CHEMISTRY CLASS 9th Framework SLO

BASED PREMIUM NOTES

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1. Define chemistry as the study of matter, its

properties, composition, and interactions
with other matter and energy.
Answer:
Chemistry is the study of matter, which includes
solids, liquids, gases, and plasma. It involves
understanding the properties, composition, and
how different forms of matter interact with each
other and with energy. For example, how air
(gas), water (liquid), and solids like metals and
minerals react with one another or with energy
sources such as heat.
Glossary:
• Matter: Anything that has mass and takes
up space (e.g., solids, liquids, gases).
• Properties: Characteristics or features of
something (e.g., color, size, shape,
hardness).
• Composition: The elements or materials
that make up a substance.
• Interaction: The way two or more things
affect each other.
• Energy: The ability to do work or cause
change (e.g., heat, light).

2. Explain with examples that chemistry has

many sub-fields and interdisciplinary fields.
Answer:
Chemistry has many different sub-fields, each
focusing on a particular aspect of matter or its
reactions. Some of these sub-fields include:
• Biochemistry: Studies the chemical
processes in living organisms (e.g., DNA
structure).
• Medicinal Chemistry: Focuses on
designing and creating drugs for treating
diseases (e.g., antibiotics).
• Polymer Chemistry: Studies the chemical
structure of polymers like plastics (e.g.,
polyethylene).
• Geochemistry: Focuses on the chemical
composition of Earth’s rocks and minerals.
• Environmental Chemistry: Examines how
chemicals affect the environment (e.g.,
pollution).
• Analytical Chemistry: Involves techniques
for identifying and measuring substances
(e.g., finding pollutants in water).
 • Physical Chemistry: Studies how matter
behaves under different conditions (e.g.,
reactions with temperature changes).
• Organic Chemistry: Deals with carbon-
containing compounds (e.g., plastics, fuels).
• Inorganic Chemistry: Studies non-carbon-
based compounds (e.g., metals, salts).
• Nuclear Chemistry: Focuses on the study
of nuclear reactions (e.g., radioactive
decay).
• Astrochemistry: Studies the chemistry of
space, like molecules found in space.
Glossary:
• Sub-field: A smaller part of a larger field of
study.
• Interdisciplinary: Combining or involving
two or more subjects or fields.
• Biochemistry: The study of chemical
processes in living organisms.
• Medicinal Chemistry: The study of
chemicals used in medicine.
 • Polymer Chemistry: The study of long
chains of molecules (polymers) like plastics.
• Geochemistry: The study of Earth’s
chemical processes.
• Environmental Chemistry: The study of
chemicals’ impact on the environment.
• Analytical Chemistry: The study of
methods to analyze substances.
• Physical Chemistry: The study of how
matter and energy interact.
• Organic Chemistry: The study of carbon-
based compounds.
• Inorganic Chemistry: The study of
compounds not based on carbon.
• Nuclear Chemistry: The study of changes
in atomic nuclei.
• Astrochemistry: The study of chemicals
found in space.

3. Formulate examples of essential questions

for the branches of chemistry.
Answer:
An essential question in Analytical Chemistry
could be: “How can we accurately determine
the chemical composition of a sample?”
This question focuses on finding ways to
measure and analyze the chemical components
of substances, which is a key part of this branch
of chemistry.
Glossary:
• Essential Question: A big, open-ended
question that guides learning and thinking.
• Analytical Chemistry: The branch of
chemistry that focuses on identifying and
measuring the components of substances.
• Chemical Composition: The types and
amounts of elements in a substance.
• Sample: A small portion or part of
something used for testing or analysis.

4. Differentiate between 'science,'

'technology,' and 'engineering' by making
reference to examples from the physical
sciences.
Answer:
• Science is the process of discovering new
knowledge through experiments and
observations. For example, scientists explore
how substances react with each other.
• Technology is the practical use of scientific
knowledge to make tools, devices, or
systems that solve problems. For example,
using knowledge of chemistry to create
smartphones.
• Engineering is the application of science
and technology to design and build things
that solve problems. For example, engineers
might design a chemical plant that produces
clean energy using the knowledge from
chemistry.
Glossary:
 • Science: The systematic study of the natural
world through observation and
experimentation.
• Technology: The use of scientific
knowledge to create tools and systems.
• Engineering: The application of science
and technology to design and build things.
• Experiment: A test or trial to discover
something new.
• Observation: The act of watching
something carefully in order to learn about
it.
1. Define matter as a substance having mass
and occupying space.
Answer:
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up
space. It can be in different forms, such as
solids, liquids, and gases. Everything around us,
like the air we breathe, the water we drink, and
the food we eat, is made of matter.
Glossary:
 • Matter: Anything that has mass and
occupies space.
• Mass: The amount of matter in an object or
substance.
• Space: The area that something occupies or
exists in.

2. State the distinguishing macroscopic

properties of commonly observed states of
solids, liquids, and gases, particularly
density, compressibility, and fluidity.
Answer:
• Solids have a fixed shape and volume. They
are dense and hard to compress. The
particles in solids are closely packed and
only vibrate in place.
• Liquids have a fixed volume but no fixed
shape. They take the shape of their container
and can flow. Liquids are less dense than
solids and not easily compressed.
 • Gases have neither a fixed shape nor
volume. They expand to fill the entire space
of their container. Gases are highly
compressible and have low density.
• Density refers to how closely packed the
particles are in a substance.
• Compressibility refers to how easily a
substance can be squeezed into a smaller
space.
• Fluidity refers to how easily a substance can
flow (liquids and gases are fluids).
Glossary:
• Solid: A state of matter that has a definite
shape and volume.
• Liquid: A state of matter that has a definite
volume but no fixed shape.
• Gas: A state of matter that has neither a
definite shape nor volume.
• Density: The mass of a substance per unit
volume.
• Compressibility: The ability of a substance
to be squeezed or reduced in volume.
 • Fluidity: The ability of a substance to flow.

3. Identify that state is a distinct form of

matter (examples could include familiarity
with plasma, intermediate states, and exotic
states like BEC or liquid crystals).
Answer:
A state of matter is a particular form in which
matter exists. The most common states are
solids, liquids, and gases, but there are also
other states:
• Plasma is a state of matter found at very
high temperatures where atoms break into
charged particles. It is found in stars and
lightning.
• Intermediate states include substances that
do not fit neatly into the categories of solid,
liquid, or gas, like liquid crystals (used in
LCD screens).
• Exotic states like Bose-Einstein
condensates (BEC) are created at extremely
 low temperatures, where particles behave
like a single entity.
Glossary:
• State of Matter: The physical form of a
substance (solid, liquid, gas, etc.).
• Plasma: A high-energy state of matter made
of charged particles.
• Liquid Crystals: A state of matter that has
properties between liquids and solids, used
in displays.
• Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC): An
exotic state of matter created at extremely
low temperatures, where particles act as one.

4. Explain the allotropic forms of solids (some

examples may include diamond, graphite,
and fullerenes).
Answer:
Allotropes are different forms of the same
element that exist in different structures. For
example:
• Diamond is a form of carbon where each
atom is bonded to four others in a rigid
structure. It is very hard and transparent.
• Graphite is another form of carbon where
atoms are arranged in layers, allowing it to
be slippery and conduct electricity.
• Fullerenes are molecules of carbon shaped
like spheres or tubes, often used in research
for their unique properties.
Glossary:
• Allotropes: Different forms of the same
element that have different structures.
• Diamond: A form of carbon with a very
hard, transparent structure.
• Graphite: A form of carbon with layered
structures that is slippery and conducts
electricity.
• Fullerenes: Molecules of carbon in the
shape of spheres or tubes.
5. Explain the differences between elements,
compounds, and mixtures.
Answer:
• Elements are pure substances made of only
one type of atom. Examples include oxygen
(O) and carbon (C).
• Compounds are substances made of two or
more elements that are chemically combined
in a fixed ratio. An example is water (H₂O),
which is made of hydrogen and oxygen.
• Mixtures are combinations of two or more
substances that are not chemically
combined. Examples include salad or air. In
mixtures, the substances retain their
individual properties.
Glossary:
• Element: A substance made of only one
type of atom.
 • Compound: A substance made of two or
more elements that are chemically
combined.
• Mixture: A combination of two or more
substances that are not chemically bonded.

6. Identify solutions, colloids, and

suspensions as mixtures and give an example
of each.
Answer:
• Solutions are mixtures where one substance
(the solute) dissolves completely in another
(the solvent), such as salt in water.
• Colloids are mixtures where tiny particles
are evenly spread out but don’t dissolve
completely, like milk or fog.
• Suspensions are mixtures where particles
are not fully dissolved and can settle out
over time, like muddy water.
Glossary:
 • Solution: A homogeneous mixture where
one substance dissolves in another.
• Colloid: A mixture where tiny particles are
spread out but not dissolved.
• Suspension: A mixture where particles are
suspended in a liquid but can settle out over
time.

7. Explain the effect of temperature on

solubility and the formation of unsaturated
and saturated solutions.
Answer:
• Solubility is the ability of a substance to
dissolve in a solvent (like how sugar
dissolves in water).
• When the temperature increases, more
solute can usually dissolve in a solvent,
making the solution more concentrated.
• An unsaturated solution is one where more
solute can still dissolve at a given
temperature.
 • A saturated solution is one where no more
solute can dissolve at a given temperature
because the solvent has reached its
maximum capacity.
Glossary:
• Solubility: The ability of a substance to
dissolve in a solvent.
• Unsaturated Solution: A solution that can
still dissolve more solute.
• Saturated Solution: A solution where no
more solute can dissolve.
• Temperature: A measure of heat or
coldness, which can affect how substances
dissolve.
1. Explain the structure of the atom as a
central nucleus containing neutrons and
protons surrounded by electrons in shells.
Answer:
An atom is made up of three main particles:
 • The nucleus, which is at the center, contains
protons (positively charged particles) and
neutrons (neutral particles, meaning they
have no charge).
• The electrons (negatively charged particles)
are found outside the nucleus and move in
specific paths or shells (energy levels)
around the nucleus. The number of protons
in the nucleus determines the identity of the
atom, while the electrons balance the charge
of the protons.
Glossary:
• Atom: The basic unit of matter, made up of
protons, neutrons, and electrons.
• Nucleus: The center of an atom, containing
protons and neutrons.
• Proton: A positively charged particle in the
nucleus of an atom.
• Neutron: A particle in the nucleus of an
atom that has no charge.
• Electron: A negatively charged particle that
moves around the nucleus in shells.
 • Shells: Energy levels around the nucleus
where electrons are found.

2. State that, orbits (shells) are energy levels

of electrons, and a larger shell implies higher
energy and greater average distance from the
nucleus.
Answer:
The shells (or orbits) around an atom’s nucleus
are the different energy levels where electrons
are located.
• The larger the shell, the more energy it has,
and the further it is from the nucleus.
• Electrons in shells closer to the nucleus have
less energy and are more tightly held by
the nucleus, while electrons in shells farther
away have more energy and are less tightly
held.
Glossary:
 • Shells: Layers around the nucleus where
electrons are found.
• Energy Levels: The energy associated with
an electron in a particular shell.
• Nucleus: The center of an atom, containing
protons and neutrons.

3. State that electrons are quantum particles

with probabilistic paths whose exact paths
and locations cannot be mapped (with
reference to the uncertainty principle).
Answer:
Electrons are quantum particles, meaning they
follow the rules of quantum mechanics.
• The uncertainty principle states that we
cannot know both the exact path and exact
location of an electron at the same time.
• Instead, we can only predict the probability
of finding an electron in a certain place. This
is why electrons don’t move in fixed paths,
 but in cloud-like regions around the
nucleus.
Glossary:
• Quantum Particles: Particles that follow
quantum mechanics, which deals with the
behavior of tiny particles.
• Uncertainty Principle: A rule in quantum
mechanics stating that we cannot know both
the exact position and momentum of a
particle at the same time.
• Path: The route or direction an electron
takes.
• Location: The place where an electron
might be found.
• Probability: The likelihood or chance of
finding an electron in a specific location.

4. Explain that a nucleus is made up of

protons and neutrons held together by strong
nuclear force.
Answer:
The nucleus of an atom is made of two types of
particles:
• Protons, which are positively charged.
• Neutrons, which have no charge. These
particles are held together by the strong
nuclear force, which is the force that acts
between protons and neutrons to keep them
tightly bound in the nucleus.
Glossary:
• Nucleus: The center of an atom, consisting
of protons and neutrons.
• Proton: A positively charged particle in the
nucleus.
• Neutron: A particle in the nucleus with no
charge.
• Strong Nuclear Force: The force that holds
protons and neutrons together in the nucleus.
5. Explain that an atomic model is an aid to
understand the structure of an atom.
Answer:
An atomic model is a simplified representation
of how atoms are structured. Scientists use these
models to understand how atoms behave, how
they interact with other atoms, and how particles
are arranged inside the atom. For example, the
Bohr model shows electrons in fixed orbits
around the nucleus, while the electron cloud
model shows electrons spread out in regions of
probability.
Glossary:
• Atomic Model: A model that represents the
structure of an atom.
• Bohr Model: A model where electrons are
shown in fixed orbits around the nucleus.
• Electron Cloud Model: A model showing
electrons spread out in a cloud-like region of
probability around the nucleus.
6. State the relative charge and relative
masses of subatomic particles (an electron,
proton, and neutron).
Answer:
• The proton has a positive charge and a
mass of 1 atomic mass unit (amu).
• The neutron has no charge (it’s neutral)
and also has a mass of 1 amu.
• The electron has a negative charge and a
very small mass, much less than that of a
proton or neutron, approximately 1/1836 of
an amu.
Glossary:
• Proton: A positively charged particle in the
nucleus of an atom.
• Neutron: A neutral particle in the nucleus
of an atom.
• Electron: A negatively charged particle
orbiting the nucleus.
 • Atomic Mass Unit (amu): A unit of mass
used to express atomic and molecular
weights.

7. Interpret the relationship between a

subatomic particle, their mass, and charge.
Answer:
The relationship between the mass and charge
of subatomic particles is:
• Protons and neutrons have similar masses
(about 1 amu) and are found in the nucleus.
Protons have a positive charge, and
neutrons have no charge.
• Electrons have a very small mass (about
1/1836 of a proton) and a negative charge.
• The mass of an atom mainly comes from the
protons and neutrons in the nucleus, while
the charge is determined by the protons in
the nucleus and the electrons in orbit.
Glossary:
 • Mass: The amount of matter in an object or
particle.
• Charge: The electric property of a particle
that causes it to attract or repel other
particles.
8. Define proton number/atomic number as
the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom.
Answer:
The proton number, also called the atomic
number, refers to the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom. This number is unique for
each element, and it determines the identity of
the element. For example, an atom with one
proton is hydrogen, and an atom with six
protons is carbon.
Glossary:
• Proton Number: The number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom, also called the
atomic number.
 • Atomic Number: The number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom, which identifies the
element.

9. Explain that the proton number is unique

to each element and used to arrange elements
in the periodic table.
Answer:
The proton number (atomic number) is unique
to each element. No two elements have the same
number of protons. This number is used to
organize the elements in the periodic table,
where elements are arranged in order of their
proton number, starting from hydrogen (1
proton) and moving upward.
Glossary:
• Proton Number: The number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom.
 • Periodic Table: A chart that arranges all
known elements by their atomic number and
properties.

