CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION

Rice, Oryza sativa is one of the important cereal crops, being the staple food for more than
65 % of the world population (Mathur et al, 1999). Rice is a cereal crop, belongs to the
family Gramineae. In rice cultivation, only Asia accounts for about 90% of world’s rice in
area and production. Among the rice growing countries, India has largest area under rice in
the world i.e., 28% of the world’s area of production, and ranks second to the China (Tiwari
et al, 2014) Total production of rice during 2022-23 is estimated at a record 1357.55lakh
tons. The total area under rice in Chhattisgarh is 3899.34 hac,and productivity is 3212
kg/hac.(Anonymous).

The rice crop is also requiring warm and humid climatic conditions from transplanting to
maturity which is very conducive for development of insect-pests. Nearly 300 species of
insect-pests have been reported in rice crop, among these only 23 species cause economic
damage (Bhogadhi and Bentur, 2015; Kaur et al., 2020) . In India cultivation of rice is mainly
practiced in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Bihar. Bihar
ranks fifth in the cultivation of rice (3268 tone ha).

A number of insect pests that attack rice plants account for yield losses of 24% worldwide.
Insect pest cause at least 20% field losses in rice in India (Pathak et al., 1982). More than 70
species of insect pests are known to feed on rice, and at least 20 of them can seriously affect
rice production. A variety of factors can contribute to pest outbreaks, including climatic
factors, improper irrigation, high rates of nitrogen fertilizer application, overuse of
insecticide. Insect pests attack all parts of the rice plant at all growth stages and some serve
as vectors of viruses that adversely affect the plant.

Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) are fungal species that are pathogenic to insects.These fungal
pathogens play a vital role in insect population dynamics making it the earliest insect pests
control agents. Earliest farmers rely on the actions of predators, pathogens and host plant
resistance for the control of insect pests until the discovery of insecticide. The first
groundbreaking field trials with EPF started with a Russian microbiologist, Elie Metchnikoff
in 1888, who later became a Nobel Prize winner and named Metarhizium anisopliae (more
recently named M. brunneum). Metchnikoff mass produced fungal conidia on sterilized
brewer’s mash and combine cultures with sand granules for spreading on field crops.

Studies on EPF was quiet after the World War II when affordable synthetic chemical
insecticides became available for insect pests control. Recent developments on EPF show
that they can serve as an integral part of integrated pest management strategy.Many insect
pathogenic fungi based bio-insecticides have been formulated and commercially
manufactured. The application of EPF in biological control is increasing largely because of
greater environmental awareness, food safety concerns and the failure of conventional
chemicals due to an increasing number of insecticide resistant species. These ‘ready to use’
formulations are available in many developed and developing countries of Europe, Asian,
Africa and the West. These microbial pesticides occupy around 1.3 per cent of the world’s
total pesticide.

The brown plant hopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens Stal (Homoptera: Delphacidae) is one of
the major rice pests that sometimes cause huge economic losses. It is well-known that the
strategy for controlling BPH has depended on chemical insecticides for a long time (Chung et
al., 1982, Liu et al., 2003). Both nymphs and adults of BPH damage rice plants through
extensive feeding. Brown plant hopper causes serious damage during the early stages of plant
growth and the infested plants show hopper burn symptoms due to intensive sucking of the
plant (Dale, 1994).

Rice ear head bug Leptocorisa oratorius formerly known as L. maculiventris Dallas and
sometimes confused with L. acuta Thunberg but can easily be separated by a series of
ventrolateral black dots on the abdomen (Ahmad, 1965) [1] . It is a major pest of rice, widely
distributed in southern and south-eastern Asia and Australia (Pathak, 1968)It appears to be a
minor pest of rice in northern India, where it is known as gundhi bug. This bug has a wide
range of host plants includes mostly Graminae (cultivated or wild), such as sorghum, grasses
(viz. Ccnchrus, Digitaria, Echinochloa and Panicum) and legumes (Li, 1985).

The importance of entomogenous fungi as biological control agents has been reviewed by
Latge and Moletta (1988), McCoy et al.(1988), McCoy (1990), Ferron et al.(1991), Roberts
and Hajek (1992), Tanada and Kaya (1993), and Hajek and St Leger (1994).The search for
commercially viable entomogenous fungi for use in integrated pest management programmes
entails several steps. Fungal species and isolates must first be obtained from diseased insects
or the environment, and identified. They must then be evaluated under laboratory conditions
to identify the most promising candidates. Concomitantly, several problem.

Anamorphic entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin

and Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin from the order Hypocreales
(Ascomycota) are natural enemies of a wide range of insects and arachnids and both fungi
have a cosmopolitan distribution (Roberts and St. Leger, 2004, Rehner, 2005). Much effort
has been put into research on the development of B. bassiana and M. anisopliae as biological
control agents (for inundation and inoculation biological control) to be applied in agriculture
and forestry in temperate regions. However, this bulk of knowledge is in striking contrast to
the lack of research into the fundamental ecology of these fungi in terrestrial ecosystems,
including agroecosystems.

Lecallicilium saksenae is a species of fungus belonging to the genus lecanicilium in the

family Cordycipitaceae.It was first isolate from soil in India.Fungi in the Lecanillium genus
are know for their ability to parasitize insect,making them potential candidates for biocontrol
agents against insect pests.Lecanicillium saksenae specifically has been studies for its
potential as a biocontrol agent against various insect pest,including termites and agricultural
pest like white flies and aphid.(Shankar and Rani,2018)
 1. To evaluate some entomopathogens against ear head bug of
rice.

Abstract
Sustainable and environmentally safe pest management often
involves the use of natural enemies as an alternative to chemical
means. For successful management of pests by natural enemies, a
balanced population between insect pests and their natural
enemies should be achieved. In this study, we compared such
population balances in rice fields of Cambodia under the
following conditions: no insecticide (NI), chemical pesticide-based
conventional practice (CP), the use of a biopesticide (Beauveria
bassiana, Bb), and the use of an orange oil extract (Oo).
Treatment effects were evaluated by monitoring 17 species
of insect pests and 15 species of natural enemies at two sites for
two seasons. In the NI treatment, the level of natural enemies was
the highest, however, the pest population density was also higher
in this treatment than in the Bb and the Oo treatments, resulting
in a low grain yield similar to that in the CP treatment notably in
one trial. The Bb and the Oo treatments showed the lowest insect
pest populations, although the Oo treatment had little impact on
the populations of natural enemies. These results suggest that
contributions of Bb and Oo treatments to decreasing pest
populations were greater than those of the NI and the CP
treatments, and that the Bb and the Oo treatments resulted in a
favorable balance between populations of insect pests and their
natural enemies. A high level of white earhead caused
by stemborers resulted in significant yield losses in one trial.
Among the four treatments in the trial, the Bb treatment resulted
in the highest grain yield, and importantly, this treatment
depressed the insect pest populations without much affecting the
populations of their natural enemies. Overall, the results of this
study suggest that the use of biopesticides in rice paddies is
effective to keep the well-balanced population between insect
pests and natural enemies by decreasing the serious pests such as
stemborer and leaf folder that directly affect rice grain yields.

