4

TECHNICAL MANUAL

SEWAGE
SYSTEMS
Laying
4
LAYING

51
 4
LAYING

4.1 Trench construction

4 Laying of sewage systems must follow the national standards in force, and below the requirements of standard
EN 1610 for sewage connections and sewage collectors buried and operating under gravity up to a maximum
overload of 0.5 kPa are set out.
The trench for sewage system positioning must be designed and constructed to ensure that all design loads
are supported with sufficient safety and that the safety of the operators is safeguarded during the site work.

4.1.1 Explanatory trench diagram

Figure 4.1 Trench.
1

2
3
H10
4

H13
5

6
ODV H12

7 b
H11
8 a

9
x/2

1) Surface.
2) Road/railway ballast base: layer of road metal and stones used as a support base.
3) Trench walls: either formwork type or unsupported.
4) Filling: backfill material between the liner and the ground surface.
5) Initial filling: layer of backfill material immediately above the top generatrix of the pipe.
6) Side filling: material layer between backfilling and initial fill.
7) Backfilling: a layer of material that supports the pipe.
8) Bedding: layer of material to support the pipe at the bottom of the trench.
9) Trench bottom: bottom surface of the trench, constructed at the design slope.

52 LAYING
• H10. Covering depth: vertical distance between the top generatrix of the pipe and the ground surface.
• H11. Supporting depth: part of the work that supports the pipe between the bottom of the trench and the
lateral/initial fill.
• H12. Coating depth: backfill material around the pipe that includes the support.
• H13. Trench depth: vertical distance between the bottom of the trench and the ground surface.
• X/2. Minimum working space (x/2): horizontal distance from the outside wall of the pipe to the outside wall
of the trench or lining formwork.
• OD: pipe outer diameter.

4.1.2 Trench width 4

The excavation width depends on many factors: trench type, pipe diameter and laying depth. Normally, there
are two types of excavation for the installation of sewer pipes: the supported trench, characterized by support
systems for the side walls; and the unsupported trench that does not require containment elements because
the side walls have an angle that generates a slope of the ground.

Figure 4.2 Supported trench.

ODh

LAYING 53
 Figure 4.3 Unsupported trench.
Wmin

x/2 ODh x/2

b
α

4 a

In the case of supported trenches, their stability must be ensured by means of an appropriate system of
formworks that must be designed and sized by the person in charge of the project, so as to completely support
the weight of the soil, avoiding its sagging.

When removing the formwork, the following must be considered:

• it must be performed in accordance with the structural design;
• the sewer system must not be damaged or changed;
• the coating may be loosened to the extent that it does not affect the pipe support;
• soil and groundwater conditions must be considered;
• settling must be monitored;
• the stability of pipes from adjacent buildings or other systems must be protected.

In the case of unsupported trenches, the definition of the minimum trench width depends on the outside
diameter of the pipe and the angle α of the ground slope.

Table 4.1 Minimum trench width as a function of pipe diameter.

Minimum trench width (OD + x)

OD Unsupported trench
[mm] Supported trench
α > 60° α ≤ 60°
≤ 225 OD + 0.40 OD + 0.40

> 225 to ≤ 350 OD + 0.50 OD + 0.50 OD + 0.40

> 350 to ≤ 700 OD + 0.70 OD + 0.70 OD + 0.40

> 700 to ≤ 1200 OD + 0.85 OD + 0.85 OD + 0.40

> 1200 OD + 1.00 OD + 1.00 OD + 0.40

NOTE: in OD + x values, x/2 equals to the minimum working space between the pipe and the trench wall or support.

where
OD: is the horizontal outside diameter of the pipe.
α: is the angle of the unsupported trench wall, measured with respect to the horizon.

54 LAYING
Table 4.2 Minimum trench width as a function of trench depth.

Trench depth [m] Minimum trench width [m]

< 1.00 No minimum width is required

≥ 1.00 ≤ 1.75 0.80

> 1.75 ≤ 4.00 0.90

> 4.00 1.00

NOTE: the maximum depth of a vertical wall trench that is NOT formworked is 1.40 m.

4
4.1.3 Trench bottom
The trench bottom slope must meet the design specifications as accurately as possible.
It is recommended not to tamper with the trench bottom and, in the presence of any layers of soft soil, it is
necessary to remove and replace it with a material suitable for installation. If the pipe is laid directly on the
bottom, it is necessary to provide niches for socket positioning, so that the slope does not change. In case
of frost, it may be necessary to protect the trench bottom so that no frozen layers remain around the pipe,
which could cause subsidence during warmer periods. During the laying works, the trench must be kept free
from water coming from rainfall, underground sources or leakages in the pipes; this operation must be agreed
upon with a specialist who will verify on site the adoption of a suitable drainage system that does not affect any
extraction of the same for other uses.
Applicable drainage systems are specified below.

Table 4.3 Trench drainage systems.

Pumping from the bottom of the trench using Figure 4.4 Draining pump.
draining pumps
It is the simplest system to eliminate infiltration of
water that has entered the trench, by pumping.
If there is a danger of water entraining the soil,
additional formwork may be required as part of the
work.

Filtering wells Figure 4.5 Filtering well.

The system requires the excavation of a deep well Well
with diameter between 250 and 600 mm and the
installation of a liner with filtering section, selected
according to the composition of the soil near the
base; incoming water is removed using a submersible
pump. This system is most commonly used in the
construction of beds and pump chambers rather than Excavation bottom

for pipe laying. Groundwater

Submersible pump

LAYING 55
 Vertical tube wells Figure 4.6 Vertical tube well.
The system provides that tubes pre-drilled at the
bottom are placed into the ground by drilling, these
are then surrounded by coarse-grained sand that acts
as a filter and are placed at intervals of 0.6 m - 3.0 m
along an axis parallel to the trench axis. Tube wells are
generally limited to soils with permeability between
10-6 m/s and 10-3 m/s.

Horizontal tube well Figure 4.7 Horizontal tube well.

The system provides that cracked tubes are placed Ground level
into the ground using directional excavators or drilling Groundwater
machines. They are installed along a line parallel to the
trench, on both sides and at a lower height than the
trench bottom. It is a quick installation system with no
temporary pipes.
Draining pipe
Gravel

Ejector tube well Figure 4.8 Ejector tube well.

The system provides for the preparation of a well with Shut-off valve To the suction pump
a filtering section at the base, a pressurized feeding
pipe, a Venturi pipe and a riser pipe. The pressurized
water flows through the pipe undergoing a pressure
drop in the Venturi section; this is used to suck Groundwater Groundwater

the water coming from the riser pipes and then be

discharged from the surface pipes. Pipe

Work site
Groundwater

Filter

Punching tip

56 LAYING
4.1.4 Laying and support bed
The support, which must be equal to the trench width, must ensure that the loads are evenly distributed under
the pipe.

Table 4.4 Types of beds and supports.

Support type no. 1 Figure 4.9 Support type 1.

It can be used with any type of coating providing
support along the entire length.
Unless otherwise specified: OD
• The thickness “a” of the laying bed must not be b 4
lower than 100 mm in normal conditions and a
150 mm in stony/hard soil conditions.
• The thickness b of the backfilling must be specified
in the structural design.

Support type no. 2 Figure 4.10 Support type 2.

It can be used with relatively soft soil providing support
along the entire length. Pipes are laid directly on the
shaped bottom of the trench.
Unless otherwise specified, the thickness “b” of the OD
backfilling must be specified in the structural design. b

Support type no. 3 Figure 4.11 Support type 3.

It can be used with relatively soft soil providing support
along the entire length. Pipes are laid directly on the
squared bottom of the trench.
Unless otherwise specified: OD
b
• The thickness b of the backfilling must be specified
in the structural design.