10. State that radioactivity can change the

proton number and alter an atom's identity.
Answer:
Radioactivity is a process where unstable
atomic nuclei release energy in the form of
radiation. During this process, the proton
number can change, leading to a transformation
of one element into another. For example, if a
radioactive element loses a proton, it may
change into a different element.
Glossary:
• Radioactivity: The release of energy from
the nucleus of an atom in the form of
radiation.
 • Proton Number: The number of protons in
the nucleus, which defines the identity of an
element.

11. Define nucleon number/atomic mass as

the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Answer:
The nucleon number, also called atomic mass,
is the total number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom. It is used to express the
mass of an atom. For example, if an atom has 6
protons and 6 neutrons, its nucleon number is
12.
Glossary:
• Nucleon Number: The total number of
protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom.
 • Atomic Mass: The mass of an atom, often
measured in atomic mass units (amu), which
is the sum of protons and neutrons.

12. Define isotopes as different atoms of the

same element that have the same number of
protons but different neutrons.
Answer:
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that
have the same number of protons but a different
number of neutrons. This means that isotopes
have the same atomic number but different
nucleon numbers. For example, carbon-12 and
carbon-14 are both isotopes of carbon, with
different numbers of neutrons.
Glossary:
• Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with
the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.
 • Protons: Positively charged particles in the
nucleus of an atom.
• Neutrons: Neutral particles in the nucleus
of an atom.
• Nucleon Number: The total number of
protons and neutrons in an atom’s nucleus.

13. State that isotopes can affect molecular

mass but not chemical properties of an atom.
Answer:
Isotopes can affect the molecular mass of a
compound because they change the total number
of neutrons. However, since isotopes of the
same element have the same number of
protons, they have the same chemical
properties. This means that isotopes react in the
same way in chemical reactions, but their mass
can be different.
Glossary:
 • Isotopes: Atoms of the same element that
have different numbers of neutrons.
• Molecular Mass: The total mass of all the
atoms in a molecule, which can be affected
by isotopes.
• Chemical Properties: The characteristics of
an element or compound that determine how
it reacts with other substances.

14. Determine the number of protons and

neutrons of different isotopes.
Answer:
To determine the number of protons and
neutrons in an isotope:
1.The number of protons is equal to the
atomic number of the element.
2.The number of neutrons can be found by
subtracting the atomic number from the
nucleon number (atomic mass). For
example, for carbon-14 (with a nucleon
 number of 14), the number of neutrons is 14
- 6 = 8, since carbon has 6 protons.
Glossary:
• Protons: Particles in the nucleus with a
positive charge.
• Neutrons: Particles in the nucleus with no
charge.
• Atomic Number: The number of protons in
an atom.
• Nucleon Number: The total number of
protons and neutrons in an atom.

15. Define relative atomic mass as the

average mass of isotopes of an element
compared to 1/12th of mass of an atom of
Carbon-12.
Answer:
Relative atomic mass is the average mass of all
the isotopes of an element, compared to 1/12th
of the mass of a Carbon-12 atom. This standard
allows scientists to compare the masses of
different elements. For example, the relative
atomic mass of hydrogen is approximately 1
because the mass of a hydrogen atom is about
1/12th the mass of carbon-12.
Glossary:
• Relative Atomic Mass: The average mass
of an element’s isotopes, compared to 1/12th
of the mass of a Carbon-12 atom.
• Carbon-12: An isotope of carbon with 6
protons and 6 neutrons, used as a standard
for measuring atomic mass.

16. State that isotopes can exhibit

radioactivity.
Answer:
Some isotopes are radioactive, meaning they
spontaneously release energy in the form of
radiation. This happens because the nucleus of
these isotopes is unstable. For example, carbon-
14 is a radioactive isotope used in carbon
dating.
Glossary:
• Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with
different numbers of neutrons.
• Radioactive: Referring to isotopes that emit
radiation due to unstable nuclei.

17. Discuss the importance of isotopes using

carbon dating and medical imaging as
examples.
Answer:
Isotopes are very useful in different fields:
• Carbon dating uses the radioactive isotope
carbon-14 to determine the age of ancient
objects by measuring how much carbon-14
remains.
• In medical imaging, isotopes are used in
PET scans (Positron Emission
Tomography) to help doctors see inside the
 body and diagnose diseases by tracking
radioactive isotopes injected into the body.
Glossary:
• Carbon Dating: A method used to
determine the age of objects by measuring
the amount of carbon-14 they contain.
• Medical Imaging: Techniques used by
doctors to create images of the inside of the
body for diagnosis.
• PET Scan: A medical imaging technique
that uses radioactive isotopes to observe the
body’s activity.

18. Describe the formation of positive (cation)

and negative (anion) ions from atoms.
Answer:
When an atom gains or loses electrons, it
becomes an ion. If it loses electrons, it becomes
a positive ion (or cation) because it now has
more protons than electrons. If it gains
electrons, it becomes a negative ion (or anion)
because it has more electrons than protons. For
example, a sodium atom (Na) can lose an
electron to become Na⁺ (a cation), while a
chlorine atom (Cl) can gain an electron to
become Cl⁻ (an anion).
Glossary:
• Ion: A charged particle formed when an
atom gains or loses electrons.
• Cation: A positively charged ion, formed
when an atom loses electrons.
• Anion: A negatively charged ion, formed
when an atom gains electrons.
• Electron: A negatively charged particle in
an atom.
19. Calculate relative atomic mass of an
element from relative masses and abundance
of all stable isotopes.
Answer: To calculate the relative atomic mass
of an element from the relative masses and
abundance of its stable isotopes, use the
following steps:
1.Multiply the relative mass (atomic mass) of
each isotope by its abundance (the
percentage of that isotope in nature).
2.Sum the results for all isotopes.
3.Divide the total by 100 to get the average
atomic mass (relative atomic mass).
For example, let's calculate the relative atomic
mass of an element with two isotopes:
• Isotope 1 has a relative mass of 10 and an
abundance of 60%.
• Isotope 2 has a relative mass of 12 and an
abundance of 40%.
Calculation:
1.Multiply the relative mass of each isotope
by its abundance:
o (10 * 60) = 600

o (12 * 40) = 480

2.Add these results together:

 600 + 480 = 1080
o

3.Divide by 100 to get the relative atomic

mass:
o 1080 ÷ 100 = 10.8

So, the relative atomic mass of the element is

10.8.
Glossary:
• Relative Atomic Mass: The average mass
of an element's atoms, calculated using the
relative masses of its isotopes and their
abundances.
• Relative Mass (Atomic Mass): The mass of
an atom of an isotope, compared to the mass
of a carbon-12 atom.
• Abundance: The percentage of a particular
isotope found in nature.
• Isotope: Atoms of the same element with
different numbers of neutrons.
This method can be used to calculate the relative
atomic mass for any element, as long as the
relative masses and abundances of its stable
isotopes are known.
20. Describe that noble gas electronic
configuration, octet and duplet rules help
predict chemical properties of main group
elements.
Answer: The noble gas electronic
configuration and the octet and duplet rules
are key concepts in chemistry that help predict
how elements will behave chemically. Here's
how they work:
1.Noble Gas Electronic Configuration:
o Noble gases (like helium, neon, and

argon) have a stable electron

arrangement. They have full outer shells
of electrons, making them chemically
stable and unreactive.
o Elements want to achieve a similar

stable configuration by gaining, losing,

or sharing electrons. This helps predict
how they will react with other elements.
2.Octet Rule:
o This rule states that atoms tend to gain,

lose, or share electrons in such a way

that they have 8 electrons in their outer
shell (like the noble gases).
o For example, sodium (Na) has 1 electron

in its outer shell and will lose it to have

the same electron configuration as neon
(Ne). Chlorine (Cl), with 7 electrons in
its outer shell, will gain 1 electron to
match the noble gas argon (Ar).
o This is why elements in the same group

(column) of the periodic table often have

similar chemical properties, as they are
trying to achieve a full outer shell.
3.Duplet Rule:
o The duplet rule applies to hydrogen and

helium, which only need 2 electrons in

their outer shell to be stable (like helium,
which is a noble gas).
o For example, hydrogen will share 1

electron to form a bond with another

 hydrogen atom, achieving a stable duplet
configuration (H₂).
These rules help predict the reactivity of
elements and how they will bond with others.
Elements will typically form bonds that allow
them to reach a stable electron configuration,
making them more stable chemically.
Glossary:
• Noble Gas Electronic Configuration: The
stable arrangement of electrons in the outer
shell of noble gases.
• Octet Rule: The principle that atoms tend to
gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve 8
electrons in their outer shell, like noble
gases.
• Duplet Rule: The principle that hydrogen
and helium atoms achieve stability with 2
electrons in their outer shell.
• Chemical Properties: The characteristics of
an element that determine how it reacts with
other substances.
21. Compare between the formation of
cations and anions.
Answer:
• Cations are positively charged ions. They
are formed when an atom loses one or more
electrons. Since electrons are negatively
charged, losing electrons results in a net
positive charge. For example, when a
sodium atom (Na) loses one electron, it
forms a Na⁺ ion (a cation).
• Anions are negatively charged ions. They
are formed when an atom gains one or more
electrons. Since electrons are negatively
charged, gaining electrons results in a net
negative charge. For example, when a
chlorine atom (Cl) gains one electron, it
forms a Cl⁻ ion (an anion).
Glossary:
 • Cation: A positively charged ion formed
when an atom loses one or more electrons.
• Anion: A negatively charged ion formed
when an atom gains one or more electrons.
• Ion: An atom or molecule that has gained or
lost one or more electrons, giving it a
charge.

22. Account for the electropositive and

electronegative nature of metals and non-
metals.
Answer:
• Electropositive refers to an element's
tendency to lose electrons easily. Metals are
typically electropositive because they have
fewer electrons in their outer shells and they
can lose these electrons to form cations. For
example, sodium (Na) loses one electron to
form Na⁺.
• Electronegative refers to an element's
ability to attract electrons in a chemical
 bond. Non-metals are generally
electronegative because they have more
electrons in their outer shells and tend to
gain electrons to form anions. For example,
chlorine (Cl) attracts one electron to form
Cl⁻.
Glossary:
• Electropositive: The ability of an element
to lose electrons easily and form positive
ions (cations).
• Electronegative: The ability of an element
to attract electrons in a chemical bond.
• Metal: Elements that are generally
electropositive, conduct heat and electricity,
and are malleable.
• Non-metal: Elements that are typically
electronegative, and are poor conductors of
heat and electricity.

23. Define ionic, covalent, coordinate

covalent, and metallic bonds.
Answer:
1.Ionic Bond:
o An ionic bond is formed when one atom

loses electrons and another gains

electrons, resulting in the formation of
positive (cation) and negative (anion)
ions. The oppositely charged ions are
held together by electrostatic
attraction. For example, in sodium
chloride (NaCl), sodium (Na) loses an
electron, and chlorine (Cl) gains it.
2.Covalent Bond:
o A covalent bond is formed when two

atoms share electrons. This type of

bond typically occurs between non-
metals. For example, in a water
molecule (H₂O), the hydrogen atoms
share electrons with the oxygen atom.
3.Coordinate Covalent Bond:
o In a coordinate covalent bond, one atom

donates both electrons to the bond, while

the other atom does not contribute any.
 This type of bond is a special case of a
covalent bond. For example, in the
formation of the ammonium ion (NH₄⁺),
nitrogen donates both electrons to bond
with a hydrogen ion (H⁺).
4.Metallic Bond:
o A metallic bond is the attraction

between the sea of delocalized

electrons and the positive metal ions.
This bond gives metals their properties
like conductivity and malleability. For
example, in copper (Cu), the electrons
are free to move throughout the metal,
allowing for electrical conductivity.
Glossary:
• Ionic Bond: A bond formed when one atom
loses electrons and another gains electrons,
resulting in oppositely charged ions.
• Covalent Bond: A bond formed when two
atoms share electrons.
• Coordinate Covalent Bond: A bond where
one atom donates both electrons to the bond.
 • Metallic Bond: A bond in metals where
electrons are free to move, creating a "sea of
electrons."

24. Differentiate between ionic compounds

and covalent compounds.
Answer:
1.Ionic Compounds:
o Ionic bonds form between metals and

non-metals when one atom loses

electrons and another gains electrons.
This results in positively charged and
negatively charged ions that are held
together by strong electrostatic
attraction. Ionic compounds generally
have high melting points, are soluble in
water, and conduct electricity in molten
or dissolved form.
o Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl) is an

ionic compound.
2.Covalent Compounds:
 Covalent bonds form when two non-
o

metal atoms share electrons. These

compounds often have lower melting
points, are not conductive, and may or
may not be soluble in water, depending
on the specific molecule.
o Example: Water (H₂O) is a covalent

compound.
3.Metallic Compounds:
o Metallic bonds form between metal

atoms, where electrons are free to move

in a "sea" of delocalized electrons.
Metallic compounds are typically good
conductors of electricity and heat, and
they are malleable.
o Example: Copper (Cu) is a metallic

compound.
Glossary:
• Ionic Compound: A compound formed
from ions held together by ionic bonds
(electrostatic attraction).
 • Covalent Compound: A compound formed
by atoms sharing electrons through covalent
bonds.
• Metallic Compound: A compound formed
by the bonding of metal atoms with metallic
bonds.
• Electrostatic Attraction: The force that
pulls oppositely charged particles together.

25. Explain the properties of compounds in

terms of bonding and structure.
Answer: The properties of a compound depend
largely on the type of bonding and the structure
of the compound. For example:
1.Ionic Compounds:
o Ionic compounds have high melting and

boiling points because the ions are held

together by strong electrostatic forces.
o They are soluble in water and conduct

electricity when molten or in solution,

as the ions can move freely.
 2.Covalent Compounds:
o Covalent compounds tend to have lower

melting points because the atoms are

bonded by weaker forces.
o They are often non-conductive because

they do not have charged particles that

can move.
o The solubility of covalent compounds

depends on whether they can form

hydrogen bonds with water.
3.Metallic Compounds:
o Metallic compounds are typically

malleable (can be hammered into thin

sheets) and ductile (can be stretched into
wires) because the electrons can move
freely.
o They are good conductors of heat and

electricity because the free-moving

electrons can carry energy.
Glossary:
• Melting Point: The temperature at which a
solid becomes a liquid.
 • Boiling Point: The temperature at which a
liquid turns into gas.
• Solubility: The ability of a substance to
dissolve in another substance.
• Conductivity: The ability of a material to
allow the flow of electricity or heat.