Present investigation was carried out to evaluate the efficacy of

some insecticides and their can mixtures against major insect
pests of rice during Kharif seasons of 2013, 2014 and 2015 at
Regional Research and Technology Transfer Station (RRTTS),
Coastal Zone, OUAT, Bhubaneswar, Odisha. The experiment
constituted eleven treatments such as profenophos 50EC
@1000ml ha-1, cypermethrin 10EC @500ml/ha, flubendiamide
39.35EC @125ml ha-1, thiacloprid 240SC @625ml ha-1 ,
imidacloprid 30.5SC @150ml ha-1, profenophos 40% +
cypermethrin 4% @440ml ha-1, ethiprole 40% + imidacloprid
40% @ 125g ha-1, flubendiamide 240SC + thiacloprid 240SC
@300ml ha-1, fipronil 0.3%G @20 kg ha-1, monocrotophos 36EC
@750ml ha-1and untreated control for comparison. All the
treatments significantly reduced the major insect pests in
comparison to the untreated control due to their specific mode of
action. The results clearly indicated that flubendiamide 240SC +
thiacloprid 240SC @300ml ha-1was most effective in
management of major insect pests in rice by reduction of 71.24
per cent dead heart (DH) and 66.26 per cent white ear head
(WEH) caused by stem borer, 86.39 per cent silver shoot (SS) by
gall midge, 48.48 per cent infested leaves by leaffolder (LF), 91.15
per cent in population of brown plant hopper (BPH) over
untreated control. Apart from that the said treatment could
achieve highest average yield (53.40 q ha-1) and net return of ¹
20,492 ha-1 over control with highest benefit cost ratio (1.43)
compared to the individual insecticidal treatments of
flubendiamide 39.35EC @125ml ha-1with (1.16) and thiacloprid
240SC @625ml ha-1 with (1.19) benefit cost ratio. The overall
performance of other pre mixed insecticides were found to be
better than the performance of the individual insecticides.
Keywords: Can mixture of insecticides, dead heart (DH), net
return over control , silver shoot (SS), white ear head (WEH)

Rice earhead bug, L. acuta (Hemiptera: Alydidae) is found in

almost of countries where rice crop is grown. It, however,
becomes more prevalent in rainfed wetland or upland rice. In
Cuu Long Delta of Vietnam, rice earhead bug (REB) is one of the
major pests of rice crop which leads to considerable field losses.
Experiments were conducted in the greenhouse and field to
evaluate the efficacy of some new isolates of M. anisopliae and B.
bassiana against REB L. acuta. The results in the greenhouse
showed that all of 12 selected isolates of M. anisopliae and B.
bassiana which have been isolated from naturally infected insects
during 2003-05 were found to be pathogenic to the tested REB.
The morality percentage of L. acuta caused by B. bassiana and M.
anisopliae isolates from 57.5 to 77.7% and from 74.7 to 87% at 10
DAT, respectively. Among 12 new selected isolates of M.a and B.b
have been tested, M.a (OM3-BD), M.a (HG3-B) and M.a (HG5-
BD) exhibited higher pathologenicity to REB as compared to the
rest. In field experiments, all of 12 selected isolates of M.
anisopliae and B. bassiana were found to be effective for
controlling REB, the efficacy could be seen from 7 DAY and
reached to its highest peak at 14 DAT. The field mortality of L.
acuta caused by B. bassiana and by M. anisopliae isolates ranged
from 45.3 to 74.9% and from 63.6 to 86.6% at 10 DAT,
respectively. M. anisopliae showed better efficacy against REB as
compared to B. bassiana. Among 12 new selected of M.a and B.b
that have been tested, M.a (OM3-BD), M.a (HG3-B) and M.a
(HG3-BD) exhibited higher efficacy against the REB compared to
the rest.
Abstract: Bug is an important pest of rice plants because it can
reduce the quality and quantity of production, so it is essential to
control its population. One of the efforts to control rice bugs is to
use the biological agent Lecanicillium lecanii because it does not
cause resistance and is not harmful to human health. This study
aims to determine the effect of the number of doses of
Lecanicillium lecanii application in controlling the pest
population of walang sangit (rice bugs) in rice cultivation. The
research method used a completely randomized design (CRD)
with four treatment doses of the biological agent Lecanicillium
lecanii with a rank of 9 x 107 . P0 without biological agent
treatment, P1 = using a biological agent with a dose of 10 ml.L-1
of water, P2 = using biological agent with a doses of 12.5 ml.L-1 of
water, P3 = using biological agent with a dose of 15 ml.L-1 of
water, and. Each treatment was repeated 4 times. The results of
the study The application dose of 15 ml.L-1 gave the best results,
and this is in accordance with the recommendations of BBPOPT
Jatisari that the application dose of Lecanicillium lecanii is 15
ml.L -1 .
Abstract Field observations and laboratory evaluation of
potential natural enemies of rice black bugs (RBB), coupled with
literature and internet searches, were conducted to gather
information on the different Scotinophara spp., their distribution
and, most importantly, their natural enemies and secondary
players. The details gathered were compiled and documented in
order to produce the food web of one of the most destructive pests
of the rice plant,“the invasive RBB of the world,”the genus
Scotinophara. The collected information served as the foundation
for the development of the RBB food web. Experts had been
consulted, earlier works had been put together, and the RBB food
web has been developed. Based on the gathered information, the
food web of the Scotinophara spp. comprises 70 species: 39
predators, 17 parasitoids/parasitesincluding 4 entomopathogens,
32 hyperpredators, and 7 hyperparasitoids.The
dominantpredators are Coleoptera (11),Araneae
(7),Aves(5),Orthoptera (4),Dermaptera (3), Salientia (3),
Hymenoptera (3),Hemiptera (2), andLepidoptera
(1).Thedominantparasites/parasitoids/entomopathogens are
Hymenoptera (8), Entomophthorales(4), Nematoda (3), and
Acarina (2). There are 39 species of secondarynatural
enemies,whichincludehyperpredatorssuchasAraneae
(15),Coleoptera (11),Aves(5), Hymenoptera (3), Salientia (3),
Dermaptera (3), and hyperparasitoids such as Hymenoptera (4),
Acarina (1), Diptera (1), and Neuroptera (1). There are 512
linkagesthat comprise the RBB food web: 56 linkages
onpredationandparasitismon RBB, 7 linkageson hyperparasitism,
and449 linkageson hyperpredation. Data regarding action and
identification of natural enemies, hostranges, and bioecology were
compiled to give emphasis on and to device a biological control
method against RBB.
Abstract
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a vital crop with enormous economic and
nutritional importance in Nepal and worldwide. The yellow stem
borer (YSB), Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) (Lepidoptera:
Crambidae), is a monophagous severe pest that poses a
substantial threat to rice crops, causing significant yield losses by
its larva feeding on stems and tillers. This review covers the life
cycle, distribution, damage, and management and control
strategies of YSB. YSB primarily targets rice plants, causing
symptoms like dead hearts and whiteheads. Integrated pest
management (IPM) strategies are crucial for effective YSB
control. Cultural practices include selecting resistant rice
varieties, using Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) incorporated
transgenic rice plants, synchronizing planting to reduce
generations, and promoting natural enemies by conserving their
habitats. Mechanical methods involve pheromone and light traps
to disrupt mating and reduce adult populations. Biological
control methods utilize natural predators like beetles and spiders
and parasitoids such as Cotesia flavipes and Trichogramma spp.
In contrast, chemical control involves targeted insecticide
application when pest populations reach economic threshold
levels that is when 5–10% dead hearts are seen. The article
emphasizes the importance of IPM techniques in reducing YSB
infestation and fostering sustainable rice production. These
approaches not only help to lower the YSB population but also
contribute to environmental preservation and long-term
agricultural viability. As rice is a staple food for millions, effective
management of YSB becomes crucial for guaranteeing food
security and livelihoods across the globe.
Abstract
Field experiments were conducted to evaluate the efficacy of 3
formulations, 1. a dry rice grain-based inoculum, 2. a soaked dry
rice grain-based inoculum, and 3. an aqueous conidial suspension
of Beauveria bassiana (isolate ICIPE 35) against the stem
borer Chilo partellus. Maize plants were artificially infested with
an egg mass (blackhead-stage) placed into the whorl 2 weeks after
plant emergence. Each of the 3 formulations was applied as a
single treatment. The aqueous formulation and dry rice grain-
based inoculum showed similar performance in reducing larval
population of C. partellus, foliar damage, and stalk tunnel length.
The grain yield was significantly higher in both of these
treatments compared with the control. The dry rice grain-based
inoculum, which is easy to apply, induced the highest fungal
infection rates in the larval population 2 weeks after application.
This formulation should be developed using other cheap, locally
available raw materials.
ABSTRACT Yellow stem borer,Scirpophaga incertulas Walker
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) is considered as major paddy pest of
global importance.For investigating the role of S.incertulas as
mechanical vector of fungal pathogen, experiments in field
condition were carried out at two different places, viz. Central
Research farm, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya (BCKV),
Nadia, West Bengal and Tarakeswar, Hooghly, West Bengal
during two consecutive kharif seasons of 2018-2019.The
infestation by S.incertulas was identified in terms of the incidence
of Dead Heart (DH) produced during vegetative growth stage of
paddy crop. Twenty DH sample were collected and brought to the
Laboratory of Dept. of Zoology, Rabindra Mahavidyalaya,
Champadanga, Hooghly, West Bengal. Then the DH stem
portions were splitted meridionally, larvae of different age groups
were collected and stored them within a test tube. Few drops of
the suspension made from the washing of the body surface of the
larvae were inoculated randomly in Petri plates containing Potato
dextrose agar (PDA) media that was incubated at 26 ± 2°C for 6-7
days. One fungal isolate was obtained in pure culture. Morpho-
taxonomy reveals the isolate was Aspergillus flavus. It is thus
evicted that apart from paddy crop damage, S.incertulas also acts
as a carrier of potent mycotoxin producing fungal pathogen
Aspergillus flavus.
Abstract
This study evaluated the effects of combining the
entomopathogen green muscardine fungus Metarhizium
anisopliae (Metchnikoff) with three compatible chemical
insecticides (imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, and pymetrozine)
against the rice gundhi bug Leptocorisa acuta (Thunberg) in rice
under field conditions. The results revealed that among the
various treatments, imidacloprid exhibited the most promising
results, leading to a bioefficacy of 71.13% followed by
imidacloprid (half-dose) + M. anisopliae combination, which
achieved a bioefficacy of 63.95% in the field over two consecutive
seasons. The highest reduction in L. acuta population over control
was observed in the imidacloprid (69.73%) followed by M.
anisopliae + pymetrozine (half-dose) (65.79%). In terms of rice
grain yield, imidacloprid again outperformed other treatments
with a yield of 41.98 q ha-1 with a benefit-cost ratio of 2.57
followed by the imidacloprid (half-dose) + M.
anisopliae combination, which yielded 41.61 q ha-1 with B:C ratio
of 2.42.