LAYING 57
 4.2 Installation
It is advisable to lay the pipes with socket facing upstream, temporarily closing the ends with plugs to prevent
the entry of debris and/or pests. Layout and altitude must be respected within the design tolerances, always
ensuring adequate support along the entire length of the pipe.
When laying on steep slopes, concrete blocks or coverings can be created to counteract the additional sliding
forces, while also providing protection from any runoff or drainage phenomena that the bed may undergo.
Particular attention must be paid to the creation of a niche for the socket, necessary for a correct coupling,
avoiding that the pipe rests on it.

4
4.2.1 Connections and junctions
The PPEcoforte® system is connected by a plug-in socket with seal.
The following table shows the operations for correct laying.

Table 4.5 Installation indications up to Ø 160 mm.

Installation indications

1) Cut pipes with a suitable pipe cutter or grinder.

2) Do not shorten fitting stems to avoid compromising the

required insertion depth and sealing.

3) Bevel and remove burr at the ends of the pipes at an angle of

about 15°÷30° using the appropriate bevelling tool or a fine-
cut file. The bevel surface must be smooth to avoid damaging
the seal in the socket into which the pipe will be inserted.

~15°

58 LAYING
Installation indications

4) Make sure of cleanliness of the inside of the socket, seal, and

stem of the part to be inserted. Apply a suitable Valsir sliding
agent on the latter (do not use mineral oils and greases).

5) Couple the pipes and/or fittings together by inserting the stem

fully home inside the socket.

6) Remember that the direction of flow must be from the stem

towards the socket.
During installation, it is recommended to avoid excessive
misalignment of pipes as this would compromise the water
tightness of the seal. The pipes must be properly anchored to
the walls to avoid that, also because of their own weight, they
fall inside the socket covering the extraction length.

LAYING 59
 Table 4.6 Installation indications from Ø 200 to Ø 500 mm.

Installation indications

1) Cut pipes with a suitable pipe cutter or grinder.

4

2) Bevel and remove burr at the ends of the pipes at an angle of

about 15°÷30° using the appropriate bevelling tool or a fine-cut
file. The bevel surface must be smooth to avoid damaging the
seal in the socket into which the pipe will be inserted.

~15°

3) Make sure of cleanliness of the inside of the socket, seal, and

stem of the part to be inserted. Apply a suitable Valsir sliding
agent on the latter (do not use mineral oils and greases).

4) Large-diameter pipes can be very heavy, so their positioning

requires the use of suitable machinery and an adequate
number of workers.

60 LAYING
Installation indications

5) The excavation must comply with current standards

(UNI EN 1610, AS/NZS 2566.2). Never work in trenches that
are found to be unsafe or not properly constructed. Machinery
is required to lift the heaviest pipes.

6) Larger pipes must be placed and assembled with machinery

such as excavators or others of equal capacity.
Once the pipe socket and stem have been cleaned, it is
necessary to lubricate them and insert the stem into the
downstream pipe socket. To prevent debris from entering
the pipelines, temporarily place a sheet (e.g. 700x700 mm
rubber sheet) under the pipe socket and only then assemble
the components. The bucket of an excavator can be used to
position the components or, as an alternative, it can be done
manually with the help of a lever. It is always suggested to
protect the socket with a plate or a wooden trunk (as shown in
the image on the side).

LAYING 61
 Connections between pipes and wells must be made maintaining the mechanical strength of the pipes
unchanged and preserving water tightness, keeping the socket facing upstream.
The wells or inspection chambers are supplied with closed inlets and outlets; when the sections have been
opened according to the diameter of the pipe, the inlet connection must be made by means of a sliding sleeve
while the outlet connection will be made with the pipe socket.

The most common methods for connecting pipes are:

• Connection joints, which are inserted into circular holes drilled in the upper part of the pipe, generally between
45° and 0° with respect to the vertical plane containing the longitudinal axis of the pipe.
• Fittings or connecting branches, installed at a suitable angle to receive the incoming pipe. If the fitting is to
4 be inserted into an existing pipe, the pipe must be cut to a sufficient length to allow the fitting to be inserted.

Figure 4.12 Connection joints.

62 LAYING
4.3 Coating methods and materials
This section describes the methods and materials used for trench coating laying, i.e., all material useful in
making the laying bed, upper support and fill.
The materials used for the coating (from 5 to 8 in Figure 4.1) must comply with the national regulations in force;
in the absence of such regulations, the main reference is given by EN 476.
Below are the requirements of EN 476 in relation to the outside diameter of the pipe.
Coating materials must not contain particles larger than:
• for OD < 100 mm there are no specific indications from the standard, please refer to the laying instructions
provided by the pipe manufacturer;
• 22 mm for OD ≤ 200 mm; 4
• 40 mm for 200 < OD ≤ 600 mm;
• 60 mm for OD > 600 mm.

The grain size of such materials must be selected according to:

• the pipe dimensions;
• the pipe material and thickness;
• the nature of the soil.

The materials used for coating may be sourced from the source soil, as long as they are free of materials
harmful to the pipe (“oversized” particles, tree roots, pebbles, snow, ice, and clay lumps larger than 75 mm);
materials that include a recycled material component may also be used. Considering now the filling materials
provided, thus excluding the soil from the excavation, it is possible to divide them into two categories as shown
in the following table.

Table 4.7 Filling materials.

Graduated granular material

Sand
Granular materials
Quarry mixes

Crushed aggregates

Soil mixed with cement

Stabilized soil

Lightweight concrete

Materials treated with binders Lean concrete

Reinforced concrete

Non-reinforced concrete

Self-compacting filling materials

LAYING 63
 Filling
Looking specifically at the materials used for filling, they must meet, first and foremost, the design requirements.
The materials already stated and used for coating (from 5 through 9 in Figure 4.1) can also be used for filling
(4 in Figure 4.1).
The quarry stones used for filling must have a maximum size of 300 mm or equal to the thickness of the initial
filling, this size may be limited in case of application under the road surface, in the presence of groundwater
and with some types of pipes.

Placement of lateral fill (6 in Figure 4.1), of initial fill (5 in Figure 4.1) must be carried out when the support
base is capable of withstanding the loads.
4 Initial filling, where required, shall be compacted by hand.
Mechanical compaction of the filling may be initiated when the total thickness above the top generatrix of the
pipe is at least 300 mm; the type of equipment, number of passes, and compaction thickness must take into
account the type of pipe and material used for filling.
During coating execution, special attention must be paid to the absence of pipe displacement with respect to
the layout and altitude.
In the presence of groundwater, it may be necessary to use geotextile fabric to retain the pipe coating and, if
the underwater flow may lower the groundwater level, it is recommended to install watertight joints (commonly
referred to as water-stop joints) inside the trench.

Figure 4.13 Non-woven fabric application for coating protection.

Non-woven fabric

64 LAYING
Figure 4.14 Non-woven fabric application for the entire trench protection.

Non-woven fabric

LAYING 65
 4.4 Static verification of pipes
The static verification of a pipe consists in making sure that the loads acting on the structure cause allowable
stresses and deformations.
Stresses on an underground pipe depend on the pipe-soil interaction, which is strongly related to the relative
deformability of the two elements: if the pipe deforms more than the soil surrounding it, it will be stressed less
because, as it deforms significantly, it involves the backfill soil in the resistance.
The static behaviour of the pipeline depends on the relative pipe-soil deformability.

Figure 4.15 Forces acting on a pipe.

4

H
Q

s
M+ Gw Gc
+
N

Ho
d

Ht

In this field of application, elastic and/or rigid pipes can be used, in the first family there are products made of
steel, HDPE, PP, PVC and others. In the second family, pipes can be made of concrete, cast iron, stoneware, etc.
In order to be able to distinguish between the two families, an index has been defined that identifies the rigidity
of a pipeline through the following formula:
3
ES r
n’ = · [4.1]
ER s
where:
n’ is the stiffness index;
Es is the stiffness index of the backfill [N/mm2];
ER is the elastic modulus of the pipe material [N/mm2];
r is the average pipe radius [m];
s is the pipe wall thickness [m].