26. Compare uses and properties of materials

such as strength and conductivity as
determined by the type of chemical bond
present between their atoms.
Answer:
1.Ionic Compounds:
o Strength: Ionic compounds are strong

because the electrostatic forces between

ions are very strong, making them hard
and brittle.
o Conductivity: They do not conduct

electricity in the solid form but can

conduct when molten or dissolved in
water, as the ions are free to move.
 2.Covalent Compounds:
o Strength: Covalent compounds can be

weak or strong, depending on the type of

bonding (single, double, triple bonds).
However, they tend to be brittle.
o Conductivity: Most covalent

compounds do not conduct electricity

because they do not have free-moving
charged particles.
3.Metallic Compounds:
o Strength: Metals are typically strong

and malleable, as the layers of atoms

can slide over each other without
breaking the metallic bond.
o Conductivity: Metals are excellent

conductors of electricity and heat

because the free electrons move easily
throughout the material.
Glossary:
• Strength: The ability of a material to
withstand force or pressure without
breaking.
 • Conductivity: The ability of a material to
allow electricity or heat to pass through it.
• Brittle: Easily broken or shattered.
• Malleable: Able to be hammered or pressed
into shape without breaking.
These properties help us understand how
materials behave and what they can be used for.
27. Interpret the strength of forces of
attraction and their impact on melting and
boiling points of ionic and covalent
compounds.
Answer: The strength of the forces of attraction
between particles (atoms, ions, or molecules) in
a substance has a significant impact on its
melting and boiling points.
1.Ionic Compounds:
o In ionic compounds, the forces of

attraction between oppositely charged

ions (cations and anions) are strong
electrostatic forces. These forces are
known as ionic bonds.
 o Because the ionic bonds are strong, ionic
compounds typically have high melting
and boiling points. A lot of energy is
required to overcome these strong
forces.
o For example, sodium chloride (NaCl)

has a high melting point because the

attraction between sodium ions (Na⁺)
and chloride ions (Cl⁻) is strong.
2.Covalent Compounds:
o In covalent compounds, the forces

holding the molecules together are

weaker than ionic bonds. The molecules
are held by intermolecular forces such
as van der Waals forces, hydrogen
bonds, or dipole-dipole forces.
o Because these forces are weaker,

covalent compounds generally have

lower melting and boiling points. Less
energy is needed to break the weaker
forces between the molecules.
o For example, water (H₂O) has a higher

melting point than some other covalent

 compounds due to the presence of
hydrogen bonds, which are stronger than
other intermolecular forces.
Glossary:
• Electrostatic Forces: Forces that attract
particles with opposite charges.
• Ionic Bond: The bond formed between
positively and negatively charged ions.
• Intermolecular Forces: Forces between
molecules, including van der Waals forces
and hydrogen bonds.
• Hydrogen Bond: A strong type of
intermolecular force between a hydrogen
atom and a highly electronegative atom (like
oxygen or nitrogen).

28. Justify the availability of free charged

particles (electrons or ions) for conduction of
electricity in ionic compounds (solid in
molten), covalent compounds, and metallic
bonds.
Answer:
1.Ionic Compounds:
o In solid ionic compounds, the ions are

held tightly in a lattice structure, so

they cannot move. As a result, ionic
solids do not conduct electricity.
o However, when ionic compounds are

molten (melted) or dissolved in water,

the ions are free to move. This mobility
of charged particles (ions) allows ionic
compounds to conduct electricity in
these states. For example, in molten
sodium chloride (NaCl), Na⁺ and Cl⁻
ions can move freely, allowing the
compound to conduct electricity.
2.Covalent Compounds:
o Covalent compounds do not conduct

electricity in any state (solid, liquid, or

dissolved in water) because they do not
contain free ions or electrons. The
electrons in covalent bonds are shared
between atoms, and there are no charged
 particles that can move to conduct
electricity.
3.Metallic Bonds:
o In metallic compounds, atoms are

arranged in a lattice surrounded by a sea

of delocalized electrons. These free
electrons can move throughout the
structure, allowing metals to conduct
electricity and heat. This is why metals
like copper and aluminum are good
conductors.
Glossary:
• Molten: The state of a substance when it is
heated and turned into a liquid.
• Lattice Structure: A regular arrangement
of particles (ions or atoms) in a solid.
• Delocalized Electrons: Electrons that are
free to move throughout a metal, not
confined to a single atom or bond.
29. Recognize that some substances can
ionize when dissolved in water (e.g., acids
dissolve in water and conduct electricity).
Answer:
• Ionization is the process where a substance
dissociates into ions when dissolved in
water. Some substances, especially acids,
bases, and salts, can ionize in water to form
charged particles.
• For example:
o When hydrochloric acid (HCl)

dissolves in water, it ionizes into H⁺ ions

and Cl⁻ ions. These free ions allow the
solution to conduct electricity.
o Similarly, when sodium chloride

(NaCl) dissolves in water, it breaks up

into Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions, enabling the
solution to conduct electricity.
Glossary:
• Ionization: The process of a substance
breaking into ions when dissolved in water.
 • Conductivity: The ability to carry an
electric current.

30. Justify the suitability of the usage of

graphite, diamond, and metals for industrial
purposes.
Answer:
1.Graphite:
o Graphite is used as a lubricant and

electrode due to its layered structure.

The layers of carbon atoms are weakly
bonded, allowing them to slide over each
other, making graphite a good lubricant.
It also conducts electricity because it has
delocalized electrons that can move
freely.
2.Diamond:
o Diamond is extremely hard and is used

in cutting tools. It has a tetrahedral

structure where each carbon atom is
bonded to four other carbon atoms,
 forming a very strong and rigid lattice.
This makes diamond the hardest known
material, ideal for cutting or grinding.
3.Metals:
o Metals like copper, aluminum, and steel

are used in wires, sheets, and

structural materials. Metals are good
conductors of electricity and heat due to
their free-moving electrons. They are
also malleable and ductile, which allows
them to be shaped into wires or sheets
without breaking.
Glossary:
• Lubricant: A substance used to reduce
friction between surfaces.
• Electrode: A conductor through which
electricity enters or leaves a substance.
• Malleable: Able to be hammered or pressed
into shape.
• Ductile: Able to be stretched into wires
without breaking.
31. Draw the structure of ionic and covalent
compounds along with their formation.
Answer:
1.Ionic Bonding:
o For NaCl (Sodium Chloride), sodium

(Na) loses one electron to form Na⁺, and

chlorine (Cl) gains one electron to form
Cl⁻. These oppositely charged ions are
then attracted to each other, forming the
ionic bond.
o Diagram (NaCl):

Na → [Na⁺] + e⁻
Cl + e⁻ → [Cl⁻]
2.Covalent Bonding:
o In H₂ (Hydrogen), two hydrogen atoms

share one electron each, forming a

covalent bond.
o Diagram (H₂):

H : H → Shared electrons
 o In H₂O (Water), the oxygen atom shares
electrons with two hydrogen atoms.
o Diagram (H₂O):
H : O : H → Shared
electrons between O and H
Glossary:
• Ionic Bonding: Bonding between
oppositely charged ions formed by electron
transfer.
• Covalent Bonding: Bonding where
electrons are shared between atoms.
These structures help to explain how atoms
combine to form compounds with specific
properties based on the type of bond they share.
32. State the formulae of common elements
and compounds.
Answer:
 • Elements: The formula of an element is
simply its symbol from the periodic table.
For example:
o Oxygen: O

o Hydrogen: H

o Carbon: C

o Sodium: Na

o Chlorine: Cl

• Compounds: The formula of a compound

shows the elements involved and their
quantities. For example:
o Water (H₂O): It contains 2 hydrogen

atoms and 1 oxygen atom.

o Sodium chloride (NaCl): It consists of 1

sodium atom and 1 chlorine atom.

o Carbon dioxide (CO₂): It contains 1

carbon atom and 2 oxygen atoms.

o Ammonia (NH₃): It contains 1 nitrogen

atom and 3 hydrogen atoms.

Glossary:
• Element: A substance made up of only one
type of atom.
 • Compound: A substance made up of two or
more elements chemically bonded.

33. Define molecular formula of a compound

as the number and type of different atoms in
one molecule.
Answer:
• The molecular formula shows the exact
number of atoms of each element in a
molecule of a compound. For example:
o Water: The molecular formula is H₂O,

meaning it contains 2 hydrogen atoms

and 1 oxygen atom in each molecule.
o Glucose: The molecular formula is

C₆H₁₂O₆, which means there are 6 carbon

atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen
atoms in each molecule.
Glossary:
 • Molecular Formula: A formula showing
the exact number and types of atoms in a
molecule.

34. Define empirical formula of a compound

as the simplest whole number ratio of
different atoms in a molecule.
Answer:
• The empirical formula shows the simplest
whole number ratio of the atoms of the
elements in a compound. It may not
represent the actual number of atoms in a
molecule but gives the simplest ratio. For
example:
o Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) has a

molecular formula of H₂O₂, but its

empirical formula is HO because the
ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 1:1.
o Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) has an empirical

formula of CH₂O, since the ratio of

carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1.
Glossary:
• Empirical Formula: The simplest whole
number ratio of atoms of each element in a
compound.

35. Deduce the formula and name of binary

ionic compounds from ions given relevant
information.
Answer:
• A binary ionic compound is made up of
two different elements—usually a metal
and a non-metal. The metal forms positive
ions (cations), and the non-metal forms
negative ions (anions). The formula is
determined by balancing the charges of the
ions.
o Example 1: Sodium chloride (NaCl):

Sodium (Na) has a charge of +1, and

chloride (Cl) has a charge of -1. The
 formula is NaCl because the charges
balance.
o Example 2: Calcium fluoride (CaF₂):
Calcium (Ca) has a charge of +2, and
fluoride (F) has a charge of -1. To
balance the charges, two fluoride ions
are needed, so the formula is CaF₂.
Glossary:
• Binary Ionic Compound: A compound
consisting of two different elements,
typically a metal and a non-metal, that form
ions.
• Cation: A positively charged ion (usually a
metal).
• Anion: A negatively charged ion (usually a
non-metal).

36. Deduce the formula of a molecular

substance from the given structure of
molecules.
Answer:
• The molecular formula of a substance can
be deduced from its structure by counting
the number of atoms of each element in one
molecule. For example:
o Methane (CH₄): The structure shows 1

carbon atom and 4 hydrogen atoms, so

the formula is CH₄.
o Ethene (C₂H₄): The structure shows 2

carbon atoms and 4 hydrogen atoms, so

the formula is C₂H₄.
Glossary:
• Molecular Formula: A formula that shows
the exact number and types of atoms in a
molecule.
• Structure: The arrangement of atoms in a
molecule.

37. Use the relationship: Amount of

substance = mass / molar mass to calculate
number of moles, mass, molar mass, relative
mass (atomic/molecular/formula) and
number of particles.
Answer:
• The relationship
Amount of substance=MassMolar Mass\text
{Amount of substance} =
\frac{\text{Mass}}{\text{Molar
Mass}}Amount of substance=Molar MassM
ass is used to calculate various quantities:
1.Number of moles:
moles=massmolar mass\text{moles} =
\frac{\text{mass}}{\text{molar
mass}}moles=molar massmass
 Example: If you have 20 grams of

water (H₂O), and the molar mass of

H₂O is 18 g/mol, the number of
moles is 2018=1.11\frac{20}{18} =
1.111820=1.11 moles.
2.Mass:
mass=moles×molar mass\text{mass} =
 \text{moles} \times \text{molar
mass}mass=moles×molar mass
 Example: If you have 2 moles of

carbon dioxide (CO₂) and the molar

mass is 44 g/mol, the mass is
2×44=882 \times 44 = 882×44=88
grams.
3.Number of particles: Use Avogadro's
number (6.02 x 10²³) to calculate the
number of molecules or atoms in a given
number of moles.
 Example: 1 mole of water contains

6.02×10236.02 \times
10^{23}6.02×1023 molecules.
Glossary:
• Moles: A unit used to measure the amount
of substance.
• Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of a
substance (measured in g/mol).
• Avogadro's Number: The number of
particles (atoms, molecules) in one mole of a
 substance, equal to 6.02×10236.02 \times
10^{23}6.02×1023.

38. Define mole as amount of substance

containing Avogadro’s number (6.02x10^23)
of particles.
Answer:
• A mole is a unit used to count particles
(atoms, molecules, ions, etc.). One mole of a
substance contains exactly 6.02 x 10²³
particles. This number is known as
Avogadro's number. For example, 1 mole
of carbon atoms contains 6.02×10236.02
\times 10^{23}6.02×1023 carbon atoms.
Glossary:
• Mole: A unit used to measure the amount of
substance containing 6.02×10236.02 \times
10^{23}6.02×1023 particles.
 • Avogadro's Number: The number of
particles in one mole of a substance,
6.02×10236.02 \times 10^{23}6.02×1023.

39. Explain the relationship between a mole

and Avogadro's constant.
Answer:
• Avogadro's constant (or Avogadro’s
number) is the number of particles (atoms,
molecules, or ions) in one mole of a
substance. The mole is a measurement that
helps to relate the number of particles in a
substance to its mass. The relationship is:
o 1 mole of any substance contains

6.02×10236.02 \times
10^{23}6.02×1023 particles
(Avogadro's number).
For example, if we have 1 mole of water
molecules (H₂O), it contains 6.02×10236.02
\times 10^{23}6.02×1023 water molecules.
Glossary:
• Mole: A unit of measurement for the
amount of substance.
• Avogadro's Constant: The number of
particles in one mole, 6.02×10236.02 \times
10^{23}6.02×1023.

40. Construct chemical equations and ionic

equations to show reactants forming
products, including state symbols.
Answer:
1.Chemical Equation: A chemical equation
represents a chemical reaction. It shows the
reactants (substances that react) and the
products (substances that are formed) with
their respective state symbols.
o Example: The reaction between

hydrogen and oxygen to form water:

2H2(g)+O2(g)→2H2O(l)2H₂(g) + O₂(g)
→ 2H₂O(l)2H2(g)+O2(g)→2H2O(l)
 Here, (g) stands for gas, and (l) stands
for liquid.
2.Ionic Equation: This equation shows the
ions involved in the reaction.
o Example: In the reaction between

sodium chloride and silver nitrate:

NaCl(aq)+AgNO3(aq)→NaNO3(aq)+A
gCl(s)NaCl(aq) + AgNO₃(aq) →
NaNO₃(aq) + AgCl(s)NaCl(aq)+AgNO3
(aq)→NaNO3(aq)+AgCl(s) The ionic
equation would be:
Ag+(aq)+Cl−(aq)→AgCl(s)Ag⁺(aq) +
Cl⁻(aq) →
AgCl(s)Ag+(aq)+Cl−(aq)→AgCl(s)
Here, (aq) represents aqueous (dissolved
in water), and (s) represents solid.
Glossary:
• Chemical Equation: A representation of a
chemical reaction using formulas and state
symbols.
• Ionic Equation: A chemical equation that
shows the ions involved in a reaction.
 • State Symbols: Indications of the state of
each substance (solid, liquid, gas, or
aqueous).

