Biology 102 Laboratory Manual: Biology of Plants and

Animals
 Biology 102 Laboratory
Manual: Biology of Plants and
Animals

JEFFREY RAY AND JASON JONES

Biology 102 Laboratory Manual: Biology of Plants and Animals Copyright © 2022 by
Jeffrey Ray and Jason Jones is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License, except where otherwise noted.
Contents

Lab Safety Guidelines vii

Part I. Main Body

1. Chapter 1 3
2. Chapter 2 30
3. Chapter 3 51
4. Chapter 4 83
5. Chapter 5 108
6. Chapter 6 125
7. Chapter 7 149
8. Chapter 8 182
9. Chapter 9 199
10. Chapter 10 216
11. Chapter 11 237
Lab Safety Guidelines
Biology 102 — Lab Safety Guidelines

1. Upon entering the laboratory, locate each exit, the fire

extinguisher, the chemical shower, the eye wash station, the
broken glass container, and the first aid kit.
2. Do not eat, drink, smoke. handle contact lenses, apply
cosmetics or lip balm. Restrain long hair and dangling jewelry.
It is advisable to wear long pants and close-toed shoes to every
lab.
3. Students who have any medical conditions that might
necessitate special precautions must inform the instructor
immediately.
4. It is strongly recommended that regular eyeglasses should be
worn instead of contact lenses. Contact lenses may absorb
volatile chemicals.
5. Decontaminate work spaces at the end of every lab period with
the disinfectant provided. This becomes especially important
when working with chemicals and preserved tissues/organs.
6. Keep all liquids away from the edge of your work space to
avoid spills. In addition, keep all liquids away from computers
that may be provided.
7. Mouth pipetting is prohibited.
8. Properly label all test tubes and slides, when indicated.
9. Wear disposable gloves when handling preserved tissues/
organs. Cover any open cuts or scrapes with a sterile bandage
before donning gloves. Dispose of all gloves in regular trash
containers.
10. Place any materials (e.g., swabs) that come into contact with
body fluids in containers indicated by your instructor. Red
biohazard bags are regularly provided. Labeled bins with a
chemical disinfectant (e.g., 10% bleach solution) will be

Lab Safety Guidelines | vii

 provided when needed.
11. To prevent contamination by used scalpels, new or
decontaminated scalpels will be provided. Use caution when
using probes (with sharp ends) and scalpels.
12. Do not leave any heat sources unattended. Turn off and/or
unplug these sources when you have completed any
experiment. Do not allow the power cord to touch the hot
plate.
13. Do not place a beaker without water on the hot plate and Do
not allow a beaker to boil dry.
14. Never work alone in the laboratory.
15. Report all accidents (e.g., glass breakage) and spills to your
instructor as soon as possible.
16. Wash your hands at the end of every laboratory exercise.

I have read and will abide by these safety guidelines.

Signature
Date

viii | Lab Safety Guidelines

PART I
MAIN BODY

Main Body | 1
2 | Main Body
1. Chapter 1

LAB 1

Animal Organization, Tissues and Integumentary System

Prepared by Dr. Jeff Ray, Dept. of Biology, UNA

OBJECTIVES
After completing these laboratory activities, you should
understand/be able to:

• The hierarchical organization of the body and the four major

tissue types in humans.
• The name, structure, basic function, and location in the body
of the tissues examined in lab.
• Identify slides of the specific tissues prescribed by your lab
instructor.
• List the properties of muscle tissues including striated/not,
in/voluntary and branching/not.
• Label and identify the layers & components of the skin, the
different burn classifications, and the skin cancer model.

Introduction
The basic building blocks of living organisms are cells, with an
estimated 15-50 trillion cells in the human adult body. Groups of
specialized cells along with their extracellular matrix that carry out

Chapter 1 | 3
a specific function are tissues. Two or more tissue types which
collectively function as a unit are organs, and organs function
cooperatively as organ systems. The 11 organ systems in humans
contribute to maintaining homeostasis of the individual organism.
Thus, the hierarchical organization of the body is cells→ tissues→
organs→ organ systems→ organism.
Among the more than 200 types of cells in humans, many cells
(and thus tissues) are often visually distinguishable by their overall
shape, the presence/absence of a nucleus, the amount of fibers in
the cell, the amount of extracellular material or spaces between
cells, and the presence/absence of cilia or other cell projections.
The shapes of cells are invariably linked to their function (i.e. form
and function are correlated). Although most cells have a nucleus,
exceptions include red blood cells, which lack a nucleus (anuclear),
while muscle cells are multi-nucleated. Often, the nucleus takes a
similar shape to the overall cell shape. There are dozens of specific
tissues in humans, within four major types (classes): epithelial,
connective, muscle, and nervous. Different combinations of these
tissues make up our organs and organ systems.
Histology is the study of microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues
of organisms. Traditionally, a light microscope is used to observe
cells and tissues at <1000X magnification. In order to be visualized,
the specimen must be chemically preserved, embedded (dehydrated
& infused with wax) sectioned (into thin slices), and stained onto
a slide (fixed-embedded-sectioned-stained). Normally, the nucleus,
fibers, cell margins, cilia, villi, intercalated disks and other
components are contrasted by the staining process.
* List the levels of organization: _________→ _________→
___________→ __________ organism
* What are the 4 basic types of tissues found in animals?
__________ ,__________, _______,________
Basic Instructions: Microscope Usage

1. Correctly place slide on the microscope stage

st
2. Using knobs, center & focus image (1 coarse, then fine focus)

4 | Chapter 1
 using LOW power objective lens first
3. Zoom to 10x or 40x to view at ideal magnification (use lab
manual images for comparison)
4. Only use fine focus after zooming from low power
5. Do not use the oil immersion setting for the (highest power)
objective lens

– For each tissue: the specific name & its location in the body is
listed inside the lid of the slide box
– Many other tissues are present in most slides, which must be
distinguished from the tissue of interest
– Ask the instructor to verify your tissue identification, compare
to book images or look up images
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue covers the body, lines its cavities, and forms
glands. It contains one or more layers of closely adhering cells that
cover external and internal surfaces like the skin, lungs, and
intestines. One surface is exposed (apical: faces the environment),
while the other surface is normally anchored to a basement
membrane (basal surface). Epithelial tissues mainly function in
either protection, secretion or absorption. They lack blood vessels
(avascular); cells receive oxygen and nutrients from blood vessels
that are adjacent to them.
The multi-part name of epithelial tissues generally refers to
the number of layers present and the shape of the cells. Layers
may be single (simple) or ≥ (stratified). Three common shapes are
squamous, cuboidal, and columnar. The combinations of these
names describe most epithelial tissues: simple columnar, stratified
squamous, etc. Pseudostratified tissues appear to be layered, but all
cells reach the basement membrane, and are technically one layer
thick. Cellular extensions including cilia and microvilli are present
some in epithelial tissues.
*Where are epithelial tissues specifically found in the body?
___________________________________

Chapter 1 | 5
 *Epithelial tissues are named based on what two major
characteristics? _____________, ____________

*What do these terms mean in reference to epithelial tissue?

Simple – Stratified –
Pseudostratified –
Squamous – Cuboidal – Columnar
–

1.)Simple Squamous Epithelium

Function: Absorption (rapid diffusion)
Locations: Linings of lungs and blood vessels
Tissue to examine: 1.) Human Lung
Simple squamous epithelium lines spaces in the body which
primarily function in absorption (rapid diffusion). The single layer
of scale-like cells facilitate easy movement across the surface area.
Examine a tissue slide from the lining of the human lung. The lining
of blood vessels, the heart, and portions of the respiratory, urinary
and reproductive tract also contain this tissue.

2.)Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Function: Protection

6 | Chapter 1
 Locations: Epidermis, mouth, throat
Tissue to examine: 2.) Human Skin
Stratified squamous epithelium contains multiple cell layers
which primarily function in protection from abrasion. The layers
near the surface (superficial) are flattened and older, while deeper
layers have a cuboidal or columnar shape and are more recently
formed. You will examine a tissue slide from the human epidermis;
try to count the approximately 30 cell layers. The outermost tissues
of the skin (epidermis), mouth, esophagus, anal canal, and vagina
contain this tissue.

3.)Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Function: Absorption of molecules
Locations: Kidneys, ducts of glands
Tissue to examine: 3.) Kidneys
Simple cuboidal epithelium contains a single layer of cube-shaped
cells anchored to a basement membrane and primarily functions in
absorption. The outer surface often contains microvilli (not visible
with light microscope) that increases the surface area for
absorption. Examine the tissue slide from the human kidney; notice
the centrally-located nucleus that is roughly the same shape as

Chapter 1 | 7
the cell overall. The tubules of the kidneys, liver, and the ducts of
various glands contain this tissue.

4.)Simple Columnar Epithelium

Function: Absorption of nutrients
Locations: Stomach, intestines (digestive tract)
Tissue to examine: 4.) Stomach (pyloric region)
Appears as a row of tall and narrow cells each with a single
nucleus near the base; nucleus takes the overall shape of the cell.
Primarily functions in nutrient absorption. Wavy folds increase the
surface area for absorption. Examine human stomach tissue;
identify goblet cells which secrete mucus (may stain light blue).
Mucus lubricates surface and protects from stomach acid &
enzymes. The digestive tract is lined by this tissue.

8 | Chapter 1
 What is the function of the mucus?
______________________________________

5.) Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

Function: Sweeps impurities from airway, protects
Locations: Trachea (windpipe), bronchi
Tissue to examine: 5.) Trachea
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium looks layered due
to cell nuclei at different levels, but each cell reaches the basement
membrane (pseudo = false). Hair-like projections called cilia act as
tiny brooms to sweep debris trapped in mucus up and out of the
airway. This tissue primarily functions in clearing the airway of dust,
bacteria, and other debris that could otherwise enter the lungs.
Smoking coats cilia in many fine particles. The wavy folds of the
tissues increase the surface area for absorption. Examine the tissue
slide from the trachea; identify the goblet cells which secrete mucus
(may be stained light blue). Try to identify at least five other tissues
found in slide 5.
*Where is this type of tissue found in vertebrates?

Chapter 1 | 9
 ______________________________________
*What is the function of the cilia?
______________________________________
*How might the cilia be affected by smoking?
______________________________________

Table 1: EPITHELIAL TISSUE

10 | Chapter 1
 Type Structure Function Location

Simple
rapid diffusion
Squamous

outer layers flat,

Stratified inner layers
Squamous cuboidal

secretion &
Simple Cuboidal
absorption

Taller than
Simple digestive tract,
wide, nucleus at
Columnar uterus
base

protection &
Pseudostratified secretion,
ciliated sweeps
columnar substances

*Complete the missing information in the table above.*

Connective Tissue
Connective tissue is the most variable and widespread tissue in
the body. Specific types vary in their amounts and ratios of cells,
fibers, and extracellular matrix. Cells may be numerous or few,
fibers vary in amount and type (elastin or collagen), and the
extracellular matrix may be limited or extensive and contain
gelatinous (cartilage) or rigid materials (as in bone). Connective
tissues function in support, binding, insulation, protection, and
friction reduction, among other purposes. Note: fibers in connective
tissue are non-cellular fibers made of proteins; fibers in muscle
tissue are whole cells- do not confuse connective tissue “fibers”
with the fibers of muscle tissue.

6.)Dense regular connective tissue

Function: Connect bones and muscles

Chapter 1 | 11
 Locations: Tendons, ligaments
Tissue to examine: 6.) Tendon
Dense regular (fibrous) connective tissue is tightly filled with wavy
parallel collagen fibers, and the tissue has an appearance somewhat
like woven rope. The nuclei are dark-stained and appear pill-
shaped, with no extracellular spaces visible within the tissue. Dense
fibrous tissue imparts strength to tendons and ligaments, primarily
in a single direction; forces applied parallel to the tissue fibers more
easily tear the tendon or ligament.

7.)Adipose tissue
Function: Insulation, protection, and energy storage
Locations: Beneath skin, surrounds organs, breasts, hips, gut
Tissue to examine: 7.) Adipose tissue
Cells of adipose tissue are filled with fat and triglycerides,
which do not stain well, thus the cells appear mostly empty. The
nuclei are pushed to the side of the cell and the cell edges have a
dark margin. Nuclei are visibly stained along the cell margins and
there is no extracellular spaces visible within the tissue. Adipose

12 | Chapter 1
tissue functions in storing energy, insulation, and cushioning
around organs and other structures.

8.)Compact bone
Function: Support and protection, mineral storage
Locations: Skeleton
Tissue to examine: 8.) Compact bone
Bone tissue is one of the most distinct tissues, and is obviously
found in the skeleton. Compact and spongy bone are the two main
types; both varieties are found in most bones (e.g. femur); compact
bone makes up the majority of the skeleton. A system of
interconnecting vascular canals (haversian systems) contain the
blood supply for living cells (osteocytes), which are embedded
within a calcified matrix of extracellular materials. The functional
unit of compact bone is an osteon, which appear as adjacent tree
rings. Examine the slide and the model of bone tissue. Be able to find
the osteon, central canal, and osteocyte.

Chapter 1 | 13
 9.)Hyaline Cartilage
Function: Support and protection, minimizes friction
Locations: Nose, trachea and bronchi, ends of bones, ribcage,
intervertebral disks
Tissue to examine: 9.) Hyaline cartilage
Hyaline cartilage is a connective tissue with an extracellular gel-
like matrix containing few/no visible fibers, scattered cells called
chondrocytes, and overall appear less organized than bone. This
tissue supports, protects, and minimizes friction where bones meet.
Hyaline cartilage is found in the nose, trachea, ribcage,
intervertebral disks and covers the ends of bones. The two other
cartilage types (elastic, fibrous) are not examined in this lab.

14 | Chapter 1
 10.)Blood
Function: Transport of nutrients and wastes
Locations: In blood vessels and heart
Tissue to examine: 10.) Blood smear
Blood is a connective tissue which contains a mixture of liquids,
cells, and cellular fragments. The liquid remains unstained, while the
vast majority of cells are red blood cells, which appear as donut-
like disks- no nuclei are present. White blood cells (WBCs) are
far fewer in number, but noticeably larger and distinctly stained.
The five main types of WBCs are identified based on the shape of
their nuclei. WBCs function in fighting infections. Platelets are cell
fragments that are essential to blood clotting.

Chapter 1 | 15
 Blood smear dominated by RBCs, zoom to see WBCs & platelets

Blood tissue showing neutrophils (WBCs).

Table 2: CONNECTIVE TISSUE

16 | Chapter 1
 Type Structure Function Location

Binds
organs,
muscles-
Dense
fibrous bones,
bones-
bones

Beneath skin,
surrounds
organs, hips,
Adipose
breasts,
stomach

Support &
Compact
Protect
bone

Nose,
Scattered trachea &
Hyaline cells, bronchi,
Cartilage Gel-like bone ends,
matrix ribcage

Plasma,
RBCs,
Blood WBCs,
platelets

*Complete the missing information in the table above.*

Muscle Tissue
Muscle cells are long & thin and called myocytes, which are filled
with fibers that contract by shortening. When the tissues contract,
they function in moving the body or moving substances like blood or
food through the body. Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle tissues
vary in shape from one another; the structure gives insight as to

Chapter 1 | 17
how the muscle functions when contracting. Muscle tissue also
varies in being not/striated and in/voluntary; one or more nuclei are
present.

*All muscle tissues are composed of cells called

______________________________________.
*What are the three types of muscle tissues?
___________________________________________
_____

11.)Skeletal muscle tissue

Function: Movement (voluntary)
Locations: Skeletal muscles like biceps, deltoids
Tissue to examine: 11.) Skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle tissue contains long, tube-shaped cells filled
with parallel fibers containing actin and myosin protein fibers.
These fibers alternatively do/not overlap, causing the tissue to have
a striated (striped) appearance like a candy cane. The nuclei are
numerous (multi-nucleated), darker, and pushed to the margins of
the cells. There are no extracellular spaces visible within this tissue.
There are more than 600 skeletal muscles that function in moving
the body; these are under voluntary (conscious) control of the
nervous system. Obtain a slide of skeletal muscle and be able to
identify the fibers, nuclei, and striations. Adjust the contrast
setting to better visualize the striations.
*Is skeletal muscle voluntary or involuntary?
_________________________________

18 | Chapter 1
 Top to bottom: skeletal, smooth, cardiac

12.) Cardiac muscle tissue

Function: Pumps blood
Locations: Heart
Tissue to examine: 12.) Cardiac muscle tissue
Cardiac muscle is restricted to the heart and has an appearance
unique among muscle tissue- it is striated and branching with one
nucleus per cell. The branching cells are interconnected so the
heart may function as a unit. The cell junctions are held together

Chapter 1 | 19
by zipper-like structures called intercalated disks, which allow
substances and electrical current to pass seamlessly among cells.
There are no extracellular spaces visible within the tissue. Cardiac
muscle is involuntary (unconscious).

13.) Smooth muscle tissue

Function: Move substances through the body organs
Locations: Viscera (digestive, endocrine and reproductive organs)
in body cavities
Tissue to examine: 13.) Smooth muscle tissue
Smooth muscle makes up the wall of internal organs like the
stomach; it is restricted to the viscera and blood vessels. It has a
different appearance from other muscle tissues- it is not striated,
is not branched and contains one central nucleus per cell, which
normally stains darker than fibers. The cells are filled with fibers,
appearing narrow at the ends and wider in the middle giving a
spindle-shaped appearance. There are no extracellular spaces
visible within the tissue. Smooth muscle is under involuntary
(unconscious) control. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the
trachea, esophagus, stomach, intestines, blood vessels, and urinary
bladder.

Table 3: MUSCLE TISSUE

20 | Chapter 1
 Striated In/ Branching
Type
(Yes/No) Voluntary (Yes/No)

Skeletal

Smooth

Cardiac

* Complete the
missing information in the table above.*

*When finished examining the 13 tissue slides, organize them in

the slide box in the correct order. If any slides are damaged, please
notify your instructor. Turn off and unplug your microscope, put
the objective lens on low power setting, and place the plastic cover
on the microscope.*
Nervous Tissue
No nervous tissue slides will be examined in lab, but several types
of nervous tissues are found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
Nerve cells that carry electrical impulses are neurons, while the
numerous supporting cells are neuroglia; several sub-ypes of
neurons and neuroglia are recognized.