66 LAYING
Depending on the value n’ it is possible to define:
n’>1 pipes are elastic or deformable;
n’<1 pipes are rigid;
n’=0 pipes are perfectly rigid.

Elastic underground pipelines tend to deform, both transversely and axially, in response to stresses acting on
them. The forces that are balanced by the above-mentioned changes in shape may be different from time to
time: soil load, pipe weight, external and internal pressures, horizontal soil action and all vertically bearing loads,
both fixed and accidental.

In order to optimize the response of the pipe to stress, it is essential that it be laid correctly; in this regard, it is 4
necessary to carefully follow the installation instructions provided in this chapter.
The correct laying is essential, in order to:
• Ensure the distribution of the loads transmitted to the ground through the pipe, in order not to generate
excessive stresses in the pipes.
• Limit pipe ovalization, so as to avoid the action of excessive stresses on the pipe and ensure water tightness
in the connection sockets.
• Ensure equal distribution of all surface loads acting on the pipe.
• Enable proper conduct of leak testing by ensuring accessibility to the joint socket laying area.

For a correct installation, the following is always recommended:

• Filling above the top generatrix of the pipe with at least 0.30 m of sand.
• Adequate compaction of the backfill.
• Placement of pipe on a bed of sand or screened material, with thickness not lower than 0.15 m (see Table 4.4).
• Width of the excavation not lower than the outside diameter of the pipe, plus 0.40 m (see Table 4.1).

Regarding the excavation depth, if this is greater than 1.2 m, excellent protection from the weather (especially
frost) is ensured.
Two macro-types of burial can be distinguished:
• In narrow trench.
• In wide trench or under embankment.

Figure 4.16 Narrow trench. Figure 4.17 Wide trench.

H H
B B
a

D
D

LAYING 67
 The combination of different types of piping with different types of laying (wide trench or narrow trench)
determines totally different results from the static point of view.
It is possible to define a narrow trench in case one of the following are met:
• B ≤ 2 OD; H ≥ 1.5 B
• 2 OD < B < 3 OD; H ≥ 3.5 B
where B is the trench width and H is the trench height at the pipeline extrados.

Marston formulas are used to calculate the soil load W [kN/m] in both situations, which we will analyse in the
following section.

4
• Pipelines in narrow trench

W = Cg · · Bg · OD [4.2]
where:
W is the soil load [kN/m];
Cg is Marston coefficient;
is the specific weight of the filling material [kN/m3];
Bg is the excavation width [m];
OD is the pipe outside diameter [m].

• Pipelines in wide trench or under embankment

Figure 4.18 Burial under embankment.

Backfill ridge
H

Undisturbed soil
a

OD

W = Cd · · OD · H [4.3]
where:
W is the soil load [kN/m];
Cg is Marston coefficient (for wide trench or embankment it is equal to 1);
OD is the pipe outside diameter [m];
is the specific weight of the filling material [kN/m3];
H is the trench depth at the height of the top generatrix of the pipe [m].

68 LAYING
Figure 4.19 Burial under embankment with trench.
Backfill ridge

H
4
a

OD

A condition very similar to the one just described can be found in the case where the pipe is located at a level
slightly below the zero level of the undisturbed soil of the bank, in which the same formula defined for wide
trenches or under embankment can be considered.
It should be noted that in case of a wide trench the load W is always greater than in a narrow trench, since the
damping action of friction forces between the re-burial material and the excavation walls is missing.
As already mentioned, the overall load on the pipe depends on many factors: the type of installation, whether
in a trench or under an embankment, but also the pipe itself; if rigid or non-rigid pipes are used, there may be
settlements of the ground that determine the forces acting on the pipe with different entities.

LAYING 69
 4.4.1 Outline of Marston theory
Referring to the trench in the following image, the static behaviour of an excavation and of the backfill soil is
analysed: note how the forces due to the covering H of a pipe are reduced as the depth of the laying bed
increases, but also as the level of compressibility of the backfill material increases. This analysis is specific for
narrow trenches and leads to the precise definition, depending on the type of soil and the size of the latter, of
the Marston coefficient useful for the static verification of pipelines; for wide trenches or under embankment it
is always possible to consider the Marston coefficient equal to 1.

Figure 4.20 Static nature of a backfill.

Kdh V
Bd
H

dh

V+dv Kdh m’ V
Bd

OD

The generic covering layer, with thickness dh, tends to drop under the effect of its own weight and the material
above it.
This prism of material in its downward movement, crawls against the excavation walls, causing friction which
in turn generates the so-called arch effect, which ultimately results in a reduction of the load force on the
underlying soil and consequently on the pipeline.

V
V= · B · dh = V + dV + 2k · ’ · · dh [4.4]
B
where:
V is the total pressure acting on each horizontal plane of the trench [kN/m2];
is the specific weight of the backfill [kN/m3];
B is the trench width calculated just above the pipeline [m];
V is the frictional force generated on the side walls of the trench [kN].
k· ’· · dh
B

70 LAYING
From which, by integrating, you have:
h
1 - e-2 · k· ’·
B
V= ·B ·
2
[4.5]
2·k ’
For H, height difference from the pipe ridge, instead of for a generic h, becomes:

W=C· · B2 [4.6]
with the Marston coefficient C of the filling material given by:
H
1 - e-2 · k· ’·
C=
B
[4.7] 4
2·k· ’
where
k is the ratio between horizontal and vertical pressure, expressed as follows

k = [ tan (45 - )]2 [4.8]

2
is the internal friction angle of the filling material [°];
H is the covering layer height [m];
B is the excavation width [m];
µ' is the tangent of angle , where is the angle of friction between the backfill material and the
undisturbed wall.

Table 4.8 Material characteristics for filling.

Specific weight Immersed weight Internal friction angle Material/inner trench

Soil type [kN/m3] [kN/m3] of the material [°] friction angle [°]
Muddy clay 20 16.9 20° 20°

Sandy clay 18 15.9 14° 14°

Wet clay 20 16.4 12° 12°

Mud and rocky dust 18 16.9 25° 20°

Loess 21 15.9 18° 18°

Marl 21 16.9 22° 20°

Mixed gravel and pebbles 20 16.8 37° 35°

Mixed gravel and sand 20 16.5 33° 30°

Clayey sand 18 15.9 31° 29°

Wet sand 17 16.4 34° 30°

Arid soil 17 15.5 14° 14°

Cohesive mix 20 16.4 33° 30°

Non-cohesive mix 18 15.9 15° 15°

Swampy 17 9.9 12° 12°

Sandy 19 15.8 30° 30°

LAYING 71
 4.4.2 Moving loads
In addition to loads due to the covering soil, pipes also suffer pressure from moving loads caused by vehicular
or rail traffic.
The load values per vehicle wheel divided by class can be found in the German standard DIN 1072.

Figure 4.21 Incidental (precise) load.

Table 4.9 Load values per classes.

Class Load per wheel Pt [kN] Type

HT 60 100
HT 45 75
HT 38 62.5 Heavy traffic
HT 30 50
HT 26 35
LT 12 20
LT 6 10 Light traffic
LT 3 5

For verification of moving loads on the surface, calculate the dynamic pressure z
[kN/m2] according to the
expected load:
3 · Pt ·
=
z
OD 2 [4.9]
2 (H+ )
2
where:
Pt is the concentrated load from a wheel or pair of wheels [kN];
H is the covering layer height [m];
OD is the pipe outside diameter [m];
is the correction coefficient that takes into account the dynamic effect of the loads, it is calculated as
follows:

= 1 + 0.3 for light traffic, LT [-]; [4.10]

H

= 1 + 0.6 for heavy traffic, HT [-]. [4.11]

H

72 LAYING
Given the dynamic pressure z
, it is possible to calculate:

Cm = z
· OD [4.12]
where
Cm is the moving load [kN/m];
z
is the dynamic pressure [kN/m2];
OD is the pipe outside diameter [m];

4.4.3 Uniformly distributed loads

4
Figure 4.22 Uniformly distributed load.

In the event that the pipe is subjected to a load Pn, distributed over a rectangular area Ar with width L1 and
length L2, pressure qs [kN/m2] subjected to it is calculated as follows:
Pn
qs = [4.13]
(L1 + 2 · H) · (L2 + 2 · H)
where
qs is the pressure on the pipe [kN/m2];
L1 is the width of the surface on which the load Pn acts [m];
L2 is the length of the surface on which the load Pn acts [m];
H is the covering layer height [m].

