. This

Life Processes 87
2024-
25
 process breaks up the three-carbon pyruvate molecule to give three
molecules of carbon dioxide. The other product is water. Since this
process takes place in the presence of air (oxygen), it is called aerobic
respiration. The release of energy in this aerobic process is a lot
greater than in the anaerobic process. Sometimes, when there is a lack
of oxygen in our muscle cells, another pathway for the break-down of
pyruvate is taken. Here the pyruvate is converted into lactic acid
which is also a three-carbon molecule. This build-up of lactic acid in
our muscles during sudden activity causes cramps.

Figure 5.8 Break-down of glucose by various pathways

The energy released during cellular respiration is immediately

used to synthesise a molecule called ATP which is used to fuel all
other activities in the cell. In these processes, ATP is broken down
giving rise to a fixed amount of energy which can drive the
endothermic reactions taking place in the cell.

ATP
ATP is the energy currency for most cellular processes. The energy released
during the process of respiration is used to make an ATP molecule from ADP and
inorganic phosphate.
More to
*noV!

Endothermic processes in the cell then use this ATP to drive the reactions. When the
terminal phosphate linkage in ATP is broken using water, the energy equivalent to
30.5 kJ/mol is released.
Think of how a battery can provide energy for many different kinds of uses. It can
be used to obtain mechanical energy, light energy, electrical energy and so on.
Similarly, ATP can be used in the cells for the contraction of muscles, protein
synthesis, conduction of nervous impulses and many other activities.

Since the aerobic respiration pathway depends on oxygen,

aerobic organisms need to ensure that there is sufficient intake of
oxygen. We have seen that plants exchange gases through stomata,
and the large inter-cellular spaces ensure that all cells are in contact
with air. Carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged by diffusion here.
They can go into

88 Science
2024-
25
cells, or away from them and out into the air. The direction of
diffusion depends upon the environmental conditions and the
requirements of the plant. At night, when there is no photosynthesis
occurring, CO2 elimination is the major exchange activity going on.
During the day,
CO2 generated during respiration is used up for photosynthesis,
hence there is no CO2 release. Instead, oxygen release is the major
event at this time.
Animals have evolved different organs for the uptake of oxygen
from the environment and for getting rid of the carbon dioxide
produced. Terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen in the
atmosphere, but animals that live in water need to use the oxygen
dissolved in water.

Activity 5.6
■ Observe fish in an aquarium. They open and close their mouths
and the gill-slits (or the operculum which covers the gill-slits)
behind their eyes also open and close. Are the timings of the
opening and closing of the mouth and gill-slits coordinated in some
manner?
■ Count the number of times the fish opens and closes its mouth in
a minute.
■ Compare this to the number of times you breathe in and out in a
minute.

Since the amount of dissolved oxygen is fairly low compared

to the amount of oxygen in the air, the rate of breathing in
aquatic organisms is much faster than that seen in terrestrial
organisms. Fishes take in water through their mouths and
force it past the gills where the dissolved oxygen is taken up More to
by blood.
Terrestrial organisms use the oxygen in the atmosphere
*noV!
for respiration. This oxygen is absorbed by different organs in Using tobacco directly or
different animals. All these organs have a structure that any product of tobacco in
the form of cigar,
increases the surface area which is in contact with the
cigarettes, bidis, hookah,
oxygen-rich atmosphere. Since the exchange of oxygen and
gutkha, etc., is harmful.
carbon dioxide has to take place across this surface, this Use of tobacco most
surface is very fine and delicate. In order to protect this commonly affects the
surface, it is usually placed within the body, so there have to tongue, lungs, heart and
be passages that will take air to this area. In addition, there is liver. Smokeless tobacco is
a mechanism for moving the air in and out of this area where also a major risk factor
the oxygen is absorbed. for heart attacks,
In human beings (Fig. 5.9), air is taken into the body strokes, pulmonary
through the nostrils. The air passing through the nostrils is diseases and several
filtered by fine hairs that line the passage. The passage is forms of cancers. There is
also lined with mucus which helps in this process. From here, a high incidence of oral
the air passes through the throat and into the lungs. Rings of cancer in India due to the
cartilage are present in the throat. These ensure that the air- chewing of tobacco in the
form of gutkha. Stay
passage does not collapse.