Chapter 1 | 21
 *Where is nervous tissue found in vertebrates?
___________________________________________
_
*What are the two main types of cells in nervous tissue?
_____________________________________
Integumentary System
The integumentary system includes the skin, hair, and nails
which have multiple functions in maintaining homeostasis,
including protection and temperature regulation. The skin is
composed of the epidermis and the dermis. The tissue layer
underlying these two layers is the hypodermis (=subcutaneous
layer) which has a different origin during embryo development and
therefore, is not considered a “true” layer of the skin. From
superficial (outer) to deep (inner), the layers are
epidermis—dermis—hypodermis. The epidermis contains stratified
squamous epithelial tissue that is constantly being replaced. There
are variably shaped layers of cells, called stratum (layers a-e), the
outermost of which are dead and contain a waterproof coating. The
dermis is thicker and primarily connective tissue, but also contains
glands, nerves, and blood vessels (epidermis is avascular). The
hypodermis (layer III) is adipose tissue and the layer into which
certain medical injections are given (e.g. insulin shots).
Examine the human skin model, including burn pathologies on the
back of the model. Note the following:

22 | Chapter 1
 – 3 skin regions: palm, armpit, scalp – 3 distinct layers (I-
III): epidermis, dermis, hypodermis
– Strata (a-e) of the epidermis – Blood vessels, nerves,
hair root, etc. in dermis
st
– Adipose tissue (g) of hypodermis – Depth, damage of 1 ,
nd rd
2 and 3 degree burns
* Which region of skin is the thickest: palm, armpit or scalp?
_______________________
*Name the main tissue types:
Epidermis: __________________ Dermis:
_________________ Hypodermis: ______________
* Which layer is thickest: epidermis, dermis or hypodermis?
_____________________
*Which degree of burn destroys the epidermis and damages the
dermis (often the most painful)? ______

Chapter 1 | 23
 Lab model of the skin. Note I: Epidermis, II: Dermis, III:
Hypodermis. Nerve receptors in various locations of the dermis
detect light touch, deep pressure, pain, hot, and cold.

24 | Chapter 1
 Labelled model of the skin.
Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer, due to the (1)
constant exposure to the environment, (2) frequent cell division, and
(3) large size of this organ system. Of the three main types, malignant
melanoma is the rarest, but the most deadly (other two: squamous
cell carcinoma, basal cell carcinoma). The six zones on the model
show the progression of untreated melanoma: cells multiply, deepen
into the skin, and metastasize (spread elsewhere in the body). The
American Cancer Society guide for early detection of melanoma via
self-exam uses the “ABCDE rule” to assist individuals in monthly
self-exams of skin discoloration that might be malignant, to aid in
early detection by a dermatologist. A= asymmetry (unequal halves), B
= border irregular, C = color variable (differing shades), D = diameter
>1/4”, E = evolving (changing).
Examine the skin cancer model, note the following:
– 6 zones, read left to right, front to back

Chapter 1 | 25
 – Progressive deepening of tumor into the skin
– Metastasis into the blood vessels/lymph
– Variable shape of tumors on base of model
*Name the deadliest skin cancer (on
model):_____________________________

J15
Skin Cancer Model
© 3B Scientific GmbH, Germany, 2019, www.3bscientific.com
Image Credits:
Simple Squamous By https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Simple_squamous_epithelium#/media/File:Illu_epithelium.jpg
Stratified squamous By https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Epithelial_Tissues_Stratified_Squamous_Epithelium_(402308
42160).jpg
Simple cuboidal By https://histology.medicine.umich.edu/sites/
default/files/images/slides/1epithelial.jpg

26 | Chapter 1
 Simple columnar lecannabiculteur.free.fr/SITES/
UNIV%20KANSAS/instruction/medicine/anatomy/histoweb/
gitract/large/Gi39.jpg
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar By Assassin3577 – Own work,
CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/
index.php?curid=26594055
Dense Regular Connective By http://medcell.med.yale.edu/
histology/connective_tissue_lab.php
Adipose https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Connective_Tissue_Adipose_(41066514324).jpg
Bone By https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Compact_bone_-_ground_cross_section.jpg
Cartilage By https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Cartilage01.JPG
Blood https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Connective_Tissue_Human_Blood_Leukocyte_Survey_(2692
1278957).jpg
Neutrophils By https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Segmented_neutrophils.jpg
Muscle tissues By OpenStax College – Anatomy & Physiology,
Connexions Web site. http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/, Jun
19, 2013., CC By 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/
index.php?curid=30015032
Muscle tissues By http://www.scientistcindy.com/uploads/8/5/
1/2/85124478/muscle-tissue1_orig.png
Nervous tissue By By OpenStax College – Anatomy & Physiology,
Connexions Web site. http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/, Jun
19, 2013., CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/
index.php?curid=30131294
Skin model front and back https://denoyer.com/products/
human-skin-series
Skin (labeled) By OpenStax College – Anatomy & Physiology,
Connexions Web site https://cnx.org/contents/
[email protected]:RxywCGkA@6/Layers-of-the-Skin
Melanoma model used with Permission of 3B Scientific, images

Chapter 1 | 27
from https://www.a3bs.com/skin-cancer-model-1000293-j15-3b-
scientific,p_54_316.html

BI 102 Lab Worksheet: Tissues Name

_________________________________ Section
_______
1. What are the 4 major types of tissues found in animals?
2. Name 1 specific location in the body you would find the
following epithelial tissues:
a. simple squamous epithelial _________________ b.
stratified squamous epi.__________________
3. Find pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial tissue (slide
#5) with your microscope. Put your pointer on this tissue and have
your instructor verify it by initialing here ______________
4a. Slide #5 Sketch AND LABEL this tissue:

4b. List the other tissues present on slide #5:

______________________, ___________________
______________________,
___________________, ______________________
5. Name 3 specific types of connective tissues (see Table 2)
______________________,
_______________________,___________________
____
6. Sketch the following tissue: Compact Bone (slide #8)

7. Find a White Blood Cell (slide #10 and sketch it (ZOOM in to 40X-
include nucleus shape)):

28 | Chapter 1
8. What are the 3 basic types of muscle tissue? (slides #11-13)

9. Which muscle tissue is striated, branching and not under

conscious control (involuntary; Table 3)?

10. Sketch AND Label the two “true” layers and the third underlying
layer of the skin→

Chapter 1 | 29
2. Chapter 2

LAB 2

Musculoskeletal System
Prepared by Dr. Jeff Ray, Dept. of Biology, UNA

OBJECTIVES
After completing these laboratory activities, you should
understand/be able to:

• The basic structure, function, and total number bones and

muscles in the skeletal and muscular systems, including the
axial and appendicular divisions.
• The tissues of these systems, including bone, hyaline cartilage,
and skeletal muscle.
• Identify the specific bones (including the vertebral regions)
and muscles as specified by your instructor.
• The types of joints, muscle movements, and basics of muscle
contraction.

Introduction
The muscular and skeletal systems collectively make up a large
percentage of body mass and are studied together due to the
interdependence and interaction between these organ systems in
supporting and moving the body. Joints are at the interface of
where bones meet and are moved by muscles. The skeletal system
provides a scaffolding for holding up the body and assisting

30 | Chapter 2
movements. It functions include support, movement, protection,
blood cell production, storage of minerals, and endocrine
regulation. The human adult normally has 206 bones.
The muscular system functions in moving bones, provides
posture and support, protects internal organs, and generates heat.
The more than 600 skeletal muscles are composed of bundles of
muscle fibers, are normally attached to bones via tendons to create
a lever system, and many function as antagonistic pairs- opposing
muscle groups that counterbalance contractions/relaxations.
* Are there more bones or muscles in the human body?
______________________
Tissues of the Human Skeletal & Muscular System
The main tissues of the musculoskeletal system are bone, hyaline
cartilage, and skeletal muscle. Be able to recognize each of these
tissues, and know their function and location. These tissue slides
will be set up at the microscopes on the back counter.
Bone
Function: Support and protection, mineral storage
Locations: Skeleton
Bone tissue is distinctive and primarily extracellular materials.
Compact and spongy bone are found in most bones; compact bone
makes up the majority of the skeleton. The functional unit of
compact bone is an osteon, which appear as adjacent tree rings.
The cells (osteocytes), are surrounded by a calcified matrix of
extracellular materials, but the tissue is living and served by blood
vessels, lymph and nerves. Examine the slide and the model of bone
tissue.

Chapter 2 | 31
 Hyaline Cartilage
Function: Support and protection, reduces friction
Locations: Nose, trachea and bronchi, ends of bones, ribcage,
intervertebral disks
Hyaline cartilage has an extracellular gel-like matrix containing
few/no visible fibers and scattered cells called chondrocytes, and
overall appears less organized than bone. This tissue supports,
protects, and minimizes friction where bones meet. Hyaline
cartilage is found in the nose, trachea, ribcage, intervertebral disks
and covers the ends of bones.

32 | Chapter 2
 Skeletal muscle tissue
Function: Movement (voluntary)
Locations: Skeletal muscles
Skeletal muscle tissue contains cells filled with parallel fibers
containing actin and myosin protein fibers. These fibers
alternatively do/not overlap, causing the tissue to have a striated
(striped) appearance like a candy cane. The nuclei are numerous
(multi-nucleated), darker, and pushed to the margins of the cells.
Identify the fibers, nuclei, and striations.

Gross Anatomy of Bones and the Skeletal system

Bones (e.g. humerus) are organs since they contain >2 tissues
including blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves, in addition to
bone tissue. The human skeleton can be logically divided into the
axial and appendicular divisions. The axial skeleton forms the main
trunk, while the appendicular skeleton includes the bones of arms

Chapter 2 | 33
and legs (appendages), and the pectoral and pelvic girdles. In total,
the adult skeleton usually contains 206 bones (80 axial and 126
appendicular). Among the 206 bones, there are 22 bones of the skull,
26 vertebrae, 12 pairs of ribs, and 30 bones in each appendage.
Observe a bone from a cadaver that has been cut longitudinally
to reveal that it is actually hollow. Since this bone is dried out, it
is still strong, but much less flexible than when alive. It contains
compact bone along the sides and spongy bone at the ends. In life,
the articular surfaces were covered with glossy articular cartilage
(imagine the end of a chicken bone), the spongy bone was filled with
red marrow and the medullary cavity was filled with yellow marrow
(fat).

34 | Chapter 2
Some Major and Notable Bones / Bone Groups of the Body
Some basic bone descriptions

Chapter 2 | 35
 sternum:
maxilla: mandible: clavicle: scapula:
chest, ribs
upper jaw lower jaw collarbone shoulder
attach to it

radius:
humerus: forearm carpals: metacarpals:
ulna: forearm
upper arm (thumb wrist hand
side)

sacrum:
coxal lower
phalanges: coccyx:
bones: vertebrae femur: thigh
fingers tailbone
pelvis (bones are
fused)

fibula: lower
patella: tarsals: metatarsals:
tibia: shin leg (next to
knee ankle foot
shin)

phalanges:
toes

* Are there more bones in the axial or appendicular division?

______________________
* Name 2 bones from the axial skeleton _____________
_________________
* Name 2 bones from the appendicular skeleton
_____________ _________________

36 | Chapter 2
Chapter 2 | 37
 The following activity will help in learning the location and names
of the bones. You will work as a group using the bones mixed up in
tubs and reassemble them into (as complete as possible) a full skeleton.
After assembling the skeleton, do not disassemble it until instructed
to do so by you professor.
CSI Activity: a mass grave has been found and a mixture of bones
recovered, but it is unclear how many victims there were. In order
to determine the minimum number of victims, you must determine
1) how many bones of each type (e.g. femur) and 2) which side of
the body they are from (Left or Right). Using the fully articulated
skeletons at the front of the rooms as a guide, match each bone to
the correct part of the body including L/R side. Use any articulation
points, grooves, asymmetry, bone angles, and differences between
the two ends of the bone to determine L/R. Recall that L/R is

38 | Chapter 2
from the patient’s (or victim’s) perspective. Whichever bone(s) is
the most abundant (L/R are counted separately, an exception is
the vertebrae), represents the minimum number of victims. For
example, if the most abundant bone is 4 right femurs, there are at
least 4 victims. The first two vertebrae (atlas and axis, C1 and C2) are
unique and may also be used to count victims.
* Complete the table. Before putting the bones back into the
tubs, have your instructor verify your findings and review the
bones you identified.
Crime Scene Investigation (CSI) Activity
A. Names of Bones
Ex.__femur_____________
1. ____________________
2. ____________________
3. ____________________
4. ____________________
5. ____________________
6. ____________________
7. ____________________
8. ____________________
9. ____________________
10. ___________________
11. ___________________
12. ___________________
13. ___________________
14. ___________________
15. ___________________
16. ___________________
17. ___________________
18. ___________________
19. ___________________
20. ___________________
B. # Left / # Right if known
Ex.____1 / 2_(at least 2 victims)
1. _________/________

Chapter 2 | 39
 2. _________/________
3. _________/________
4. _________/________
5. _________/________
6. _________/________
7. _________/________
8. _________/________
9. _________/________
10. _________/________
11. _________/________
12. _________/________
13. _________/________
14. _________/________
15. _________/________
16. _________/________
17. _________/________
18. _________/________
19. _________/________
20. _________/________
C. Minimum # of Bodies ____________
D. Explanation for determining minimum # (most numerous
bone(s), which side of body):
_______________________________________
E. Name the 5 regions of the backbone from top to bottom and list
the number of vertebrae in each:
Skull – 1. 2. 3.
4. 5. – Pelvis
F. Number of vertebrae in each region (total of 26): ,
, , , _____
Observe the male and female pelvis on the cart or back counter,
note any differences.

40 | Chapter 2
 ……… ……

__________
_________
* Label the pelvises above as male or female.
* What are two basic differences between M/F pelvis?
1.________________ 2. _______________
Muscular System
Skeletal muscles are under conscious (voluntary) control and
appear striated (striped). Cardiac and smooth muscles are
involuntary, and differ visually from skeletal muscle. Tendons are
continuous with muscles and attach them to bones. The point of
attachment that stays stationary when the muscle contracts is the
origin, while the attachment that moves is the insertion. Since
muscles shorten when they contract, they only pull. As a result,

Chapter 2 | 41
most muscles work in antagonistic pairs (particularly in the
appendicular region)- when one contracts the other relaxes.
There are over 600 muscles in humans which are named based
on their location, shape, size, movement, number of major parts
or various other features. Examine the muscle model and study
the images; learn the major “workout” and other muscles that your
instructor indicates for the quiz.
Major and Notable Muscles of the Body

Flexor
Orbicularis External Tibialis
carpi
oculi oblique anterior
group
Extensor Extensor
Orbicularis Rectus
carpi digitorum
oris abdominis
group longus
Extensor Gluteus
Masseter Trapezius
digitorum maximus
Hamstring
Latissimus Quadriceps
Deltoid (Biceps
dorsi femoris
Femoris)
Pectoralis Biceps
Sartorius Gastrocnemius
major brachii
Serratus Triceps Adductor
anterior brachii longus

Some basic muscle descriptions

42 | Chapter 2
o. oculi: circular muscle around biceps brachii: upper arm muscle
eyes, blinking, winking on front, bends arm at elbow

triceps brachii: upper arm muscle

masseter: chewing muscle
on back, straightens arm at elbow
quadriceps femoris (quads): several
frontalis: forehead muscle raises
muscles on front of leg, straightens
brows
leg at knee
sartorius: strap-like muscle
deltoid: shoulder muscles, raises
running diagonally across thigh,
and lowers arms to front and side
moves thigh away from body
tibialis anterior: shin muscle, turns
pectoralis major: chest muscles,
foot upward as when walking on
bring arms forward
heels
external oblique: muscles on your
gluteus maximus: butt muscles,
side running diagonally onto
extends thigh back
stomach
rectus abdominis stomach muscles
hamstrings (biceps femoris):
with fibers running vertically
several muscles back of leg, bends
(6-pack abs), bends vertebral
leg at knee
column
trapezius: sheet like muscle
gastrocnemius: calf muscles, turns
covering upper back, raises
foot downward
shoulders
latissimus dorsi: (lats) beneath
arms onto back, brings arms down
and backward behind body

Muscle movements
Muscle contractions are described based on their movement in
relation to the joint or the midline of the body. The main types are
flexion, extension, adduction, and abduction. Flexion: movement of
jointed parts towards one another, Extension: movement of jointed
parts away from each other, Adduction: movement of part toward
body’s midline, Abduction: movement of part away from body’s
midline.

Chapter 2 | 43
 * Answer the following:
The biceps brachii ________ the forearm.
The triceps brachii ________ the forearm.
The quadriceps femoris __________ the leg.
The biceps femoris _________ the leg.
The sartorius _________ the thigh.
The adductor longus ___________ the thigh.
Contraction Types
In isotonic contractions, the length of the muscle changes. In
isometric contractions, the length of the muscle does not change.
To demonstrate an isotonic contraction, rest your left forearm
on a table. Watch the anterior surface of your left upper arm while
you slowly bend your elbow and bring your left forearm toward the
upper arm. This is an isotonic contraction of the biceps brachii.

44 | Chapter 2
 * What makes this contraction isotonic rather than isometric?
__________________________________
To demonstrate an isometric contraction, place the palm of your
left hand underneath a tabletop. Push up against the table while
you have your right hand cupped over the anterior surface of your
left upper arm so that you can feel the muscle there undergo and
isometric contraction.
* What change did you notice in the firmness of the triceps
brachii as it is contracted? ______________
* Did your hand or forearm move as you pushed up against the
table? ___________________________
* Did this muscle’s fibers shorten as you pushed up against the
table? __________________________
Contraction of muscle fibers
The striations in muscle fibers are due to locations of actin and
myosin fibers. During contraction, actin filaments slide past and
overlap more with myosin filaments. The result is shortening of the
sarcomere, the functional unit of muscle. Examine the microscope
structure of muscle fibers showing the shortening of the sarcomere.