Given the pressure qs, it is possible to calculate:

Cn = qs · OD · [4.14]
where
Cm is the uniformly distributed load [kN/m];
is a coefficient of 0.71 for narrow trench and 0.88 for wide trench laying;
OD is the pipe outside diameter [m].

LAYING 73
 4.4.4 Groundwater-induced load
Figure 4.23 Groundwater-induced load.
Ground level

Groundwater

Pipeline extrados

If a groundwater is present in the ground where the trench excavation is being prepared, the hydrostatic
pressure pidr that it exerts on the pipe must be taken into account as follows:
OD
pidr = · h+ [4.15]
w
2
where
pidr is the hydrostatic pressure [kN/m2];
w
is the specific weight of water ≈ 10 kN/m3;
h is the groundwater height with respect to the upper pipe line [m];
OD is the pipe outside diameter [m].

When pidr has been calculated, it is possible to calculate:

Cidr = pidr · OD [4.16]

where
Cidr is the groundwater-induced load [kN/m];
pidr is the hydrostatic pressure [kN/m2];
OD is the pipe outside diameter [m].

74 LAYING
4.5 Stability and deformation checks of pipes
As mentioned above, pipes under the action of various backfill loads reach a state of stability that includes
deformation of the cross-section from a circular to an elliptical shape. As a result of this new state, the
pipe walls discharge part of the load acting on them on the covering material and on the excavation walls.
The higher the capacity of the soil to support the action of the pipe, the more the pipe will avoid collapse.
It is possible to perform stability check in two ways: the conventional way, the ultimate tensile strength method;
and the analytical method by applying Spangler Theorem.

4.5.1 Ultimate tensile strength method 4

The stability conditions of the pipelines are verified, emphasizing how essential the fundamental characteristics
are: diameter, thickness and production material.
It is possible to evaluate the stability of pipes starting from the analysis performed on specimens tested in the
laboratory with tensile strength tests by crushing. Thus, the load P that leads to the collapse of the specimen
is calculated. P is then adjusted to the value Wr (tensile strength), correcting it with a coefficient h (see from
Table 4.9 to Table 4.12) that depends on the laying conditions:

Wr = h · P [4.17]
P' is always greater than P; a few different installation modes are distinguished:
• Type I: the support on the trench bottom is shaped to accommodate the pipe profile, a layer of screened
material is added to better stabilize the pipeline.

Figure 4.24 Support on shaped soil.

OD
300 mm

2α

LAYING 75
 • Type II: a layer of sand is laid on the trench bottom to accommodate the pipe base.

Figure 4.25 Support on sandy layer.

4
OD
300 mm

2α

• Type III: The pipe is laid at the bottom of the trench and blocked by an initial backfill with screened and
compacted material to a height not lower than:

OD
· ( 1 - cos α ) [4.18]
2

Figure 4.26 Support on the trench base.

OD
300 mm

2α

76 LAYING
When Wr is known, it is compared with the total load Wc that is imposed on the pipeline and must result
Wr > Wc with a safety factor ≥ 1.3.

Table 4.10 Laying coefficients h in narrow trench.

Laying in narrow trench

Angle 2α Projection
High compaction Standard compaction
60 0.93 2.0 1.6

90 0.85 2.6 1.9

120 0.75 3.0 2.2 4

For type I and II installations.

Table 4.11 Laying coefficients h in wide trench.

Laying in wide trench

Angle 2α Projection
Standard compaction
60 0.93 2.1

90 0.85 2.3

120 0.75 2.5

For type I and II installations.

Table 4.12 Laying coefficients h in narrow trench.

Laying in narrow trench

Angle 2α Projection
High compaction Standard compaction
20 1.0 1.2 1.1

30 0.98 1.3 1.1

60 0.93 1.5 1.2

90 0.85 1.7 1.3

120 0.75 1.7 1.3

For type III installations.

Table 4.13 Laying coefficients h in wide trench.

Laying in wide trench

Angle 2α Projection
Standard compaction
20 1.0 1.2

30 0.98 1.4

60 0.93 1.7

90 0.85 1.9

120 0.75 1.9

For type III installations.

LAYING 77
 4.5.2 Spangler Theorem
Figure 4.27 Deformation.

P P P

s s

∆d
4

Rigid pipeline Elastic pipeline Breakage by collapse

The objective here is to determine the deformation ∆d [m] and check that this does not exceed the acceptable
limit, which is commonly set at 5%, referred to the outside diameter of the pipe.

The calculation is carried out using Spangler formula:

Wc · r3m
d = FD · Fk [4.19]
E · J + 0.061 · Cs · r4m
where
Wc is the total load on the pipe [kN/m].
OD + ID
rm is the average radius of the pipe obtained as rm = [m]
OD outside radius of the pipeline; 4
ID inside radius of the pipeline.
FD is the deferred deformation index, it takes into account the continuous progression of deformation
under the load action. For short-term evaluations, Fd is assumed to be 1; for evaluations with a longer
term, a value of 2 is assumed.
Fk is the foundation coefficient, it depends on the trench bottom support angle α as per Table 4.11.
E is the elastic modulus E of the pipe [kN/m2].
s3
J is the moment of inertia of the pipe wall per length unit, J = · 10-9 [m3].
12
Cs is the elastic modulus of the backfill soil [kN/m2].

Given the absolute deformation, the relative deformation is calculated as the result of the ratio of ∆d to the
outer diameter OD.

The test has been passed if:

d
= < [4.20]
OD lim

This check must be performed with the deformation coefficient in both short and long term conditions.
According to Spangler, the parameter lim is 5%.

78 LAYING
Table 4.14 Foundation coefficient Fk.

Angle α [°] Fk
0 0.110

15 0.108

22.5 0.105

30 0.102

45 0.096

60 0.090 4
90 0.083

Table 4.15 Pipe elastic modulus.

Elastic modulus E [kN/m2]

Material
Short term Long term
PPEcoforte® 2,000,000 1,200,000

PP 1,400,000 300,000

HDPE 900,000 200,000

PVC 2,600,000 1,500,000

PRFV 2,450,000 2,450,000

Table 4.16 Elastic modulus of the backfill soil Cs [kN/m2].

Compaction
Bulk material
Light Moderate High
Soil type
Proctor index < 85% 85-94% > 95%
Relative density < 40% 40-70% > 70%
Cohesive soil LL > 50%
0 0 0 350
High plasticity clay and silt

Cohesive soil LL < 50%

Medium and low plasticity clay and silt 350 1,400 2,800 7,000
with less than 25% mud particles

Cohesive granular soil

Gravel with fine particles with low or medium
700 2,800 7,000 14,000
plasticity
Sand with fine particles with low or medium plasticity

Cohesive granular soil

Gravel with well-sorted or not well-sorted 700 7,000 14,000 21,000
grain size curve

Ground rocks 7,000 21,000 21,000 21,000

LL: Liquidity Limit.

LAYING 79
 Example 3.
You want to verify the deformation resistance of a 400 mm diameter SN8 PPEcoforte® pipe placed in a
supported narrow trench.

Table 4.17 Input data.