41. Deduce the symbol equation with state

symbols for a chemical reaction given
relevant information.
Answer:
• Given the reactants and products, the
symbol equation can be written by
identifying the chemical formulas and
including state symbols.
o Example: If magnesium reacts with

oxygen to form magnesium oxide:

2Mg(s)+O2(g)→2MgO(s)2Mg(s) +
O₂(g) → 2MgO(s)2Mg(s)+O2
(g)→2MgO(s) Here, (s) indicates a
solid, and (g) indicates a gas.
Glossary:
 • Symbol Equation: A chemical equation
using chemical symbols and formulas to
represent a reaction.
52. Define redox reactions as simultaneous
oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen,
hydrogen, electrons, and changes in oxidation
state.
Answer:
• Redox reactions (short for reduction-
oxidation reactions) involve the transfer of
electrons between substances. These
reactions can be understood in terms of:
1.Oxidation: The process where an atom
or ion loses electrons, increases its
oxidation state, and often combines
with oxygen (oxidation in terms of
oxygen). For example, when sodium
(Na) reacts with oxygen (O₂), sodium is
oxidized:
4Na+O2→2Na2O4Na + O₂ →
2Na₂O4Na+O2→2Na2O
 In this case, sodium loses electrons and
its oxidation state increases from 0 to
+1.
2.Reduction: The process where an atom
or ion gains electrons, decreases its
oxidation state, and often involves the
removal of oxygen or addition of
hydrogen (reduction in terms of
hydrogen). For example, in the reaction
where copper oxide (CuO) is reduced by
hydrogen (H₂), copper gains electrons:
CuO+H2→Cu+H2OCuO + H₂ → Cu +
H₂OCuO+H2→Cu+H2O
Here, copper is reduced as its oxidation
state decreases from +2 to 0.
In a redox reaction, oxidation and reduction
occur simultaneously: one substance is
oxidized (loses electrons) while another is
reduced (gains electrons).
Glossary:
 • Oxidation: Loss of electrons, or an increase
in oxidation state.
• Reduction: Gain of electrons, or a decrease
in oxidation state.
• Oxidation state/number: The charge an
atom would have if the compound were
ionic.

53. Use Roman numerals to indicate the

oxidation number of an element in a
compound.
Answer:
• The oxidation number of an element in a
compound is represented by Roman
numerals to show the charge of the element
in that compound.
o Example 1: Iron(III) chloride (FeCl₃):

The oxidation number of iron is +3, so it

is written as Fe(III).
 o Example 2: Iron(II) sulfate (FeSO₄):
The oxidation number of iron is +2, so it
is written as Fe(II).
The Roman numeral indicates the oxidation
number of the element in the compound.
Glossary:
• Oxidation number: The charge an atom
would have if the compound were ionic.
• Roman numerals: A system used to
indicate the oxidation state of an element in
a compound.

54. Identify oxidizing and reducing agents in

a redox reaction.
Answer:
• In a redox reaction:
1.The oxidizing agent is the substance
that gains electrons (gets reduced) and
causes another substance to lose
 electrons (oxidation). For example, in
the reaction between hydrogen and
oxygen to form water:
2H2+O2→2H2O2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O2H2
+O2→2H2O
Oxygen (O₂) is the oxidizing agent
because it gains electrons and gets
reduced.
2.The reducing agent is the substance that
loses electrons (gets oxidized) and
causes another substance to gain
electrons (reduction). In the same
reaction, hydrogen (H₂) is the reducing
agent because it loses electrons and gets
oxidized.
Glossary:
• Oxidizing agent: The substance that gains
electrons and gets reduced.
• Reducing agent: The substance that loses
electrons and gets oxidized.
55. Recognize that the oxidation number of
elements in their free state is zero.
Answer:
• The oxidation number of an element in its
free state (uncombined with other elements)
is always zero. For example:
o In oxygen (O₂), hydrogen (H₂),

nitrogen (N₂), and chlorine (Cl₂), each

atom has an oxidation number of 0
because they are in their elemental
forms.
This is true for diatomic molecules or pure
elements.
Glossary:
• Free state: The uncombined form of an
element, not bonded with any other element.
56. Derive the formula of ionic compounds
from ionic charges and oxidation numbers.
Answer:
• To derive the formula of an ionic
compound, balance the ionic charges of the
cation (positive ion) and anion (negative
ion) using their oxidation numbers.
1.Example 1: Sodium chloride (NaCl):
 Sodium (Na) has a charge of +1

(oxidation number +1).

 Chlorine (Cl) has a charge of -1

(oxidation number -1).

 Since the charges balance (1:1), the

formula is NaCl.
2.Example 2: Magnesium oxide (MgO):
 Magnesium (Mg) has a charge of +2

(oxidation number +2).

 Oxygen (O) has a charge of -2

(oxidation number -2).

 Since the charges balance (1:1), the

formula is MgO.
Glossary:
• Cation: A positively charged ion.
• Anion: A negatively charged ion.
• Oxidation number: The charge an atom
would have in an ionic compound.

57. Identify that the oxidation number of a

monatomic ion is the same as the charge on
the ion.
Answer:
• The oxidation number of a monatomic ion
is the same as its charge. For example:
o Na⁺ (sodium ion) has an oxidation

number of +1.
o Cl⁻ (chloride ion) has an oxidation

number of -1.
o Mg²⁺ (magnesium ion) has an oxidation

number of +2.
o O²⁻ (oxide ion) has an oxidation number

of -2.
The oxidation number is directly related to the
charge on the ion for monatomic ions.
Glossary:
• Monatomic ion: An ion formed from a
single atom.
• Oxidation number: The charge on an atom
in a compound or ion.

58. Explain that the sum of the oxidation

numbers in a neutral compound is zero.
Answer:
• In a neutral compound, the sum of the
oxidation numbers of all the atoms in the
compound must equal zero. This is because
the overall charge of the compound is
neutral.
o Example: In water (H₂O):

 The oxidation number of hydrogen

(H) is +1, and there are 2 hydrogens.

  The oxidation number of oxygen (O)
is -2.
 The sum of oxidation numbers:
2(+1)+(−2)=02(+1) + (-2) =
02(+1)+(−2)=0, which balances to
zero.
This rule holds for all neutral compounds.
Glossary:
• Oxidation number: The charge an atom
would have in a compound.
• Neutral compound: A compound that has
no overall charge.

59. Explain that the sum of the oxidation

numbers in an ion is equal to the charge on
the ion.
Answer:
 • In an ion, the sum of the oxidation
numbers of all the atoms in the ion equals
the charge of the ion. For example:
o Sulfate ion (SO₄²⁻): The oxidation

number of sulfur (S) is +6, and each

oxygen (O) has an oxidation number of -
2. The sum of oxidation numbers:
(+6)+4(−2)=−2(+6) + 4(-2) = -
2(+6)+4(−2)=−2, which matches the
charge on the ion.
o Ammonium ion (NH₄⁺): The oxidation

number of nitrogen (N) is -3, and each

hydrogen (H) has an oxidation number
of +1. The sum: (−3)+4(+1)=+1(-3) +
4(+1) = +1(−3)+4(+1)=+1, which
matches the charge on the ion.
Glossary:
• Ion: An atom or molecule with a net electric
charge due to the loss or gain of electrons.
60. Identify redox reactions by the colour
changes involved when using acidified
aqueous potassium manganate (VII) to (II) or
aqueous potassium iodide.
Answer:
• Redox reactions can be identified by color
changes:
1.Potassium manganate(VII) to
manganate(II): When acidified
potassium manganate (KMnO₄) is
reduced, it changes from a purple color
(Mn⁷⁺) to a colorless or pale pink color
(Mn²⁺).
2.Potassium iodide and starch: When
potassium iodide (KI) reacts with an
oxidizing agent like iodine, the color
changes from colorless to brown or
yellow-brown due to the formation of
iodine (I₂).
These color changes indicate a redox process is
occurring.
Glossary:
• Redox reaction: A reaction involving both
reduction and oxidation processes.
• Oxidation state: The charge an atom would
have in an ionic compound.

61. Define corrosion and discuss methods to

prevent it.
Answer:
• Corrosion is the gradual destruction of
materials, especially metals, through
chemical reactions with their environment.
A common example is the rusting of iron
when it reacts with water and oxygen to
form iron oxide.
Methods to prevent corrosion:
• Barrier method: Applying a protective
layer (e.g., paint, galvanization,
 electroplating) to prevent the metal from
coming into contact with moisture and air.
• Sacrificial protection: Attaching a more
electropositive metal, like magnesium, to
the metal to be protected. The sacrificial
metal corrodes first.
• Cathodic protection: Using a power source
to apply a current to the metal, making it the
cathode in an electrochemical cell to prevent
corrosion.
Glossary:
• Corrosion: The deterioration of materials,
particularly metals, due to chemical
reactions.
• Sacrificial protection: A method where a
more reactive metal is used to protect a less
reactive metal from corrosion.
62. Explain the idea of a chemical system and
its connection with its surroundings,
influencing energy transfer during a
chemical reaction.
Answer:
• A chemical system refers to the substances
involved in a chemical reaction. The system
is typically isolated for study, and it includes
all the reactants and products. The
surroundings are everything outside the
system, like the container and the air around
it. During a chemical reaction, energy is
transferred between the system and its
surroundings in the form of heat.
o Exothermic reactions release energy,

often in the form of heat, to the

surroundings, increasing the temperature
of the surroundings.
o Endothermic reactions absorb energy

from the surroundings, causing the

temperature of the surroundings to
decrease.
In both cases, the total energy of the system and
surroundings must remain constant, following
the law of conservation of energy.
Glossary:
• Chemical system: The part of the universe
involved in a chemical reaction.
• Surroundings: Everything outside the
chemical system.
• Energy transfer: The movement of energy
between the system and its surroundings.

63. Differentiate between exothermic and

endothermic reactions by giving examples.
Answer:
• Exothermic reactions release energy,
usually in the form of heat or light, to the
surroundings. The products of the reaction
have less energy than the reactants.
o Example: Combustion of methane

(CH₄):
CH4+2O2→CO2+2H2O+energyCH₄ +
2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O + \text{energy}CH4
+2O2→CO2+2H2O+energy This
 reaction releases energy in the form of
heat and light.
• Endothermic reactions absorb energy from
the surroundings. The products of the
reaction have more energy than the
reactants.
o Example: Photosynthesis in plants:

6CO2+6H2O+energy→C6H12O6+6O2
6CO₂ + 6H₂O + \text{energy} →
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂6CO2+6H2
O+energy→C6H12O6+6O2 This
reaction absorbs energy from the
sunlight.
Glossary:
• Exothermic reaction: A reaction that
releases energy to the surroundings.
• Endothermic reaction: A reaction that
absorbs energy from the surroundings.
• Combustion: A chemical reaction involving
oxygen and a fuel that produces energy.
 • Photosynthesis: A process by which plants
use light energy to convert carbon dioxide
and water into glucose and oxygen.

64. State that thermal energy is called

enthalpy change and recognize its sign as
negative for exothermic and positive for
endothermic reactions.
Answer:
• Thermal energy released or absorbed
during a chemical reaction is known as
enthalpy change (ΔH).
o In exothermic reactions, enthalpy

change is negative because energy is

released from the system to the
surroundings.
o In endothermic reactions, enthalpy

change is positive because energy is

absorbed from the surroundings into the
system.
For example, in the combustion of methane:
• ΔH is negative because energy is released.
In photosynthesis:
• ΔH is positive because energy is absorbed.
Glossary:
• Enthalpy change (ΔH): The heat energy
released or absorbed during a chemical
reaction.
• Exothermic reaction: A reaction that
releases heat energy.
• Endothermic reaction: A reaction that
absorbs heat energy.

65. Define activation energy as the minimum

energy that colliding particles must have for
a successful collision.
Answer:
 • Activation energy (Ea) is the minimum
energy that particles must have when they
collide for a chemical reaction to occur. If
the particles do not have enough energy,
they will not react, even if they collide. This
energy is required to break the bonds of the
reactants so that new bonds can form to
create the products.
Glossary:
• Activation energy: The minimum energy
needed for a reaction to occur when particles
collide.

66. Explain that activation energy depends on

the reaction pathway, which can be changed
using catalysts or enzymes (detailed
pathways not required).
Answer:
• The activation energy of a chemical
reaction can vary depending on the reaction
 pathway. The pathway is the series of steps
through which reactants convert into
products.
o Catalysts and enzymes can lower the

activation energy by providing an

alternative pathway, making the reaction
happen more easily and at a faster rate.
This is true for both biological
(enzymes) and chemical catalysts.
For example:
• In a reaction without a catalyst, the
activation energy is high, and the reaction
rate is slower.
• With a catalyst, the activation energy is
lower, allowing the reaction to proceed more
quickly.
Glossary:
• Catalyst: A substance that speeds up a
chemical reaction by lowering the activation
energy.
 • Enzyme: A biological catalyst that speeds
up reactions in living organisms.

67. Draw, label, and interpret reaction

pathway diagram for exothermic and
endothermic reactions, which includes
enthalpy change, activation energy
(uncatalyzed and catalyzed), reactants, and
products.
Answer:
• For an exothermic reaction:
o The energy of the products is lower

than that of the reactants.

o The activation energy is the energy

required to start the reaction.

o In a catalyzed reaction, the activation

energy is lower.
For an endothermic reaction:
• The energy of the products is higher than
that of the reactants.
 • The activation energy is also the energy
required to initiate the reaction.
• In a catalyzed reaction, the activation
energy is again lowered.
Diagram (for example, exothermic and
endothermic reactions):
• The x-axis represents the progress of the
reaction, and the y-axis represents the
energy.
• The activation energy is the peak of the
curve before the products are formed.
• The enthalpy change (ΔH) is the difference
between the energy of the products and the
reactants.
Glossary:
• Reaction pathway diagram: A graphical
representation of the energy changes that
occur during a chemical reaction.
• Enthalpy change (ΔH): The difference in
energy between the reactants and products.
 • Activation energy (Ea): The energy needed
to start a reaction.

68. Recognize that bond breaking is an

endothermic and bond making is an
exothermic process.
Answer:
• Bond breaking is an endothermic process,
meaning energy is absorbed to break bonds
between atoms.
• Bond making is an exothermic process,
meaning energy is released when new bonds
are formed between atoms.
In a chemical reaction, energy is absorbed
during bond breaking and released during
bond making. The overall enthalpy change
(ΔH) of the reaction depends on the balance
between these two processes.
Glossary:
 • Bond breaking: An endothermic process
where energy is absorbed to break the
chemical bonds.
• Bond making: An exothermic process
where energy is released when new bonds
are formed.

69. Explain that enthalpy change is the sum

of energies absorbed and released in bond
breaking and bond forming.
Answer:
• Enthalpy change (ΔH) is the net energy
change during a reaction. It is the difference
between the energy required to break the
bonds in the reactants (energy absorbed) and
the energy released when new bonds are
formed in the products (energy released).
o ΔH = Energy absorbed (bond breaking) -

Energy released (bond making).

For example:
 • In the reaction between hydrogen and
oxygen to form water, bonds are broken in
H₂ and O₂ molecules (endothermic), and
new bonds are formed in the H₂O molecules
(exothermic).
• The total energy change depends on the
relative amounts of energy absorbed and
released.
Glossary:
• Enthalpy change (ΔH): The total energy
change in a chemical reaction.
• Bond breaking: The absorption of energy to
break bonds in reactants.
• Bond forming: The release of energy when
new bonds are created in products.