Chapter 2 | 45
 * The functional unit of muscle is called a(n)
______________________________________.
* What shortens during a muscle contraction: actin, myosin or the
sarcomere? _____________________
Joints
The study of joints and articulations is arthrology, while studying

46 | Chapter 2
the body’s movements is called kinesiology. Where bones meet,
joints are generally immovable, slightly movable or freely movable (=
synovial). There are six main types of synovial joints to know: 1. Ball
and socket, 2. Condyloid, 3. Hinge, 4. Pivot, 5. Gliding, 6. Saddle.
These joint types vary in their plane of movement, with ball and
socket joints having three planes of movement. Joints are normally
named by the articulations of the bones involved. For example, the
elbow (a hinge) joint is called the humeroulnar joint.

* Examine the models of the hip, shoulder, and knee joints. Note
the following:
– Deep socket, stability of the hip joint– Shallower socket, greater
range of movement of shoulder

Chapter 2 | 47
 – Overall instability of the knee– Ligaments serving the knee front
to back & side to side
* Which ball and socket joint is more easily dislocated?
__________________
Types of Joints in the Body

• Immovable – ex. sutures between skull bones

• Slightly Movable – ex. vertebrae and disks & coxal bones (pubic
symphysis)
• Movable Joints (Synovial): name all bones involved in the joint

Complete the following using the word bank:

Terms: atlas, axis, carpals, coxal (=pelvis), femur (2), humerus (2),
metacarpals (2), phalanges, radius (2), scapula, tibia (2), tarsals (2),
ulna
1. Ball & Socket*
Shoulder (name 2 bones involved)
_____________________…. Hip (2)
__________________________
2. Condyloid*
Wrist (2) ______________________________…. Foot
(2) ______________________________
Finger (2) ____________________________
3. Hinge*
Elbow (2) _________________________…. Knee (2)
______________________________
4. Pivot*
Lower arm (2) ___________________________…. Top
two vertebrae (2) _______________________
5. Plane/Gliding Joint
Between wrist bones __________________Between ankle
bones _________________

48 | Chapter 2
Image Credits:
Bone By https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Compact_bone_-_ground_cross_section.jpg
Diagram of compact bone By OpenStax College – Anatomy &
Physiology, Connexions Web site https://cnx.org/contents/
[email protected]:kwbeYj9S@4/Bone-Structure
Cartilage By https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Cartilage01.JPG
Muscle tissues By 乌拉跨氪 – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=46401576
Long Bone By OpenStax College – Anatomy & Physiology,
Connexions Web site https://cnx.org/contents/
[email protected]:kwbeYj9S@4/Bone-Structure
Human Skeleton Front By https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:1105_Anterior_and_Posterior_Views_of_Muscles.jpg
Male and Female Pelvises Photos By Jeffery Ray, author of this lab
activity
Human muscles By OpenStax [CC BY 4.0
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)], via Wikimedia
Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:1105_Anterior_and_Posterior_Views_of_Muscles.jpg
Muscle contractions by
Body Movements https://cnx.org/contents/
[email protected]:qCnsYyus@3/Types-of-Body-Movements
Isotonic/Isometric By http://isowalking.com/
Skeletal muscle fiber https://cnx.org/contents/
[email protected]:bfiqsxdB@3/Skeletal-Muscle
Sliding filament By Richfield, David (2014). “Medical gallery of
David Richfield”. WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/
2014.009. ISSN 2002-4436. – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2264027
Joints by By OpenStax College – Anatomy & Physiology,
Connexions Web site. http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/, Jun
19, 2013., CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/
index.php?curid=30131668

Chapter 2 | 49
 BI 102 Lab Worksheet: Musculoskeletal Name
___________________________ Section _______
1. How many bones in the adult human?_____ How many
muscles in the adult human? ____
2. What are the two main divisions of the human skeleton?
1.
_____________________________2._____________
_________________
3-4. Name the bone in the upper arm: General
name for bones of the ankle:
Name the bone of the lower jaw: Name
for collarbone:
5. Name & sketch the shape of any two types of vertebrate:
1. Type: 2. Type:
6. Name one location you would find a pivot joint:
7. Sketch the basic shape differences of
a female vs. a male pelvis (see front cart)→:
8-9. Give the everyday name for the following muscles:
Gastrocnemius: Deltoid:
Masseter:
Gluteus maximus: Quadriceps femoris:
Trapezius:
10. Name & sketch the shape any two tissue types you observed
under the microscopes (side/back counter):
1. Tissue: 2. Tissue:

50 | Chapter 2
3. Chapter 3

LAB 3

Introduction to the Cardiovascular System

Prepared by Jason R. Jones, University of North Alabama

OBJECTIVES
After completing these laboratory activities, you should
understand/be able to:

• Define cardiovascular system and be able to describe the main

parts and functions of the cardiovascular system.
• Identify the chambers, valves, and major vessels of the heart
• Define the following types of blood vessels: arteries, arterioles,
capillaries, venules, veins
• Identify some of the major vessels carrying blood to (arteries)
and carrying blood away from (veins) major body regions
• The difference between systemic circulation and pulmonary
circulation, and be able to trace the path of blood through the
heart in each
• How heart rate is measured, and how various factors can
influence heart rate
• The typical healthy range of human heart rate
• The concept of blood pressure, including the difference
between systolic and diastolic pressure
• How systolic and diastolic pressures are measured, and how
these values are reported in a blood pressure reading

Chapter 3 | 51
 • The importance of blood pressure as a measure of health, and
know the maximum values of a healthy blood pressure reading
• Define the terms atherosclerosis, coronary arteries, coronary
bypass surgery, myocardial infarction, plaque, stent

INTRODUCTION
The cardiovascular system serves as the primary means of
transporting molecules throughout the body to the trillions of
cells that require a supply of nutrients/oxygen for the required
constant production of ATP and our survival. Additionally, our cells’
metabolism produces toxic or unusable wastes that must be
removed.
The cardiovascular system (cardio- means “heart”, and vascular
means “vessels or tubes”) consists of the heart (“pumping station”)
and the blood vessels (arteries, arterioles, veins, venules, and
capillaries), which can be thought of as highways along which the
blood moves.
ACTIVITY I: Anatomy of the Heart
The heart is a located in the thoracic cavity of the body, along
with the lungs. It is situated on the midline of the body, behind
and slightly to the left of the sternum, which protects it. Look at
the provided human heart model and the heart in the human torso
model. Externally, several structures of the heart are visible from
an anterior (front view). First, you should note the apex, or tip of
the heart, which points downwards and towards the left side of
the body. You should also notice two earlike flaps towards the base
(top) of the heart. These flaps are called the auricles, and are part
of the upper chambers of the heart, which we will discuss below.
You will also notice several large blood vessels connected to the
heart, namely the large, arching aorta, which is the largest artery
in the body, the pulmonary artery or pulmonary trunk, which
branches into the left and right pulmonary arteries (only the left
pulmonary artery can be seen in the anterior view), the superior
vena cava, and the right pulmonary veins. Use Figures 1 and 2 on
the following page to help you identify the structures in bold text on

52 | Chapter 3
the provided heart model. There will be a worksheet at the end of
this lab exercise, where you will also need to identify these specific
structures on the heart model that your instructor may take up after
lab, so be sure to fill these in, as well.

Chapter 3 | 53
54 | Chapter 3
 Figure 1. Heart external anatomy, anterior view.Figure 2. Heart
external anatomy, posterior view.
Now observe the external anatomy of the heart from the posterior
view. From the posterior view, the aorta is still visible, as is the
superior vena cava. However, on the posterior side of the heart, you
can now observe the right pulmonary artery (which branches from
the pulmonary trunk), the right pulmonary veins, and the inferior
vena cava. We will discuss these major blood vessels in greater
detail below. In both views of the heart, you can also see several
smaller blood vessels covering the surface of the heart. These are
the coronary arteries and cardiac veins, and serve as a blood supply
for the tissues of the heart itself.
Now remove the front portion of the human heart model, and
notice that internally, the heart is divided into several chambers.

Chapter 3 | 55
Mammals (including ourselves), have a heart that is divided into
four chambers: two upper chambers called the atria (left atrium
and right atrium), and two lower chambers called the ventricles
(left ventricle and right ventricle). We can describe the functions
of these chambers in two different ways. In one way, we can think
about the differences between the upper chambers (atria) and the
lower chambers (ventricles). You can think about the atria as the
receiving chambers of the heart, as the atria receive blood from
other parts of the body. One way to remember this is to think
about the atrium of a building, which is usually the receiving area
of the building. The lower chambers, or ventricles, have the main
function of distributing blood elsewhere in the body. Another way
to remember that the ventricles are the lower chambers of the heart
is to look at the apex, or lower tip of the heart, which has a V-like
shape. Examine Figure 3 on the following page, and use it to help
you identify the structures in bold text on the provided heart model.
There will be a worksheet at the end of this lab exercise, where
you will also need to identify these specific structures on the heart
model that your instructor may take up after lab, so be sure to fill
these in, as well.

Figure 3. Heart internal anatomy, anterior view.

56 | Chapter 3
 Notice that the heart is separated into left and right sides by
a thick muscular wall called the septum, which separates the
circulation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. This means that
the circulation of blood in our bodies is actually separated into
two different pathways, or circuits: the systemic circuit and the
pulmonary circuit. The pulmonary circuit consists of the pathway
of deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs for re-
oxygenation, and then back to the heart. The systemic circuit
consists of the pathway of oxygenated blood from the heart to all of
the rest of the body (where cells deplete the oxygen supply in the
blood), and back to the heart. We’ll look at each of these circuits
in more detail later, but first, let’s continue examining the basic
anatomy of the mammalian heart.
Another major feature seen in the mammalian heart is the
presence of four special valves, all of which can be seen in Figure 3.
These valves are very important, because their main function is to
ensure that the flow of blood through the heart is only in a single
direction. There are two main kinds of valves that are seen in the
heart: atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves.
There are two atrioventricular valves, which separate the atrium
from the ventricle on each side of the heart. If you look closely at
each of the AV valves in the heart model, you will see that each of
them are made up of several leaflets, or flaps. The right AV valve
consists of three of these leaflets and is referred to as the tricuspid
valve. The left AV valve consists of two of these leaflets, and referred
to as the bicuspid valve. More commonly, however, the left AV
valve is often called the mitral valve. The atrioventricular valves
ensure that blood only flows from atrium to ventricle, and not the
other way around. When the atria contract, the increased pressure
of blood in the atria forces the AV valves open, and blood then
flows into the ventricles. However, when the ventricles contract, the
AV valves prevent blood from flowing back into the atria. This is
achieved due to the unique structure of the AV valves themselves.
Notice that at the bottom of each of the AV valves, they are
connected to the walls of the ventricles by long, thin, cordlike

Chapter 3 | 57
tendons called the chordae tendineae. When the ventricles
contract, the increase in blood pressure in the ventricles could
potentially force the AV valves to open in the wrong direction.
However, tension provided by the chordae tendineae prevents this
from happening.
There are also two semilunar valves in the heart, which separate
the ventricles from the main blood vessels they supply. Between
the left ventricle and the aorta is the aortic semilunar valve, and
between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk, there is the
pulmonary semilunar valve. The semilunar valves ensure that blood
flows only in the direction of ventricle to vessel, and not the other
way around. When the ventricles contract, the increased pressure
of blood in the ventricles forces the semilunar valves open, causing
blood to flow into the major vessels supplied by each ventricle.
However, due to the force of gravity, blood has a tendency to flow
downward, back towards the ventricles. However, the structure of
the semilunar valves prevents this. Each semilunar valve is made up
of three cuplike structures. When the ventricles contract, imagine
the pressure of blood from the ventricles, forcing those cups
upward and onto their sides, opening the semilunar valves.
However, as the ventricles relax, as blood begins to flow downwards
back towards the ventricles, that blood fills those cups up, causing
them to tip back upright, closing the valves.

58 | Chapter 3
 Figure 4. View of valves in the heart (cross section)
**What are the two major circuits of the heart, what is the
function of each circuit?**
a. ______________________ a.
Function:_______________________________
b.______________________ b.
Function:_______________________________
ACTIVITY II: Anatomy of Blood Vessels
The heart acts as the pump that provides the force to deliver
blood (and materials therein). The blood vessels are the pathways
through which blood is delivered to locations throughout the body.
The five major types of blood vessels in the cardiovascular system
are: arteries, arterioles, venules,veins, and capillaries. Arteries and
arterioles are blood vessels that carry blood in a direction away
from the heart; arterioles are smaller branches of larger arteries.
Veins and venules are blood vessels that carry blood in a direction
back towards the heart; venules are smaller branches of larger veins.
Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels where exchange of
materials (water, gases, nutrients) occurs between blood and
tissues.

Chapter 3 | 59
 Figure 5. Comparative sizes of blood vessel types.
Aside from the difference in the direction in which they carry
blood, arteries and veins have some anatomical differences, as well.
Examine Figure 6 . Notice that the walls of arteries are thicker and
much more muscular than the walls of veins. If you think about
the fact that arteries are carrying blood away from the heart, this
should make sense. Blood being carried away from the heart is
moved as a result of the strong pumping force of the heart, is under
higher pressure, and arteries need much thicker walls to withstand
pressure without rupturing.

60 | Chapter 3
 Figure 6. Comparison of veins & arteries. V = vein, A = artery, e =
endothelium (simple squamous epithelial tissue), m = tunica media
(mostly smooth muscle), a = tunica adventitia (connective tissue)
The blood flowing through veins is under lower pressure and as
a result, veins have thinner walls and larger lumens (openings). This
is an advantageous, because it allows for greater blood flow with
less resistance from surrounding layers of their walls, facilitating
movement of blood back towards the heart. Finally, veins possess
valves, while arteries do not. Figure 7, shows valves in veinsthat
ensure one-way flow of blood (towards the heart). However, think

Chapter 3 | 61
for a minute about the blood in your legs, for example. If that blood
has to get back to the heart, it has to move upwards, against the
force of gravity. How is that accomplished? The valves in veins are
part of this answer, but the musculoskeletal system also plays an
important part in this role.

Figure 7. Illustration of how valves in veins prevent backflow of

blood due to gravity (image courtesy of the U.S. National Library of
Medicine).
When we walk and move around, contractions of our skeletal
muscles puts pressure on our veins, like those in our legs, for
example. That pressure forces blood to move through our veins. The
valves in these veins only allow that movement in one direction. The
structure of the valves prevent backflow of blood back down into
the legs. Due to gravity, the blood in our legs has a natural tendency
to flow downward, but as it does so, that closes the valves in those
veins, similar to the way that the semilunar valves work in the heart.
Capillaries are very different than both arteries and veins.
Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels, and are so thin, they only
allow red blood cells to pass through them in single file. They are

62 | Chapter 3
only made up of a single layer, the endothelium, which is simple
squamous epithelial tissue. This property is what makes capillaries
able to fulfill their role of exchange of materials (water, gases,
nutrients, hormones, and wastes) between blood and tissues. Since
the walls of capillaries are only a single layer thick, that makes it
really easy for some molecules (water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide)
to diffuse directly across their walls. Additionally, there are also tiny
slits or pores between the endothelial cells, which allow molecules
or cells that are small enough to fit through them to move into or
out of the capillary. This also comes in handy in the case of infection
in a particular tissue, because white blood cells, which are part of
the immune system’s arsenal against invaders, are small enough to
move through these slits and into the infected tissue.
Now that we’ve discussed the basic anatomy of blood vessels,
let’s examine some of the major blood vessels that supply or drain
various regions of the body. Examine Figure 8 on the following page,
and use that figure to match various blood vessels in the figure to
their appropriate descriptions on the worksheet at the end of this
lab exercise.

Chapter 3 | 63
 Figure 8. Major arteries and veins of the cardiovascular system.
ACTIVITY III: Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation
Remember, earlier in Activity I, we briefly discussed one main
advantage of a four-chambered heart in mammals, birds, and
crocodilians. A four-chambered heart allows for complete
separation of the circulation of oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood. This allows for a greater overall saturation of oxygen in blood
supplied to the cells and tissues throughout the body. Essentially,
circulation in mammals, birds, and crocodilians is separated into

64 | Chapter 3
two separate circuits, or pathways. These pathways are the
pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit. Each of these circuits
begins and ends in the heart. The pulmonary circuit involves the
circulation of deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs for
re-oxygenation, and back to the heart. The systemic circuit involves
the circulation of oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the
body, which uses up the oxygen in that blood, and the return of this
deoxygenated blood to the heart.
One easy way to remember the path of blood in both the
pulmonary and systemic circuits is that both circuits start in one
atrium of the heart, and end in the other atrium of the heart. Each
circuit is primarily associated with one side of the heart, however,
because each circuit involves both the atrium and ventricle of the
same side of the heart. The pulmonary circuit is associated with
the right side of the heart, and involves activity of both the right
atrium and right ventricle. The systemic circuit is associated with
the left side of the heart, and involves activity of the left atrium and
left ventricle. As you read about these pathways of blood through
the heart, it may be helpful to refer to the provided heart model to
visually trace the path of blood through each of these pathways.
The pulmonary circuit is the shortest of the two pathways of
blood through the heart. Any time you see the word “pulmonary”,
that means “relating to the lungs”. Again, the pulmonary circuit is
the pathway of blood from the heart to the lungs, and back to the
heart. The main function of the pulmonary circuit is to receive
deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body, and deliver that
blood to the lungs for re-oxygenation, before returning that blood
back to the heart. On the provided heart model, locate the superior
and inferior vena cava. These are two major veins that deliver
deoxygenated blood back to the heart, with the superior vena cava
returning deoxygenated blood from the head and upper body to
the heart, and the inferior vena cava returning deoxygenated blood
from the lower body to the heart. Remove the front of the heart
model, and notice that both the superior vena cava and inferior
vena cava empty into the right atrium. When the atria contract, this

Chapter 3 | 65
deoxygenated blood from the right atrium is pumped into the right
ventricle through the tricuspid valve. Then, when the ventricles
contract, the deoxygenated blood in the right ventricle is pumped
up through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary
trunk, and then to the left and right pulmonary arteries, which
carry blood to the lungs. In the lungs, numerous capillary beds
are where oxygen diffuses from the lungs into the bloodstream
(and carbon dioxide in the bloodstream diffuses into the lungs),
re-oxygenating the formerly oxygen-depleted blood. See Figure 9
below for an example of these capillary beds in the lungs. After
this blood is re-oxygenated, it is transported back towards the heart
through the pulmonary veins, which empty into the left atrium,
completing the pulmonary circuit.