Abstract: Among planthoppers infesting rice, white backed

planthopper (WBPH), Sogatella furcifera (Horvath) (Hemiptera:
Delphacidae) has become a menace to rice growers recently.
Biology of the S. furcifera studied during winter (December) and
summer months (March) showed a shorter incubation period and
nymphal duration in summer when compared to the winter. The
developmental cycle was longer in December. The fecundity of S.
furcifera was more during March. But the per cent hatchability
was higher in December. However, there was no significant
difference in the per cent survival of WBPH over two seasons.
The sex ratio exhibited significant difference in two seasons with
more number of males during March than that in December.
Population build up studied under laboratory condition recorded
a reduction in fecundity of WBPH in the second generation.
Feeding study conducted by honeydew test revealed that adult
females produced more feeding damage than the adult males and
any other stages of WBPH. The insect excreted two amino acids
(glutamic acid and aspartic acid) along with the honeydew. The
important natural enemies recorded were spiders (Argeops sp.,
Lycosa pseudoannulaata, Oxyopus spp., Thomisus spp. and
Salticus spp.) and mirid predator, Cyrtorhinus lividipennis
(Reut.). Two entomopathogenic fungi isolated from WBPH were
identified as Aspergillus flavus (Dirk.) and Penicillium oxalicum
(Currie & Thomb). This is the first report of above mentioned
entomopathogenic fungal infection on WBPH. Imidacloprid and
lambda cyhalothrin were more toxic to WBPH nymphs and
recorded lower LC50 values. Among the tested insecticides,
higher relative toxicity (compared to imidacloprid) was exhibited
by lambda cyhalothrin. Under laboratory condition,
phosphamidon and monocrotophos were more persistent which
persisted for seven days while the DDVP persisted only for three
days. There was a slight reduction in total protein content in
insecticide treated samples compared to the untreated ones.
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Many scientists and workers have investigated in several rice varieties under
Diverse conditions and the efficacy and distribution of natural enemies worldwide
and also in India.The following review examines the literature on insect pests and
natural enemies relevant to this subject.

The study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of

entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) as an alternative strategy for the sustainable control of
Nilaparvata lugens. Three species of EPF, Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae and
Lecanicillium lecanii, were tested against N. lugens with two suspensions of each tested EPF
applied in different treatments. The observed mortality of N. lugens adults during the overall
exposure period for the lowest and highest concentrations of each EPF ranged from 0–100%. At
both highest and lowest concentrations of EPF, when sprayed on adult, the mortality of N.
lugens was higher as compared to when sprayed on the stem pieces as food. Results also
indicated that maximum and minimum percent mycosis and sporulation from dead cadavers of
N. lugens were recorded in both conidial suspensions of L. lecanii and M. anisopliae,
respectively, in all treatments. The high efficacy levels recorded in the current study indicates
that M. anisopliae can be effective biological control agents against N. lugens.

Screening experiment was showed the pathogenicity of 16 fungal

strains belong to the species Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo-Crivelli) Vuillemin, B. brongniartii
(Sacc.) Petch, Metarhizium anisopliae (Metchnikoff) Sorokin, Lecanicillium lecanii (Zare and
Gams) and Paecilomyces fumosoroseus Vassiljevsky against the two plant sap sucking pests,
the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae Sulzerand and the European tarnished bug, Lygus
rugulipennis Poppius. The two strains ART41 and ART2580 of B. bassiana showed highest
pathogenicity on M. persicae with a mortality rate of 92 and 98%, respectively, seven days post
treatment. Mortality rates of L. rugulipennis reached 92 and 98% seven days after treatment for
the B. bassiana strains ART2580 and ART360BB, respectively. These results should be
confirmed in open field experiments by exposing both insects to the suggested B. bassiana
strains.

The study was concluded that both fungi, B. bassiana and M.

anisopliae have a potential for effective and economically feasible control of tested stored
product insects. Pathogenicity of the entomopathogenic fungi, Beauveria bassiana and
Metarhizium anisopliae towards certain stored product insects; Callosobruchus maculatus F.,
Rhyzopertha dominica (F.), Sitophilus oryzae (L.) and Oryzaephilus surinmensis (L.) was
investigated. Results revealed that B. bassiana was more efficient against cowpea weevil, C.
maculatus, R. dominica and O. surinmensis than M. anisopliae. However, M. anisopliae was
efficient against S. oryzae. Adults of the four insects species responded in fluctuated manner;
the C. maculatus was the most susceptible species to both fungi, followed by R. dominica then
O. surinmensis, while S. oryzae was the least.