70. Calculate enthalpy change of a reaction

given bond energy values.
Answer:
 • The enthalpy change (ΔH) of a reaction can
be calculated by subtracting the total energy
required to break bonds from the total
energy released when new bonds are
formed:
ΔH=Total energy absorbed (bond breaking)
−Total energy released (bond making)\Delta
H = \text{Total energy absorbed (bond
breaking)} - \text{Total energy released
(bond
making)}ΔH=Total energy absorbed (bond
breaking)−Total energy released (bond maki
ng)
For example:
• Given bond energies:
o H-H bond = 435 kJ/mol

o O=O bond = 498 kJ/mol

o H-O bond = 463 kJ/mol

• In the reaction: H2+O2→H2OH₂ + O₂ →

H₂OH2+O2→H2O
• Bond breaking:
 o 1 H-H bond (435 kJ/mol) + 1 O=O bond
(498 kJ/mol) = 933 kJ/mol
• Bond making:
o 2 H-O bonds (463 kJ/mol each) = 926

kJ/mol
• ΔH = 933 - 926 = 7 kJ/mol (positive,
indicating an endothermic reaction).
Glossary:
• Bond energy: The energy required to break
a bond between two atoms.
• Enthalpy change (ΔH): The heat energy
absorbed or released during a chemical
reaction.

71. Explain how respiration (aerobic and

anaerobic), an exothermic process, provides
energy for biological systems and lipids as
reserve stores of energy.
Answer:
 • Respiration is an exothermic process
where energy is released during the
breakdown of food molecules.
o Aerobic respiration: In the presence of

oxygen, glucose is broken down to

release energy:
C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energy
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O +
\text{energy}C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2
+6H2O+energy The energy is used by
cells for various functions, like muscle
movement and cell division.
o Anaerobic respiration: In the absence

of oxygen, glucose is partially broken

down to produce energy, often in the
form of lactic acid (in animals) or
ethanol and carbon dioxide (in yeast).
Lipids, like fats, act as reserve stores of energy
in the body. When glucose is not available, the
body breaks down fats through lipolysis to
release energy, providing a long-term energy
source.
Glossary:
• Aerobic respiration: Respiration that
requires oxygen to break down glucose for
energy.
• Anaerobic respiration: Respiration that
occurs without oxygen, producing energy
through the breakdown of glucose into lactic
acid or ethanol.
• Lipids: Fats and oils used by the body for
long-term energy storage.
72. Recognize that reversible reactions are
shown by symbol ( ) and may not go to
completion.
Answer:
• A reversible reaction is a chemical reaction
where the products can react to form the
original reactants. This is represented by the
symbol ( ) placed between the reactants and
products:
o Example:

A+B⇌C+D\text{A} + \text{B}
 \rightleftharpoons \text{C} +
\text{D}A+B⇌C+D
o In such reactions, the reaction does not
necessarily go to completion. Instead, it
reaches a state called chemical
equilibrium where both the forward and
backward reactions occur at the same
rate, and the concentrations of reactants
and products remain constant.
Glossary:
• Reversible reaction: A reaction that can
proceed in both the forward and reverse
directions.
• Chemical equilibrium: A state in a
reversible reaction where the rates of the
forward and backward reactions are equal,
and the concentrations of reactants and
products remain unchanged.
73. Describe how changing the physical
conditions of a chemical equilibrium system
can redirect reversible reactions.
Answer:
• The conditions under which a reversible
reaction occurs can influence the direction in
which the reaction proceeds. According to
Le Chatelier's Principle, if the conditions
(such as temperature, pressure, or
concentration) are changed, the system will
adjust to counteract the change and restore
equilibrium.
a. Effect of heat on hydrated compounds:
o When heat is added to a system
involving hydrated compounds
(compounds that contain water
molecules), the equilibrium may shift to
either favor the dissociation of the
hydrated compound into its anhydrous
form (if the reaction is endothermic) or
favor the formation of hydrated
 compounds (if the reaction is
exothermic).
b. Addition of water to anhydrous
substances:
o Adding water to anhydrous substances
like copper(II) sulfate (CuSO₄) or
cobalt(II) chloride (CoCl₂) will cause
the reaction to shift towards the
formation of the hydrated form. For
example, adding water to anhydrous
copper sulfate (CuSO₄) will cause it to
form hydrated copper sulfate
(CuSO₄·5H₂O), and the reaction will
reach a new equilibrium.
Example:
• Copper(II) sulfate:
CuSO₄ (anhydrous)+5H₂O⇌CuSO₄\cdotp5H
₂O (hydrated)\text{CuSO₄ (anhydrous)} +
5\text{H₂O} \rightleftharpoons
\text{CuSO₄·5H₂O
 (hydrated)}CuSO₄ (anhydrous)+5H₂O⇌CuS
O₄\cdotp5H₂O (hydrated)
Glossary:
• Le Chatelier's Principle: A principle that
states when a system at equilibrium is
disturbed, the system will adjust to
counteract the disturbance.
• Hydrated compound: A compound that
contains water molecules.
• Anhydrous substance: A substance that
does not contain water molecules.

74. State that reversible reactions can achieve

equilibrium in a closed system when the rate
of forward and backward reactions are
equal.
Answer:
• A reversible reaction reaches equilibrium
when the rate of the forward reaction
(where reactants are converted to products)
 becomes equal to the rate of the backward
reaction (where products revert to
reactants). This only occurs in a closed
system, meaning no substances can enter or
leave the system. At equilibrium, the
concentrations of the reactants and products
remain constant, though both reactions
(forward and backward) continue to occur.
Example:
• In the Haber process for the synthesis of
ammonia: N₂+3H₂⇌2NH₃\text{N₂} +
3\text{H₂} \rightleftharpoons
2\text{NH₃}N₂+3H₂⇌2NH₃
o The reaction reaches equilibrium when

the rate of ammonia production equals

the rate of ammonia decomposition.
Glossary:
• Closed system: A system in which no
substances can enter or leave.
• Equilibrium: A state in a reversible reaction
where the rates of the forward and backward
 reactions are equal, and the concentrations
of reactants and products remain unchanged.
75. Define Bronsted-Lowry acids as proton
donors and Bronsted-Lowry bases as proton
acceptors.
Answer:
• According to the Bronsted-Lowry theory,
acids are substances that donate protons
(H⁺), while bases are substances that accept
protons (H⁺).
o Acid Example: HCl (hydrochloric acid)

can donate a proton (H⁺) to form Cl⁻.

o Base Example: NH₃ (ammonia) can

accept a proton (H⁺) to form NH₄⁺.

Glossary:
• Proton (H⁺): A hydrogen ion, which is
simply a hydrogen atom that has lost its
electron, leaving a positive charge.
• Bronsted-Lowry acid: A substance that
donates a proton (H⁺).
 • Bronsted-Lowry base: A substance that
accepts a proton (H⁺).

76. Recognize that aqueous solutions of acids

contain H⁺ ions and aqueous solutions of
alkalis contain OH⁻ ions.
Answer:
• When acids dissolve in water, they release
H⁺ ions (protons).
o Example: HCl (aq) → H⁺ (aq) + Cl⁻

(aq)
• When alkalis (soluble bases) dissolve in
water, they release OH⁻ ions (hydroxide
ions).
o Example: NaOH (aq) → Na⁺ (aq) +

OH⁻ (aq)
Glossary:
• H⁺ ion: A proton, commonly associated with
acids in aqueous solutions.
 • OH⁻ ion: A hydroxide ion, commonly
associated with alkalis in aqueous solutions.
• Alkali: A water-soluble base, such as
sodium hydroxide (NaOH).

77. Define a strong acid and bases as an acid

or base that completely dissociates in aqueous
solution and weak acid and base that
partially dissociates in aqueous solution.
Answer:
• Strong acids and bases:
o These completely dissociate (break

apart) into ions when dissolved in water.

o Example of strong acid: HCl

(hydrochloric acid) dissociates

completely into H⁺ and Cl⁻.
o Example of strong base: NaOH

(sodium hydroxide) dissociates

completely into Na⁺ and OH⁻.
• Weak acids and bases:
o These only partially dissociate in water.
 o Example of weak acid: CH₃COOH
(ethanoic acid) only partially dissociates
into H⁺ and CH₃COO⁻.
o Example of weak base: NH₃ (ammonia)
partially accepts protons to form NH₄⁺
and OH⁻.
Glossary:
• Dissociation: The process where molecules
break apart into their constituent ions in
solution.
• Strong acid/base: An acid or base that
dissociates completely in solution.
• Weak acid/base: An acid or base that only
partially dissociates in solution.

78. Formulate dissociation equations for an

acid or base in aqueous solution.
Answer:
• Acid dissociation example:
o HCl (aq) → H⁺ (aq) + Cl⁻ (aq).
 • Base dissociation example:
o NaOH (aq) → Na⁺ (aq) + OH⁻ (aq).

Glossary:
• Dissociation equation: A chemical equation
that shows how an acid or base splits into
ions in aqueous solution.

79. Recognize that bases are oxides or

hydroxides of metals and that alkalis are
water-soluble bases.
Answer:
• Bases: These are substances that can accept
protons (H⁺). They are typically oxides or
hydroxides of metals, such as MgO
(magnesium oxide) and Ca(OH)₂ (calcium
hydroxide).
• Alkalis: Alkalis are soluble bases, which
means they dissolve in water to produce
OH⁻ ions. Examples include NaOH
 (sodium hydroxide) and KOH (potassium
hydroxide).
Glossary:
• Base: A substance that can accept protons
(H⁺) or donate electrons.
• Alkali: A base that dissolves in water,
releasing hydroxide ions (OH⁻).
• Oxides: Compounds containing oxygen
bonded to a metal or non-metal.
• Hydroxides: Compounds containing
hydroxide ions (OH⁻).

80. Describe the characteristic properties of

acids in terms of their reactions with metals,
bases, and carbonates.
Answer:
• Reactions with metals: Acids react with
metals to produce hydrogen gas and a salt.
o Example: 2HCl (aq) + Zn (s) → ZnCl₂

(aq) + H₂ (g).
 • Reactions with bases: Acids react with
bases to form water and a salt in a
neutralization reaction.
o Example: HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) →

NaCl (aq) + H₂O (l).

• Reactions with carbonates: Acids react
with carbonates to produce carbon dioxide
gas, water, and a salt.
o Example: 2HCl (aq) + Na₂CO₃ (aq) →

2NaCl (aq) + CO₂ (g) + H₂O (l).

Glossary:
• Neutralization: A reaction between an acid
and a base to form water and a salt.
• Salt: An ionic compound formed from the
neutralization of an acid by a base.
• Carbonate: A compound containing the
carbonate ion (CO₃²⁻).

81. Identify the characteristic properties of

bases in terms of their reactions with acids
and ammonium salts.
Answer:
• Reactions with acids: Bases react with
acids to form water and a salt in a
neutralization reaction.
o Example: NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) →

NaCl (aq) + H₂O (l).

• Reactions with ammonium salts: Some
bases react with ammonium salts to release
ammonia gas.
o Example: NaOH (aq) + NH₄Cl (aq) →

NaCl (aq) + NH₃ (g) + H₂O (l).

Glossary:
• Ammonium salt: A salt formed from
ammonia (NH₃) and an acid.
• Ammonia gas (NH₃): A gas produced when
bases react with ammonium salts.

82. Define acid rain.

Answer:
 • Acid rain refers to precipitation (rain, snow,
or fog) that has a pH lower than 5.6, due to
the presence of dissolved sulfur dioxide
(SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ). These
gases react with water, oxygen, and other
chemicals in the atmosphere to form
sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) and nitric acid
(HNO₃).
Glossary:
• Acid rain: Precipitation that has a lower pH
than normal due to dissolved acidic gases.
• Sulfur dioxide (SO₂): A gas produced by
burning fossil fuels, which contributes to
acid rain.
• Nitrogen oxides (NOₓ): Gases formed by
the combustion of fossil fuels that also
contribute to acid rain.

83. Discuss effects of acid rain and relate

them with properties of acids.
Answer:
• Effects of acid rain:
o Damage to buildings and monuments:

Acid rain reacts with limestone

(CaCO₃) and marble to produce
calcium salts, which slowly deteriorates
the structure.
 Example: CaCO₃ + H₂SO₄ →

CaSO₄ + CO₂ + H₂O.

o Soil degradation: Acid rain can lower

the pH of the soil, making it less

suitable for plant growth.
o Water pollution: Acid rain can lower

the pH of rivers and lakes, affecting

aquatic life.
Glossary:
• Limestone: A sedimentary rock primarily
composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃).
• pH: A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of
a solution.
C-09-C-01. Define the periodic table as an
arrangement of elements in periods and
groups in order of increasing proton number
/ atomic number.
Answer:
• The periodic table is an arrangement of
elements in rows (periods) and columns
(groups), ordered by increasing atomic
number (the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom). The elements in the
same group share similar chemical
properties due to their similar electronic
configurations.
Glossary:
• Atomic number: The number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom, which determines
the element's identity.
• Period: A horizontal row of elements in the
periodic table.
 • Group: A vertical column in the periodic
table, containing elements with similar
chemical properties.

C-09-C-02. Identify the group or period or

block of an element using its electronic
configuration (only the idea of subshells
related to the blocks can be introduced).
Answer:
• The electronic configuration of an element
determines its group, period, and block in
the periodic table.
o Elements in the s-block (Groups 1 and

2) have their outermost electrons in the s

subshell.
o Elements in the p-block (Groups 13 to

18) have their outermost electrons in the

p subshell.
o Elements in the d-block (transition

metals) have their outermost electrons in

the d subshell.
 o Elements in the f-block (lanthanides and
actinides) have their outermost electrons
in the f subshell.
o The period is determined by the number
of electron shells (energy levels) the
element has.
Glossary:
• Electronic configuration: The arrangement
of electrons in an atom's electron shells and
subshells.
• s-block: The section of the periodic table
where elements have electrons filling the s
subshell.
• p-block: The section of the periodic table
where elements have electrons filling the p
subshell.
• d-block: The section of the periodic table
where transition metals are located, with
electrons filling the d subshell.
• f-block: The section of the periodic table
where the lanthanides and actinides are
located, with electrons filling the f subshell.
C-09-C-03. Explain the relationship between
group number and the charge of ions formed
from elements in the group in terms of their
outermost shells.
Answer:
• The group number of an element in the
periodic table helps predict the charge of the
ions it forms.
o Group 1 elements (alkali metals) have 1

electron in their outermost shell, so they

lose 1 electron to form +1 ions (e.g.,
Na⁺).
o Group 2 elements (alkaline earth

metals) have 2 electrons in their

outermost shell, so they lose 2 electrons
to form +2 ions (e.g., Mg²⁺).
o Group 17 elements (halogens) have 7

electrons in their outermost shell, so

they gain 1 electron to form -1 ions (e.g.,
Cl⁻).
 o Group 18 elements (noble gases) have a
full outer shell and do not typically form
ions.
Glossary:
• Ion: An atom or molecule that has gained or
lost one or more electrons, resulting in a
charged species.
• Outer shell: The outermost electron shell of
an atom, which determines its reactivity and
ion charge.

C-09-C-04. Explain similarities in the

chemical properties of elements in the same
group in terms of their electronic
configuration.
Answer:
• Elements in the same group of the periodic
table have similar chemical properties
because they have the same number of
 valence electrons (electrons in the
outermost shell).
o For example, alkali metals (Group 1) all

have 1 valence electron, making them

highly reactive and likely to lose this
electron to form +1 ions.
o Halogens (Group 17) all have 7 valence

electrons, making them highly reactive

and likely to gain 1 electron to form -1
ions.
Glossary:
• Valence electrons: Electrons in the
outermost shell of an atom that determine its
chemical properties.
• Chemical properties: Characteristics of a
substance that determine how it reacts with
other substances.