Figure 9. Illustration of alveoli (air sacs) in the lungs, and the

associated capillary beds, pulmonary arteries, and pulmonary veins.
The systemic circuit is the longest of the two pathways of blood
through the heart. The word “systemic” in anatomic terminology
means “relating to the entire body”. Again, the systemic circuit is

66 | Chapter 3
the pathway of blood from the heart to the entirety of the rest of
the body (excluding the lungs), and back to the heart. The main
function of the systemic circuit is to receive oxygenated blood from
the lungs, and deliver that blood to the rest of the body, where
tissues use up the oxygen in the blood, and then the return of
that blood back to the heart. Again, examine the provided heart
model. Remember, as previously discussed, the pulmonary circuit
ends when oxygenated blood from the lungs is returned to the left
atrium, marking the beginning of the systemic circuit. The systemic
circuit starts with the entry of oxygenated blood into the left
atrium. When the atria contract, this oxygenated blood from the left
atrium is pumped through the mitral valve into the left ventricle.
Then, when the ventricles contract, the oxygenated blood in the
left ventricle is pumped through the aortic semilunar valve into
the aorta, which eventually branches into various systemic arteries
supplying blood to the rest of the body. In systemic capillaries
in body tissues, oxygen diffuses from the bloodstream into those
tissues. Carbon dioxide (and other wastes) from those tissues also
diffuse from those tissues into the bloodstream. This blood, now
depleted of oxygen is returned to the heart via systemic veins,
which eventually empty into the superior vena cava or inferior
vena cava, both of which empty into the right atrium of the heart,
completing the systemic circuit.
The difference in the distance traveled by blood in the pulmonary
and systemic circuits explains some of the anatomical differences
between the left and right sides of the heart. Look at the provided
heart model, and remove the anterior portion so that you can
observe the chambers within. Note that the right ventricle has
thinner, less muscular walls, while the left ventricle has thicker,
more muscular walls. This should make sense if you consider the
fact that the right ventricle, as part of the pulmonary circuit, only
has to pump blood to the lungs, which isn’t very far, since the
lungs are located just to either side of the heart. The left ventricle,
however, as part of the systemic circuit, has to distribute blood

Chapter 3 | 67
everywhere else in the body, and thus has to work harder, thereby
necessitating more muscle mass to do so.
Now that you have learned about the two pathways of blood
through the heart, complete the exercise on pulmonary and
systemic circulation on the worksheet at the end of this lab exercise.
ACTIVITY IV: Measures of Cardiovascular Health
Heart/cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in the
United States, as well as the entire world. Cardiovascular disease
refers to a broad range of conditions affecting the cardiovascular
system, such as heart rhythm problems and congenital heart
defects, but generally refers to the narrowing or blockage of blood
vessels, which can lead to various other conditions, such as a heart
attack or stroke. One specific example of a type of cardiovascular
disease is a condition known as atherosclerosis, which is the
buildup of plaque (made up of fat, cholesterol, and other substances)
in the arteries, causing narrowing and hardening of the arteries,
both of which reduce blood flow through those arteries (and thus
blood supply to tissues). See Figure 10 below for an example of blood
flow in a healthy artery, and one affected by atherosclerosis.

68 | Chapter 3
 Figure 10. Illustration of blood flow in a healthy artery (A), and
in an artery that has been narrowed by atherosclerosis (B). Source:
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National Institutes of
Health; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
One way in which atherosclerosis is sometimes treated is through
the use of a stent, or a small mesh tube to widen narrowed arteries,
or to reinforce weakened arteries. See Figure 11 on the following
page for an example of the procedure used to place a stent in a
narrowed artery.

Chapter 3 | 69
 Figure 11. Illustration of the use of a stent in the treatment of an
artery narrowed by atherosclerosis.
Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National
Institutes of Health; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
On the exterior surface of the heart model, there are numerous
coronary arteries and coronary veins. Though these were only
briefly mentioned in Activity I, these blood vessels are very
important, as they provide circulation to the tissues of the heart
itself. Though the heart is pumping blood to the lungs and the rest
of the body, the heart needs its own blood supply, as well. Since
the heart is constantly pumping, it requires lots and lots of ATP to
sustain that activity, and as a result, also requires a large supply of
oxygen and nutrients. A blockage in one of the coronary arteries
is extremely dangerous, as reduced blood supply to a region of
heart tissue can result in damage or death to that tissue, resulting
in a heart attack, also known as a myocardial infarction (MI). If a
heart attack occurs and is not fatal, overall health is still adversely
affected, as the resulting scar tissue decreases heart efficiency.

70 | Chapter 3
Sometimes, blockages to coronary arteries can be treated using
stents, as shown in Figure 10 above. However, sometimes blockages
to coronary arteries are treated using a surgical procedure known
as coronary bypass surgery. There are two typical approaches
through which this type of surgery is performed. In one, a healthy
artery in the patient’s chest is re-routed to supply blood to the
heart tissue past the point of the blockage. In the other, a vein is
removed from one of the patient’s legs, and grafted to the aorta and
a point just past the blockage in the coronary artery. Occasionally,
individuals may have blockages in multiple coronary arteries,
requiring multiple bypasses. See Figure 12 for examples of each
of these techniques. Look at the provided heart model showing
coronary bypass surgery, and using the lab model, answer the
question on the worksheet at the end of this lab exercise.

Figure 12. Illustration of the two major methods of coronary

bypass surgery. Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute;
National Institutes of Health; U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services.
Given the important role of the cardiovascular system, it should
come as no surprise that cardiovascular health is extremely

Chapter 3 | 71
important. As a result, monitoring some aspects of cardiovascular
function is part of almost every routine medical examination.
During such examinations, an idea of cardiovascular health can be
determined by listening to the heart for any abnormal sounds, and
determination of heart rate and blood pressure. In this activity,
you will be measuring your own heart rate (pulse rate) and blood
pressure. The provided stethoscopes can also be used for you and
your partner to listen to one another’s hearts, as well.
The resting heart rate of most healthy individuals typically falls
within the range of 60 to 100 beats per minute (bpm). However, in
extremely active or athletic individuals, resting heart rate may be as
low as 40 bpm. Typically, lower resting heart rates reflect greater
cardiovascular health. To measure your own heart rate, take the first
two fingers of either hand (not the thumb), and lightly press over the
radial artery (on the thumb side of the inside of your wrist). Count
the number of pulses you feel during a period of 30 seconds, and
multiply that number by 2. The resulting number is your heart rate
in bpm. Record your heart rate on the worksheet at the end of this
exercise.
To maintain good cardiovascular health, aerobic exercise, or
exercise that strengthens the heart and lungs. During aerobic
exercise, a target heart rate of approximately 50-85% of your
estimated maximum heart rate is generally suggested. To estimate
your maximum heart rate, subtract your age from 220. Then
multiply the resulting number by 0.5. The result would be a good
minimum target heart rate during moderate aerobic exercise. Next,
multiply your estimated maximum heart rate by 0.85. The result
would be a maximum target heart rate during intense aerobic
exercise. Record your estimated maximum heart rate and target
heart rate range on the worksheet at the end of this exercise.
Optionally, your instructor may ask you to exercise (jumping jacks
or running in place) for a few minutes, and then have you record
your heart rate immediately after exercise. If your instructor asks
you to do this, record your heart rate after exercise in the worksheet
at the end of this exercise, as well.

72 | Chapter 3
 Another measure of cardiovascular health is your blood pressure.
Blood pressure is defined as the pressure, or force, of blood pressing
against the walls of blood vessels. Of course, this force is ultimately
the result of the pumping action of the heart, so monitoring blood
pressure is a good way of monitoring overall cardiovascular health.
Blood pressure readings actually consist of two numbers. The first
number in a blood pressure reading is always the largest number,
and the second number is smaller. The larger number is called the
systolic pressure, which is the pressure of blood in an artery during
the peak of systole, or contraction of the ventricles of the heart.
The second, smaller number is called the diastolic pressure, which
is the pressure of blood in an artery during the peak of diastole, or
relaxation of the ventricles of the heart. It should make sense that
the systolic pressure is always greater, since the systolic pressure
is the pressure of blood when the heart is actively contracting,
creating greater pressure in the arteries. Blood pressure readings
are usually reported visually in a format such as “120/80”, where the
number before the slash is the systolic pressure, and the number
after the slash is the diastolic pressure. When reported verbally, the
previous blood pressure would be reported as “120 over 80”.
Normal blood pressure is considered to be values less than 120/
80. Regular monitoring of blood pressure is important, as
hypertension (high blood pressure) substantially increases an
individual’s risk of various other health complications, such as heart
attack, stroke, kidney damage, damage to the retina of the eyes,
erectile dysfunction in men, and even dementia/Alzheimer’s
disease. High blood pressure often has no noticeable symptoms
itself, but is often referred to as the “silent killer”, due to the
increased risk of death due to heart attack, stroke, or kidney disease
associated with hypertension. Table 1 below shows the American
Heart Association’s newest guidelines on classifying blood pressure
values. Patients with hypertension are typically treated with
medications to keep blood pressure within lower, safer ranges, but
lifestyle changes (such as smokers quitting smoking, reduction of
sodium and saturated fats in the diet, weight loss, aerobic exercise,

Chapter 3 | 73
and reduction of alcohol consumption are usually also
recommended to prevent further worsening of hypertension
Table 1. New (2017) blood pressure categories from the American
Heart Association

Category Bl

Normal Less than 120/80

Elevated Systolic between 120-129 and diastolic less

Stage 1 hypertension Systolic between 130-139 or diastolic betw

Stage 2 hypertension Systolic at least 140 or diastolic at least 90

Hypertensive crisis Systolic over 180 and/or diastolic over 120

The traditional method of measuring blood pressure is through the

use of a stethoscope and a device called a sphygmomanometer,
which consists of an inflatable cuff attached by rubber tubing to
an inflator bulb and a pressure gauge. To obtain a blood pressure
reading using a sphygmomanometer, the cuff of the
sphygmomanometer is placed around the upper arm, right above
the bend of the elbow. At this location, the blood pressure reading
obtained is a measurement of the pressure of blood in the brachial
artery (refer back to Figure 8). The cuff is then inflated to a pressure
that is high enough to cut off blood flow beyond the cuff. A
stethoscope is then used to listen at a location just below the cuff,
and the person taking the reading slowly begins releasing the
pressure in the cuff, while simultaneously continuing to listen while
also visually monitoring the pressure gauge on the
sphygmomanometer. What the person taking the reading is
listening for are some special sounds called the sounds of
Korotkoff, which indicate changes in blood flow in the artery. When
the pressure in the cuff is greater than the systolic pressure in

74 | Chapter 3
the artery, there is no blood flow past the cuff, and no sounds are
heard. As the pressure is decreased, when the pressure in the cuff
is equal to the systolic pressure, a slight knocking sound should be
heard as blood begins to flow past the cuff, and the pressure on the
gauge when the knocking sound is heard is recorded as the systolic
pressure. As the pressure is continually decreased, continued
knocking or turbulent sounds are heard, because even though blood
is flowing past the cuff, the artery is still somewhat compressed.
However, eventually, when the pressure in the cuff is equal to the
diastolic pressure in the artery, all sounds should stop, as the artery
is no longer compressed, and blood is flowing completely freely
through the artery. The pressure at which all sounds stop is then
recorded as the diastolic pressure. It is fairly difficult to take your
own blood pressure using this method, so you and your lab partner
should attempt to get a blood pressure reading on one another.
Ideally, blood pressure readings should be taken when an individual
is seated, with legs uncrossed, and supporting the arm in which the
blood pressure is being taken. To get a blood pressure reading from
your partner, follow the instructions below.

1. Clean the eartips of your stethoscope using the provided

alcohol swabs.
2. Place the eartips of your stethoscope in your ears, making sure
that they are pointing forward (away from you), and that they
form a tight seal inside your ears. You should be able to hear
very little in the room around you if you are using the
stethoscope properly.
3. Have your partner present you with the arm of their choice.
Blood pressure readings can be taken from either arm. If they
are wearing long sleeve shirts that are thicker than an average
T-shirt, their sleeve should be pushed up well past their elbow.
4. Place the cuff of the sphygmomanometer around your
partner’s upper arm, making sure to line up the arrow on the
cuff with the location of the artery in their arm.
5. Using the inflator bulb, rapidly inflate the pressure in the cuff

Chapter 3 | 75
 to about 180 mmHg.
6. Place the edge diaphragm or bell of your stethoscope just right
under the bottom edge of the cuff, and listen. Initially, you
should hear no sound, since blood flow past the cuff is
completely obstructed.
7. While continuing to listen, begin slowly releasing the pressure
on the cuff by slightly unscrewing the valve at the end of the
inflator bulb. Make sure you are also visually monitoring the
pressure gauge on the cuff the entire time.
8. Continue to listen as the pressure decreases, and as soon as
you hear a clicking or popping noise, note the pressure on the
gauge and record this as your partner’s systolic pressure.
9. Continue to allow the pressure to decrease as you continue to
listen and monitor the pressure gauge. As soon as any sounds
you hear stop, note the pressure on the gauge and record this
as your partner’s diastolic pressure.
10. Remove the cuff from your partner’s arm, and the stethoscope
from your ears, and again clean the eartips of the stethoscope
with alcohol swabs.
11. After attempting to get a blood pressure reading from your
partner, swap places and allow them to attempt to get your
blood pressure using all the steps above.

It can be tricky to train your ear to listen for the sounds of Korotkoff
to obtain a blood pressure reading using the traditional method
listed above, but try the traditional method of obtaining a blood
pressure reading from your partner at least once. If you have
difficulty listening for the sounds of Korotkoff, you can try the
traditional method a second time, or you can use one of the
provided electronic blood pressure cuffs in lab to get a reading
of your own blood pressure. On the worksheet at the end of this
lab exercise, record your own blood pressure (not your partner’s).
Several factors can elevate your blood pressure above your actual
baseline blood pressure. Blood pressure readings should be taken
when you are quiet, relaxed, and comfortable. Several factors may

76 | Chapter 3
falsely elevate blood pressure beyond your normal baseline, such as
talking during the reading, recent previous activity, recent caffeine
consumption, recent tobacco use, anxiety, a full bladder, feeling
chilly, etc.

Figure 13. Measuring blood pressure using a stethoscope and

sphygmomanometer. Credit: Elmien Woolvardt Ellison. Obtained
from http://openi.nlm.nih.gov/, licensed under
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

BI 102 Lab Worksheet: Cardiovascular Name

___________________________ Section _______
ACTIVITY I: Anatomy of the Heart
Using the available human heart models, write the number on the
model beside each appropriate structure listed below:
_____ Aorta/aortic arch
_____ Aortic semilunar valve
_____ Inferior vena cava
_____ Left atrium
_____ Left pulmonary artery

Chapter 3 | 77
 _____ Left pulmonary veins
_____ Left ventricle
_____ Biscuspid (mitral/left AV) valve
_____ Pulmonary semilunar valve
_____ Pulmonary trunk
_____ Right atrium
_____ Right pulmonary artery
_____ Right pulmonary veins
_____ Right ventricle
_____ Superior vena cava
_____ Tricuspid (right AV) valve
ACTIVITY II: Anatomy of Blood Vessels
Match the descriptions below to the correct blood vessels.

78 | Chapter 3
_____
Blood
vessels
A. aorta
from heart
to the neck
and head
_____
Blood
vessels to
B. brachial
heart from
arteries
the neck
and head
_____
Blood
vessels
C. carotid
from heart
arteries
to the lungs
for
oxygenation
_____
Blood
D. inferior
vessels to
vena cava
heart from
the lungs
_____
Blood
vessel to E.
heart from pulmonary
the head, veins
arms, &
upper body
_____
Blood
vessel to F.
heart from pulmonary
the lower/ arteries
middle
body
_____
Largest
artery in
G. renal
body from
arteries
heart to
many body
regions

Chapter 3 | 79
_____
Blood
vessels
from heart
H. renal
to the
veins
upper arm;
blood
pressure is
taken here
_____
Blood
vessels I. superior
from heart vena cava
to the
kidneys

_____
Blood
J. jugular
vessels to
veins
heart from
the kidneys

ACTIVITY III: Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation

In the diagram, label the left atrium (LA), right atrium (RA), left
ventricle (LV), right ventricle (RV), aorta (A), superior vena cava
(SVC), inferior vena cava (IVC), pulmonary trunk (PT), left pulmonary
artery (LPA), right pulmonary artery (RPA), left pulmonary veins
(LPV), right pulmonary veins (RPV), mitral valve (MV), tricuspid valve
(TV), aortic valve (AV), and pulmonary valve (PV).
Using colored pencils (blue to represent deoxygenated blood, and
red to represent oxygenated blood), draw colored arrows to show
the direction of blood flow through all of the labeled structures.
Make sure that you have arrows showing blood flow drawn in all
blood vessels shown.

80 | Chapter 3
From Venae Cavae From lungs
–> –>

–> –>

valve
–> –>

valve
–> –>

valve
–> –>

valve
–>
–> To Aorta

–> To lungs

Correctly trace the path of blood flow through the heart from the
vena cavae to the aorta. Use each of the terms only once: Aortic
semilunar, Bicuspid (AV), Left Atrium, Left Ventricle, Pulmonary

Chapter 3 | 81
arteries, Pulmonary semilunar, Pulmonary trunk, Pulmonary veins,
Right Atrium, Right Ventricle, Tricuspid (AV)

From Venae Cavae From lungs

–> 1. –> 7.

–> 2. –> 8.

valve
–> 9.
–> 3.

valve
–> 4. –> 10.

valve
–> 11.
–> 5.

valve
–> 6.
–> To Aorta

–> To lungs

ACTIVITY IV: Measures of Cardiovascular Health

Examine the heart model in lab showing coronary bypass surgery,
and fill in the blank below:
The coronary bypass model in lab has ____ (number of)
bypasses.
Your resting heart rate: ____ bpm OPTIONAL: Your heart
rate after exercise: ____ bpm
Your estimated maximum heart rate (220 – your age): ____ bpm
Your target heart range during exercise (50-85% max): between
____ and ____ bpm
Why does heart rate increase during aerobic exercise?
Your blood pressure: ____/____How would your blood
pressure be classified using the AHA’s guidelines?