Input Symbol Value

Pipe diameter OD 0.4 m
4 Ring rigidity SN SN8

Elastic pipe modulus E 2,000,000 kN/m2

Covering layer soil type - Medium compaction sand-gravel mix

Elastic soil modulus (Table 4.16) Cs 14,000 kN/m2

Internal friction angle to the ground (Table 4.8) 33°

Internal friction angle to the ground (Table 4.8) 30°

Trench width B 1.1 m

Filling height H 1m

Moving load Pt HT 60

Groundwater-induced load h 0.5 m

Foundation angle α 30°

Ground load Ct
Since this is a narrow trench, the first step is to calculate the ratio of horizontal pressure to vertical pressure k,
Formula [4.8].
2 2
33
k = tan 45 - = tan 45 - = 0.294 [4.21]
2 2
Using Formula [4.7] Marston coefficient Cg is calculated for narrow trenches:
h 1
1 - e-2 · k· ’·
B 1 - e-2 · 0.294 · tan 30° · 1.1
Cg = = = 0.78 [4.22]
2·k ’ 2 · 0.294 · tan 30°
Given these two parameters, the soil load W can be calculated with Formula [4.2].
Refer to Table 4.8 for the value of soil specific weight .

W = Cg · · Bg · OD = 0.78 · 20 · 1.1 · 0.4 = 6.88 kN/m [4.23]

Moving loads Cm
Having established the moving load Pt (see Table 4.9), the dynamic pressure z
must be calculated with
Formula [4.9].
Pt = HT 60 = 100 kN
0.6
3 · 100 · 1 +
3·P· 1
z
= = 2 [4.24]
OD 2
0.4
2π H + 2π 1 +
2 1
Resuming Formula [4.12], the mobile load Cm is calculated

Cm = z
· OD = 53.07 · 0.4 = 21.23 kN/m [4.25]

80 LAYING
Groundwater-induced load Cidr
The value of the hydrostatic pressure pidr is given by Formula [4.15]:
OD 0.4
pidr = · h+ = 9.97 · 0.5 = 6.98 kN/m2 [4.26]
w
2 2
This value must be multiplied by the pipe diameter, so as to find the groundwater-induced load on the pipe Cidr,
Formula [4.16]:

Cidr = pidr · OD = 6.98 · 0.4 = 2.79 kN/m [4.27]

Pipe check
4
When the loads bearing on the pipe have been calculated, the pipe deformation ∆d (Formula [4.19]), must be
calculated; the analytical development of Spangler Theory (formula [4.19]) is used here.

Wc · r3m (6.88 + 21.23 + 2.79) · 0.1933 · 0.102 · 1

∆d = FD · Fk = = 0.0142 m [4.28]
E · J + 0.061 · Cs · r4m 2 · 106 · 2.05 · 10-7 + 0.061 · 0.1934 · 14000
The ratio of ∆d to the outer diameter OD of the pipe determines the absolute pipe deformation :
d 0.01337
= = = 0.0355 = 3.5% [4.29]
OD 0.4
The pipe analysed can be considered suitable for the intended application, as its absolute deformation is < LIM
equal to 5%.

LAYING 81
 4.5.3 Test for deformation measurement according to AS\NZS 2566.2:2002
Unlike what is analysed in the European standard EN 1610, which contains no procedure to check pipe
deformation, the Australian standard AS\NZS 2566.2:2002 sets out a test to check deformation in the short
term: specifically, for pipes with a diameter lower than 750 mm, the test provides for an on-site check, in case
of pipes with a diameter greater than or equal to 750 mm an analytical check is provided.
Standard AS\NZS 2566.2:2002 defines the permissible short-term deformation values depending on the type
of pipe material. This value is to be considered 30 days after compaction of all layers that make up the covering
soil.

Table 4.18 Short-term permissible deformation for PPEcoforte®.

4
Maximum permissible short-term 30-day vertical deflection ∆y%
PPEcoforte® 5.0

The standard allows using different time intervals, compared to the standard 30 days, for the execution of the
test: to the admissible vertical deflection value indicated above, a correction coefficient must be applied in order
to reduce or increase the value of ∆y% in relation to the time interval considered.
These coefficients are defined in the table below.

Table 4.19 Corrective coefficient for permissible deformation.

Time interval 24 h 3 days 7 days 14 days 30 days 3 months 1 year 2 years

Coefficient 0.70 0.75 0.85 0.95 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3

Proceed in the analysis of the on-site check for pipes with diameter lower than 750 mm:
• Calculate the short-term permissible deflection, considering the value of ∆y% equal to 5% at 30 days or any
corrected values over different time intervals.
• Calculation of the minimum average internal diameter of pipes and fittings by making the measurement on
site during installation or by referring to the values declared by the manufacturers.
• To carry out the check a cylindrical element is used, called rigid gauge, whose outside diameter is defined as
the inside diameter of the pipe considering the calculated deformation and the possible ovalization; consider
about 2-3 mm.
• The outside diameter of the rigid gauge is defined as follows:

y sall
OD = dv1 · 1 - - 2.5 [4.30]
100
where:
OD is the outside diameter of the rigid gauge;
dv1 is the average inside diameter of the pipe;
∆y sall is the permissible vertical deformation.

The minimum length of the rigid gauge must be equal to 1.0/1.3 for the inside diameter of the pipe.
• Slide the rigid gauge through the pipeline, either manually or with a winch; the test is considered passed if the
gauge passes without hindrance.

82 LAYING
4.6 Laying according to AS\NZS 2566.2:2002
The PPEcoforte® pipe system is also developed in accordance with the Australian and New Zealand construction
standard AS\NZS 5065, resulting in the Watermark approval, mandatory for all hydraulic components that can
be installed in buildings. The standard that governs how the above systems are installed is AS\NZS 2566.2,
which is applicable to flexible pipes that convey water, sewage, rainwater and mud, for both pressurized and
atmospheric pressure systems, but also for applications where the pipes will be used to pass cables or other
types of tubes.

AS\NZS 2566.2 is applicable to flexible pipes:

• Homogeneous and composite. 4
• Plastic and metallic.
• With plain or structured wall.

PPEcoforte® is a composite and structured wall plastic pipe.

4.6.1 Explanatory diagram of trench and embankment

Figure 4.28 Trench and definitions.
1 1) Final surface.
6
2) Trench wall.
2 7 3) Filling area.
4) Transverse pipe axis springline.
5) Support sides.
3
6) Trench coating area.
8
7) Native soil.
9 8) First covering.
4 9) Side support.
10 10) Laying bed.
11) Foundation.
5
11

Figure 4.29 Embankment and definitions.

1 1) Final surface.
9 2) Filling area.
3) Transverse pipe axis springline.
10 4) Support sides.
2
5) First covering.
3
5 6) Side support.
7) Laying bed.
6 8) Foundation.
9) Surrounding soil.
7
10) Embankment coating area.

4
8

LAYING 83
 • Embankment coating area: area above the filling area.
• Filling area: including laying bed, side support, first covering and support sides.
• Support sides: part of the side support, between the horizontal planes passing through the pipe axis and
the lower generatrix.
• Lateral support: lower area of the fill, between the lower and upper generatrix of the pipe.
• Springline: transversal projection of pipe axis.

Figure 4.30 Trench and embankment and magnitudes.

Area of influence
Area of influence of side support
4 of side support

H H

lo lc lc lo
lc

OD B B OD

lb lb

Foundation 2.5 OD 2.5 OD 2.5 OD 2.5 OD

Foundation
Embankment Trench

• Area of influence of side support: area including the soil beyond the filling, at the side of the pipe, between
the two lower and upper generatrix of the pipe.
• Width B of trench or embankment filling, measured at the height of the longitudinal axis (springline) of the
pipe.
• Covering H, vertical distance between the top generatrix of the pipe and the ground level.
• lb depth of laying bed below the pipe.
• lc horizontal distance between the pipe and the wall of the trench or permanent side support.
• lo depth of the first covering.