A laboratory experiment was conducted to study the bioefficacy of

insecticides against BPH. The results showed that two days after treatment, chlorpyriphos 20EC
@ 800 ga.i./ha recorded highest mortality of 98.33% and was at par with thiamethoxam 25WG
@ 25 g a.i./ha and imidacloprid 200 SL @ 25 g a. i./ha with 70.07 and 75.00% mortality of
BPH respectively. The treatment acephate 95 SG @ 592 g a.i./ha recorded least mortality of
31.67%. Four days after treatment chlorpyriphos 20EC @ 800 ga.i./ha and imidacloprid 200SL
@ 25 g a.i./ha recorded cent per cent mortality of BPH.The results showed that buprofezin 25
SC @ 200 g a.i./ha was more effective after 3 days up to the 14 days in reducing BPH, followed
by thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 25 g a.i./ha and Imidacloprid 200 SL @ 25 ga.i./ha.

Experiments were conducted to evaluate the three Metarhizium

anisopliae strains were collected from the various institutes. Among the three strains,
Metarhizium (M1) strain (NBAIR) showed a higher percentage of mortality against N. lugens
(76.67%) under in vitro conditions.Four concentration of each of the strain were used along
with untreated control to determine the LC50 and LT50 for the Metarhizium strains. The least
LT50 value of 4.4 days was registered in M1 strain with the spore concentration of 1 X 108 and
the LC50 value was 3.4 X 104 respectively. Metarhizium (M1) strains altered the feeding
behavior and nymphal emergence of N. lugens under screen house condition.
 Increase in dose of Metarhizium anisoplea from 2 kg/ha to 3 kg/ha
decreased the BPH counts at 7 days after spraying. This was on par with Thiomethoxam.
Similar beneficial effect was also noticed on the seed yield of paddy. Sparaying of Metarhizium
anisoplea @ 2.5 kg/ha recorded significantly higher seed yield of paddy (8060 kg/ha)
over Metarhizium anisoplea @ 2 kg/ha (7643 kg/ha), Clothiandidin (6701 kg/ha) and control
(5922 kg/ha). This was at par with Thiomethoxam (8313 kg/ha) and Imidachloraprid (7843
kg/ha). The Metarhizium anisoplea 2. 5 kg/ha was not found to be phytotoxic and it was safer to
natural enemies.

A field experiment was conducted for two cropping seasons from

January to December 2014 in Agusan del Norte to evaluate the efficacy of Beauveria bassiana
against the rice bug, Leptocorisa oratorius Fabr. One field spray application of B. bassiana
fungal suspension at the rate of 1 x 10 sup 9 conidia/mL during panicle initiation of the rice
crop had significantly lower rice bug (36-47%) population than in the control treatment (55%)
but higher than that with insecticide treatment (29%) 1 week after post treatment. The
population count of dead biological organisms such as Micraspiscrocea, damselflies, spiders,
parasitic wasps and yield components of the rice plants were recorded.

The objective of this research was to search for Metarhizium spp., a

genus of entomopathogenic fungi in the Clavicipitaceae family, from forest soil in three districts
of Phetchabun Province, Thailand: Khao Kho, Lom Kao and Nam Nao to control BPH.
Metarhizium spp. fungi were isolated by soil dilution plate technique and determined their
efficacy using conidia suspension at the concentration of 1X108 conidia/mL on BPH at the 2-
3th instar nymph fed on seedlings of susceptible rice cultivars, Taichung Native 1 (TN1). The
species identification showed that the DNA sequence of Metarhizium sp. isolate, PB-75, was
98.6% similar to M. anisopliae Genbank ID JQ889704.1. Evolutionary history based on
phylogenetic analysis using neighbor-joining and maximum parsimony methods confirmed that
PB-75 formed the same phylogenetic clade with M. anisopliae Genbank ID JQ889704.1 and M.
anisopliae var. anisopliae.

Field experiments were conducted to evaluate the bio-efficacy of

Metarhizium anisopliae – based liquid formulations (Bio-Magic® 1.50%) against Brown Plant
Hopper (BPH), Nilaparvatha lugens Stal (Homoptera: Delphacidae) at the farmers’ holdings of
Theni district during Summer 2015 and kharif 2015. Bio-Magic was tested at three doses of
1500 mL, 2000 mL and 4000 mL ha-1 against BPH. The results revealed that Biomagic @ 4000
mL ha-1 (84.08 and 83.21 per cent) and 2000 mL ha-1 (82.76 and 81.62 %) statistically on par
in terms of efficacy in suppressing the population of BPH after two rounds of application during
both the seasons with increase in grain yield of 89.58 and 88.60 per cent over untreated check.
The lower dose of Biomagic® 1.5 LF @ 1500 mL ha1 ranked second in the order of efficacy,
however it was better than the standard check (Quinolphos 25 EC @ 1500 mL ha-1 ).

We were investigated the bacterial flora of field N. lugens collected

from Jiangsu Province, China, in 2012 and tested its insecticidal activity. A novel bacterium
strain, S-JS1, was isolated from N. lugens nymphs and adults and showed a high level of
insecticidal activity. Based on its phenotypic, physiological and biochemical properties, and its
16S rRNA gene phylogeny, the isolate was assigned to Serratia marcescens; the name S.
marcescens S-JS1 is proposed.These results indicate that the S-JS1 isolate appears to be a
promising S. marcescens strain with strong biocontrol potential against N. lugens.

They were investigated the effects of a new fungal strain M.

anisopliae CQMa421 on two important rice planthoppers, Nilaparvata lugens (Stål)
and Sogatella furcifera (Horváth) under both laboratory and field conditions. The synergy of M.
anisopliae with insecticides (i.e., thiamethoxam, pymetrozine and buprofezin) on the two pests
was also examined. The fungus M. anisopliae CQMa421 infected N. lugens and S.
furcifera adults, with an LT50 of approximately 4 days observed under high conidial
concentrations (1 × 108 conidia/ml). M. anisopliae also exhibited good compatibility with two
selected insecticides, thiamethoxam and pymetrozine. Rice planthoppers are one of the most
prominent pests of rice, and high resistance to insecticides has become a challenge for their
control.The results suggest that the fungus M. anisopliae CQMa421 is a good biocontrol agent
for N. lugens and S. furcifera and that the combined use of M. anisopliae with insecticides is an
alternative strategy for pest control.

Beauveria bassiana Vuill. and Metarhizium anisopliae Sorok fungi

were collected at different locations in Vietnam and studied at NPPRI [National Plant
Protection Research Inst.] from 1990 to 1992 to determine their effects on brown planthopper
(BPH). Results from laboratory and greenhouse experiments on BPH showed that suspension
with a spore concentration of 5 x 10 to the eighth power spores/ml was optimum and caused a
70 percent mortality rate for BPH. A higher spore concentration is needed, however, in the
field. Suspensions at 6.5 x 10 to the thirteenth power spores/ha were used to control BPH in
sticky rice at NPPRI, with Beauveria killing 57.9 percent of BPH and Metarhizium killing 42.2
percent 10 d after treatment (DAT). In experiments in Tien Giang Province using variety TG29,
it was observed that Beauveria killed 58.3 percent and Metarhizium killed 67.20 percent of BPH
10 DAT.

The aim of this was to study biological product B. bassiana SUTTU01 pellets in laboratory-
level control of brown planthopper N. lugens. The B. bassiana was developed into 2
formulations, Formula 1; B. bassiana fungus tablets, and Formula 2; B. bassiana, pumice, and
cassava starch. The B. bassiana products were stored at 24°C storage for 15 and 30 days, fungal
spore concentrations were tested, and at 1 and 2 months, the efficacy of B. bassiana was tested
on the mortality of brown planthopper N. lugens, compared with fresh fungi and control. A
completely randomized design (CRD) was used. The result shows that the concentrations of B.
bassiana fungal spores of Formulas 1 and 2 were not statistically different (P > 0.05) but were
statistically different (P < 0.05) from unformulated fungi.