82 | Chapter 3
4. Chapter 4

LAB 4

Introduction to the Digestive System

Prepared by Jason R. Jones, University of North Alabama

OBJECTIVES
After completing these laboratory activities, you should
understand / be able to:

• Recognize the organs of the digestive system, including those

that are part of the alimentary canal or digestive tract, as well
as those that are considered accessory organs, and their
functions.
• The difference between mechanical digestion and chemical
digestion.
• Define the terms catalyst, enzyme, and substrate.
• That enzyme activity can be affected by multiple factors, and
examples of such factors affecting enzyme activity.
• Define the terms positive control and negative control, and
know how/why they are important.
• Define the term peristalsis.
• Some of the major digestive enzymes involved in digestion of
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats; know where these enzymes
are produced, and the site of their actual function.
• Different factors that can affect the activity of digestive (and
other) enzymes.

Chapter 4 | 83
 • The role of bile in the emulsification of fats.

INTRODUCTION
The digestive system is responsible for processing the food
taken into the body and converting it to usable energy.
The process of digestion can actually be divided into two main
types of digestion. The first of these is mechanical digestion, which
is simply the breaking down of food into smaller pieces, but without
any chemical changes to the food. This process is begun in the
mouth, through the chewing action of our teeth. By chewing food
into smaller pieces, this increases the surface area of the food.
This larger surface area thus provides for faster and more efficient
chemical digestion (which also begins in the mouth), in which
various enzymes actually further break down the food chemically
into smaller molecules that are more easily absorbed and used by
our bodies for various functions. An enzyme is an organic molecule
(usually a protein) that acts as a catalyst (a molecule that speeds up
a particular reaction) for the breakdown of large molecules in our
food into smaller “building block” molecules. Enzymes are usually
very specific, and a given enzyme typically only speeds up a single
type of reaction. Enzymes speed up reactions by binding to a
substrate, which is one of the reactants in a chemical reaction.
In these exercises, you will familiarize yourself with the anatomy
of the digestive system, including the organs of the alimentary
canal (or digestive tract) and the various accessory digestive
organs that also play important roles in digestion. You will also
examine the activity of several digestive enzymes, as well as explore
factors that may affect the activity of these enzymes.

84 | Chapter 4
 Figure 1. Organs of the digestive system
ACTIVITY I: Organs of the Alimentary Canal
When most people think of the digestive system, they typically
think of the digestive tract, also known as the alimentary canal,
though there are other organs that function in digestion (the
accessory digestive organs, which we’ll discuss later). The

Chapter 4 | 85
alimentary canal consists of all of the organs of the digestive system
through which food passes directly, and includes the oral cavity
(mouth), pharynx (throat), esophagus, stomach, small intestine
(subdivided into several regions), and large intestine (also
subdivided into several regions). Each of these organs are hollow
and can essentially be thought of as subdivisions of a single tube,
with an opening at each end (mouth and anus). The overall structure
of the organs of the alimentary canal is fairly similar, with each
consisting of four basic layers. The inner surface of each of these
organs is lined with a mucus membrane, consisting epithelial tissue
and a thin layer of smooth muscle. This layer serves several
functions, including secretion (mucus, enzymes, hormones, etc.),
absorption, and protection from microbial invaders. Surrounding
the mucus membrane layer is a layer of dense connective tissue
containing blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves. The next layer
of the alimentary canal (moving outward) is a double layer of smooth
muscle tissue. This involuntary muscle tissue is responsible for
movement of food along the digestive tract via a wave of contraction
(called peristalsis) that moves sequentially along the length of the
digestive tract. The outermost layer of the digestive tract consists
of epithelial tissue and a thin layer of connective tissue. This
outermost layer mainly serves to anchor the digestive organs in
place, as well as reduce friction as the movable digestive organs
slide against one another and along body cavity walls.
Food enters the alimentary canal through the oral cavity, or
mouth. The oral cavity is bounded by the lips anteriorly (to the
front), by the cheeks laterally (to the sides), and the hard palate
(which has underlying bone) and soft palate (with no underlying
bone) forming the roof of the mouth, and the tongue occupying
the floor of the mouth. Inside the oral cavity are the gums, teeth,
tongue, and openings to the salivary glands, which are accessory
digestive organs. During chewing, the salivary glands release saliva,
a watery mixture of mucus, cells, enzymes, and other molecules that
moistens (and begins the process of digestion of) the chewed food,
facilitating its compression into a mushy ball called a bolus. During

86 | Chapter 4
swallowing, the tongue moves the bolus towards the back of the
mouth towards the pharynx. (Swallowing is actually a fairly complex
process, involving over 30 different muscles).
The pharynx (throat) is a passageway that contains openings
leading into both the digestive tract (via the esophagus) and the
respiratory tract (via the trachea). To prevent food from entering
the respiratory tract, a flap of cartilage called the epiglottis folds
down to close the glottis (opening of the trachea) during swallowing.
To illustrate the activity of the epiglottis in its role of closing the
respiratory tract during swallowing, follow the directions below.

1. Place your index and middle fingers on your larynx (voice box).
This is easier to see in males than in females, due to the
enlarged laryngeal prominence (Adam’s apple), which is more
pronounced in males. However, if you are a female, you should
still be able to easily locate the large area of cartilage that
marks the upper portion of the respiratory tract.
2. With slight pressure against the larynx, swallow. You should be
able to feel the larynx rise, as well as a slight posterior
(backwards) motion, representing the epiglottis folding
backwards to cover the opening of the trachea (windpipe).
3. Answer the question on the worksheet at the end of this lab
exercise.

After swallowing, the bolus of food then moves into the esophagus,
which has no digestive or absorptive function, and simply serves as
a passageway into the lower gastrointestinal tract. The esophagus
contains smooth muscle, which contracts via wavelike peristaltic
motion to move the bolus to the stomach. The opening between the
esophagus and stomach is typically closed by a ring of involuntary
smooth muscle called the gastroesophageal sphincter. Upon
swallowing, when the wave of peristaltic contraction reaches this
sphincter, it forces it open, allowing the bolus to enter the stomach.

Chapter 4 | 87
To illustrate the activity of peristaltic contraction and the
gastroesophageal sphincter, follow the instructions below.

1. Take the provided stethoscope, and clean the earbuds with an

alcohol swab.
2. Have your partner use their fingers to locate their xiphoid
process, which is the small, inferior-most (lower) bone of their
sternum.
3. Have your partner place the membrane of the stethoscope
approximately one inch below this point.
4. Use the provided small cup of water. While listening, have your
partner take a fairly large mouthful of water, and swallow it.
5. Listen closely, and you should hear two sounds. First, you
should hear a splash, as the water strikes the closed
esophageal sphincter. As soon as you hear this initial splash,
start the provided timer.
6. Continue to listen, and you should hear a second sound. As
soon as the peristaltic wave of contraction of the esophagus
reaches the sphincter, this should force it open, allowing the
water to enter the stomach, which should produce a gurgling
sound. When the gurgling sound is heard, stop the provided
timer.
7. Answer the questions in the worksheet at the end of this lab
exercise.

The stomach is a J-shaped, organ that functions in both mechanical

and chemical digestion. Look at the provided stomach model. The
outer layer of the stomach consists of epithelial tissue, with a thick
layer of smooth muscle just underneath. The muscle layer actually
consists of three layers of smooth muscle: an outer layer of
longitudinal muscle, a middle layer of circular muscle, and an inner
layer of oblique smooth muscle (note that the names of each of
these layers correspond to the direction in which the muscle fibers
are arranged in those layers). The innermost layer of the stomach
consists of simple columnar epithelial tissue arranged into ridges

88 | Chapter 4
and folds, which also contain small pits. These ridges and folds assist
with mechanical digestion of food, as contraction of the smooth
muscle layers of the stomach churn food in the stomach, as well as
pummel food against these ridges, further breaking the food into
smaller pieces. These ridges/folds also increase the surface area of
the stomach lining, allowing for the presence of a greater number
of cells that produce various important molecules, such as mucus
(which protects the lining of the stomach), hydrochloric acid (HCl,
which is involved in chemical digestion), and digestive enzymes
(discussed further later).
After further processing in the stomach, the mixture of partly
digested food and gastric juices (acid, digestive enzymes, and
mucus) passes through a valve called the pyloric sphincter into the
small intestine, which is divided into three main regions (in order):
duodenum, jejunum, & ileum. The first section directly connected
to the stomach is the duodenum. The majority of the small intestine
is the jejunum, and the terminal portion that connects to the large
intestine is the ileum. The human small intestine in a cadaver,
stretched out, would be ~20 feet in length. In life, muscle tone of
the small intestine reduces its length to ~6 feet. The small intestine
is the site of further digestion of food, as well as the site of nearly
all absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream. Look at Figure 2
on the following page. Note that the small intestine is lined with
numerous fingerlike projections called villi, which themselves are
covered with even tinier fingerlike projections called microvilli.
Both villi and microvilli serve to increase the surface area of the
small intestine, creating additional surface area for absorption of
nutrients.

Chapter 4 | 89
 Figure 2. Microscopic view of the lining of the small intestine
showing villi and microvilli. This work by BallenaBlanca (modified
byMcortNGHH) is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/
4.0/deed.en).
The last segment of the small intestine, the ileum, empties into
the large intestine (or colon). The large intestine plays very little
role in the digestion of food, and primarily serves to reabsorb water
from the digested food, as well as vitamin K produced by colon
bacteria. Like the small intestine, is divided into several distinct
regions. The first region of the large intestine, which is directly
attached to the ileum of the small intestine, is a pouch shaped
region called the cecum. At the posterior (lower) end of the cecum
is a short, twisted, wormlike pouch called the appendix. Though it
was previously thought to have little to no function, the appendix
primarily serves as a reservoir for beneficial gut bacteria. Superior
to (above) the cecum is the segment of the large intestine referred
to as the ascending colon. The ascending colon then bends in an
approximately 90 degree angle, after which the large intestine
travels across the body as a region called the transverse colon,

90 | Chapter 4
which also terminates in a near 90 degree angle, marking the
beginning of the descending colon. At its lower end, the descending
colon leads into an S-shaped curved portion of the large intestine
called the sigmoid colon (“sigmoid” literally means “S-shaped”). The
sigmoid colon leads into the vertical segment of the large intestine
called the rectum, which serves as an area of storage of formed
feces before its eventual elimination from the body through the
anus, which has two circular sphincter muscles: an involuntary
internal sphincter of smooth muscle, and a voluntary external
sphincter of skeletal muscle. Answer the question about several
regions of the large intestine on the worksheet at the end of this lab
exercise.
Familiarize yourself with the location of each of the above regions
of the digestive tract in Figure 1, as well as on the provided human
torso models. On the worksheet at the end of this lab exercise, you
will be asked to number the regions of the digestive tract in the
order in which food moves through them throughout the digestion
and excretion process.
ACTIVITY II: Structure & Function of Accessory Digestive
Organs
Activity IIA: Mammalian Tooth Types and Mammal Dental
Formulas
The process of mechanical digestion begins with the chewing
action of the teeth breaking food into smaller pieces. Mammals
(including ourselves) have different types of teeth adapted for
different functions. Incisors, for example, are narrow-edged teeth
towards the front of the mouth that are adapted for cutting. The
canines are also teeth near the front of the mouth, and are typically
pointed. The canines primarily are adapted for tearing food. In
carnivores, the canines are generally very pronounced, but in
omnivores and herbivores, they may be more similar in shape to
the incisors. Moving towards the back of the mouth, the next type
of tooth encountered are the premolars, also known as bicuspids
(due to the presence of two cusps, or raised surfaces). Finally, the
teeth farthest back in the mouth are known as the molars. Molars

Chapter 4 | 91
are distinguishable from premolars by a greater number of cusps on
their surfaces. In omnivores and herbivores, both the premolars and
molars are primarily adapted for crushing and grinding food, though
in carnivores, they may be more modified for shearing meat.
The skull, and in particular, the teeth of a mammal can actually
tell you a great deal about that organism, including the species from
which the skull came, as well as some substantial insight into the
dietary habits of that organism. Different species of mammals have
different numbers and shapes of each type of tooth, and mammals
are often described in terms of their dental formula. The dental
formula of an animal is a way of displaying the number of each type
of tooth found in both the upper (maxilla) and lower (mandible) jaw
of its skull. To write the dental formula of a mammal, you count
the number of teeth of each type (incisor, canine, premolar, and
molar) on only one side of both the upper and lower jaw. The reason
teeth are only counted on one side of each jaw is because mammals
are bilaterally symmetrical, and should have the same number of
each type of teeth on the other side of the jaw. Dental formulas are
written in a format that looks somewhat like a fraction. Below is an
example of how a dental formula is typically written:
ICPM/ICPM=U/L=T
However, in the dental formula of an actual mammal, the letters
above the line would be replaced by the number of each type of
tooth on one side of the upper jaw, and the letters below the line
would be replaced by the number of each type of tooth on one
side of the lower jaw (I = # of incisors, C = # of canines, P = # of
premolars, and M = # of molars; U = total # of teeth in the upper
jaw, L = total # of teeth in the lower jaw, and T = total # of teeth).
To calculate the total number of teeth in the upper and lower jaws,
you would add all the numbers above the line (for the upper jaw)
or below the line (for the lower jaw), and multiply by two, because
remember, dental formulas are written by counting the number of
each type of tooth only one one side of the skull. For example, the
dental formula of the Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) would
be written as follows:

92 | Chapter 4
 5134/4134=26/24=50
This means that a Virginia opossum has a total of 26 teeth in its
upper jaw (5 x 2 = 10 incisors; 1 x 2 = 2 canines; 3 x 2 = 6 premolars; 4
x 2 = 8 molars; 10 + 2 + 8 + 6 = 26), and a total of 24 teeth in its lower
jaw (4 x 2 = 8 incisors; 1 x 2 = 2 canines; 3 x 2 = 6 premolars; 4 x 2 = 8
molars; 8 + 2 + 8 + 6 = 24), for a total of 50 teeth.
Using the provided model of an adult human skull, and Figure
3 below, see if you can determine the dental formula of an adult
human, and write it in the appropriate space on the worksheet at
the end of this lab exercise. Note that the provided model does not
rd
illustrate erupted wisdom teeth (3 molars on each side on both
the upper and lower jaws). In your determination of the human
dental formula, include the wisdom teeth in your calculation.

Chapter 4 | 93
 Figure 3. Anatomy of the oral cavity
Activity IIB: Location and Function of the Salivary Glands
There are three pairs of salivary glands that empty secretions
into the oral cavity. The largest of these glands are the parotid
glands, which are located in front of the ear, and which empty
into the mouth just above the second molar. Another pair, the
submandibular glands, which are located under the mandible, or
lower jaw, have ducts that open on either side of the lingual
frenulum, which is the membrane that attaches the tongue to the
floor of the mouth. Another pair, the sublingual glands, is located
underneath the tongue, and empty through several ducts towards
the lateral (towards the side) aspects of the base of the tongue. Look
at Figure 1, and note the location of each of these pairs of glands,
and also see if you can locate any of them on the available torso
models. Ask your partner to lift their tongue, and see if you can
see the openings of the ducts of their submandibular and sublingual
glands, and see if they can locate the openings of your ducts of these
glands.
Though the amount of saliva that is produced by healthy

94 | Chapter 4
individuals is debated, current estimates of saliva production range
from about 0.75-1.5 liters of saliva per day, with the majority of
saliva (70-75%) being secreted by the submandibular glands. The
majority of the volume of saliva (about 99.5%) is water, but saliva
also contains many other substances, such as mucus (consisting
primarily of various proteins), that primarily serves the function of
lubrication of the oral cavity and chewed food, as well as various
enzymes, including some that function in digestion, as well as some
that have antimicrobial activity.
One of the major digestive enzymes produced by the salivary
glands is amylase, which is an enzyme that breaks complex
carbohydrates (like starch) down into simple sugars. Amylase is also
produced by the pancreas (and released into the duodenum; but this
will be discussed later), but approximately 30% of starch digestion
by amylase occurs in the mouth.