84 LAYING
4.6.2 Transport, handling and storage
During transportation, pipes must be supported and secured to avoid:
• Deformation.
• Bending.
• Twisting.
Supports, fixing and packaging systems must be adequate to prevent any damage, for the same reason it is
advisable to minimize the number of products stacked together.

During intermediate handling, up to storage, pipes, fittings and accessories must be handled with care so as
to avoid any damage: 4
• Pipes and fittings must not be dragged along abrasive and sharp surfaces.
• During unloading from transport means, pipes and fittings shall not be pushed down and dropped on the
ground.

In the storage phase, suitable and sufficiently wide areas must be chosen, in order to ensure handling of goods
even with the use of mechanical means. These areas must be free of any vegetation that could catch fire and in
any case specific measures must be taken to minimize the risk of fire. The storage area must be at a minimum
distance of at least two metres from any trench or excavation, both during storage and during installation, to
avoid possible damage to the pipes and possible overloading of the trench walls. If there is a need to stack
pipes, they must be placed on flat, stable ground; the height of stacks must be kept to a minimum in order to
reduce the possibility of ovalization and deformation of goods.
Throughout the storage period, plastic pipes, such as PPEcoforte®, must not be placed near heat sources
that could cause possible loss of mechanical properties and unwanted bending that would make the product
unfit for installation. In addition, if they remain in an area exposed to sunlight for more than 12 months, pipes
subjected to the effects of Ultra Violet, or those of high temperatures, must be adequately protected with
canopies and tarpaulins.
Before installation, all components must be thoroughly inspected both internally and externally to make sure
that they meet the required specifications and that no damage has occurred.

Below are the approval criteria for installation:

• Compliance with all product specifications.
• Compliance with expected timeframes (e.g., pipe stored outdoor for more than 12 months).
• Seals must not be damaged, and must be in an optimum condition as per design specifications.
• The components must have no defects or damage that may affect their overall performance during operation.
• Cuts and scratches on pipes and fittings must be within the limits specified by their manufacturers and/or the
relevant reference standards for installation.

Products that do not meet the approval criteria must not be installed.

LAYING 85
 4.6.3 Excavation
Before starting excavation operations, soil conditions, such as groundwater levels, must be determined along
the entire pipeline route at an elevation corresponding at least to that of the design foundation.
If significant differences are found between the assumed and actual design conditions, the person in charge
must be urgently notified of such variations, and then the pipeline installation must be interrupted and postponed
until a new assessment can confirm the design conditions or identify the necessary changes.

Significant differences means, for example:

• The soil stiffness does not match that specified in the design.
• Cracked soil (loss of covering material, soil sagging, and resulting limited ability to support loads).
4
• Building construction, or other structures, in the vicinity of the pipeline.

In the phase preceding the excavation, the supports of the trench are defined, which must be chosen so as to
prevent interference with other structures and utilities in the vicinity.
The excavation must be carried out in such a way as to minimize the impact on the environment, avoid
any movement and collapse of the soil, in this regard the trench must be maintained stable, for example by
minimizing the excavation length; and its axis must be aligned with that of the pipeline, so as to minimize its
width and increase the wall stability. If there is soil unsuitable for installation at the bottom of the excavation,
such as very soft and expansive clay, irregular rocks or saturated soil, it is advisable to install soil drainage
systems (such as slotted PPEcoforte®) or replace the unsuitable soil with suitable compacted material.

Figure 4.31 Trench and embankment.

Area of influence
Area of influence of side support
of side support

Foundation Foundation

Embankment Trench

86 LAYING
In defining the size and geometry of the excavation, the minimum covering H (see Figure 4.30) which affects
the depth of the excavation, must be considered. The minimum covering is the amount of soil between the
upper generatrix of the pipe and the ground level, this must ensure adequate protection from any overloads,
distributing them over a suitable surface in order to avoid damage to the pipe. In addition, the minimum
covering height must ensure sufficient space for the use of the machinery required to lay and compact the
different layers of soil.

The materials that make up the undisturbed soil and the covering layer act on the pipeline and therefore both
must be considered as integral part of the pipe side support within a distance of at least 2.5 times the diameter
of the pipe on both sides (see Figure 4.30).
4
Minimum covering heights based on soil loading conditions are shown below.

Table 4.20 Minimum covering H.

Loading conditions Minimum covering H [m]

Not subject to vehicular loading 0.30

Area subject to loads of agricultural type 0.60

Subject to vehicular load:

Without carriageway 0.45

Waterproofed carriageway (asphalt) 0.60

With regard to the trench width, it must be defined so as to ensure sufficient space to place the covering
material and perform the necessary compaction to the value specified in the design, particularly in the area of
the support sides. It must also allow access for implementation and inspection of all joints.
The trench width must comply with the dimensions shown below (see Table 4.21):

Table 4.21 Minimum trench dimensions.

Outside diameter lb lc lo B
OD ≤ 160 75 100 100 275 - 350

OD > 160 100 150 150 450 - 600

Note: see Figure 4.30 for definitions related to trench dimensions.

These values may be increased in some cases in order to increase the space required for proper installation.
In case of simultaneous laying of more than one pipe, a minimum distance between them is required, in order
to ensure adequate operations to carry out the necessary material compaction, and ensure support to the
material of the lateral sides. In case of parallel pipes with different diameters, lp is defined as the minimum
distance between them: lp must be at least (Ø1 + Ø2)/2.

Table 4.22 Minimum space between parallel laid pipes.

Self-compacting material
Outside diameter Compactable material CLSM(a)
OD ≤ 160 100 50

160 < OD ≤ 315 150 75

(a) CLSM - Controlled Low Strength Material, is a type of concrete mixture with high fluidity, used in construction for non-structural purposes such as
filling or road bases. CLSM consists of a mixture of Portland cement, water, granule and sometimes ash. Unlike standard concrete, CLSM has a much
lower strength of approx. 8.3 MPa and is commonly used as a substitute for compacted filling.

LAYING 87
 Above the covering area, the shape of the excavation (width, height, etc.) must be defined considering the
soil stability and the necessary structures to support the trench. According to the standard in question,
AS/NZS 2566.1, this does not change the maximum value of the load acting on the pipeline. In all cases,
adequate covering, both in trench and embankment, must be made to meet the minimum compaction value
specified in Table 4.24.

The finished level of the bottom of the excavation, natural or rebuilt, must uniformly respect the depth and
slope specified in the design along the entire pipeline route. In case of laying on natural soil, this must be
adequately levelled in order to ensure continuous support along the entire length of the pipe. At the bottom of
the excavation in the vicinity of joints, sockets and fittings, or any other protrusion of the pipe, it is advisable to
4 prepare recesses in the ground, called pockets, so as to maintain the slope specified in the project constant.
Additional excavation may be necessary if anchoring blocks, bulkheads, concrete buffers are to be constructed.

The possible presence of water in the excavation phases implies its necessary removal in order to ensure the
stability of the surrounding soil, generate suitable working conditions and prevent the pipelines from floating.
Water can be removed using several methods, including: weel-point systems, submersible pumps, and non-
woven drainage geotextile fabric mats.

88 LAYING
4.6.4 Laying
Before laying operations, all components must be inspected, pipes must be laid in the trench so that the
covering material can be installed and compressed as specified.
PPEcoforte® is a plug-in system with elastomer seal. Joints are made using the same socket provided on pipes
and fittings, or in the case of smooth pipes, sleeves with double coupling and seal can be used.
If adjustments to the pipe alignment are necessary, they must be made by lifting the pipe and being careful not
to damage any components. These adjustments are called angular deviations and must respect certain limits
defined by the manufacturers.
Connections between pipes or between different components must be made by first aligning the two elements,
and then adjusting the angular deviation. From this point of view PPEcoforte®, with its unique connection
system, is designed to allow a maximum deviation at each socket of 3%, so adjustments to the alignment, 4
slope or positioning height can be easily obtained by applying the necessary deviation to the individual sockets
until the required value is obtained. PPEcoforte® allows for up to 3% deviation at each socket, with the same
bend, fewer joints are required compared to traditional pipe. At the same time, since single bars of the required
length are available, it is possible to implement a more marked bending, taking advantage of more points in
which to apply the deviation.