A study titled “Bioefficacy of entomopathogenic fungi against rice

bug, Leptocorisa oratorius Fab. (Alydidae: Hemiptera)” was carried out at Dept. of Agricultural
Entomology to evaluate efficacy of three entomopathogenic fungi namely Beauveria bassiana,
Metarhizium anisopliae and Lecanicillium lecanii for the biocontrol of rice bug. Mortality of
rice bugs were recorded at 24h interval for 10 days. Ten days after treatment B. bassiana was
the most effective among the three fungal pathogens tried, with mortality values ranging from
68.88 per cent at 105 spores per ml to the highest value of 97.77 per cent at 108 spores per ml.
This was followed by malathion with 95.55 per cent and B. bassiana at 107 spores per ml with
93.33 per cent mortality respectively, all being on par with each other. M. aniospliae and L.
lecanii at the rate of 108 spores per ml registered the highest mean mortality of 71.11 and 62.22
per cent respectively.

Laboratory assays demonstrated the capacity of both pathogens to

infect Bemisia argentifolii nymphs on excised hibiscus leaves incubated at relative humidities as
low as 25% at 23 ± 2°C (ca. 35% infection by B. bassiana and P. fumosoroseus resulted from
applications of 0.6–1.4 × 103 conidia/mm2 of leaf surface).In small-scale field trials using
portable air-assist sprayers, applications at a high rate of 5 × 10 13 conidia in 180 liters water/ha
produced conidial densities of ca. 1–2.5 × 103 conidia/mm2 on the lower surfaces of cucurbit
leaves. Multiple applications of one isolate of P. fumosoroseus and four isolates of B.
bassiana made at this rate at 4- to 5-day intervals provided >90% control of large (third- and
fourth-instar) nymphs on cucumbers and cantaloupe melons.The results indicated that both B.
bassiana and P. fumosoroseus have strong potential for microbial control of nymphal whiteflies
infesting cucurbit crops.

Nine plant derivatives were tested for their inhibitory effect on

nymphs of the brown planthopper [Nilaparvata lugens] and the whitebacked planthopper
[Sogatella furcifera] on rice. Forty-day-old potted IR20 plants were sprayed with 1% oils of
neem (Azadirachta indica), pinnai (Calophyllum inophyllum), pungam (Pongamia glabra [P.
pinnata]) and illupai (Madhuca longifolia), 2% neem seed kernel and 2% seed extracts of the
other plants, and a 5% neem cake extract. All the plant derivatives tested were effective in
reducing adult emergence of the pests. The greatest reduction in the case of N. lugens was
obtained with 5% neem cake extract, followed by 2% pungam seed extract, and in the case of S.
furcifera the greatest reduction was also obtained with the neem cake extract, followed by the
2% neem seed kernel.

Experiments on the use of Verticillium lecanii as a wettable powder

(Mycotal) for the control of Trialeurodes vaporariorum on cucumbers and tomatoes
and Frankliniella occidentalis on cucumbers in greenhouses in the Netherlands are
summarized. Weekly sprays with Mycotal at 10 3 spores/ml resulted in a 90% reduction of
populations of T. vaporariorum. Infection rates of up to 60% of F. occidentalis were also
recorded. Integration with other natural enemies was possible.

The strain PDRL711 of M. anisopliae was found less effective,

whereas, strains PDRL738 of M. anisopliae and PDRL1029 of L. lecanii were found avirulent.
Based on the lab bioassays, each entomopathogenic fungal strain was used @ 107 c.f.u. ml-1 to
evaluate its efficacy against mustard aphid infestation on canola plants under screen house
conditions. Data showed a non-significant reduction in efficacy of different strains under screen
house conditions as compared to lab bioassays. Strain PDRL922 reduced its efficacy from 98 to
83%, strain PDRL812 from 100 to 73% and Strain PDRL1187 from 88 to 77%. However, strain
PDRL526 showed as increase in efficacy from 72 to 83% and strain PDRL711 from 44 to 70%.
Strains PDRL1029 and PDRL738 appeared to be avirulent during lab as well as screen house
trials. The study revealed that the strain PDRL526 of M. anisopliae, PDRL922 of L. lecanii,
PDRL1187 of B. bassiana, PDRL812 of P. lilacinus, and PDRL711 of M. anisopliae have
potential for use as bio-pesticides against mustard aphid under field conditions.

The study aimed to determine the effectiveness of Entomopathogenic

fungi (EPF), Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana in controlling AfRGM on four
popular rice cultivars under screenhouse conditions at AfricaRice/IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria. The
experiment was laid out in a 4 x 3 factorial fitted in a completely randomized design (CRD) in
three replications. Results showed that although both fungi significantly reduced AfRGM tiller
infestation, the degree of reduction varied with the specific fungus and rice variety
grown. Beauveria bassiana exhibited better control of AfRGM on FARO 37 and FARO 44
varieties, while M. anisopliae was more effective on FARO 66 and FARO 67 varieties. Tiller
infestation had a significant negative correlation with grain yield (r= − 0.87, R 2 = 77). The study
also indicated that the two fungi strains had no harmful effect on the chlorophyll content and
positively influenced agronomic traits and grain yield.

The use of entomopathogen fungi such as Beauveria bassiana to

control these pests has been reported to be quite effective and has other advantages, namely
being friendly to the environment. This study aims to determine the potential of Beauveria
bassiana in controlling BP and RBB. The research was conducted in January-July 2018 in Pulo
Kencana Village, Pontang District, Serang Regency, Banten Province on irrigated rice fields.
The environmental design used was a split plot design with Beauveria bassiana application
treatment, chemical control based on pest populations with 50% active ingredient propoxur and
farmer control technology (pesticide mixture intervals). Each treatment consisted of 2 varieties
Mekongga and Inpari 33, with 6 replications.The results showed that the population of BP and
RBB was generally lower in the existing chemical treatment of farmers. The pest preference
was lower in Inpari 33 variety. Furthermore, the production in the Beauveria
bassiana application was 12.06-24.48% lower than the existing and controlled chemical control
of farmers. Meanwhile, farmers' preference for Beauveria bassiana application is 31.93% and
chemical control is 40.76%.

All of isolates of fungi Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium

anisopliae were collected and purified from different sites infected effectively on BPH including
Omon (Vietnam), Hyderabad, Pant Nagar, and Tamil Nadu (India). The pathogenicity tests with
different isolates of Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae against third instar nymphs
and adults of brown planthopper (BPH) were done in glass house. The fungal source collected
at local site was more virulent to BPH than exotic ones. The most effective concentration of B.
bassiana in controlling BPH is 6x1012 spores/ha. B. bassiana and M. anisopliae gave good
results to control brown planthopper at 7-day after spraying treatment and they were also more
effective than the combined treatments and Rotenone. Rice bran medium was the most suitable
for mass production of B. bassiana, because it produced much more dried biomass product than
other media. Under favorable conditions for developing BPH, fungal applied treatments could
give significantly higher yield as compared to insecticidal applied treatments, but under
unfavorable conditions for developing BPH, rice yields among treatments were not significantly
different.