Chapter 4 | 95
 To illustrate the activity of salivary amylase, your instructor will
provide you with a saltine cracker. Look at the nutritional label from
a typical package of saltine crackers in Figure 3 to the right:
Notice that for a serving of crackers (16g), the majority of its
mass is carbohydrates. However, notice the subcategories below the
“Total Carbohydrate” information show a sugar content of 0g. This
means the majority of saltine crackers consists of large complex
carbohydrates, such as starch.
Now take the provided saltine cracker, and put it into your mouth,
and begin chewing, but do not swallow. Continue chewing the
cracker for at least 1 full minute, and notice the physical changes in

96 | Chapter 4
the texture of the cracker, as well as any changes in flavor you may
notice. Record this information in the worksheet at the end of this
lab exercise.
Figure 4. Nutritional information for a typical package of saltine
crackers.
Activity IIC: Additional Accessory Digestive Organs and their
Functions
In addition to the teeth and salivary glands, there are several
additional accessory digestive organs. Again, accessory digestive
organs are organs through which food does not pass directly, but
which contribute substantially to digestive function. These organs
include the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
After the skin, the liver is the second largest organ of the body
(weighing approximately 3 pounds), and also the body’s largest
gland. The liver is located in the abdominal cavity, just below the
diaphragm (the large sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic
cavity, containing the heart and lungs, from the abdominal cavity),
anterior to (in front of) the stomach, and towards the right side
of the body. The liver performs many important functions, such as
filtering blood from the digestive tract before returning it to the
body’s general circulation, working with the pancreas to regulate
blood glucose levels, synthesis of proteins important for blood
clotting, and detoxifying chemicals and metabolizing medications.
However, the primary digestive function of the liver is the
production of bile. Bile is a mixture of cholesterol, bile salts, and
a pigment called bilirubin, which is the result of the breakdown of
hemoglobin. Small amounts of bilirubin are excreted in the urine,
but the products of the breakdown of bilirubin are also responsible
for the brown coloration of feces. The main function of bile is in
the digestion of fat, but it is mostly involved in the mechanical
breakdown, and not the chemical digestion of fat.
After being produced in the liver, bile is secreted into the
gallbladder, a small green sac-like structure on the inferior (lower)
surface of the liver, where it is stored until the ingestion of fats.
When ingested food with substantial fat content enters the

Chapter 4 | 97
duodenum (the first section of the small intestine connected to
the stomach), the gallbladder contracts, emptying bile into the
duodenum. Again, bile does not chemically break down fat. Instead,
bile helps emulsify fat with the gastric juices leaving the stomach
and entering the duodenum. By emulsification, we refer to a more
evenly distributed mixture of fluids that do not normally mix well.
For example, imagine making a salad dressing of oil and vinegar.
Normally, oil and vinegar do not mix well, since oil consists of
nonpolar molecules, and vinegar (consisting of mostly water)
consists of a polar solution. Because of the differences in polarity
the molecules of water in the vinegar and the molecules of oil show
no attraction to one another, causing them to separate into distinct
layers, with the oil on top due to a lower density. However, in
making such a salad dressing, one could add an emulsifying agent
(such as a beaten egg or mustard), which contains molecules that
have both polar and nonpolar regions. The polar regions of the
emulsifying agent molecules are attracted to water molecules in
the vinegar, and the nonpolar regions of the emulsifying agent
molecules are attracted to the molecules of oil, and, after a good
shake, this allows the oil molecules to be mixed evenly with the
water molecules of the vinegar. This is exactly how bile allows
emulsification of fats in the gastric juices, which are mostly water.
The nonpolar regions of bile salt molecules essentially clump
around tiny globules of oil molecules, with their polar regions facing
outwards, and being attracted to water molecules in the gastric
fluids. See Figure 5 on the following page for an example of this
process.

98 | Chapter 4
 Figure 5. Emulsification of a
fat globule by bile salts. This work by Cenveo is licensed under a
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 United States
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/us/).
Follow the directions below to illustrate the role of bile salts in the
emulsification of fats.

1. Obtain 2 test tubes.

2. Label one tube “NB” to stand for “no bile”, and one tube “B” to
stand for “bile”.
3. To each tube, add 3 mL of distilled water.
4. Next, add 3 mL of vegetable oil to each tube.
5. To the tube labeled “B” only, add a small pinch of bile salts
(available on the cart at the front of the lab).
6. Now cover each tube with a small square of Parafilm, and cover
the opening and Parafilm of each tube with your thumb.
7. Shake each tube vigorously for at least 30 seconds, and return
the test tubes to your test tube rack.
8. After 10 minutes, observe each tube, and answer the questions
on the worksheet at the end of this lab exercise.

An additional important accessory digestive organ is the pancreas,

which is a small, triangular gland that is found between the spleen
and the duodenum. The pancreas plays a role as both an endocrine
gland (secreting hormones involved in blood sugar regulation
directly into the bloodstream), but also as an exocrine digestive
gland (secreting several important digestive enzymes, discussed

Chapter 4 | 99
later, into the duodenum). Additionally, as the highly acidic gastric
juices from the stomach are passed into the duodenum, the
pancreas also secretes sodium bicarbonate (NAOH), a highly basic
fluid into the duodenum to neutralize the acid from the stomach.
Activity III: Digestive Enzymes and Factors Affecting their
Function
Several digestive enzymes are produced by various organs of the
digestive system, and are responsible for the chemical digestion
of various organic macromolecules (chemically breaking the larger
organic molecules into smaller building block molecules). Enzymes
are organic molecules (typically proteins) that act as catalysts
(molecules that speed up particular chemical reactions), without
being used up in the process (enzyme molecules are not destroyed,
and can be used again/recycled). The names of enzymes usually
(but not always) end in the suffix “-ase,” so any time you see a
biological reference to a molecule with that ending to its name, it
is a safe bet that that molecule is an enzyme. Enzymes are usually
very specific, and speed up only a single type of chemical reaction.
Enzymes work by acting on a substrate (a molecule that temporarily
binds to the enzyme molecule, with the enzyme speeding up a
reaction in which that substrate is a reactant). Look at Table 1 below
listing several major digestive enzymes, where they are produced,
the site of their action, their substrates, and their products. Your
instructor may ask you questions about some of these digestive
enzymes on the quiz at the beginning of the following week’s lab.
Table 1. Several important digestive enzymes, and details about
their production and activity.

100 | Chapter 4
 Site of Site of
Enzyme Substrate Products
production action

Salivary glands
(salivary lipase) Mouth
Starch & other
Amylase Pancreas Small Simple sugars
polysaccharides
(pancreatic intestine
lipase)

Large
Pepsin Stomach Stomach Proteins
polypeptides

Small Large Smaller

Trypsin Pancreas
intestine polypeptides polypeptides

Salivary glands
(salivary lipase) Mouth
Triglycerides Monoglycerides
Lipase Pancreas Small
(fats) and fatty acids
(pancreatic intestine
lipase)

In the following exercises, you will explore the activity of a few of

these enzymes, as well as some factors that affect their function. If
you remember the discussion of biochemistry in BI 101, you should
be aware that the function of enzymes, as proteins, depends entirely
on the shape of the enzyme (protein) molecule. Any factors (such
as temperature, pH, etc.) that can change the shape of the enzyme
(protein) molecule can change the function of that particular
enzyme. Some changes in shape may make an enzyme more
effective, some may make them less effective, and in some cases,
some changes in shape may make the enzyme nonfunctional. When
an enzyme’s shape has been changed in such a way that its function
has been eliminated, we say that the enzyme has been denatured.
When conducting tests of an enzyme’s activity, it is important
to test each treatment for the presence of the enzyme’s substrate,
as well as the products of the reaction catalyzed by the enzyme.
In addition, in using indicators to test for both substrate and
product(s), it is also important to use both positive controls and

Chapter 4 | 101
negative controls. A positive control is a solution, which, before
testing, we know DOES contain the molecule of interest. A negative
control is a solution, which, before testing, we know DOES NOT
contain the molecule of interest.
Activity IIIA: Effects of Time and Temperature on Starch
Hydrolysis (breakdown) by Amylase
Amylase is an enzyme (produced by both salivary glands and the
pancreas) that digests starch and other complex carbohydrates into
simple sugars. Amylase breaks bonds between sugar molecules via
hydrolysis, a reaction with water. In this activity, you will explore
the roles that both time and temperature play in the activity of
amylase with (starch) and its products (simple sugars).
To conduct a test for the presence of starch, you will add 4 drops
of Lugol’s iodine (IKI) to the tubes as instructed below. A positive
test for starch will result in the development of a blue-black color,
while a negative test for starch will result in an amber color.
To conduct a test for the presence of simple sugars, you will add a
dropper full of Benedict’s solution to the tubes as instructed below,
and then place the tubes you are testing for sugars in a boiling
water bath for 2 minutes. A positive test for sugars will result in a
color change indicating the relative amount of sugar in the sample
as follows: green (small amount of sugars), orange/yellow (moderate
amount of sugars), or red (large amount of sugars). A negative test
for sugars will result in the maintenance of the blue coloration of
the Benedict’s solution after boiling.

1. For this activity, you will need to label a total of 15 test tubes.
Label one tube “BA”, and the other 14 tubes A1-A14.
2. Prepare a boiling water bath in a 400 mL beaker on your hot
plate.
3. To the tube labeled “BA”, add 5 mL of the provided amylase
solution.
4. Place the tube labeled “BA” in a boiling water bath in a 400 mL
beaker for 15 minutes.
5. After boiling the tube labeled “BA”, remove it from the boiling

102 | Chapter 4
 water bath, and return it to your test tube rack to cool.
6. After the “BA” tube has cooled, add the appropriate amounts of
the appropriate solutions listed in the table on the following
page, and conduct the appropriate tests (for starch or sugars)
at the time specified in the table for each tube, and record
your results for each test (positive or negative) in Table 2
below.

Table 2. Data from exercise on the effects of time and temperature

on amylase activity.

Chapter 4 | 103
 Tube Test to Results (+
Solutions to add Time
# Conduct or -)

A1 2 mL distilled H2O Starch Immediately

A2 2 mL distilled H2O Sugar Immediately

A3 2 mL starch solution Starch Immediately

A4 2 mL starch solution Sugar Immediately

A5 2 mL glucose solution Starch Immediately

A6 2 mL glucose solution Sugar Immediately

1 mL starch + 1 mL
A7 Starch Immediately
amylase

1 mL starch + 1 mL
A8 Sugar Immediately
amylase

1 mL starch + 1 mL After 30
A9 Starch
amylase min

1 mL starch + 1 mL After 30
A10 Sugar
amylase min

1 mL starch + 1 mL boiled
A11 Starch Immediately
amylase (BA)

1 mL starch + 1 mL boiled
A12 Sugar Immediately
amylase (BA)

1 mL starch + 1 mL boiled After 30

A13 Starch
amylase (BA) min

1 mL starch + 1 mL boiled After 30

A14 Sugar
amylase (BA) min

104 | Chapter 4
Using your results from the experimental activity above, answer the
questions on the worksheet at the end of this lab exercise.

BI 102 Lab Worksheet: Digestion Name

_________________________________ Section
_______
ACTIVITY I: Organs of the Alimentary Canal
1. Why is the closure of the trachea by the epiglottis an important
event that occurs during swallowing?
2. The duration between the sounds heard after my partner
swallowed a mouthful of water was ______ seconds.
3. Given that the esophagus is approximately 25 cm in length, it
can be estimated that the peristaltic wave of muscular contractions
of the smooth muscle of the esophagus moves at a velocity of
______ cm/s.
4. Look at Figure 1, as well as the provided human torso model.
After tracing the path of food through the digestive tract, describe
how the ascending colon, transverse colon, and descending colon
got their names.

5. Number the regions of the digestive system listed below in the

order in which food moves through them, with “1” being the first
region which food passes through:
_____ Anus
_____ Ascending colon
_____ Cecum
_____ Descending colon
_____ Duodenum
_____ Esophagus
_____ Ileum
_____Jejunum

Chapter 4 | 105
 _____ Oral cavity
_____ Pharynx
_____ Rectum
_____ Stomach
_____ Transverse colon
Activity IIA: Mammalian Tooth Types and Mammal Dental
Formulas
6. Write the dental formula of an adult human below.
___________________ = _____ = _____
7. Describe the changes in texture and flavor you experienced
after chewing the saltine cracker, and attribute these changes to
specific components found in saliva.

Activity IIC: Additional Accessory Digestive Organs and their

Functions
8. Describe the appearance of the contents of the tube with oil
and water only (“NB”), and the tube with oil, water, and bile salts
(“B”). How do the differences in the appearances of the tubes’
contents reflect the activity of bile?

Activity IIIA: Effects of Time and Temperature on Starch

Hydrolysis by Amylase
9. What is the significance of tubes #A1 & #A5?
10. What is the significance of tubes #A2 & #A4?
11. What is the significance of tube #A3?
12. What is the significance of tube #A6?
13. Compare your results for your tests of tubes #A7-A10. What
does this tell you about the role that time plays on enzyme activity?
14. Compare your results for your tests of tubes #A11-A14. What

106 | Chapter 4
does this tell you about the effect of extreme temperature (boiling)
on the activity of amylase?

Chapter 4 | 107
5. Chapter 5

LAB 5

Homeostasis
Prepared by Dr. Jeff Ray, Dept. of Biology, UNA

OBJECTIVES
After completing these laboratory activities, you should
understand / be able to:

• Homeostasis as the central theme of physiology and the

importance of the liver, kidneys, and lungs in this process.
• The liver’s role in maintaining blood glucose homeostasis and
why the serum from blood vessels in proximity to the liver will
have differing amounts of glucose immediately after eating a
meal versus after fasting for 6 hours.
• The kidney’s role in maintaining homeostasis, explain the 4
basic steps of kidney function, and name substances that
should/should not be in the urine.
• The results of the urinalysis and identify the abnormal values
in the patient.
• The lungs’ role in homeostasis and know what vital capacity
represents.

Introduction
Homeostasis is the central theme of physiology and refers to the
dynamic equilibrium of the body’s internal environment. Parameters

108 | Chapter 5
like body temperature, blood glucose levels, heart rate, and other
values are constantly fluctuating above and below a set point
(varying within tolerable ranges). To maintain values near the set
point (e.g. 98.6° F for body temperature), feedback systems/loops
in the body use receptors to detect change, a control center to
process the information, and an effector to carry out the change
in a feedback loop (pathway of the loop is receptor control center
effector). Receptors include chemoreceptors (that detect molecules
like CO2), a control center (normally the brain, especially the
hypothalamus); and an effector (usually a muscle or gland).
Homeostasis is primarily maintained by negative feedback. Negative
feedback involves adjustments that oppose the initial change (i.e.
cause change in the opposite direction). Positive feedback is less
common and often irreversible; examples include digestion of
proteins, blood clotting, and action potentials in neurons. All organs
system contribute to homeostasis, but the three particularly
important organs within the digestive, respiratory, and urinary
systems are the liver, lungs, and kidneys, which exchange materials
with the blood.
Today’s lab, activities will illustrate the central roles played by
the liver (maintain blood glucose levels), kidneys (filter wastes from
blood), and lungs (exchange O2/CO2) in maintaining homeostasis.
Liver
The liver is the largest organ in the abdominal cavity, averaging
three pounds in the adult. It is located in the upper right quadrant,
immediately beneath the diaphragm and on top of the stomach. The
liver has a variety of roles (500+ known) in the body including: (1)
store/release vitamins and minerals, (2) produce bile, (3) produce
blood proteins, and (4) detoxify substances like alcohol.
One major role of the liver is to maintain blood glucose
homeostasis and it is ideally positioned to serve this role, due to
its proximity to the digestive tract. There are several major blood
vessels associated with this activity. Carrying blood from the aorta
to the digestive system is the mesenteric artery. In the digestive
tract, nutrients are gathered and funneled into the hepatic portal

Chapter 5 | 109
vein which leads to the liver; exiting from the liver is the hepatic
vein.
The pathway is (mesenteric artery→ digestive tract→ hepatic
portal vein→ liver→ hepatic vein).

Blood glucose homeostasis is a negative feedback mechanism.

Whether one has recently eaten or not, cells require a constant
supply of glucose (sugar), which is the direct fuel to produce ATP.
As a result, the liver must keep the glucose level in blood at around
0.1% by storing excess glucose (as glycogen) and releasing glucose
as needed.
Another organ, the pancreas, actually monitors glucose levels and
signals the liver with hormones. After eating, blood glucose levels
rise. This increase is detected by the pancreas, which in response
secretes insulin. Insulin travels through the bloodstream and binds
to cells in the liver signaling the cells to absorb glucose and store it
as glycogen. While fasting, blood glucose levels begin to drop, this
reduction is detected by the pancreas, which secretes glucagon,
a hormone that causes the liver to release glucose, thereby

110 | Chapter 5
maintaining blood glucose levels near 0.1%. (insulin signal: store
glucose; glucagon signal: release glucose).

Basic Instructions: Blood Glucose Homeostasis

Chapter 5 | 111
 In the following exercise, you will conduct a simulation of blood
glucose levels in three blood vessels (see figure).
A = Mesenteric artery (before digestive tract)
B = Hepatic portal vein (b/w digestive–liver)
C = Hepatic vein (after liver)
You will observe differences in blood glucose levels in each of
these vessels under two simulated conditions:
1 = immediately after eating a meal
2 = after fasting for 6 hours

* Solutions labeled A1, B1 & C1 simulate blood glucose levels

immediately after eating.
* Solutions labeled A2, B2 & C2 simulate blood glucose levels after
fasting for 6 hours.
Follow the directions carefully. Check each step after completing
it:
____ Prepare a boiling water bath: fill a 400 mL beaker about 2/3
full with tap water; place it on your
hot plate. Do NOT let all of the H2O evaporate or the beaker
may break- add H2O as needed.
____ Using a Sharpie, label 6 test tubes “A1”, “B1”, “C1”, “A2”, “B2”,
and “C2”.

112 | Chapter 5
 ____ To each test tube add 2 pipets of the appropriate solution.
Use the labeled pipets ONLY for their
intended solutions to avoid cross-contamination of
solutions.
____ Add 3 pipets of Benedict’s solution* to each of your test
tubes.
(*Benedict’s solution tests for the presence of glucose. After
boiling, Benedict’s solution will change from blue if glucose is
present (blue/cloudy= no/low glucose, yellow/orange= moderate
glucose, red= high glucose).
____ After your water bath is boiling, add tubes A1, B1, and C1 to
the boiling bath AT THE SAME
TIME,
and WATCH CLOSELY for the order of change.
____ Record the order in which the solutions in the tubes
changed color in the table below.
A FASTER COLOR CHANGE INDICATES A HIGHER
CONCENTRATION OF GLUCOSE.
____ If no color change is observed in the last tube after 2
minutes of boiling, you may stop the procedure.
Blood Glucose Levels After Eating (Time 1)

$
Test tubes (in order of change) Blood vessel associated with t

st
1

nd
2

Last

$
#
answer will be A1, B1 or C1 answer will be mesenteric artery,
hepatic portal vein or hepatic vein

Chapter 5 | 113
 * Which blood vessel contains the most glucose after eating a
meal? _____________________________
*Why did the hepatic vein contain less glucose than the hepatic
portal vein after just eating a meal?
___________________________________________
_____________________
____ Remove tubes A1, B1, and C1 from the boiling water bath.
____ Add tubes A2, B2, and C2 to the boiling bath AT THE SAME
TIME, and WATCH CLOSELY.
____ Record the order in which the solutions in the tubes
change color in the table below.
____ If no color change is observed in the last tube after 3
minutes of boiling, you may stop the procedure.
____ *Clean your station: Turn off your hot plate. Dump liquids
from tubes down the drain with water running, place used test
tubes in tub. Return all materials to their starting location. Wipe off
your table.
Blood Glucose Levels After Fasting for 6 hours (Time 2)

$
Test tubes (in order of change) Blood vessel associated with th

st
1

nd
2

Last

$
#
answer will be A2, B2 or C2 answer will be mesenteric artery,
hepatic portal vein or hepatic vein
*Which blood vessel contains the most glucose after fasting for
~6 hours? ________________________
*Why did the hepatic vein contain more glucose than the hepatic
portal vein after fasting?