Figure 4.32 Example of angular deviation.

LAYING 89
 If two pipes are to be installed overlapping, the minimum vertical distance between them must be the greater
of the sum of their diameters, divided by four or 100 mm. This area must be filled with compacted covering
material; when it is not possible to have a distance of at least 100 mm between pipes, it is acceptable to
reduce this distance to 50 mm, subject to the approval of the site engineering manager. In order to reduce the
possibility of excessive loads on the pipes, it will be necessary to install suitable materials between them (for
example polystyrene sheets) capable of limiting their action.
When pipe laying is completed, ensuring the correct slope, the covering is defined. To ensure the integrity
of side support to the pipes, non-woven fabric must be used to coat the covering material in a manner that
prevents migration of fine material to the undisturbed soil of the excavation (see Figure 4.33).

4 Figure 4.33 Section of trench with covering.

Trench coating area

Filling material

Non-woven fabric

Foundation

Coating material may be:

• Selection of non-cohesive material.
• Self-compacting material (CLSM).
• Stabilized soil.

Given the difficulties in placing and compacting the cohesive material, it is advisable to use it only for shallow
pipelines subject to limited loads. In order to achieve a higher degree of support for the pipes, it is advisable to
increase the amount of granular material in the coating, also acting with a higher effort in compaction.
The use of materials that do not fall into the above groups is not precluded, provided that they have a
compactness and moisture content suitable for the installation, and that the ability to achieve the required
elastic modulus is tested. Sharp and abrasive materials must not be used as they can damage the outer
surface of the pipes or the protective insulation surrounding the pipes.

90 LAYING
The the covering material can consist of a wide variety of soil types with particle sizes ranging from 14 mm to
20 mm depending on the pipe diameters used (see Table 4.23). The grain size of the material must be adjusted
to ensure the degree of relative compaction specified based on the compaction method employed. The material
must also be free of organic parts that may alter its performance and behaviour.

Table 4.23 Maximum particulate size.

Max particulate size

DN nominal diameter [mm]
100 ≤ DN ≤ 150 14

DN < 150 20 4

If groundwater is present, it is necessary to drain water by using one of the following systems:
• Permeable drainage non-woven geotextile fabric mat.
• Slotted pipes wrapped in non-woven fabric liners that can be installed in the foundation or bedding area to
minimize fine particle migration.

Removal of water from the soil must be performed during pipe laying and compaction of the filling soil. Possible
floating of the pipe can be prevented by using adequate covering material and sufficient compaction.

Figure 4.34 Trench section with drainage systems.

Coating area

Drainage non-woven fabric mat Filling material

Non-woven fabric

Slotted draining pipes coated

with non-woven fabric Foundation

The side support and first covering (see Figure 4.28 and Figure 4.29) must ensure:
• Even distribution and proper compaction of the covering material.
• Relative compaction of material consistent with design data.
• Pipeline deformation minimized.
• The pipeline and any additional layers (e.g., non-woven fabric) must not be damaged.
• The alignment, elevation, and slope of the pipe must be constant.

Based on the covering material and the method by which it will be compacted, the number and thickness of
the layers in which it will be laid must be determined.

LAYING 91
 Filling material must comply with specifications; minimum requirements depend on loads, both live and fixed
loads, but also on the maximum settlement accepted for the covering material. The next step in the installation
process involves compacting the filling. In case of mechanical compaction, using mechanical means (e.g.
vibratory rammer), this must begin after a sufficient amount of material has been poured over the pipe to
protect it from possible damage. In case of manual or dragging compaction devices, the minimum depth
for the filling material must be greater than 200 mm. The choice of tools, methods, number of passes, and
thickness of material depend on both the type of filling and the type of pipe used; these tools and methods
must not produce any vertical or horizontal pressure on the pipe.

The compaction obtained by “flooding” or by pressurized water jets is forbidden below the roadways, in fact
4 this method is to be considered for a mild compaction: the covering soil is flooded by water jets and left to dry,
during the drying and water dispersion phase, compaction occurs naturally.
When the compaction process of the filling material is complete, it must not induce excessive deformation
along the vertical axis of the pipe; the maximum permissible short-term value, 30 days, for PPEcoforte® is
∆y = 5.0%.

In the event that the filling material does not meet design specifications and changes in procedures have been
made, a test to check compaction is required. This test must be performed after positioning the pipes, in order
to ensure that the method chosen is adequate to achieve the specified degree of compaction. It is considered
acceptable to perform a test every two layers of laid material and maximum every hundred metres of pipe
length.
When the minimum relative compaction value is not specified, refer to the table below:

Table 4.24 Minimum compaction.

Vehicle accessible area Vehicle inaccessible area

Material for
Material for
Soil type Test method Material for Material trench/
trench/
coating for coating embankment
embankment filling
[%] [%] filling
[%] [%]
Without cohesion Density index (ID) 70 70 60 The value
Standard dry density of compaction
Cohesive ratio (Rd), 95 95 90 depends on site
Hilf density ratio (Rhd) conditions

92 LAYING
In case of special installation situations such as:
• Steep slopes.
• Excessive hydrodynamic and hydrostatic pressure.
• Unstable ground conditions.
• Possibility of covering soil runoff.

Systems to limit unwanted pipe movements are provided, which may include the installation of bulkheads
or “trench-stop” elements. Specifically, for the installation of the latter, it is necessary to check that certain
minimum requirements are met, summarized in the following table.

Table 4.25 Bulkhead and trench-stop requirements.

4

Slope % Requirement Distance (S) [m]

5-14 Trench-stop S = 100/slope %

S = L/slope % (450 m max)

where:
15-29 CLS bulkhead L = 80 - pipe length (m)
When L > 100 m, place intermediate
trench-stops at a distance < 100/slope

30-50 CLS casing (continuous) CLS bulkhead S = 100/slope %

> 50 Specific design

If the pipe is to be installed in an area with a slope ≥ 30%, or with inappropriate soil for the trench foundation,
or with risk of flotation for the pipeline, or soil erosion, a full concrete coating must be considered to create a
casing for the pipe.
The concrete coating can be made continuously along the pipe or at specific points in the installation, in the
latter case these structural elements are called thrust blocks.
Thrust blocks are constructed to withstand hydrodynamic pressures or high value hydrostatic thrusts and are
placed near:
• Fittings with change of direction.
• Closed ends.
• Valves.
• Derivation fittings.
• Diameter reductions.

The use of two materials, i.e. the concrete of structural blocks and the material of the pipe, combined with the
response of the soil, undoubtedly determine a weak point of the structure. From this point of view, plastic or
flexible materials, as well as PPEcoforte®, are able to withstand the settlement between the concrete structure
and the soil; if necessary, this process can be facilitated with the installation of a compressible material in the
interface between concrete and soil (see Figure 4.35).

LAYING 93
 Figure 4.35 CLS - PPEcoforte® - soil coupling.

Compressible material
80 mm (e.g. rubber)

Well-compact laying bed

4
Undisturbed soil

Well-compact laying bed

Undisturbed soil

Compressible material
80 mm (e.g. rubber)

Well-compact laying bed

Undisturbed soil

Thrust blocks must be sized to withstand axial loads by supporting them with the normal surfaces to the forces
acting on them; to ensure proper containment there must be no gap between the pipe or fitting and the bearing
surface of the block, at the same time the concrete of the structural element must not interfere with the flexibility
of plastic pipe couplings.
Below are the most common configurations of thrust blocks in different installation situations.

94 LAYING
Figure 4.36 45° curve in the horizontal plane.

Plan view Section view

Figure 4.37 45° curve in the vertical plane.

Plan view Section view

Figure 4.38 45° derivation branch.