Bug is an important pest of rice plants because it can reduce the

quality and quantity of production, so it is essential to control its population. One of the efforts
to control rice bugs is to use the biological agent Lecanicillium lecanii because it does not cause
resistance and is not harmful to human health. This study aims to determine the effect of the
number of doses of Lecanicillium lecanii application in controlling the pest population of
walang sangit (rice bugs) in rice cultivation. The research method used a completely
randomized design (CRD) with four treatment doses of the biological agent Lecanicillium
lecanii with a rank of 9 x 107 . P0 without biological agent treatment, P1 = using a biological
agent with a dose of 10 ml.L-1 of water, P2 = using biological agent with a doses of 12.5 ml.L-1
of water, P3 = using biological agent with a dose of 15 ml.L-1 of water, and. Each treatment
was repeated 4 times. The results of the study The application dose of 15 ml.L-1 gave the best
results, and this is in accordance with the recommendations of BBPOPT Jatisari that the
application dose of Lecanicillium lecanii is 15 ml.L -1 .

The on farm trials were conducted to determine the efficacy of

conventional and novel insecticides against brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens
(Stål), in rice during kharif 2017 and 2018. All the treatments were effective for BPH
management than control. The results of the first year study revealed that the application of
Imidacloprid 17.8 SL @ 100 ml ha-1 was found superior by registering lower population of
BPH (4.70/ hill) followed by Flonicamid 50 WG @ 150 g ha-1 with 5.67 BPH/hill after 7 days
after spray. However, during the second year trial conducted on different insecticides revealed
that BPH population was recorded lowest i.e., 3.60 per hill with the application of Buprofezin
25 SC @ 1000 ml ha-1 after 10 days after spray. The effect of this insecticide application was
also resulted in the highest grain yield (74.51 q/ha) and maximum benefit cost ratio (6.09).

In the present study, the effect of continuous application

of chlorpyrifos (0.5 kg ha−1) in rice fields on non-target groups of soil microbes and nematodes
was studied for seven seasons (four wet and three dry seasons) during 2009–2013. Treatments
were arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications of chlorpyrifos-
treated (0.5 kg a.i. ha−1) (CT) and untreated control (UT) plots. During seven seasons of
experimentation, regular application of chlorpyrifos had no significant effect on population of
heterotrophic aerobic, anaerobic, oligotrophic and copiotrophic bacteria in CT compared to UT,
whereas, population of asymbiotic aerobic nitrogen fixer, nitrifiers, denitrifiers, gram positive
and spore-forming bacteria were significantly reduced by nearly 0.25–2 fold in CT than UT.
However, comparatively less deviation in population of actinomycetes, fungi, phosphate
solubilizing and sulfur oxidizing bacteria were observed in CT than UT. Significant interactions
were found between effects of chlorpyrifos with time in population dynamics of microbes.
Overall, the present findings revealed that non-target effect of repetitive application of
chloropyrifos (0.5 kg ha−1) on soil microbes and nematodes was found less under rice-rice
cropping system.

Field experiments were conducted to evaluate the bio-efficacy of

Metarhizium anisopliae–based liquid formulations (Bio-Magic® 1.50%) against Brown Plant
Hopper (BPH), Nilaparvatha lugens Stal (Homoptera: Delphacidae) at the farmers’ holdings of
Theni district during Summer 2015 and kharif 2015. Bio-Magic was tested at three doses of
1500 mL, 2000 mL and 4000 mL ha-1 against BPH. The results revealed that Biomagic@ 4000
mL ha-1 (84.08 and 83.21 per cent) and 2000 mL ha-1 (82.76 and 81.62%) statistically on par
in terms of efficacy in suppressing the population of BPH after two rounds of application during
both the seasons with increase in grain yield of 89.58 and 88.60 per cent over untreated check.
The lower dose of Biomagic® 1.5 LF@ 1500 mL ha-1 ranked second in the order of efficacy,
however it was better than the standard check.

Field experiment was conducted in Instructional-Cum-Research

(ICR) farm, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat during rabi 2018-19 to evaluate the bio-
efficacy of certain entomopathogenic fungus against major insect pests of Brassica campestris
var. toria. Results of efficacy of entomopathogenic fungus against mustard aphid and sawfly
revealed that, lowest mean population of aphid and sawfly was observed in dimethoate 30 EC
@ 2 ml/lit treated plots after the spray followed by Lecanicillium lecanii (NBAIR) and highest
population was observed in Azadirachtin @ 2 ml/lit treated plot, but in case of flea beetle,
lowest mean population was observed in dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/lit treated plots followed by
L. lecanii (NBAIR) and highest was observed in Metarhizium anisopliae (AAU-culture) treated
plot. The efficacy of treatments against C. transversalis revealed that after the spray, highest
mean population was observed in Azadirachtin @ 2 ml/lit treated plots followed by L. lecanii
(AAU-culture), whereas highest mean population of D. rapae was observed in Azadirachtin @ 2
ml/lit treated plots followed by M. anisopliae (AAU-culture).

Microbial biopesticides developed at AAU, Jorhat with bioagents

viz., Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Beauveria bassiana,
Metarhizium anisopliae, Lecanicillium lecanii, Bacillus thuringiensis were tested in both field
and pot conditions at the prescribed concentrations against non-target insect pest. In the field
experiment of tomato crop, the coccinellid count after 1st and 2nd sprays of different
biopesticides showed no statistically significant difference as compared to the control at 3, 7 and
10 days after spraying. Similarly, in the pot experiment of okra crop, it was observed that there
was no statistically significant difference in coccinellid beetles between the control pot and the
treated pots, both after 1st and 2nd spray of biopesticides at 3, 7 and 10 days after spraying. In
both cases, the population of coccinellids, the pests' natural adversaries, was unaffected
negatively by the biopesticides.

Non-target effects of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria

brongniartii (Ascomycota: Clavicipitaceae) on Poecilus versicolor (Coleoptera: Carabidae), a
potential antagonist of the European cockchafer Melolontha melolontha, were studied with three
different B. brongniartii formulations, Melocont-Pilzgerste, Melocont-WP, and Melocont-WG.
All formulations induced significantly enhanced mortality rates among third instar larvae of the
target pest M. melolontha, but no negative effects on the non-target organism were observed.
The results suggest that under field conditions B. brongniartii would be a negligible risk for P.
versicolor.

This studies evaluated the growth of entomogenous fungi (Beauveria

bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae) on different synthetic culture media (i.e. potato dextrose
(PD), Sabouraud's dextrose (SD), Czapek-dox (CD) and chitin-containing media with and
without yeast extract) in Petri dishes as well as on different grain-based media (i.e. paddy,
sorghum, wheat, bengal gram, black gram, groundnut, pigeon pea, soyabean, pea and lentil) in
conical flasks. Biomass and conidial counts were recorded. SD with yeast extract and sorghum-
based medium were the best among synthetic and grain-based culture media, respectively.
These media gave significantly higher biomass and conidial counts of both entomogenous fungi
tested.

Fourteen entomopathogenic fungi were tested for controlling females

of the brown plant hoppers; Nilaparvata lugens Stal, Sogatella furcifera Horvath, Nephotettix
virescense Distant, and Recilia dorsalis Motschulsky under laboratory conditions. The two most
virulent fungi, Beauveria bassiana CKB- 048, and Metarhizium robertsii CKM-048 showed
good capabilities in controlling N. lugens and S. furcifera. None of them could control N.
virescense and R. dorsalis effectively. B. bassiana CKB-048 and M. robertsii CKM-048 were
formulated into wettable powder form using dextrose anhydrous as filler and then tested at 2
paddy fields in Thailand for controlling N. lugens.The chemical (isoprocarb) was used for
comparison. Efficacy of both biocontrol agents against N. lugens was good but a bit inferior to
the chemical control treatment. However, the effect of both biocontrol agents and the chemical
against 3 natural enemies, Lycosa pseudoannulata Bosenberg et Stand, Tetragnatha maxillosa
Thorell and Cyrtorhinus lividipennis Reuter were monitored. Statistically, there was no
difference in population density among treatments for every natural enemy.