C-09-C-05. Identify trends in group and

periods, given information about the
elements, including trends for atomic radius,
electron affinity, electronegativity, ionization
energy, metallic character, reactivity, and
density.
Answer:
• Trends in Groups:
o Atomic radius increases as you move

down a group because additional

electron shells are added.
o Ionization energy decreases as you

move down a group because the

outermost electrons are farther from the
nucleus.
o Electronegativity decreases as you

move down a group because the

outermost electrons are farther from the
nucleus.
o Metallic character increases as you

move down a group because the

elements become more willing to lose
electrons.
• Trends in Periods:
 o Atomic radius decreases as you move
across a period because the number of
protons increases, pulling the electrons
closer to the nucleus.
o Ionization energy increases as you
move across a period because the
electrons are more tightly bound to the
nucleus.
o Electronegativity increases as you
move across a period because the
elements are more likely to attract
electrons.
o Density usually increases across a
period, but there are exceptions.
Glossary:
• Atomic radius: The distance from the
nucleus of an atom to the outermost electron
shell.
• Ionization energy: The energy required to
remove an electron from an atom.
 • Electronegativity: A measure of an atom's
ability to attract electrons in a chemical
bond.
• Metallic character: The tendency of an
element to lose electrons and form positive
ions.
• Reactivity: The tendency of an element to
undergo chemical reactions.
• Density: The mass of a substance per unit
volume.

C-09-C-06. Use terms alkali metals, alkaline

earth metals, halogens, noble gases, transition
metals, lanthanides, and actinides in
reference to the periodic table.
Answer:
• Alkali metals: Elements in Group 1 (e.g.,
Na, K), which are highly reactive and have 1
electron in their outer shell.
 • Alkaline earth metals: Elements in Group
2 (e.g., Mg, Ca), which are reactive and
have 2 electrons in their outer shell.
• Halogens: Elements in Group 17 (e.g., Cl,
F), which are highly reactive and have 7
electrons in their outer shell.
• Noble gases: Elements in Group 18 (e.g.,
He, Ne), which are inert due to having full
outer shells.
• Transition metals: Elements in the d-block
(e.g., Fe, Cu), which are less reactive and
form colored compounds.
• Lanthanides: Elements in the f-block (e.g.,
Ce, Nd), which are rare earth elements with
high atomic numbers.
• Actinides: Elements in the f-block (e.g., U,
Pu), many of which are radioactive.
Glossary:
• Alkali metals: Highly reactive metals in
Group 1.
• Alkaline earth metals: Reactive metals in
Group 2.
 • Halogens: Reactive nonmetals in Group 17.
• Noble gases: Inert gases in Group 18.
• Transition metals: Metals in the d-block,
often with multiple oxidation states.
• Lanthanides: Rare earth elements in the f-
block, elements with atomic numbers 57-71.
• Actinides: Radioactive elements in the f-
block, elements with atomic numbers 89-
103.

C-09-C-07. Predict the characteristic

properties of an element in a given group by
using knowledge of chemical periodicity.
Answer:
• By knowing an element’s group number
and electronic configuration, you can
predict its properties:
o Group 1 (alkali metals): Soft, shiny,

highly reactive with water, forming +1

ions.
 o Group 17 (halogens): Nonmetals,
highly reactive, form -1 ions with
metals.
o Group 18 (noble gases): Inert,
colorless, and odorless gases with full
outer electron shells.
Glossary:
• Chemical periodicity: The recurring trends
in chemical properties of elements based on
their position in the periodic table.

C-09-C-08. Deduce the nature, possible

position in the Periodic Table and the
identity of unknown elements from given
information about their physical and
chemical properties.
Answer:
• Given information about an element’s
physical and chemical properties, you can
determine:
 o Position in the periodic table: Based on
the element’s atomic number and
electronic configuration.
o Group: For example, an element that
forms +2 ions and reacts with water like
magnesium is likely an alkaline earth
metal (Group 2).
o Period: Based on the number of
electron shells in its configuration.
Glossary:
• Atomic number: The number of protons in
the nucleus, which helps identify the
element.
• Electron shells: The energy levels where
electrons are found around the nucleus of an
atom.
C-09-C-09. Define Group 1, Alkali metals as
relatively soft metals with general trends
down the group limited to decreasing melting
point, increasing density, and increasing
reactivity.
Answer:
• Alkali metals (Group 1) are a group of soft
metals that are highly reactive, especially
with water. They include elements like
lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K),
and others.
o Trends down the group:

 Decreasing melting point: As you

move down the group, the melting

points of alkali metals decrease.
 Increasing density: The density of

alkali metals increases as you go

down the group.
 Increasing reactivity: The reactivity

of alkali metals increases as you

move down the group, meaning they
become more likely to react with
other substances like water.
Glossary:
• Alkali metals: A group of highly reactive
metals in Group 1 of the periodic table.
 • Melting point: The temperature at which a
solid turns into a liquid.
• Density: The mass of a substance per unit
volume.
• Reactivity: The ability of a substance to
undergo chemical reactions.

C-09-C-10. Predict properties of other

elements in Group I, given information about
the elements.
Answer:
• Prediction of properties: Given
information such as the atomic number or
electron configuration of alkali metals, you
can predict their:
o Reactivity: Alkali metals will react

vigorously with water, and their

reactivity increases as you move down
the group.
 o Physical properties: They will be soft,
with low melting points that decrease as
you go down the group.
o Density: The density of the alkali metals
increases as you go down the group.
Glossary:
• Electron configuration: The arrangement
of electrons in an atom's electron shells.
• Atomic number: The number of protons in
an atom's nucleus.

C-09-C-11. Predict properties of elements in

Group I in order of reactivity given relevant
information.
Answer:
• Order of reactivity: Alkali metals show an
increasing trend in reactivity as you move
down the group:
o Lithium (Li): Least reactive.
 o Sodium (Na): More reactive than
lithium.
o Potassium (K): More reactive than

sodium.
o Rubidium (Rb) and Cesium (Cs): Even

more reactive, especially with water.

• The reactivity increases as the outermost
electron becomes easier to lose as you move
down the group.
Glossary:
• Outermost electron: The electron in the
outermost shell of an atom, which plays a
key role in chemical reactions.

C-09-C-12. Define Group VII, halogens as

diatomic non-metals with general trends
limited to increasing density, and decreasing
reactivity.
Answer:
 • Halogens (Group 17) are diatomic non-
metals that include elements like fluorine
(F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I),
and astatine (At).
o Trends in halogens:

 Increasing density: As you go down

the group, the density of halogens

increases.
 Decreasing reactivity: The

reactivity of halogens decreases as

you go down the group, meaning
fluorine is the most reactive, and
iodine is the least reactive.
Glossary:
• Diatomic: A molecule consisting of two
atoms.
• Non-metals: Elements that are not good
conductors of heat and electricity and are
typically brittle.
C-09-C-13. Identify the appearance of
halogens as fluorine as pale yellow gas,
chlorine as yellow-green gas, bromine as red-
brown liquid, iodine as grey black solid.
Answer:
• Halogen appearances:
o Fluorine (F): Pale yellow gas.

o Chlorine (Cl): Yellow-green gas.

o Bromine (Br): Red-brown liquid.

o Iodine (I): Grey-black solid.

Glossary:
• Appearance: The physical look or form of a
substance.

C-09-C-14. Explain the displacement

reactions of halogens with other halide ions
and also as reducing agents.
Answer:
 • Displacement reactions: A more reactive
halogen can displace a less reactive halogen
from its compound. For example:
o Chlorine displaces iodine from

potassium iodide (KI), forming

potassium chloride (KCl) and iodine (I₂).
o Fluorine is the most reactive halogen

and can displace all others in their

compounds.
• As reducing agents: Halogens can act as
oxidizing agents in reactions, meaning they
gain electrons. However, when halogens like
iodine are involved in reactions, they can
sometimes lose electrons and act as
reducing agents.
Glossary:
• Displacement reaction: A chemical
reaction where one element replaces another
in a compound.
• Reducing agent: A substance that donates
electrons to another substance, reducing its
oxidation state.
C-09-C-15. Predict the properties of elements
in Group VII, given information about the
elements.
Answer:
• Prediction of halogen properties: Given an
element’s atomic number or electron
configuration in Group 17, you can predict:
o Reactivity: Fluorine is the most

reactive, while iodine is the least.

o Physical state: Halogens exist as gases

(fluorine, chlorine), liquids (bromine),

or solids (iodine).
o Density: The density increases as you go

down the group.

Glossary:
• Atomic number: The number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom, determining its
identity.
 • Electron configuration: The distribution of
electrons in the atomic orbitals.

C-09-C-16. Analyze the relative thermal

stabilities of the hydrogen halides and
explain these in terms of bond strengths.
Answer:
• Thermal stability of hydrogen halides:
The stability of hydrogen halides (e.g., HF,
HCl, HBr, HI) decreases as you move
down the group:
o HF has the strongest bond because of

the small size of fluorine and the strong

bond it forms with hydrogen.
o HI has the weakest bond due to the

larger atomic radius of iodine, making

the bond easier to break.
• Bond strength explanation: As the atomic
size of the halogen increases, the bond
between hydrogen and the halogen becomes
weaker, leading to lower thermal stability.
Glossary:
• Thermal stability: The ability of a
compound to resist decomposition at high
temperatures.
• Bond strength: The force required to break
a chemical bond between two atoms.

C-09-C-17. Describe Transition elements as

metals that: have high densities, high melting
points, variable oxidation numbers, form
colored compounds and act as catalysts for
industrial purposes.
Answer:
• Transition elements are metals found in
the d-block of the periodic table. They have
the following characteristics:
o High densities and high melting points.

o Variable oxidation numbers:

Transition metals can form ions with

 different positive charges (e.g., iron can
be Fe²⁺ or Fe³⁺).
o Colored compounds: Many transition
metal compounds are colorful (e.g.,
copper(II) sulfate is blue).
o Catalytic properties: They are used as
catalysts in industrial processes like the
Haber process (ammonia production)
and catalytic converters in cars.
Glossary:
• Transition elements: Elements found in the
d-block of the periodic table, often forming
colored compounds and variable oxidation
states.
• Catalyst: A substance that speeds up a
chemical reaction without being consumed
in the process.

C-09-C-18. Define the Group 18 noble gases

as unreactive, monatomic gases.
Answer:
• Noble gases (Group 18) are unreactive
gases, meaning they do not typically form
chemical bonds with other elements. They
are monatomic, meaning they exist as
single atoms. These gases include helium
(He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), and others.
Glossary:
• Monatomic: Consisting of single atoms.
• Unreactive: Not easily undergoing chemical
reactions due to stable electronic
configurations.

C-09-C-19. Explain this (Noble gases) in

terms of electronic configuration.
Answer:
• Noble gases are unreactive because they
have a full outer electron shell. This makes
 them stable and not inclined to gain or lose
electrons.
o For example, helium (He) has 2

electrons, and neon (Ne) has 8 electrons

in its outer shell, both of which are
stable configurations.
Glossary:
• Electronic configuration: The arrangement
of electrons in the atomic orbitals of an
atom.

C-09-C-20. Compare the general physical

properties of metals and non-metals.
Answer:
• Metals:
o Good thermal and electrical

conductors.
o Malleable (can be hammered into

sheets) and ductile (can be drawn into

wires).
 o High melting and boiling points.
• Non-metals:
o Poor conductors of heat and electricity.

o Brittle in solid form, not malleable or

ductile.
o Lower melting and boiling points

compared to metals.
Glossary:
• Malleable: Able to be hammered or pressed
into shape without breaking.
• Ductile: Able to be drawn into wires.
• Brittle: Easily broken or shattered.
C-09-D-01. State that the composition of
clean, dry air is approximately 78% Nitrogen
(N2), 21% Oxygen (O2), and the remainder
as a mixture of noble gases and carbon
dioxide (CO2).
Answer:
• Clean, dry air is made up of about:
o 78% Nitrogen (N2)
 o 21% Oxygen (O2)
o The rest is made up of noble gases (like
argon) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in
very small amounts.
Glossary:
• Noble gases: A group of gases that includes
helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and
radon, which are chemically inert.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2): A colorless,
odorless gas that is produced by the burning
of carbon-containing fuels and is absorbed
by plants during photosynthesis.

C-09-D-02. State the major sources of air

pollutants.
Answer:
• Air pollutants come from several sources,
including:
o Carbon dioxide (CO2): Produced by

the complete burning of carbon-

 containing fuels like coal, oil, and
natural gas.
o Carbon monoxide (CO) and
Particulates: Formed by the incomplete
burning of carbon-based fuels.
o Methane (CH4): Released from the
decomposition of organic matter (like
vegetation) and from animal digestion.
o Oxides of nitrogen (NOx): Produced by
car engines and other combustion
processes.
o Sulfur dioxide (SO2): Released when
fossil fuels containing sulfur are burned.
o Ground-level ozone (O3): Created
when nitrogen oxides and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) react in
sunlight.
Glossary:
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs):
Organic chemicals that can easily become
vapors or gases, often released from paints,
solvents, or fuels.
C-09-D-03. State the adverse effects of air
pollutants.
Answer:
• Air pollutants can cause a range of harmful
effects:
o Carbon dioxide (CO2): Contributes to

global warming, which leads to climate

change.
o Carbon monoxide (CO): A toxic gas

that can be harmful or even fatal when

inhaled.
o Particulates: Tiny particles that can

cause respiratory problems and

increase the risk of cancer.
o Methane (CH4): A potent greenhouse

gas that contributes to global warming

and climate change.
o Oxides of nitrogen (NOx): Can lead to

acid rain, photochemical smog, and

cause respiratory problems.
 o Sulfur dioxide (SO2): Contributes to
acid rain and creates a haze that can
harm human health and the environment.
Glossary:
• Respiratory problems: Issues affecting the
lungs and breathing, such as asthma or
bronchitis.
• Photochemical smog: A type of air
pollution formed when sunlight reacts with
pollutants like nitrogen oxides and volatile
organic compounds.

C-09-D-04. Explain how the greenhouse gases

carbon dioxide and methane cause global
warming.
Answer:
• Greenhouse gases, including carbon
dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4),
contribute to global warming by trapping
heat in the Earth's atmosphere.
 o Absorption, reflection, and emission of
thermal energy: These gases absorb
infrared radiation (heat) from the Earth's
surface and then re-radiate it back to the
Earth, keeping the planet warmer.
o Reducing thermal energy loss to
space: Normally, the Earth radiates heat
into space. Greenhouse gases reduce this
heat loss, causing more heat to stay
within the Earth's atmosphere, which
raises the global temperature.
Glossary:
• Thermal energy: Heat energy.
• Infrared radiation: A type of
electromagnetic radiation emitted by the
Earth that carries heat.