2024-
25
Life Processes 89

2024-
25
 Figure 5.9 Human respiratory system

Within the lungs, the passage divides into smaller and

smaller tubes which finally terminate in balloon-like structures
Do Wou *noVY which are called alveoli (singular–alveolus). The alveoli provide a
Smoking is injurious surface where the exchange of gases can take place. The walls of
to health.
the alveoli contain an extensive network of blood-vessels. As we
Lung cancer is one of have seen in earlier years, when we breathe in, we lift our ribs
common causes of
and flatten our diaphragm, and the chest cavity becomes larger
deaths in the world.
The upper part of as a result. Because of this, air is sucked into the lungs and fills
respiratory tract is the expanded alveoli. The blood brings carbon dioxide from the
provided with small rest of the body for release into the alveoli, and the oxygen in
hair-like the alveolar air is taken up by blood in the alveolar blood
structures called cilia. vessels to be transported to all the cells in the body. During the
These cilia help to breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs
remove germs, dust
always contain a residual volume of air so that there is
and other harmful
particles from inhaled sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for the carbon
air. Smoking destroys dioxide to be released.
these hair due to which When the body size of animals is large, the diffusion
germs, dust, smoke and pressure alone cannot take care of oxygen delivery to all parts
other harmful of the body. Instead, respiratory pigments take up oxygen from
chemicals enter lungs
the air in the lungs and carry it to tissues which are deficient in
and cause infection,
cough and even lung oxygen before releasing it. In human beings, the respiratory
pigment is haemoglobin which has a very high affinity for oxygen.
This pigment is present in the red blood corpuscles. Carbon
dioxide is more soluble in water than oxygen is and hence is
mostly transported in the dissolved form in our blood.

90 Science
2024-
25
 ■ If the alveolar surface were spread out, it would cover about 80 m2. How
much do you think the surface area of your body is? Consider how efficient
exchange of gases becomes because of the large surface available for the
Do Wou

exchange to take place.

*noVY

■ If diffusion were to move oxygen in our body, it is estimated that it would take 3
years for a molecule of oxygen to get to our toes from our lungs. Aren’t you glad
that we have haemoglobin?

Q U E S T I O N S

Y
1. What advantage over an aquatic organism does a terrestrial organism
have with regard to obtaining oxygen for respiration?
2. What are the different ways in which glucose is oxidised to provide
energy in various organisms?
3. How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings?
4. How are the lungs designed in human beings to maximise the area for
exchange of gases?

5.4 TRANSPORTATION
5.4.1 Transportation in Human Beings

Activity 5.7
■ Visit a health centre in your locality and find out what is the
normal range of haemoglobin content in human beings.
■ Is it the same for children and adults?
■ Is there any difference in the haemoglobin levels for men and
women?
■ Visit a veterinary clinic in your locality. Find out what is the normal
range of haemoglobin content in an animal like the buffalo
or cow.
■ Is this content different in calves, male and female animals?
■ Compare the difference seen in male and female human beings
and animals.
■ How would the difference, if any, be explained?

We have seen in previous sections that blood transports food,

oxygen and waste materials in our bodies. In Class IX, we learnt
about blood being a fluid connective tissue. Blood consists of a fluid
medium called plasma in which the cells are suspended. Plasma
transports food, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes in dissolved
form. Oxygen is carried by the red blood corpuscles. Many other
substances like salts, are also transported by the blood. We thus need
a pumping organ to push blood around the body, a network of tubes to
reach all the tissues and a system in place to ensure that this network
can be repaired if damaged.