The effectiveness of B. bassiana application by spraying on plants or

pests directly, can decrease due to the influence of high temperatures, low humidity, and
exposure to ultra violet light. The study of the application of B. bassiana by treatment of rice
seeds was carried out to determine the cumulative mortality of green leaf hopper, which was
carried out in two-time periods at the Bioecology Laboratory for Natural Pests and Enemies,
Department of Plant Pests and Diseases, Faculty of Agriculture, Hasanuddin University. The
first series of studies used B. bassiana collection culture of Bioecology Laboratory, and the
second series used the commercially available B. bassiana formulation.The results showed that,
coating or soaking rice seeds with entomopathogenic fungi B. bassiana was able to cause
mortality to green leafhoppers. Although the mortality is lower than spraying on rice plants or
penetrating the body of green leafhoppers, however, with the covering or soaking rice seeds, the
mortality of green leafhoppers is significantly higher than control without the application of B.
bassiana.

Entomopathogenic fungi are fungi pathogenic to insects and are

widely used as biocontrol agents for insect pests. The aim of this research was to study the
virulence of Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium sp. isolates and to evaluate the efficacy of
liquid production of those fungi against Leptocorisa oratorius (rice bug).Twelve isolates of B.
bassiana and five isolates of Metarhizium sp. were used in this research. Selection result of B.
bassiana isolates on third-instar rice bug nymphs showed that the isolate KBC caused the
highest mortality rate (93%), while the lowest (46%) was caused by the isolate BBY 725. The
shortest time needed to produce 50% mortality (Lethal time, LT50) was 3.52 days (isolate
KBC). The longest time (10.36 days) was produced by isolate SLSS. The mortality of rice bug
nymphs caused by Metarhizium isolates was only 50-62%.The mortality rates of rice bug
nymphs caused by bioefficacy of fungus liquid production was generally above 85% up to
100%. The liquid media for entomopathogenic fungi performed better compared with solid
media (SDA), as indicated by the greater mortality rate and shorter LT50.
 CHAPTER - III

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Title of experiment

The experiment “Studies on the efficacy of some entomopathogenic fungi against

sucking pest of rice” conducted during the year 2023-24 is described in this part. This
chapter provides details of the study location, experimental details and materials required
mode of observations and analytic strategy.

3.2 Description of the study area

3.2.1 Experimental site

The experiment on study the efficacy of some entomopathogenic fungi against sucking pest of
was conducted at the experimental field of research cum instructional farm of Indira Gandhi Krishi
Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, Chhattisgarh during the period from July to December kharif 2023 to
explore the Swarna rice varieties against different insect pests.

3.2.2 Geographical location

Raipur being geographically located almost at the centre of chhattishgarh state,was made its

capital.District Raipur extendsfrom latitude 21o 23’’ to longitude 81O 65’’.

3.2 Climate:

Raipur is a capital of Chhattisgarh state, comes under the seventh agroclimatic region of
India. The climatic condition is dry and sub humid, with a normal rainfall of annually, of
1300 mm per annum, mostly during monsoon season from late June to early October. The
source of rainfall is the southwest Monsoon. This place temperature is moderate except from
May – June, which can be extremely hot.

3.3 Source of Materials:

Experiment treatment obtained from the Indian Institute of Rice Research (IIRR), Hyderabad
under the All India Coordinated Rice Improvement Program (AICRP).

3.1 Experimental Details:

Crop Paddy (Oryza sativa L.)

Variety Swarna

Date of transplanting 17th August 2023

Replication 4

Treatment 5

Design Randomized Block Design (RBD)

Plotsize 4x5 Sq. m.

Harvesting

A total number of plots is 20 ( twenty) experimental plots each plot with 12m2 areas
(4m× 3m) were used. An experimental area of 1500 m2 will be taken it will be well ploughed
and prepared as per the recommended agronomical practices. Selected paddy variety were
planted transplanted part of the fields on 17th August 2023.

3.4 Collection of seeds and seedling raising

Seeds of Swarna varieties of rice were used for seedling raising in the seedbed.
Before sowing seeds in the seedbed, the germination test was done to ensure standard
viability measuring approximately 85% germination. Pre-soaked, for 48 hrs to ensure
germination, seeds were sown in the mud of nursery bed on July of 2023.

3.5 Experimental design and layout

The study was conducted in randomized block design (RBD) with four replications. Each
plot was divided into four replications and each replication has divided unprotected and
protected plots.
3.5.1 Direct seeded rice

Pre-germinated seeds was sown into puddled soil in main field.

3.5.2 Transplanted rice

20-23 day old seedling was transplanted of the main field. The crop was irrigated using
typical agronomic procedures. (Ranjith 2016)

Transplanted of Swarna

3.6 Intercultural operations

3.6.1 Weeding
Various weed species that were infesting the crop were removed by hand.

3.6.2 Irrigation and drainage

The experimental plot was irrigated and drained as needed during the vegetative and
reproductive stages.

Table 3.2: Table of Field Layout

R1 R2 R3 R4
Irrigation

Irrigation
irrigation
T1 T5 T3 T4

T2 T3 T4 T5

T3 T4 T5 T1

T4 T2 T1 T2

T5 T1 T2 T3

Layout of field
Ananynous(2023)
Sulagitti, A., Raghuraman, M., Reddy, M.S. and Sathua, S.K., 2018. IMPACT OF ABIOTIC
FACTORS ON POPULATION FLUCTUATION OF MAJOR INSECT PESTS OF RICE
UNDER VARANASI CONDITIONS.

Mohan, C., Sridhar, R.P. and Nakkeeran, S., 2016. Studies on efficacy of entomopathogenic
fungi Metarhizium anisopliae (Metchnikoff) Sorokin against Nilaparvata lugens (Stål). Int J
Agric Sci Res, 6(6), pp.227-234.

Prakash, R. and Kunal, G., 2020. Evaluation of efficacy of insecticides and bio pesticide
against paddy Earhead bug, Leptocorisa oratorius F. Journal of Pharmacognosy and
Phytochemistry, 9(2), pp.2021-2023.

Journal of Experimental Zoology Padhan, S. and Raghuraman, M., 2018. Bio-efficacy of

newer insecticides against rice gundhi bug, Leptocorisa acuta (Thunberg) in Varanasi region.

Devi, G., 2020. Entomopathogenic nematodes against insect pests of rice. International
journal of environment, agriculture and biotechnology, 5(4), pp.1143-1150.

Virk, J.S. and Sarao, P.S., 2010. Bioefficacy of Insecticides against Brown Planthopper,
Nilaparvata lugens in Rice. Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 38(1), pp.101-103.

Kumar, V., Singh, H., Kumar, S., Kumar, S. and Gautam, M.P., 2020. Age specific life table
of rice brown plant hopper, Nilaparvata lugens Stal. on Pusa basamati-1 and Pant dhan-12
under natural condition. Journal of Experimental Zoology India, 23(1), pp.159-163.

Ahmad, M., 1965. Termites (Isoptera) of Thailand.