Plan view Section view

LAYING 95
 In some excavation situations, where the width and height of the trench can generate high risks for the safety
of operators, it is necessary to provide systems for support of the side walls, avoiding any possible subsidence.
Supporting formworks must be designed and sized to support the load actions of the soil and ensure complete
tightness.

When the pipe laying phase has been completed, the support reinforcements are gradually removed, this
operation must take place at the same time as the covering layers are laid and compacted. The formwork may
be installed above the filling area (see Figure 4.39) or resting on the bottom of the trench; in the latter case,
special attention must be paid during its removal to the empty space created between the filling soil and the
side walls; these empty spaces must be filled with good filling material (see Figure 4.40).
4
In addition to narrow trenches, it is possible to have wide trenches, in which the section is not rectangular but
the side walls are replaced with slopes at different angles. Normally with wide trenches there is no need to
install supporting formworks; however, if the ground is unstable and it is not possible to ensure safe conditions
to the operators during the installation phases, it is advisable to place a formwork in a central position in the
excavation (see Figure 4.41).

Figure 4.39 Formwork above the filling area.

Formworks (shoring boxes)

for trench support

Formworks placed higher than the pipe

Native soil trench walls

Non-woven fabric

Filling area
Compacted filling material

Pipe

96 LAYING
Figure 4.40 Process for removing the formwork from the filling area.
Formwork lifting from the pipe laying area

Formworks (shoring boxes)

for trench support

Native soil trench walls

Empty space created by formwork removal

Non-woven fabric
Formworks positioned at the same
height as the pipes
Compacted filling material

Pipe

Figure 4.41 Wide trench with supporting formwork.

When the formworks have been removed,
Formworks (shoring boxes)
the non-woven fabric must completely
for trench support
wrap the filling area

Fill empty spaces created during

formwork removal from support

Use top quality filling material

Compacted filling material

LAYING 97
 4.7 Bracketing
• For straight pipes, the fixed point must be made on each pipe plug-in socket; the remainder of the pipe or
fittings will be supported and guided by sliding point collars (except for special configurations that must be
analysed on a case-by-case basis). The maximum distances L1 to be used for collars are shown in the table
below.

Table 4.26 Maximum bracketing distances for plug-in socket system for PPEcoforte®.

Outside diameter Maximum bracketing distance L1 [m]

OD [mm]
4 Horizontal pipes(1)
110 1.7
125 1.9
160 2.4
200 2.5
250 2.5
315 2.5
400 2.5
500 2.5

(1) Distances for horizontal pipes are calculated as OD 15, with a minimum of 0.8 m and a maximum of 2.5 m.

Figure 4.42 Installation using plug-in sockets for PPEcoforte®.

F G F G F

L1 L1 L1 L1

98 LAYING
Figure 4.43 Ceiling installation distance for PPEcoforte®.

Table 4.27 Ceiling installation for PPEcoforte®.

Distance of pipe axis from the ceiling L [mm]

Outside Fixed point
diameter (F) or sliding 100 200 300 400 500 600
OD [mm] point (G)
Size of threaded bar for ceiling connection
F M10 1/2” 1/2” 1/2” 1/2” 1/2”
110
G M10 M10 M10 1/2” 1/2” 1/2”
F M10 1/2” 1/2” 1/2” 1/2” 1/2”
125
G M10 M10 1/2” 1/2” 1/2” 1/2”
F M10 1/2” 1/2” 1/2” 1/2” 3/4”
160
G M10 M10 1/2” 1/2” 1/2” 1/2”
F - 1/2” 1/2” 1/2” 3/4” 3/4”
200
G - 1/2” 1/2” 1/2” 1/2” 1/2”
F - 1/2” 1/2” 3/4” 3/4” 1”
250
G - 1/2” 1/2” 1/2” 1/2” 1/2”
F - 1/2” 3/4” 3/4” 1” 1”
315
G - 1/2” 1/2” 1/2” 3/4” 3/4”
F - - 3/4” 1” 1” 1”
400
G - - 1/2” 3/4” 3/4” 1”
F - - 1” 1” 1” 1/4 1” 1/4
500
G - - 3/4” 1” 1” 1” 1/4

Note. Reducers and threaded bars greater than M10 can be obtained by threading commonly used steel pipes.

LAYING 99
 • If you do not want to use threaded bars greater than M10 for ceiling connection, there are two possibilities.
The first can be used if the horizontal pipes meet the following 3 conditions:
1) maximum distance of 350 mm from pipe axis to building structure,
2) maximum length of 8 m,
3) diameter not exceeding 110 mm.

The pipe must be locked at the ends, e.g. on one side by the connection fitting to the stack and on the other
side by the vertical connection of the pipe passing through the concrete slab.

Figure 4.44 Installation of horizontal pipes with M10 collars.

4

L ≤ 350 mm

Figure 4.45 Installation of horizontal pipes with M10 collars.

F G G
L ≤ 350 mm
OD 110 max

8 m max

100 LAYING
The second possibility provides for the use of an additional bracketing (triple bracketing) to avoid waste system
oscillations or movements. The components for its construction are not supplied by Valsir, but can be easily
found on the market.

Figure 4.46 Installation of horizontal pipes with triple bracketing.

The additional bracketing (triple bracketing) must respect the following rules (if not in contrast with the those of
the bracketing supplier):
1) An additional bracketing for straight pipes every 6 metres to be used together with fixed point collars
(Figure 4.47).
2) An additional bracketing for each change of direction (Figure 4.48).
3) An additional bracketing for each connection where the branch length exceeds 2 m (Figure 4.49).

Figure 4.47 Use of additional bracketing system for straight pipes.

F G F G F

6 m max

Figure 4.48 Use of additional bracketing system for changes of direction.

LAYING 101
 Figure 4.49 Use of additional bracketing system for connections between pipes.

G
>2m

G F
4

• Where the deviation is lower than or equal to 1 m, a fixed point collar is required on the pipe socket laid
immediately after the last bend making up the deviation. The pipe that plugs into the first bend that makes
up the detour must be supported and guided by a sliding point collar (Figure 4.50). Deviations greater than
1 m are straight sections of pipes and must be considered as such; therefore, fixed points at pipe sockets
and sliding points at the distances specified in Table 4.26 (Figure 4.51) are required.

Figure 4.50 Anchoring points on deviations lower than or equal to 1 m for PPEcoforte®.

G
F

≤1m

102 LAYING
Figure 4.51 Anchoring points on deviations greater than 1 m for PPEcoforte®.

G G F
F

>1m

• On horizontal collectors, anchoring points must be created for each pipe socket (Figure 4.52, Figure 4.53,
Figure 4.54); bracketing distances must always be as shown in Table 4.26.

Figure 4.52 Horizontal collector OD=110 mm consisting of 1 m long pipes.

F F F F F F

OD 110

1m 1m

Figure 4.53 Horizontal collector OD=110 mm consisting of 2 m long pipes.

G F G F G F

OD 110

1,7 m
2m

Figure 4.54 Horizontal collector OD=110 mm consisting of 3 m long pipes.

G F G F

OD 110

1,7 m
3m

LAYING 103
4

104 LAYING
WASTE SYSTEMS

SUPPLY SYSTEMS

GAS SYSTEMS

FLUSHING SYSTEMS

BATHROOM SYSTEMS

TRAPS

RADIANT SYSTEMS

DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

HRV SYSTEM

ACADEMY

SEWER SYSTEMS

WATER TREATMENT
L02-981/0 – Maggio 2022

VALSIR S.p.A. - Società a Socio Unico

Località Merlaro, 2
25078 Vestone (BS) - Italy
Tel. +39 0365 877.011
Fax +39 0365 81.268
e-mail: [email protected]
www.valsir.it
Soggetta all’attività di direzione e coordinamento ex art. 2497 bis C.C.
da parte di Silmar Group S.p.A. - Codice Fiscale 02075160172