Life Processes 91
2024-
25
 Our pump — the heart
The heart is a muscular organ which is
as big as our fist (Fig. 5.10). Because
both oxygen and carbon dioxide have to
be transported by the blood, the heart
has different chambers to prevent the
oxygen-rich blood from mixing with
the blood containing carbon dioxide.
The carbon dioxide-rich blood has to
reach the lungs for the carbon dioxide
to be removed, and the oxygenated
blood from the lungs has to be brought
back to the heart. This oxygen-rich
blood is then pumped to the rest of
the body.
We can follow this process step by
step (Fig. 5.11). Oxygen-rich blood
Figure 5.10
Schematic sectional
from the lungs comes to the thin-walled
view of the human upper
heart chamber of the heart on the left, the left atrium. The left atrium relaxes
when it is collecting this blood. It then contracts, while the next
chamber, the left ventricle, relaxes, so that the blood is transferred to it.
When the muscular left ventricle contracts in its turn, the blood is
pumped out to the body. De-oxygenated blood comes from the body
to the upper chamber on the right, the right atrium, as it relaxes. As
the right atrium contracts, the corresponding lower chamber, the right
ventricle, dilates. This transfers blood to the right ventricle, which in
turn pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation. Since ventricles have to
pump blood into various organs, they have thicker muscular walls than
the atria do. Valves ensure that blood does not flow backwards when
the atria or ventricles contract.

Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs

The separation of the right side and the left side of
the heart is useful to keep oxygenated and de-
oxygenated blood from mixing. Such separation
allows a highly efficient supply of oxygen to the
body. This is useful in animals that have high
energy needs, such as birds and mammals, which
constantly use energy to maintain their body
temperature. In animals that do not use energy
for this purpose, the body temperature depends
on the temperature in the environment. Such
animals, like amphibians or many reptiles have
three-chambered hearts, and tolerate some
mixing of the oxygenated and de-oxygenated
blood streams. Fishes, on the other hand, have
only two chambers to their hearts, and the blood
Figure 5.11 is pumped to the gills, is oxygenated there, and
Schematic representation of transport and passes directly to the rest of the body. Thus, blood
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide goes only once through the heart in the fish
during one cycle of
passage through the body. On the other hand, it goes through the heart
twice during each cycle in other vertebrates. This is known as double
circulation.
2024-
25
92 Science

2024-
25
 Blood pressure
The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is called blood pressure.
This pressure is much greater in arteries than in veins. The pressure of blood
inside the artery during ventricular systole (contraction) is called systolic pressure
and pressure in artery during ventricular diastole (relaxation) is called diastolic
pressure. The normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and diastolic
pressure is 80 mm of Hg.
More to
*noV!

Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called sphygmomanometer. High

blood pressure is also called hypertension and is caused by the constriction of
arterioles, which results in increased resistance to blood flow. It can lead to the
rupture of an artery and internal bleeding.

The tubes – blood vessels

Arteries are the vessels which carry blood away from the heart to
various organs of the body. Since the blood emerges from the heart
under high pressure, the arteries have thick, elastic walls. Veins
collect the blood from different organs and bring it back to the heart.
They do not need thick walls because the blood is no longer under
pressure, instead they have valves that ensure that the blood flows
only in one direction.
On reaching an organ or tissue, the artery divides into smaller
and smaller vessels to bring the blood in contact with all the
individual cells. The smallest vessels have walls which are one-cell
thick and are called capillaries. Exchange of material between the
blood and surrounding cells takes place across this thin wall. The
capillaries then join together to form veins that convey the blood
away from the organ or tissue.

Maintenance by platelets
What happens if this system of tubes develops a leak? Think about
situations when we are injured and start bleeding. Naturally the loss of
blood from the system has to be minimised. In addition, leakage would
lead to a loss of pressure which would reduce the efficiency of the

2024-
25
Life Processes 93

2024-
25
pumping system. To avoid this, the blood has platelet cells which
circulate around the body and plug these leaks by helping to clot the
blood at these points of injury.

Lymph
There is another type of fluid also involved in transportation. This is
called lymph or tissue fluid. Through the pores present in the walls of
capillaries some amount of plasma, proteins and blood cells escape into
intercellular spaces in the tissues to form the tissue fluid or lymph. It
is similar to the plasma of blood but colourless and contains less
protein. Lymph drains into lymphatic capillaries from the
intercellular spaces, which join to form large lymph vessels that finally
open into larger veins. Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from
intestine and drains excess fluid from extra cellular space back into
the blood.