114 | Chapter 5
___________________________________________
________________________________________
*So, the role of the liver in maintaining blood glucose
homeostasis is to store extra glucose (as glycogen) after eating and
release glucose during fasting (glucose fuels our cell’s activities
24/7)*
Kidneys
Kidneys are fist-sized organs located along the dorsal abdominal
wall, behind the intestines. Their basic function is to filter metabolic
wastes and toxins from the blood to produce urine. Specifically,
kidneys excrete nitrogen by-products and regulate blood volume,
blood pressure, and pH. Large substance like red blood cells, white
blood cells, and proteins do not normally leave blood vessels and get
filtered by the kidneys, these should not be found in the urine, but
normally stay in the blood. Small molecules move into the kidneys
filtering units called nephrons, and either must be excreted by the
kidneys in the urine or be recovered for use in the body. Urea is a
small molecule and waste product of protein metabolism that must
be excreted. Other substances like glucose move into the kidneys,
but are mostly recovered for use by the body, although excess
(abnormal) amounts will be disposed of in urine. Thus, whatever
is/is not in urine gives insight into kidney function. Learning the
structure and function of the nephron will help in understanding
urinalysis results.
Kidneys collectively filter 180 liters of blood plasma daily to
produce about 1.5 liters of urine/day.
Although complex, the basic steps of nephron functioning are 1)
filtration, 2) reabsorption, 3) secretion, and 4) excretion. Filtration
is the movement of water and solutes from plasma into the nephron
and is primarily driven by blood pressure pushing into the first
part of the nephron (glomerulus) that is very permeable. Once in
the nephron, this liquid becomes the filtrate. The filtrate continues
through the tubules and is reabsorbed. Reabsorption is the
movement of water and solutes back into the network of capillaries
surrounding the tubule. Substances that are waste products or in

Chapter 5 | 115
excess amounts move back into the tubules via secretion. Secretion
is essential to regulate blood volume, pH and electrolyte levels.
Excretion eliminates substances like urea in the filtrate, which is
now “urine”.

Kidney & blood vessels; ureter empties to the bladder.

Nephron, the

116 | Chapter 5
functional unit of the kidney showing the 4 steps of cleansing the
blood.
* What is the kidneys’ job in maintaining homeostasis?
_______________________________________
Urinalysis
A urinalysis is a non-invasive procedure that gives insight into the
basic health and functioning of kidneys and other organs, including
the liver. You will conduct the same urinalysis that is regularly
performed in a doctor’s office using artificial urine. This test is
different from those given to job applicants, which screens for illegal
drugs in the body. A basic urinalysis uses urine test strips to
measure 10-12 values that either: (1) should be within a certain range
(specific gravity, pH) or (2) detects substances that should not be in
the urine (e.g. leukocytes- white blood cells), because they normally
remain in the blood since they are too large and do not pass into
the nephrons of the kidneys. Chemstrip 10’s will be used to look at
10 different parameters of the urine. The color and odor of urine
also give insight into body conditions (like dehydration) as does the
microscopic examination of substances in urine. Abnormal values
may be temporary and do not necessarily indicate any long-term
problems, but a doctor might request additional tests as a follow-up
to confirm any values outside of the normal range.
Patient #1 reports that they are often thirsty, but also urinate
frequently. Patient #1 eats a normal diet of approximately 2,000
calories, but has experienced weight loss over the past 6 months.
The individual also feels tired and run down. What condition is likely
affecting patient #1? A urinalysis may help diagnose their disease.
Follow the directions below and record your results.
Basic Instructions: Urinalysis
____ Obtain a Chemstrip 10 urinalysis test strip. Lay this strip on
top of two paper towels on your lab table.
____ Using the pipet, place 1 drop of patient #1’s simulated urine
on each colored square on the test strip, do not let urine from
separate squares run together. Holding the test strip by the handle,

Chapter 5 | 117
turn the strip on its edge and gently tap any excess urine onto the
paper towel.
____ Within 1 minute, compare the results on the test strips to
the scale on the side of the test strip vial (read handle side up). You
may also try the automated urinalysis reader in the back of the room
(these are used in Dr.’s offices). Record your results below.
____ *Do your own urinalysis – see professor for additional
instructions*
____ Clean up your station: throw away used paper towels and
test strips. If you did your own urinalysis, put the urine cup where
your instructor tells you, do not leave it at your station.
URINALYSIS TESTING – circle any abnormal values
Patient Values (normal) Your Values (normal)
1. _____ Specific gravity (1.005-1.035) 1. _____ Specific
gravity (1.005-1.035)
2. _____ pH (=acidity; varies) 2. _____ pH
(=acidity;varies)
3. _____ Leukocytes (=WBC’s; negative) 3. _____
Leukocytes (=WBC’s; negative)
4. _____ Nitrite (negative) 4. _____ Nitrite
(negative)
5. _____ Protein (negative) 5. _____ Protein
(negative)
6. _____ Glucose (<50) 6. _____ Glucose
(<50)
7. _____ Ketones (negative) 7. _____ Ketones
(negative)
8. _____ Urobilinogen (<1) 8. _____
Urobilinogen (<1)
9. _____ Bilirubin (negative) 9. _____ Bilirubin
(negative)
10. _____ Blood (negative) 10. _____ Blood
(negative)
Diagnosis: __________________ Diagnosis:
__________________

118 | Chapter 5
 * The 3 values for the patient that were abnormal were:
a. _________* Low (=acidic), Moderate (neutral=7.0) or High
(basic, >7)
b. _________Low, Moderate or High
c. _________ Low, Moderate or High
*What is the diagnosis of your patient (what condition)?
________________________________

Lungs
Lungs are located in the pleural cavities (overall within the
thoracic cavity) and are lateral to the heart. The right lung has three
lobes and is larger than the left, which has two lobes; the lungs
collectively weigh about 3 pounds. Lungs exchange gases with the
blood (O2 in / CO2 out) via simple diffusion- no cellular energy is
required. The lungs contain approximately 1,500 miles of airways
and 300 to 500 million alveoli, which appear as grape clusters. Gas
exchange occurs at alveoli, which contain single-layered flat cells
(simple squamous epithelium) that maximize surface area exchange.

Chapter 5 | 119
 Respiration
The physical process of breathing, respiration, includes

120 | Chapter 5
inhalation and exhalation. The active part of breathing is inhalation
and involves a dome-shaped breathing muscle, the diaphragm.
Different measures of lung function are made based upon
volumes of air (see chart below), but the most commonly reported
measure is vital capacity (see figure next page), which is the
maximum amount of air a person can expel from the lungs after a
maximum inhalation. Vital capacity is measured with a spirometer
(in liters or milliliters) and may aid in a diagnosis of underlying lung
disease if vital capacity is reduced.
Basic Instructions: Lung Volume
Clean the spirometer with an alcohol swab before & after use. Put
a clean, disposable mouthpiece on the spirometer. Set spirometer
dial to zero by turning the silver ring on top. While standing, take
a full breath OUT. Breathe in fully, then place your mouth on the
disposable mouthpiece & blow all air from your lungs into
spirometer. Do NOT breathe IN with spirometer to your lips. You
may also try the lung volume bags on the front table.
Record your vital capacity in Liters three separate times,
then calculate the average of the three values.
1. ___________ Liters 2. ___________ Liters
3. ___________ Liters
Average vital capacity ___________ Liters
*Average volumes in adults are 2-4 liters: females & 3-5 liters:
males.
____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____

Lung Measures including Vital Capacity

Chapter 5 | 121
 Basic Instructions: Body Composition Monitor
Enter your information into the handheld monitor following the
onscreen prompts. Record your information in the blanks below.
Determine your BMI based on the chart that is with the body
composition monitor with the understanding that BMI does NOT
fully account for differences in body types in determining obesity.
1. _______ Height (inches) 2. _______ Weight
(pounds) 3. _______ Age (years)
4. _______ Male or Female 5. _______ Normal or
Athletic
A. _______ Body Mass Index (BMI) B. _______ Body
Fat Percentage (%)
Concept Questions – consult your textbook if needed
How do the kidneys respond when the blood pressure and volume
are too high? Too low?
____________________________________
_____________________________________
________
____________________________________
_____________________________________
________
List the steps in urine formation and define each step
1.______________________________________ 2.
_____________________________________
____
3. _____________________________________ 4.
__________________________________________
With regard to urine formation, name a substance found in both
the filtrate and the urine.
____________________________________
_____________________________________
________
With regard to urine formation, name a substance found in the
filtrate and not in the urine.
____________________________________

122 | Chapter 5
_____________________________________
________

Image Credits:
Liver by http://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/topic/
default?id=how-the-liver-works-90-P02006
Systemic Circulation By OpenStax College – Anatomy &
Physiology, Connexions Web site. http://cnx.org/content/
col11496/1.6/, Jun 19, 2013., CC BY 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=30148241
Kidneys and Nephron
https://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:7l9EIHui@7/Gross-
Anatomy-of-the-Kidney
Alveoli By LadyofHats – self-made (extracted from Image:
Respiratory system complete.svg) (duplicate of Image:Respiratory
system complete en.svg), Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3222341
Lungs By Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator – Patrick J. Lynch,
medical illustrator, CC BY 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/
index.php?curid=1496626
Lung volumes By Original uploader was Vihsadas at en.wikipedia
– Transferred from en.wikipedia, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4145884

BI 102 Lab Worksheet: Homeostasis Name

___________________________ Section _______
1. What is the liver’s job in maintaining blood glucose
homeostasis?

Chapter 5 | 123
2. Sketch the locations of the mesenteric artery, hepatic portal vein
and hepatic vein in relation to the digestive system and liver.

3. What is the kidneys’ job in maintaining homeostasis?

4-6. The 3 values for Patient #1 that were abnormal were:

a. _________* Low (=acidic), Moderate (neutral=7.0) or High
(basic, >7)
b. __________Low, Moderate or High
c. __________ Low, Moderate or High
*by itself, not a cause for concern, may be abnormal due to mild
dehydration or overhydration
7. What is the diagnosis of your Patient #1 (what condition)?

8. Which value was High due to the breakdown (metabolism) of fats?

a. glucoseb. ketonesc. bilirubin
9. Name 2 of the substances tested for which you would NOT
expect to find in a normal urinalysis.

10.What is the lungs’ job in maintaining homeostasis?

11. Avg. volumes in adults are ___-___ liters: females & ___-___
liters: males. How did your values compare?

124 | Chapter 5
6. Chapter 6

LAB 6

Introduction to the Nervous System

Prepared by Jason R. Jones, University of North Alabama

OBJECTIVES
After completing these laboratory activities, you should
understand / be able to:

• Define the terms central nervous system, peripheral nervous

system, neuron, neuroglia, synapse, neurotransmitter, nerve,
effector, gray matter, white matter, spinal reflex.
• Identify and label the following parts of a neuron, as well as
know their functions: cell body, dendrite, axon, axon terminal,
Schwann cell, myelin sheath.
• Explain the different functions of the following: sensory
neuron, interneuron, motor neuron.
• List the parts found in each of these three major regions of the
brain, and their functions: forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
• Locate and identify the following structures in the brain, as
well as know their functions:
• cerebrum, ventricles, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland,
cerebellum, pons, medulla oblongata
• The following lobes of the cerebrum, and be able to list their
major functional roles: frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe,
temporal lobe,

Chapter 6 | 125
 • The basics of how spinal reflexes work, and be able to give an
example of a spinal reflex observed in lab.

INTRODUCTION
The vertebrate nervous system is comprised of the brain, spinal
cord, and the body’s network of nerves. However, the parts of the
nervous system are often grouped into two main divisions. The
central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord,
while the cranial nerves, spinal nerves make up the other division,
the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Although most organs are
made up of almost all four major tissue types (epithelial, connective,
muscle, and nervous), the functional parts of the organs of the
nervous system consist of nervous tissue (though there are some
associated connective tissues). The primary function of the nervous
system is the rapid transmission of signals throughout the body,
allowing quick detection of and responses to changes in an
organism’s internal and/or external environment.
In these exercises, you will familiarize yourself with the anatomy
of the nervous system, starting at the cellular and tissue level. You
will continue this exploration into higher levels of organization,
and examine the anatomy of nerves, the brain, and spinal cord.
You will also investigate the phenomenon of spinal reflexes, and
learn how spinal reflexes result in physical responses without initial
involvement of or processing by the brain. Finally, you will measure
your average reaction time, and may be asked to compare it to
others in your lab section. Your instructor may wish to compare
averages of male & female reaction times, and/or turn the reaction
time activity into a contest of sorts.
ACTIVITY I: Cells of Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue consists of two main types of cells: neurons and
neuroglia (aka glia or glial cells). With regards to the function of
transmission of signals throughout the body, that role is performed
by the neurons, which are specialized cells that transmit electrical
and chemical signals. There are three main regions of a typical
neuron. The part of the neuron that contains the nucleus is called

126 | Chapter 6
the cell body. Extending from the cell body may be one or several
projections. Neurons can be classified based on the number of
projections extending from the cell body. Unipolar neurons have a
single projection (which divides into two branches) extending from
the cell body. Bipolar neurons have two projections: a branch-like
dendron, which carries signals to the cell body, and a long axon,
which carries signals away from the cell body. Most neurons,
however, are multipolar neurons, with multiple branch-like
dendrites that carry messages to the cell body, and a single axon
that carries signals away from the cell body. See Figure 1 for
examples of unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar neurons. Also see
Figure 2 for a more detailed look at the anatomy of a multipolar
neuron.

Figure 1. Examples of bipolar, unipolar, and multipolar neurons.

Source: http://open.umich.edu/education/med/resources/
second-look-series/materials
Notice in Figure 1, the axons of each type of neuron have button-
like expanded regions at their tips. These regions are referred to
as the axon terminals or terminal buttons. These terminals form

Chapter 6 | 127
junctions, called synapses, with other cells. Neurons can be
classified based on the basis of the direction in which they are
transmitting signals. Sensory neurons are neurons that detect
stimuli (such as pain, heat, light, chemicals, etc.), and convert this
information into electrical signals that are carried towards the
central nervous system for processing. Motor neurons are neurons
that carry processed signals in a direction from the central nervous
system to an effector (such as a muscle or gland, which acts in
response to this processed signal). However, there are other types
of neurons, called interneurons or relay neurons, which carry
information between sensory and motor neurons. See Figure 3 for
examples of a sensory neuron, an interneuron, and a motor neuron.
When an electrical signal (called an action potential) reaches the
end of an axon, this causes the release of neurotransmitters, which
are molecules that affect the activity of the other cells that meet
with the neuron at the synapse. See the expanded view of a synapse
in Figure 2, illustrating the release of neurotransmitter molecules
from an axon terminal, and binding of the neurotransmitter to
receptor proteins on the surface of a cell after the synapse. Most
neurons form synapses with other neurons, and the
neurotransmitters released from the pre-synaptic neuron (the
neuron before the synapse) at those synapses can either make the
post-synaptic neuron more likely to fire an action potential
(excitatory) or less likely to fire an action potential (inhibitory).
However, synapses also occur between neurons and muscle fibers,
neurons and glands, and neurons and blood vessels.
Neurotransmitters released from synapses between a neuron and
a muscle fiber result in contraction of the muscle fiber involved.
Neurotransmitters released from synapses between a neuron and
a gland result in secretion of substances from the involved gland.
Some neurotransmitters, however, are secreted directly from axon
terminals into the bloodstream. See Figure 4 for some examples of
several types of synapses between neurons and other cells.

128 | Chapter 6
 Figure 2. Anatomy of a typical multipolar neuron.

Figure 3. Illustration of a sensory neuron (A), an interneuron (B),

and a motor neuron (C). Source: OpenStax at https://cnx.org/
contents/pMqJxKsZ@6/Nervous-System

Chapter 6 | 129
 Figure 4. Examples of several types of synapses. Source:
Blausen.com staff (2014). “Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014“.
WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN
2002-4436
Though neurons are the cells that play the important role of signal
transmission, several other important functions are performed by
neuroglia, also known as glia or glial cells. Though they are not
involved in signal transmission like neurons, glia have several
functions that provide support to neurons in various ways. One
function of glia is to act as the “glue” of nervous tissue, surrounding
neurons and holding them into place. Glia also provide oxygen and
nutrients to neurons, helping to keep them alive. Some glial cells
also insulate neurons from other neurons by coating them with
their cell membranes. Finally, some glial cells are capable of
phagocytosis (“cell eating”), and can remove pathogens and dead
neurons from nervous tissue. See Figure 5 for examples of several
types of glial cells found in both the central and peripheral nervous
system.

130 | Chapter 6
 Figure 5. Types of neuroglia. Source: Blausen.com staff (2014).
“Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014“. WikiJournal of Medicine 1
(2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-443
6.
You will not have to learn all of the different types of glial cells,
but there is one type found in the peripheral nervous system (nerves
outside of the brain and spinal cord that carry signals from the
central nervous system to muscles, glands, and organs) that you
should know. These types of cells are called Schwann cells, which
can be seen in the bottom right of Figure 5, but also wrapped around
the axon of the multipolar neuron shown in Figure 2. Schwann cells
cover the surface of neurons in the PNS with a fatty substance
known as myelin, providing a coating to the axon known as the
myelin sheath. The function of the myelin sheath is to provide
insulation to the axon of PNS neurons. Think about the myelin
sheath as being analogous to a rubber coating on electrical wires.