C-09-D-05. Describe the role of sulfur in the

formation of acid rain and its impact on the
environment.
Answer:
• Sulfur plays a significant role in the
formation of acid rain:
o When sulfur dioxide (SO2) is released

into the atmosphere (often from burning

fossil fuels containing sulfur), it reacts
with oxygen to form sulfur trioxide
(SO3).
o SO3 then reacts with water vapor to

form sulfuric acid (H2SO4), which falls

as acid rain.
o Impact on the environment: Acid rain

can lower the pH of soil and water,

harming plants, aquatic life, and
buildings made of limestone or marble.
Glossary:
• Acid rain: Rain that has a lower pH than
normal, typically due to sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere.
• pH: A measure of how acidic or alkaline a
solution is.
C-09-D-06. Describe the strategies to reduce
the effects of major environmental issues.
Answer:
• There are several strategies to reduce the
effects of major environmental issues:
o Climate Change:

 Planting trees: Trees absorb carbon

dioxide (CO2), a major greenhouse

gas.
 Reduction in livestock farming:

Livestock, especially cattle, produce

methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
 Decreasing use of fossil fuels:

Reducing the burning of fossil fuels

(like coal, oil, and natural gas) helps
lower CO2 emissions.
 Increasing use of hydrogen and

renewable energy: Transitioning to

cleaner energy sources, such as wind
and solar power, and using
hydrogen as a fuel can reduce
emissions.
 o Acid Rain:
 Catalytic converters in vehicles:

These devices help reduce emissions

of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon
monoxide (CO), which contribute to
acid rain.
 Reducing sulfur dioxide emissions:

Using low sulfur fuels and applying

flue gas desulfurization methods
(using calcium oxide) can minimize
sulfur dioxide emissions.
Glossary:
• Fossil fuels: Fuels formed from the remains
of ancient plants and animals, such as coal,
oil, and natural gas.
• Flue gas desulfurization: A process used to
remove sulfur compounds from exhaust
gases in power plants.
• Flue gas: Gases that exit from industrial
chimneys or smokestacks.
C-09-D-07. Describe the role of NO and NO2
in the formation of acid rain, both directly
and through their catalytic role in the
oxidation of atmospheric sulfur dioxide.
Answer:
• Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2) play a
major role in the formation of acid rain:
o Directly: NO and NO2 can combine

with water vapor in the atmosphere to

form nitric acid (HNO3), which
contributes to acid rain.
o Catalytic role: NO and NO2 can also

act as catalysts in the oxidation of sulfur

dioxide (SO2) into sulfuric acid
(H2SO4), which then also contributes to
acid rain. This reaction occurs more
easily in the presence of sunlight.
Glossary:
• Nitric acid (HNO3): A strong acid that
forms from the reaction of nitrogen oxides
with water.
 • Sulfuric acid (H2SO4): A strong acid
formed when sulfur dioxide reacts with
water vapor.
• Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate
of a chemical reaction without being
consumed in the process.

C-09-D-08. Explain how oxides of nitrogen

form in car engines and describe their
removal by catalytic converters.
Answer:
• Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are formed in
car engines through the high-temperature
combustion of fuel. The heat causes nitrogen
from the air to react with oxygen, forming
nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2).
o Catalytic converters in vehicles help

remove NOx by using a catalyst

(usually platinum, palladium, and
rhodium) to convert NO into nitrogen
 (N2) and oxygen (O2), thus reducing air
pollution.
o The reaction in the catalytic converter is:
 CO + 2NO → CO2 + N2

Glossary:
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx): Gases formed
when nitrogen reacts with oxygen,
especially during combustion.
• Catalytic converter: A device used in the
exhaust system of a car to reduce harmful
emissions.
• Catalyst: A substance that speeds up a
chemical reaction without being consumed
in the process.

C-09-D-09. Define photosynthesis as the

reaction between carbon dioxide and water to
produce glucose and oxygen in the presence
of chlorophyll and using energy from light.
Answer:
 • Photosynthesis is the process by which
plants convert carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O) into glucose (C6H12O6) and
oxygen (O2). This reaction occurs in the
presence of chlorophyll and uses energy
from light (usually sunlight).
o The simplified equation for

photosynthesis is:
 6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy →

C6H12O6 + 6O2
o Chlorophyll absorbs light energy, which

powers the reaction.

Glossary:
• Chlorophyll: A green pigment found in
plants that absorbs light energy for
photosynthesis.
• Glucose (C6H12O6): A type of sugar that
plants use as an energy source.
• Oxygen (O2): A byproduct of
photosynthesis, released into the air.
C-09-D-10. Analyze how to use tools to
reduce personal exposure to harmful
pollutants.
Answer:
• To reduce exposure to harmful pollutants,
people can use various tools:
o Masks: Wearing masks, especially those

with filters (e.g., N95 masks), can help

prevent inhalation of harmful particles
and gases.
o Air quality indices: Checking the air

quality index (AQI) can inform

individuals about the pollution levels in
their area and help them decide when it
is safe to go outside.
o CO detectors: Installing carbon

monoxide (CO) detectors at home can

help detect dangerous levels of this
odorless, toxic gas, which is often
produced by incomplete combustion.
Glossary:
 • Air quality index (AQI): A numerical scale
used to communicate how polluted the air is.
• Carbon monoxide (CO): A colorless,
odorless gas that is toxic when inhaled in
high concentrations.

C-09-D-11. Identify high-risk situations in

life, including those where long-term
exposure to these pollutants can lead to
respiratory issues and reduction in quality
and longevity of life.
Answer:
• High-risk situations where long-term
exposure to pollutants can be harmful
include:
o Living in areas with high air

pollution: Long-term exposure to

pollutants like smog, particulates, and
nitrogen oxides can lead to respiratory
problems such as asthma or chronic
bronchitis.
 o Working in polluted environments:
People who work in industries with high
levels of chemical fumes or particulate
matter may develop long-term health
issues.
o Using fossil fuels indoors: Exposure to
carbon monoxide from unvented stoves
or heating systems can lead to chronic
health problems and reduce life
expectancy.
Glossary:
• Respiratory problems: Conditions that
affect breathing, such as asthma, bronchitis,
or emphysema.
• Smog: A type of air pollution that results
from a mixture of smoke, fog, and
chemicals, often seen in urban areas.
C-09-D-12. Investigate chemical tests for the
presence of water using anhydrous copper
(II) sulfate.
Answer:
 • Anhydrous copper (II) sulfate is a
chemical used to test for the presence of
water.
o Test method:

 When anhydrous copper (II)

sulfate is added to water, it turns

from white to blue.
 This color change occurs because the

copper (II) sulfate absorbs water

molecules and forms hydrated
copper (II) sulfate.
 The reaction is as follows:

 CuSO4 (white) + H2O →

CuSO4·5H2O (blue).
Glossary:
• Anhydrous: A substance that does not
contain water.
• Hydrated: A substance that contains water
molecules as part of its structure.
• Copper (II) sulfate: A chemical compound
commonly used to test for water.
C-09-D-13. Explain how to test the purity of
water using melting point and boiling point.
Answer:
• Testing the purity of water:
o Pure water has a specific melting point

(0°C) and boiling point (100°C) under

standard conditions.
o Impurities in water can alter these

points:
 If the boiling point is higher than

100°C, the water is likely impure

(containing dissolved substances that
increase the boiling point).
 If the melting point is lower than

0°C, the water may contain dissolved

substances that lower the freezing
point.
Glossary:
 • Melting point: The temperature at which a
solid turns into a liquid.
• Boiling point: The temperature at which a
liquid turns into a gas.
• Impurities: Substances present in water that
are not part of pure water.

C-09-D-14. Distinguish between Distilled

water and tap water with their applications
in practical chemistry.
Answer:
• Distilled water:
o Distilled water is water that has been

purified through the process of

distillation, which involves boiling the
water and condensing the vapor back
into a liquid.
o It is free from impurities like minerals,

salts, and chemicals.

o Applications: Used in laboratories and

in situations where pure water is

 required (e.g., in chemical reactions,
medicine).
• Tap water:
o Tap water comes from local water

supplies and often contains dissolved

minerals and chemicals such as
calcium, magnesium, and chlorine.
o Applications: Used for drinking,

cooking, and general household

purposes.
Glossary:
• Distillation: A process used to separate
components of a mixture by heating the
liquid to form vapor and then cooling the
vapor to form a liquid.
• Impurities: Substances that are not part of
the pure substance.
• Minerals: Naturally occurring elements or
compounds found in water.
C-09-D-15. State that water from natural
sources may contain useful and harmful
substances.
Answer:
• Water from natural sources (rivers, lakes,
etc.) may contain both useful and harmful
substances:
o Useful substances:

 Dissolved oxygen: Essential for

aquatic life.
 Metal compounds: Some metals

(like iron and magnesium) are

essential for life.
o Harmful substances:

 Plastics: Harmful to aquatic life.

 Sewage: Contains harmful microbes

that can cause diseases.

 Nitrates and phosphates: From

fertilizers, can lead to

eutrophication and harm aquatic
ecosystems.
Glossary:
• Eutrophication: The process in which
water becomes enriched with nutrients,
leading to the depletion of oxygen and harm
to aquatic life.
• Sewage: Wastewater containing human or
animal waste.
• Nitrates: Compounds containing nitrogen
and oxygen, often found in fertilizers.

C-09-D-16. Recognize that some naturally

occurring substances in water are beneficial.
Answer:
• Beneficial substances in water include:
o Dissolved oxygen: Supports the life of

aquatic organisms such as fish and

plants.
o Some metal compounds: Minerals like

iron, calcium, and magnesium are

 essential for the health of plants,
animals, and humans.
Glossary:
• Dissolved oxygen: Oxygen that is mixed
into water, necessary for aquatic life.
• Metal compounds: Compounds made up of
metals, some of which are essential for life.

C-09-D-17. Recognize that some naturally

occurring substances in water are potentially
harmful.
Answer:
• Harmful substances in natural water
sources include:
o Toxic metal compounds: Such as lead,

arsenic, and mercury can poison

aquatic life and humans.
o Plastics: Can entangle aquatic animals

and cause harm.

 o Sewage: Carries harmful microbes that
can cause diseases such as cholera and
typhoid.
o Nitrates and phosphates: Lead to water
pollution and eutrophication, harming
aquatic ecosystems.
Glossary:
• Lead, arsenic, mercury: Toxic metals that
can be harmful to living organisms when
present in water.
• Cholera: A bacterial disease caused by
contaminated water.
• Typhoid: A bacterial infection spread by
contaminated water.

C-09-D-18. Explain the treatment of the

domestic water supply.
Answer:
 • The treatment of domestic water typically
involves several steps to remove impurities
and make it safe for drinking:
o Sedimentation: Solid particles settle out

of the water.
o Filtration: Water passes through filters

to remove smaller particles.

o Use of carbon: Activated carbon is used

to remove tastes and odors from the

water.
o Chlorination: Chlorine is added to kill

harmful microbes and bacteria in the

water.
Glossary:
• Sedimentation: The process of settling out
solid particles from water.
• Filtration: A method of separating solid
particles from a liquid.
• Chlorination: The process of adding
chlorine to water to kill bacteria and other
microorganisms.
C-09-D-19. Describe various water-borne
diseases and the steps that can be taken to
avoid them.
Answer:
• Water-borne diseases include:
o Cholera: Caused by bacteria in

contaminated water.
o Typhoid: A bacterial infection spread

through contaminated water.

o Dysentery: Caused by bacteria or

amoebas in unclean water.

• Steps to avoid these diseases:
o Boiling water: Boiling water kills

harmful microorganisms.
o Using clean water sources: Drinking

from treated or filtered water sources

reduces risk.
o Proper sanitation: Ensuring proper

sewage treatment and hygiene practices

to prevent contamination.
Glossary:
• Dysentery: An infection of the intestines
caused by bacteria or amoebas, often from
contaminated water.

C-09-D-20. Identify the negative effects of

water pollutants on life and the ways to avoid
them.
Answer:
• Negative effects of water pollutants:
o Toxicity: Pollutants like heavy metals

can poison aquatic life and humans.

o Eutrophication: Excessive nutrients

from pollutants (nitrates and phosphates)

lead to oxygen depletion and death of
aquatic life.
o Spread of diseases: Contaminated water

carries harmful microbes that can cause

diseases.
• Ways to avoid them:
 o Proper waste disposal: Prevent
industrial waste, sewage, and chemicals
from entering water sources.
o Water treatment: Ensure proper
filtration and disinfection to remove
harmful substances.
Glossary:
• Eutrophication: A process where excessive
nutrients in water lead to oxygen depletion
and harm to aquatic life.

C-09-D-21. Explain water scarcity as an

important issue faced by Pakistan and the
ways in which it can be resolved.
Answer:
• Water scarcity in Pakistan is caused by:
o Over-extraction of water from rivers

and groundwater.
o Pollution of water sources making water

unsafe for use.

 o Climate change, leading to erratic
rainfall and reduced water availability.
• Ways to resolve water scarcity:
o Water conservation: Encouraging

efficient use of water resources.

o Rainwater harvesting: Collecting and

storing rainwater for use.

o Pollution control: Reducing waste and

chemicals entering water supplies.

Glossary:
• Groundwater: Water located beneath the
Earth's surface.
• Rainwater harvesting: The collection and
storage of rainwater for future use.
C-09-D-22. State that urea, ammonium salts,
and nitrates are used as fertilizers.
Answer:
• Urea, ammonium salts, and nitrates are
commonly used as fertilizers to supply
essential nutrients to plants.
 o Urea is a nitrogen-based fertilizer that
provides nitrogen to plants, which is
vital for their growth and development,
especially for leaf and stem production.
o Ammonium salts, such as ammonium
nitrate, are another source of nitrogen
that is easily absorbed by plants.
o Nitrates, found in fertilizers like
ammonium nitrate and calcium
nitrate, provide plants with nitrogen in a
form that can be immediately utilized for
growth.
Glossary:
• Urea: A nitrogen-rich compound commonly
used as a fertilizer.
• Ammonium salts: Compounds containing
ammonium ions (NH4+) that supply
nitrogen to plants.
• Nitrates: Compounds containing nitrogen
and oxygen that serve as a quick source of
nitrogen for plants.
C-09-D-23. Explain the use of NPK fertilizers
to provide the elements nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium for improved
plant growth.
Answer:
• NPK fertilizers are widely used to provide
three essential nutrients for plant growth:
o Nitrogen (N): Promotes healthy leaf and

stem growth. It is essential for

photosynthesis and the production of
chlorophyll.
o Phosphorus (P): Supports strong root

development, flowering, and fruiting. It

is involved in energy transfer and DNA
production within plants.
o Potassium (K): Strengthens the

immune system of plants, improving

their resistance to diseases and harsh
weather conditions. It also helps in the
synthesis of proteins and starch.
 • The combination of these three elements in
the right proportions leads to better overall
plant growth and higher crop yields.
Glossary:
• NPK fertilizers: Fertilizers that contain
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium
(K) in varying proportions.
• Photosynthesis: The process by which
plants use sunlight to synthesize nutrients
from carbon dioxide and water.
• Chlorophyll: The green pigment in plants
that is essential for photosynthesis.
• Root development: The growth and
expansion of roots to anchor plants and
absorb water and nutrients.
C-09-E-01. Describe organic molecules as
either straight-chained, branched, or cyclic.
Answer:
• Organic molecules can be classified based
on their structure:
 o Straight-chained: These molecules
have a continuous chain of carbon
atoms. Example: butane (C4H10),
where the carbon atoms are connected in
a straight line.
o Branched: These molecules have a main
chain of carbon atoms with additional
branches (side chains). Example: iso-
butane (C4H10), where a branch is
attached to the main chain.
o Cyclic: These molecules form a closed
loop, where the chain of carbon atoms
connects back to form a ring. Example:
cyclohexane (C6H12), where six carbon
atoms form a ring.
Glossary:
• Straight-chained: Molecules with carbon
atoms arranged in an unbroken line.
• Branched: Molecules where the carbon
chain has side branches.
 • Cyclic: Molecules that form a ring structure
due to carbon atoms connecting back to each
other.