5.4.2Transportation in Plants
We have discussed earlier how plants take in simple compounds
such as CO2 and photosynthesise energy stored in their chlorophyll-
containing organs, namely leaves. The other kinds of raw materials
needed for building plant bodies will also have to be taken up
separately. For plants,
the soil is the nearest and richest source of raw materials like
nitrogen, phosphorus and other minerals. The absorption of these
substances therefore occurs through the part in contact with the soil,
namely roots. If the distances between soil-contacting organs and
chlorophyll- containing organs are small, energy and raw materials can
easily diffuse to all parts of the plant body. But if these distances
become large because of changes in plant body design, diffusion
processes will not be sufficient to provide raw material in leaves and
energy in roots. A proper system of transportation is therefore
essential in such situations.
Energy needs differ between different body designs. Plants do not
move, and plant bodies have a large proportion of dead cells in many
tissues. As a result, plants have low energy needs, and can use relatively
slow transport systems. The distances over which transport systems
have to operate, however, can be very large in plants such as very tall
trees.
Plant transport systems will move energy stores from leaves and
raw materials from roots. These two pathways are constructed as
independently organised conducting tubes. One, the xylem moves
water and minerals obtained from the soil. The other, phloem
transports products of photosynthesis from the leaves where they are
synthesised to other parts of the plant. We have studied the structure
of these tissues in detail in Class IX.

Transport of water
In xylem tissue, vessels and tracheids of the roots, stems and leaves are
interconnected to form a continuous system of water-conducting
channels reaching all parts of the plant. At the roots, cells in contact
with the soil actively take up ions. This creates a difference in the
concentration of these ions between the root and the soil. Water,
therefore,
2024-
25
94 Science

2024-
25
moves into the root from the soil to eliminate this difference. This
means that there is steady movement of water into root xylem, creating
a column of water that is steadily pushed upwards.
However, this pressure by itself is unlikely to be enough to move
water over the heights that we commonly see in plants. Plants use
another strategy to move water in the xylem upwards to the highest
points of the plant body.

Activity 5.8
■ Take two small pots of approximately the same size and having
the same amount of soil. One should have a plant in it. Place a
stick of the same height as the plant in the other pot.
■ Cover the soil in both pots with a plastic sheet so that moisture
cannot escape by evaporation.
■ Cover both sets, one with the plant and the other with the stick,
with plastic sheets and place in bright sunlight for half an hour.
■ Do you observe any difference in the two cases?

Provided that the plant has an adequate

supply of water, the water which is lost through
the stomata is replaced by water from the xylem
vessels in the leaf. In fact, evaporation of water
molecules from the cells of a leaf creates a suction
which pulls water from the xylem cells of roots. The
loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial
parts of the plant is known as transpiration.
Thus, transpiration helps in the absorption and
upward movement of water and minerals
dissolved in it from roots to the leaves. It also helps
in temperature regulation. The effect of root
pressure in transport of water is more important at
night. During the day when the stomata are open,
the transpiration pull becomes the major driving
Figure 5.12
force in the movement of water in the xylem. Movement of water during transpiration in a tree

Transport of food and other substances

So far we have discussed the transport of water and minerals in
plants. Now let us consider how the products of metabolic processes,
particularly photosynthesis, are moved from leaves, where they are
formed, to other parts of the plant. This transport of soluble products
of photosynthesis is called translocation and it occurs in the part of
the vascular tissue known as phloem. Besides the products of
photosynthesis, the phloem transports amino acids and other
substances. These substances are especially delivered to the storage
organs of roots, fruits and seeds and to growing organs. The
translocation of food and other substances takes place in the sieve
tubes with the help of adjacent companion cells both in upward and
downward directions.
Unlike transport in xylem which can be largely explained by
simple physical forces, the translocation in phloem is achieved by
utilising

2024-
25
Life Processes 95

2024-
25
 energy. Material like sucrose is transferred into phloem tissue using
energy from ATP. This increases the osmotic pressure of the tissue
causing water to move into it. This pressure moves the material in
the phloem to tissues which have less pressure. This allows the
phloem to move material according to the plant’s needs. For example,
in the spring, sugar stored in root or stem tissue would be
transported to the buds which need energy to grow.