Butt, T.M. and Goettel, M.S., 2000. Bioassays of entomogenous fungi.
Ganassi, S., Grazioso, P., Moretti, A. and Sabatini, M.A., 2010. Effects of the fungus
Lecanicillium lecanii on survival and reproduction of the aphid Schizaphis
graminum. Biocontrol, 55, pp.299-312.
Chung, H.J., Liu, Q., Lee, L. and Wei, D., 2011. Relationship between the structure,
physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility of rice starches with different amylose
contents. Food Hydrocolloids, 25(5), pp.968-975.
Pathak, P.K., Saxena, R.C. and Heinrichs, E.A., 1982. Parafilm sachet for measuring
honeydew excretion by Nilaparvata lugens on rice. Journal of Economic Entomology, 75(2),
pp.194-195.
Pathak, B.R. and Godard, H.P., 1968. Equation for predicting the corrosivity of natural fresh
waters to Aluminium. Nature, 218(5144), pp.893-894.
Li, T.Y., Vinson, S.B. and Gerling, D., 1989. Courtship and mating behavior of Bemisia
tabaci (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Environmental Entomology, 18(5), pp.800-806.
Kiran, R. and Veeranna, R., 2012. Evaluation of bio-pesticide Metarhizium anisoplea against
brown plant hopper (Nilaparvatha lugens) and its efficiency on the improvement of the
productivity of paddy.
Singh, A.P.B., Kumar, A. and Singh, D.V., 2015. Field evaluation of Beauveria bassiana and
Metarhizium anisopliae against major insect pest on paddy (Oryza sativa L.). Progressive
Agriculture, 15(1), pp.62-65.
Bunsak, A., Homhaul, W., Pongprasert, W., Ruangrit, K. and Intanon, S., 2023. Occurrence
of entomopathogenic fungi from natural ecosystems in Phetchabun, Thailand and their
virulence against brown planthopper. Current Applied Science and Technology, pp.10-55003.
Chinniah, C., Ravikumar, A., Kalyanasundaram, M. and Parthiban, P., 2016. Field evaluation
of Metarhizium anisopliae liquid formulation (Bio-Magic®) against brown plant hopper,
Nilaparvata lugens Stal on rice. Journal of Biopesticides, 9(2), p.211.
Niu, H., Liu, B., Li, Y. and Guo, H., 2016. Identification of a bacterium isolated from the
diseased brown planthopper and determination of its insecticidal activity. Biocontrol Science
and Technology, 26(2), pp.217-226.
Wraight, S.P., Carruthers, R.I., Jaronski, S.T., Bradley, C.A., Garza, C.J. and Galaini-
Wraight, S., 2000. Evaluation of the entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana and
Paecilomyces fumosoroseus for microbial control of the silverleaf whitefly, Bemisia
argentifolii. Biological control, 17(3), pp.203-217.
Van Nghiep, H.U.Y.N.H., Nhan, N.T., Hung, P.Q., Khang, V.T. and Loc, N.T., 1999. Studies
on some entomogenous fungi to control brown plant hopper in rice. Omonrice, 7, pp.149-
157.
Bunsak, A., Homhaul, W., Pongprasert, W., Ruangrit, K. and Intanon, S., 2023. Occurrence
of entomopathogenic fungi from natural ecosystems in Phetchabun, Thailand and their
virulence against brown planthopper. Current Applied Science and Technology, pp.10-55003.
Journal of Pharmacognosy and Ph Devi, G., 2020. Entomopathogenic nematodes against
insect pests of rice. International journal of environment, agriculture and
biotechnology, 5(4), pp.1143-1150.ytochemistry, 7(3), pp.2068-2071.India, 21(2).
Pradhan, P.P., Borkakati, R.N. and Saikia, D.K., 2020. Bio efficacy of certain
entomopathogenic fungus against major insect pests of Brassica campestris var.
Toria. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies, 8(1), pp.840-843.
Atta, B., Rizwan, M., Sabir, A.M., Gogi, M.D., Farooq, M.A. and Batta, Y.A., 2020. Efficacy
of Entomopathogenic Fungi Against Brown Planthopper Nilaparvata Lugens (Stål)
(Homoptera: Delphacidae) Under Controlled Conditions. Gesunde Pflanzen, 72(2).

Tang, J., Liu, X., Ding, Y., Jiang, W. and Xie, J., 2019. Evaluation of Metarhizium anisopliae
for rice planthopper control and its synergy with selected insecticides. Crop Protection, 121,
pp.132-138.

Kumar, U., Berliner, J., Adak, T., Rath, P.C., Dey, A., Pokhare, S.S., Jambhulkar, N.N.,
Panneerselvam, P., Kumar, A. and Mohapatra, S.D., 2017. Non-target effect of continuous
application of chlorpyrifos on soil microbes, nematodes and its persistence under sub-humid
tropical rice-rice cropping system. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety, 135, pp.225-235.

Chinniah, C., Ravikumar, A., Kalyanasundaram, M. and Parthiban, P., 2016. Field evaluation
of Metarhizium anisopliae liquid formulation (Bio-Magic®) against brown plant hopper,
Nilaparvata lugens Stal on rice. Journal of Biopesticides, 9(2), p.211.

BHARADWAZ, P., NATH, B.C., BORKAKATI, R.N., CHETIA, R., SAIKIA, S., BORA,
P., NANDA, P., BHATTACHARYYA, A.K., SHARMA, S. and MUDOI, A., 2024. Effects
of microbial biopesticides against non-target insect pest. Annals of Plant and Soil
Research, 26(2), pp.410-416.

Traugott, M., Weissteiner, S. and Strasser, H., 2005. Effects of the entomopathogenic fungus
Beauveria brongniartii on the non-target predator Poecilus versicolor (Coleoptera:
Carabidae). Biological Control, 33(1), pp.107-112.

REFRENCE- Chou, C., Hadi, B.A., Chiba, S., Sato, I., Choi, I.R. and Tanaka, T., 2022. An
entomopathogenic fungus and a natural extract benefit rice (Oryza sativa) by suppressing
populations of insect pests while keeping high populations of their natural
enemies. Biological Control, 165, p.104793.
Sasmal, A., Patro, B. and Sarangi, P.K., 2018. Bio-efficacy evaluation of some insecticides
(solo and pre mixed) against major insect pests of rice.

Nguyen Thi Loc, N.T.L. and Vo Thi Bich Chi, V.T.B.C., 2005. Efficacy of some new
isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana against rice earhead bug,
Leptocorisa acuta.

Nurlina, N., Purwanti, S., Hidayati, S., Gunawan, B. and Ali, M., 2022. Effect of Doses of
Lecanicillium Lecanii on the Controlling of Rice Bug in Rice Plants. Agro Bali, 5(2), pp.251-
255.

Navarrete, E.D. and Barrion, A.T., 2007. The Food Web of the Invasive Rice Black Bugs of
the World, Scotinophara spp., and its Application to Biological Control. RICE BLACK
BUGS, p.361.

Subedi, S., Bohara, A.K., Thapa, S. and Timilsena, K., 2024. Safeguarding rice crops in
Nepal: unveiling strategies against the yellow stem borer (Scirpophaga incertulas). Discover
Agriculture, 2(1), p.64.

Maniania, N.K., 1993. Evaluation of three formulations of Beauveria bassiana (Bals.) Vuill.
for control of the stem borer Chilo partellus (Swinhoe)(Lep., Pyralidae). Journal of Applied
Entomology, 115(1‐5), pp.266-272.

Mondal, E., Chakraborty, G. and Chakraborty, K., A Report on Isolation of mycotoxigenic

Fungus from the Larval Body Surface of Paddy Pest, Yellow Stem Borer, Scirpophaga
incertulas (Walker)(Pyralidae: Lepidoptera).

Sahoo, B.K., Pathak, M., Hnialum, M., Kalita, H., Haritha, S., Ningthoujam, K., Dutta, P.,
Patidar, R.K. and Thakur, N.A., 2024. Effects of Insecticide and Metarhizium anisopliae
Combinations Against Leptocorisa Acuta. Indian Journal of Entomology.