C-09-E-02. State that a structural formula is

an unambiguous description of the way the
atoms in a molecule are arranged, including
CH2=CH2, CH3CH2OH, CH3COOCH3.
Answer:
• A structural formula provides a clear and
detailed representation of how atoms are
arranged in a molecule, showing the bonds
between atoms.
o Example 1: CH2=CH2 represents

ethene, where two carbon atoms are

double-bonded to each other and each
carbon is bonded to two hydrogen
atoms.
o Example 2: CH3CH2OH represents

ethanol, where an -OH (hydroxyl) group

is attached to a two-carbon chain.
 o Example 3: CH3COOCH3 represents
methyl acetate, where a methyl group
(CH3) is bonded to an ester group
(COO).
Glossary:
• Structural formula: A formula that shows
the arrangement of atoms and bonds in a
molecule.
• Ethene: A two-carbon alkene with a double
bond.
• Ethanol: An alcohol with two carbon atoms
and a hydroxyl group.
• Methyl acetate: An ester formed from
methanol and acetic acid.

C-09-E-03. Identify and draw structural

formulae for molecules.
Answer:
• To identify and draw the structural
formula of a molecule:
 o Determine the molecular formula first
(e.g., C4H10).
o Identify the type of molecule (alkane,
alkene, alcohol, etc.).
o Arrange the carbon atoms to reflect their
bonding, and include the appropriate
bonds (single, double, or triple).
o Example: C2H6 (ethane) would be
drawn as CH3-CH3.
o Example: C2H4 (ethene) would be
drawn as CH2=CH2.
Glossary:
• Molecular formula: A formula that shows
the number and types of atoms in a
molecule.
• Structural formula: A visual representation
of how atoms are arranged and bonded.

C-09-E-04. Interpret general formulae of

compounds in the same homologous series,
including alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, alcohols,
and carboxylic acids.
Answer:
• The general formula provides a pattern for
a series of compounds that share similar
chemical properties.
o Alkanes: General formula CnH2n+2.

Example: Methane (CH4), ethane

(C2H6).
o Alkenes: General formula CnH2n.

Example: Ethene (C2H4), propene

(C3H6).
o Alkynes: General formula CnH2n-2.

Example: Ethyne (C2H2), propyne

(C3H4).
o Alcohols: General formula

CnH2n+1OH. Example: Methanol

(CH3OH), ethanol (C2H5OH).
o Carboxylic acids: General formula

CnH2n+1COOH. Example: Acetic acid

(CH3COOH), propanoic acid
(C2H5COOH).
Glossary:
• General formula: The formula that shows
the simplest ratio of atoms in a homologous
series.
• Alkane: A saturated hydrocarbon with only
single bonds between carbon atoms.
• Alkene: An unsaturated hydrocarbon with at
least one double bond between carbon
atoms.
• Alkyne: An unsaturated hydrocarbon with at
least one triple bond between carbon atoms.
• Alcohol: A compound containing a
hydroxyl (-OH) group attached to a carbon
atom.
• Carboxylic acid: A compound containing a
carboxyl group (-COOH).

C-09-E-05. Define structural isomers as

compounds with the same molecular formula,
but different structural formulae, including
C4H10 as CH3CH2CH2CH3 and
CH3CH(CH3)CH3; and C4H8 as
CH3CH2CH=CH2 and CH3CH=CHCH3.
Answer:
• Structural isomers are compounds that
have the same molecular formula but
different structural formulas, meaning the
atoms are arranged differently in space.
o Example 1: C4H10 can be:

 CH3CH2CH2CH3 (butane)

 CH3CH(CH3)CH3 (isobutane).

o Example 2: C4H8 can be:

 CH3CH2CH=CH2 (1-butene)

 CH3CH=CHCH3 (2-butene).

Glossary:
• Structural isomers: Compounds with the
same molecular formula but different
arrangements of atoms.
• Molecular formula: A formula showing the
number of each type of atom in a molecule.
• Structural formula: A diagram showing
how atoms are connected in a molecule.
C-09-E-06. Identify a functional group as an
atom or group of atoms that determine the
chemical properties of a homologous series,
including alcohols, aldehydes, ketones,
phenols, carboxylic acids, amine, esters, and
amide.
Answer:
• A functional group is a specific group of
atoms within a molecule that determines its
chemical properties and reactions.
o Alcohols have a -OH (hydroxyl) group.

o Aldehydes have a -CHO (carbonyl)

group.
o Ketones have a -CO (carbonyl) group

attached to two carbon atoms.

o Phenols have a -OH group attached to

an aromatic ring.
o Carboxylic acids have a -COOH

(carboxyl) group.
o Amines have an -NH2 (amine) group.
 o Esters have a -COO group.
o Amides have a -CONH2 group.
Glossary:
• Functional group: A group of atoms in a
molecule responsible for its chemical
properties.
• Hydroxyl group: An -OH group,
characteristic of alcohols.
• Carbonyl group: A -C=O group, found in
aldehydes and ketones.
• Carboxyl group: A -COOH group, found in
carboxylic acids.
• Amines: Compounds containing an -NH2
group.

C-09-E-07. Describe the general

characteristics of a homologous series.
Answer:
• A homologous series is a group of
compounds with similar chemical
 properties, where each successive compound
differs by a CH2 unit. Key characteristics
include:
o Same functional group: All compounds

in the series share the same functional

group (e.g., alcohols, alkenes).
o Same general formula: All members of

the series follow a specific pattern in

their molecular formulas.
o Differ by CH2 unit: Each compound

differs from the next by one CH2 group.

o Trends in physical properties: As the

series progresses, physical properties

like boiling point, melting point, and
solubility often show regular trends.
o Similar chemical properties:

Compounds within the series react

similarly due to the presence of the same
functional group.
Glossary:
 • Homologous series: A group of related
compounds that differ by a single unit
(CH2) and share similar chemical properties.
C-09-E-08. State that a saturated compound
has molecules in which all carbon-carbon
bonds are single bonds.
Answer:
• A saturated compound is a molecule in
which all the carbon-carbon bonds are single
bonds. This means that the carbon atoms are
bonded to each other by single covalent
bonds, and each carbon atom is bonded to
the maximum number of hydrogen atoms
possible.
o Example: Methane (CH4) and Ethane

(C2H6) are saturated compounds

because all the bonds between carbon
atoms are single bonds.
Glossary:
 • Saturated compound: A compound in
which all carbon-carbon bonds are single
bonds, and each carbon atom is fully bonded
to hydrogen atoms.
• Single bond: A covalent bond where two
atoms share one pair of electrons.

C-09-E-09. State that an unsaturated

compound has molecules in which one or
more carbon-carbon bonds are not single
bonds.
Answer:
• An unsaturated compound is a molecule in
which one or more of the carbon-carbon
bonds are not single bonds. This means that
the molecule contains double bonds or
triple bonds between carbon atoms.
o Alkenes have double bonds (e.g.,

Ethene (C2H4)).
o Alkynes have triple bonds (e.g.,

Ethyne (C2H2)).
Glossary:
• Unsaturated compound: A compound in
which one or more carbon-carbon bonds are
double or triple bonds.
• Double bond: A covalent bond where two
pairs of electrons are shared between two
atoms.
• Triple bond: A covalent bond where three
pairs of electrons are shared between two
atoms.
C-09-E-10. State that the bonding in alkanes
is single covalent and that alkanes are
saturated hydrocarbons.
Answer:
• In alkanes, the bonding between the carbon
atoms is single covalent bonds. This means
that each carbon atom shares one pair of
electrons with another carbon atom, and all
the carbon atoms in alkanes are bonded to
the maximum number of hydrogen atoms
possible.
 • Alkanes are considered saturated
hydrocarbons because they contain only
single bonds between carbon atoms and are
"saturated" with hydrogen atoms.
o Example: Methane (CH4) and Ethane

(C2H6).
Glossary:
• Single covalent bond: A bond formed when
two atoms share one pair of electrons.
• Saturated hydrocarbon: A hydrocarbon in
which all carbon-carbon bonds are single
bonds, and the carbon atoms are bonded to
the maximum number of hydrogen atoms.

C-09-E-11. Describe the properties of alkanes

as being generally unreactive, except in terms
of combustion and substitution by chlorine.
Answer:
• Alkanes are generally unreactive because
their single covalent bonds are stable.
 However, they do react under certain
conditions:
1.Combustion: Alkanes burn in oxygen to
produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O).
2.Substitution with chlorine: In the
presence of light, alkanes can undergo a
substitution reaction with chlorine to
form chlorinated alkanes.
Glossary:
• Combustion: A reaction where a substance
reacts with oxygen to produce energy in the
form of heat and light.
• Substitution reaction: A reaction where
one atom or group of atoms in a molecule is
replaced by another atom or group of atoms.

C-09-E-12. State that in a substitution

reaction one atom or group of atoms is
replaced by another atom or group of atoms.
Answer:
• A substitution reaction is a type of
chemical reaction in which one atom or
group of atoms is replaced by another
atom or group of atoms in a molecule.
o Example: In the reaction of methane

(CH4) with chlorine (Cl2), one

hydrogen atom in methane is replaced by
a chlorine atom, forming
chloromethane (CH3Cl).
Glossary:
• Substitution reaction: A reaction where
one atom or group of atoms is replaced by
another atom or group of atoms in a
molecule.

C-09-E-13. Describe the substitution reaction

of alkanes with chlorine as a photochemical
reaction, and draw the structural or
displayed formulae of the products, limited to
monosubstitution.
Answer:
• When alkanes react with chlorine in the
presence of light (often UV light), a
photochemical substitution reaction
occurs. In this reaction, one of the hydrogen
atoms in the alkane is replaced by a chlorine
atom.
o Example: Methane (CH4) reacts with

chlorine (Cl2) in the presence of light to

form chloromethane (CH3Cl) and
hydrogen chloride (HCl).
Structural formula: CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl +
HCl
Glossary:
• Photochemical reaction: A chemical
reaction that occurs when light (usually
ultraviolet) provides the energy to break
bonds and start the reaction.
 • Monosubstitution: A substitution reaction
where only one atom or group of atoms is
replaced by another.

C-09-E-14. Describe, using symbol equations,

the preparation of alkanes from cracking of
larger hydrocarbons, hydrogenation of
alkenes and alkynes, and reduction of alkyl
halides.
Answer:
• Cracking of larger hydrocarbons: Large
hydrocarbons can be broken down into
smaller alkanes through a process called
cracking. This typically requires heat and
sometimes a catalyst.
o Example:

 Cracking of decane (C10H22):

C10H22 → C6H14 + C4H10

• Hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes:
Alkenes and alkynes (unsaturated
hydrocarbons) can be converted into alkanes
 by adding hydrogen (hydrogenation) in the
presence of a catalyst.
o Example: Hydrogenation of ethene

(C2H4) to form ethane (C2H6): C2H4

+ H2 → C2H6
• Reduction of alkyl halides: Alkyl halides
can be reduced to alkanes by replacing the
halogen atom with a hydrogen atom.
o Example: Reduction of chloromethane

(CH3Cl): CH3Cl + H2 → CH4 + HCl

Glossary:
• Cracking: The process of breaking down
large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller
ones, usually by heating.
• Hydrogenation: The process of adding
hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbons to
make them saturated.
• Reduction: A chemical reaction where a
substance gains hydrogen or loses oxygen.
C-09-E-15. Explain the importance and
basics of nutrition and healthy eating.
Answer:
• Nutrition is the process of taking in food
and using it to maintain health and growth.
It is important for the body to function
properly and to maintain energy levels.
• Healthy eating involves consuming a
balanced diet that includes a variety of
nutrients such as:
1.Carbohydrates: Provide energy.
2.Proteins: Essential for growth and repair
of tissues.
3.Fats: Provide long-term energy and help
in the absorption of vitamins.
4.Vitamins and minerals: Help in various
bodily functions such as immune support
and bone health.
5.Water: Vital for hydration and various
bodily functions.
• A balanced diet promotes overall health,
helps maintain optimal weight, supports
immune function, and reduces the risk of
 chronic diseases like diabetes and heart
disease.
Glossary:
• Nutrition: The process of consuming food
and using it for energy and growth.
• Healthy eating: Eating a balanced diet that
includes the essential nutrients for good
health.
• Nutrients: Substances that the body needs
for energy, growth, and maintenance of
health.

C-09-E-16. Recognize the main biomolecules;

carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic
acids, their sources, along with the required
daily intake for young adults.
Answer:
• The main biomolecules that provide the
body with energy and are essential for
growth and maintenance are:
 1.Carbohydrates: Primary source of
energy. Sources include rice, bread,
pasta, and fruits.
2.Proteins: Essential for growth and repair
of body tissues. Sources include meat,
fish, eggs, and beans.
3.Lipids (Fats): Provide long-term
energy, help absorb fat-soluble vitamins.
Sources include oils, butter, nuts, and
avocados.
4.Nucleic acids: Found in all living cells
and involved in the storage and
transmission of genetic information.
Sources include foods rich in DNA and
RNA, such as meats, fish, and plant-
based foods.
• Daily intake recommendations for young
adults:
o Carbohydrates: 45-65% of total daily

calories.
o Proteins: 10-35% of daily calories.

o Fats: 20-35% of daily calories.

 o Water: 8 cups (about 2 liters) daily for
hydration.
Glossary:
• Biomolecules: Molecules that are involved
in the structure and function of living
organisms.
• Carbohydrates: Organic compounds made
up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
providing energy.
• Proteins: Organic compounds made of
amino acids that are essential for growth and
repair.
• Lipids: Fats and oils that store energy and
help in the absorption of vitamins.
• Nucleic acids: Organic molecules like DNA
and RNA that store and transmit genetic
information.

C-09-E-17. Identify carbohydrates as a

source of energy.
Answer:
• Carbohydrates are the body’s main source
of energy. When consumed, they are broken
down into glucose, which is used by the
body’s cells for energy. Glucose is essential
for fueling brain activity, physical
movement, and other bodily functions.
o Simple carbohydrates (like sugar)

provide quick energy, while complex

carbohydrates (like starches and fiber)
provide a slower, more sustained release
of energy.
o Common sources include bread, pasta,

rice, and fruits.

Glossary:
• Carbohydrates: Organic compounds that
provide energy to the body.
• Glucose: A simple sugar that is a key energy
source for the body.
• Simple carbohydrates: Carbohydrates that
are broken down quickly by the body.
• Complex carbohydrates: Carbohydrates
made up of longer chains of sugar
molecules, providing a slower, sustained
energy release.