Q U E S T I O N S

Y
1. What are the components of the transport system in human beings?
What are the functions of these components?
2. Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in
mammals and birds?
3. What are the components of the transport system in highly organised
plants?
4. How are water and minerals transported in plants?
5. How is food transported in plants?

5.5 EXCRETION
We have already discussed how organisms get rid of gaseous wastes
generated during photosynthesis or respiration. Other metabolic activities
generate nitrogenous materials which need to be removed. The biological
process involved in the removal of these harmful metabolic wastes from
the body is called excretion. Different organisms use varied strategies to
do this. Many unicellular organisms remove these wastes by simple
diffusion from the body surface into the surrounding
water. As we have seen in other processes, complex
multi-cellular organisms use specialised organs to
perform the same function.

5.5.1 Excretion in Human Beings

The excretory system of human beings (Fig. 5.13)
includes a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a
urinary bladder and a urethra. Kidneys are located
in the abdomen, one on either side of the
backbone. Urine produced in the kidneys passes
through the ureters into the urinary bladder
where it is stored until it is released through the
urethra.
How is urine produced? The purpose of
making urine is to filter out waste products from
the blood. Just as CO2 is removed from the blood
Figure 5.13 in the lungs,
nitrogenous waste such as urea or uric acid are
removed from blood in the kidneys. It is then no
Excretory system in human beings surprise that the basic filtration unit in the kidneys,

2024-
25
96 Science

2024-
25
like in the lungs, is a cluster of very thin-walled
blood capillaries. Each capillary cluster in the kidney
is associated with the cup-shaped end of a coiled
tube called Bowman’s capsule that collects the
filtrate (Fig. 5.14). Each kidney has large numbers of
these filtration units called nephrons packed close
together. Some substances in the initial filtrate, such
as glucose, amino acids, salts and a major amount of
water, are selectively re-absorbed as the urine flows
along the tube. The amount of water re-absorbed
depends on how much excess water there is in the
body, and on how much of dissolved waste there is to
be excreted. The urine forming in each kidney
eventually enters a long tube, the ureter, which
connects the kidneys with the urinary bladder. Urine
is stored in the urinary bladder until the pressure of the
expanded bladder leads to the urge to pass it out
through the urethra. The bladder is muscular, so it is
under nervous control, as we have discussed Figure 5.14
elsewhere. As a result, we can usually control the Structure of a nephron
urge to urinate.

Artificial kidney (Hemodialysis)

Kidneys are vital organs for survival. Several factors like infections, injury or
restricted blood flow to kidneys reduce the activity of kidneys. This leads to
accumulation of poisonous wastes in the body, which can even lead to death. In
case of kidney failure, an artificial kidney can be used. An artificial kidney is a
device to remove nitrogenous waste products from the blood through dialysis.
Artificial kidneys contain a number of tubes with a semi-permeable lining, suspended
in a tank filled with dialysing fluid.
This fluid has the same osmotic
pressure as blood, except that it
is devoid of nitrogenous wastes.
The patient’s blood is passed
More to

through these tubes. During this

*noV!

passage, the waste products from

the blood pass into dialysing fluid
by diffusion. The purified blood is
pumped back into the patient. This
is similar to the function of the
kidney, but it is different since
there is no re- absorption
involved. Normally, in a healthy
adult, the initial filtrate in the
kidneys is about 180 L daily.
However, the volume actually
excreted is only a litre or two a
day, because the remaining filtrate
is re- absorbed in the kidney
tubules.

2024-
25
Life Processes 97

2024-
25
 Think it over! 5.5.2 Excretion in
Plants
Organ donation
Organ donation is a generous act of donating an Plants use completely different
organ to a person who suffers from non-function of strategies for excretion than those
organ(s). Donation of an organ may be done by the of animals. Oxygen itself can be
consent of the donor and his/her family. Anyone thought of as a waste product
regardless of age or gender can become an organ generated during
and tissue donor. Organ transplants can save or photosynthesis! We have
transform the life of a person. Transplantation is discussed earlier how plants deal
required because recipient’s organ has been with oxygen as well as
damaged or has failed by disease or injury. In \CO2. They can get rid of excess
organ transplantation the organ is surgically water by transpiration. For other
removed from one person (organ donor) and wastes, plants use the fact that
transplanted to another person (the many of
recipient). Common transplantations include their tissues consist of dead cells,
corneas, kidneys, heart, liver, pancreas, lungs, and that they can even lose some
intestines and bone marrow. Most organ and parts such as leaves. Many plant
tissue donations occur just after the donor has waste products are stored in
died or when the doctor declares a person brain cellular vacuoles. Waste products
dead. But some organs such as kidney, part of a may be stored in leaves that fall
liver, lung, etc., and tissues can be donated while off. Other waste products are
the donor is alive. stored as resins and gums,
especially in old xylem. Plants
also excrete some waste
substances into the soil around
them.

Q U E S T I O N S

Y
1. Describe the structure and functioning of nephrons.
2. What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products?
3. How is the amount of urine produced regulated?

2024-
25
 What you have learnt
■ Movement of various types can be taken as an indication of life.
■ Maintenance of life requires processes like nutrition, respiration, transport of
materials within the body and excretion of waste products.
■ Autotrophic nutrition involves the intake of simple inorganic materials from the
environment and using an external energy source like the Sun to synthesise
complex high-energy organic material.
■ Heterotrophic nutrition involves the intake of complex material prepared by other
organisms.
■ In human beings, the food eaten is broken down by various steps along the
alimentary canal and the digested food is absorbed in the small intestine to be
sent to all cells in the body.

98 Science

2024-
25
 ■ During the process of respiration, organic compounds such as glucose are broken
down to provide energy in the form of ATP. ATP is used to provide energy for
other reactions in the cell.
■ Respiration may be aerobic or anaerobic. Aerobic respiration makes more
energy available to the organism.
■ In human beings, the transport of materials such as oxygen, carbon dioxide,
food and excretory products is a function of the circulatory system. The
circulatory system consists of the heart, blood and blood vessels.
■ In highly differentiated plants, transport of water, minerals, food and other
materials is a function of the vascular tissue which consists of xylem and
phloem.
■ In human beings, excretory products in the form of soluble nitrogen
compounds are removed by the nephrons in the kidneys.
■ Plants use a variety of techniques to get rid of waste material. For example,
waste material may be stored in the cell-vacuoles or as gum and resin,
removed in the falling leaves, or excreted into the surrounding soil.

E X E R C I S E S
1. The kidneys in human beings are a part of the system for
(a) nutrition. (c) excretion.
(b) respiration. (d) transportation.
2. The xylem in plants are responsible for
(a) transport of water. (c) transport of amino acids.
(b) transport of food. (d) transport of oxygen.
3. The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires
(a) carbon dioxide and water. (c) sunlight.
(b) chlorophyll. (d) all of the above.
4. The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in
(a) cytoplasm. (c) chloroplast.
(b) mitochondria. (d) nucleus.
5. How are fats digested in our bodies? Where does this process take place?
6. What is the role of saliva in the digestion of food?
7. What are the necessary conditions for autotrophic nutrition and what are its
by- products?
8. What are the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration? Name some
organisms that use the anaerobic mode of respiration.
9. How are the alveoli designed to maximise the exchange of gases?
10. What would be the consequences of a deficiency of haemoglobin in our bodies?
11. Describe double circulation of blood in human beings. Why is it necessary?
12. What are the differences between the transport of materials in xylem and phloem?
13. Compare the functioning of alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the kidneys
with respect to their structure and functioning.

Life Processes 99

2024-
25