Chapter 6 | 131
However, the myelin sheath does not cover the entire axon. There
are gaps between the Schwann cells surrounding the axon where
there is no myelin. These gaps are known as the nodes of Ranvier.
These gaps in the insulating myelin facilitate more efficient
transmission of electrical signals (action potentials) along the axon.
Since these regions are not insulated, that allows the electrical
signals passed along the axon to jump from node (non-insulated
region) to node, instead of having to travel along the length of
the axon continuously. This allows signals to be carried along PNS
neurons much more quickly.
*Examine the neuron model, and answer the questions on the
worksheet at the end of this lab exercise.*
Next, *Place the microscope slide of nervous tissue on the stage
of a compound light microscope*
Starting with the scanning power (4x) objective, get the tissue on
the slide into as sharp focus as possible using the coarse focus knob.
After getting the tissue in focus on the scanning power objective,
move up to the low power (10x) objective, and adjust the focus
(if necessary) using the fine focus knob. Finally, move up to the
high-power (40x) objective (providing a total magnification factor of
400x), and re-adjust fine focus as needed. You will likely see plenty
of glia on the slide, but try to locate a neuron in this tissue. This
may require scanning around the slide using the stage adjustment
knobs. You may also need to make adjustments to the light intensity
using the rheostat on the microscope, as well as to the condenser to
best visualize the cells in this tissue. Once you have located a clearly
visible neuron, go to the worksheet at the end of this lab exercise,
and answer the appropriate questions regarding the micrographic
view of this nervous tissue.
ACTIVITY II: Anatomy of the Brain
The brain is an organ seen in all vertebrates, and many
invertebrates. Vertebrate brains vary among different vertebrate
groups, but overall share the same basic structures. The brain is
the enlarged anterior portion of the spinal cord, and with the spinal

132 | Chapter 6
cord, as the central nervous system, acts as the main control center
for the rest of the body.
The brain can be divided into three main regions: the forebrain,
midbrain, and hindbrain, each of which consist of several other
subregions/divisions. Using Figures 6-12 on pages 6-9 and Table 1
on the following page, you should familiarize yourself with several
regions of the brain and their functions, and be able to identify them
on the provided brain models.

Figure 6. Major divisions of the brain. Source: OpenStax at

https://archive.cnx.org/contents/fc8a38cc-fd1c-44cc-
b91d-726fcfa62165@7/the-brain-and-spinal-cord
Table 1. Parts of the brain and their functions.

Chapter 6 | 133
 Brain Part Major Functions

Higher order thinking and sensory

processing
Thought, problem
solving, voluntary muscle
control
speech production
Separates frontal lobe
Forebrain
from parietal lobe
Cerebrum
Processing sensory
Frontal lobe
input, sensory
Central
discrimination, body
sulcus
orientation
Parietal
Sound reception,
lobe
expressed behavior,
Temporal
speech comprehension,
lobe
memory
Olfactory bulb
Perception of
Occipital
smell
lobe
Visual reception and
Corpus
interpretation
callosum
Connects L/R
Thalamus
hemispheres; allows
Hypothalam
communication
us
between L/R brain
Relays sensory info to
cerebrum; regulation of
sleep/consciousness
Homeostasis (blood
pressure, body temp, etc);
pain/pleasure centers

Responses to visual stimuli; motor

Midbrain
coordination; eye movement

Essential body functions

Equilibrium/balance &
motor coordination
Relays messages
Hindbrain
between cerebrum &
Cerebellum
cerebellum
Pons
Control of heart, blood
Medulla oblongata
pressure, breathing;
coughing,
vomiting, sneezing, and
swallowing reflexes

134 | Chapter 6
 Filled with cerebrospinal
fluid (acts as a shock
absorber for CNS; provides
nutrients to brain & spinal
cord, and removes wastes
Other Brain Parts to Know
from CNS)
Ventricles
“Master gland” that
Pituitary gland
produces hormones that
control other glands of the
endocrine system (thyroid,
adrenal glands, gonads,
etc.)

Note that the brain stem is not mentioned in the table above.
However, the brain stem, which controls the most basic body
functions, consists of three main regions mentioned in Table 1: the
midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.

Figure 7. Illustration of the left and right cerebral hemispheres,

and the corpus callosum, which connects them. Source: OpenStax
at https://archive.cnx.org/contents/fc8a38cc-fd1c-44cc-
b91d-726fcfa62165@7/the-brain-and-spinal-cord

Chapter 6 | 135
 Figure 8. Lobes and cortices of the cerebrum. Source: OpenStax
at https://archive.cnx.org/contents/
2337db2c-8336-4955-bfd8-f57d3b9deaa4@2/human-biology-
chapter-17-4-the-central-and-peripheral-nervous-systems

136 | Chapter 6
 Figure 9. Other regions of the forebrain. Source: OpenStax at
https://archive.cnx.org/contents/fc8a38cc-fd1c-44cc-
b91d-726fcfa62165@7/the-brain-and-spinal-cord

Chapter 6 | 137
 Figure 10. Structures of the midbrain. Source: OpenStax at
https://archive.cnx.org/contents/fc8a38cc-fd1c-44cc-
b91d-726fcfa62165@7/the-brain-and-spinal-cord
You will not need to know the structures illustrated in Figure 10.
However, you should be aware of the basic location and structure
of the midbrain. The midbrain is located deep within the brain,
between the forebrain and hindbrain. The midbrain is primarily
involved in movement, including eye movement, the processing of
visual and auditory information, sleeping/waking cycles, and
alertness/arousal. Additionally, the two regions illustrated in Figure
10, the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the substantia nigra,
contain cells that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine, which
is involved in regulation of mood, including the perception of
“rewarding” stimuli. Dopamine is also implicated in addiction, as
release of dopamine occurs upon engaging in behavior in search of
stimuli perceived as rewarding. Additionally, degeneration of these
regions of the brain is also associated with progression of
Parkinson’s disease.

138 | Chapter 6
 Figure 11. Structures of the hindbrain. Source: OpenStax at
https://archive.cnx.org/contents/fc8a38cc-fd1c-44cc-
b91d-726fcfa62165@7/the-brain-and-spinal-cord

Chapter 6 | 139
 Figure 12. Illustration of the ventricles of the brain (hollow
chambers containing cerebrospinal fluid, which acts as a shock
absorber for the CNS, and provides nutrients to and removes wastes
from the brain and spinal cord). Source: Blausen.com staff (2014).
“Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014“. WikiJournal of Medicine 1
(2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.
Using the provided brain model, Figures 6-12, and Table 1, answer
the questions on the worksheet at the end of this lab exercise.
ACTIVITY III: Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
In addition to the brain, the spinal cord is also part of the central
nervous system. It is continuous with the medulla oblongata of the
brain stem, and exits the base of the skull through a large hole called
the foramen magnum. The spinal cord then passes through central
holes in the vertebrae called the vertebral foramina, and extends
down to the level of the first or second lumbar vertebra. Though not
shown in Figure 13 below, the spinal cord is hollow, with a central
canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Figure 13. Cross section through the spinal cord showing gray
matter (containing cell bodies and interneurons) and white matter

140 | Chapter 6
(containing axons). Source: OpenStax at http://tea.cnx.org/
contents/Rf2UxDVq@4/The-Central-Nervous-System
Using Figure 13 and the information in this exercise, answer the
questions on the worksheet.
ACTIVITY IV: Anatomy of Nerves
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of the cranial
nerves (of which there are twelve pairs; illustrated on the provided
brain models with Roman numerals), and the spinal nerves, which
are also paired. Look at the provided model of the vertebral column,
and count the number of roots of the spinal nerves (on the model,
yellow structures sticking out laterally between vertebrae). Note
that these models do not show the last sacral nerve (S5) or the
coccygeal nerve (C0). Answer the question on spinal nerves on the
worksheet. Remember to add the two pairs of nerves not shown on
the model!
Nerves consist of bundles of axons of neurons grouped together
in bundles called fascicles, each of which is surrounded by a layer of
tissue called the perineurium. The fascicles are also held together in
larger clusters of bundles by a layer of dense connective tissue (the
epineurium) to make up the entire nerve. Look at Figure 14. Note
that nerves are also vascularized (supplied by blood vessels), which
serves to deliver oxygen and nutrients to neurons in the nerve, and
to remove carbon dioxide and other wastes from those cells. After
examining Figure 14 closely, look at the (somewhat crude, but rather
effective/illustrative model of nerve anatomy on the cart at the
front of the room. Then answer the questions on the worksheet at
the end of this lab exercise.

Chapter 6 | 141
 Figure 14. Illustration of the basic anatomy of a nerve. Source:
https://www.getbodysmart.com/nerves/nerve-structure
ACTIVITY V: Spinal Reflexes
Reflexes are predictable, involuntary, and rapid responses to
various environmental stimuli without said stimuli being first
processed by the brain. Reflexes involve transmission of signals
between two to three types of neurons, which were already
discussed in Activity I: sensory neurons, interneurons (in some
cases), and motor neurons. When an external stimulus (like
stepping on a sharp nail) stimulates a sensory neuron, this
information is relayed to the central nervous system (in some cases,
to the brain stem, but in many cases, to the spinal cord). The signal
from the sensory neuron is then relayed to an interneuron, and
then to a motor neuron, or in some cases, directly from the sensory
neuron to a motor neuron with no interneuron in between. This
motor neuron then transmits the signal to an effector (such as a
muscle), triggering the response. During this process, the response
occurs before the stimulus is actually detected and processed by the
brain, as the signal reaches the effector before the information is

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sent from the spinal cord to the brain. Figure 15 below illustrates the
basic pathway of signal transmission in a spinal reflex arc.
In this exercise, you will explore a reflex with which you may
already be familiar. If your doctor has ever tapped your knee with
a rubber hammer, he or she did so to check transmission of signals
between sensory neurons, the spinal cord, and motor neurons. This
particular reflex is called the patellar reflex, or the knee jerk reflex.
When your knee is struck with a reflex hammer, this causes a
tendon, which is attached to both your patella (kneecap) and the
quadriceps femoris muscle, to be stretched. This stretching
stimulates receptors to generate electrical impulses that are passed
from sensory neurons to the spinal cord, and then to motor neurons
that stimulate the quadriceps femoris muscle itself. Figure 16 on the
following page illustrates the pathway of signal transmission in the
patellar spinal reflex arc.
To illustrate the patellar reflex, sit on the edge of your lab bench,
so that your legs hang freely. Your partner will then take a rubber
reflex hammer, and strike the lower edge of your kneecap with the
pointed side of the hammer. If you do not initially exhibit a response
to the strike of the hammer, your partner should try striking around
the patella in slightly different locations until a response is
observed. After observation of your response, switch places with
your partner, and see if you can elicit a reflex response from them,
as well.

Figure 15. Illustration of signal transmission in a spinal reflex arc.

Note that the sensory information is carried to the spinal cord
through the dorsal root (on the back/upper side of the body), and

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relayed through interneurons (in some, but not all occasions) in
the gray matter (not shown, but represented by the red dot in this
figure), and back to the effector (a muscle) via the ventral root (on
the front/lower side of the body) through a spinal nerve. Modified
from OpenStax at https://archive.cnx.org/contents/
a4ca89c4-ab19-492f-a910-8f0f7867999f@6/nervous-system

Figure 16. Illustration of the reflex arc of the patellar (knee jerk
reflex). Source: Amiya Sarkar, from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Patellar_tendon_reflex_arc.png, licensed under Creative
Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.
ACTIVITY VI: Measurement of Reaction Time
Follow the directions below for determination of you and your
partner’s average reaction times:

1. Your partner will stand in front of you while you are seated,
and will hold the provided reaction time stick in the “Release”
area between their thumb and forefinger.
2. You should hold your thumb and forefinger of your dominant
hand open about an inch apart and on each side of the “thumb
line” on the reaction time stick, with your thumb closest to

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 you, and your forefinger on the side of the reaction time stick
farther away from you.
3. Let your partner know when you are ready. Then, at some
unspecified point, your partner will release the reaction time
stick.
4. You should attempt to catch the reaction time stick between
your thumb and forefinger as quickly as possible.
5. You can read your reaction time in milliseconds using the
numbered markings on the reaction time stick.
6. Record this reaction time in the space marked “RT1” on the
worksheet at the end of this lab exercise.
7. You should repeat this procedure for a total of 10 reaction time
measurements, recording each reaction time on the
worksheet.
8. After your 10 trials, you and your partner will switch places,
with you holding the reaction time stick, and your partner
attempting to catch it as quickly as possible.
9. Repeat for a total of 10 reaction time measurements for your
partner, as well.

BI 102 Lab Worksheet: Nervous I Name

_________________________________ Section
_______
ACTIVITY I: Cells of Nervous Tissue

1. ______________________also known as nerve cells,

are the functional units of the nervous system.
2. Using the model of a multipolar neuron, write the number
from the model corresponding to the appropriate structures in
the space below:

_____ Axon
_____ Dendrites

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 _____ Linked Schwann cells at node of Ranvier
_____ Nucleus
_____ Schwann cell (with nucleus)
_____ Synaptic terminal (axon terminal)
ACTIVITY II: Anatomy of the Brain
3. The most basic functions of the body like heartbeat and
breathing are controlled by which part of the brain that includes the
medulla and the pons? (damage/swelling in this part of the brain is
often fatal)
4. Using the figure, match the letters to the correct cerebral lobes
below, as well as their functions:

_____ Frontal lobe

_____ Occipital lobe
_____ Parietal lobe
_____ Temporal lobe
_____ Movement, thought, language production
_____ Auditory reception, behavior, expressed speech, behavior
_____ Processing/discrimination of sensory input, body
orientation
_____ Visual center
5. Using the brain model on the table, write the number on the
model corresponding to the appropriate structures on the model
next to the appropriate structures below:
_____ Central sulcus
_____ Cerebellum
_____ Frontal lobe
_____ Hypothalamus

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 _____ Medulla oblongata
_____ Occipital lobe
_____ Olfactory bulb
_____ Parietal lobe
_____ Pituitary gland
_____ Pons
_____ Temporal lobe
_____ Thalamus
ACTIVITY III: Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
6. What structures are found in the gray matter of the spinal cord?
7. What structures are found in the white matter of the spinal
cord?
ACTIVITY IV: Anatomy of Nerves
8. On the provided handmade model of nerve anatomy, what is
represented by all of the different colored wires exiting the black
tubing?
9. How many total pairs of spinal nerves are found in the human
body? _____
ACTIVITY V: Spinal Reflexes
10. Order the events below from 1 (first) to 5 (last) in the events
that occur in the patellar spinal reflex:
_____ Motor neuron from spinal cord triggers contraction of
quadriceps femoris
_____ Perception of strike to knee received and processed by
brain
_____ Sensation of stretching travels to spinal cord
_____ Stretching of quadriceps triggers sensory neuron in knee
_____ Striking patella stretches the tendon attached to the
patella and quadriceps femoris muscle
When the patella is struck with a reflex hammer, does this cause
the leg to flex or extend?
ACTIVITY VI: Measurement of Reaction Time
11. Record each of your reaction times for a total of 10 trials below,
then calculate your average reaction time:
RT1: ____ ms

Chapter 6 | 147
 RT2: ____ ms
RT3: ____ ms
RT4: ____ ms
RT5: ____ ms
RT6: ____ ms
RT7: ____ ms
RT8: ____ ms
RT9: ____ ms
RT10: ____ ms
Avg. RT = ____ ms
12. Do you think that practice and/or learning had an effect on
your reaction time? If so, provide evidence of this based on your
data from your 10 trials.
13. If your instructor compared averages between reaction times
in males and females (or made any other comparisons), which had
faster reaction times? Do you think this is accurate? Why or why
not?
If your instructor provides you with the class data, or a range from
fastest to slowest reaction time in the class, answer the following
questions. What was the fastest reaction time in your lab section?
What was the slowest? Where did you fall in this range? Name some
factors that you think might have an influence on average reaction
time.

148 | Chapter 6
7. Chapter 7

LAB 7

The Senses
Prepared by Jason R. Jones & Dr. Jeff Ray, University of North
Alabama

Introduction
To detect our environment, the body uses receptors to detect
various stimuli in the internal and external environment to help
maintain homeostasis. These stimuli are transmitted as electrical
impulses through nerves to the brain for processing/
interpretation. Receptors include photoreceptors (visible light),
chemoreceptors (detect various molecules like CO2),
thermoreceptors (hot or cold), mechanoreceptors (including
pressure & in the ear for hearing and balance), and pain receptors.
In today’s lab, you will do activities that measure the five
traditional senses for vision, smell, taste, sound, touch, and also
temperature.
* What type of receptors detect light?
_________________smell & taste?
___________________
sound?
_________________temperature?
____________________
Eyes and Vision
Eyes are special sense organs for detecting wavelengths of

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visible light using photoreceptors. Humans have a camera-type eye
that focuses light rays on the retina to form an image detected by
the brain. The cornea is the outer surface known as the ‘window of
the eye’. The pressure in the front portion of the eye is maintained
by the water-like aqueous humor. The iris is the colored portion of
the eye, while the pupil can constrict or dilate to control the
amount of light passing through it into the eye. A single lens
focuses the image onto the retina. Before reaching the retina, light
passes through the jelly-like vitreous humor. Light rays strike the
retina, which contains two main types of photoreceptors, rods and
cones. Rods are more numerous and detect the presence/intensity
of light. The cones are fewer in number and each of three types
detect different wavelengths (colors) of light; the combinations of
these types forms the various colors we perceive.

*What is the path of light from outside the eye to where it is

detected by photoreceptors?
(word bank: aqueous humor, cornea, lens, pupil, retina, vitreous
humor)
____________→ ___________→ ____________→
____________→ ___________→ ___________
Check the boxes when you complete each exercise. Do the visual
acuity and astigmatism together using the wall charts.
Visual Acuity

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 The Snellen chart for visual acuity presents a limited number
of letters in lines of decreasing size. The line with letters that are
marked 20/20 represent the smallest letters that a person with
normal acuity should be able to read with 100% accuracy from
20 feet. The different sizes of letters in the other lines represent
rough approximations of what a person of normal acuity can read
at different distances. For example, the line that represents 20/
200 vision would have larger letters so that they are legible to the
person with normal acuity at 200 feet. The 20/200 value (or worse)
is considered “legally blind” if not corrected with lenses.

____ To Test
For Visual Acuity:
Use the Snellen

Chapter 7 | 151
 ^
eye charts on the wall, stand 20’ away.
Do not squint. If you wear glasses, test
both with
and without
your glasses. Do not remove contacts to
test.
1. Test 1 eye at a time, do the left eye first. Have your partner stand
at the eye chart and point to each line.
2. Close or cover your right eye. Read each line from the top to the
bottom of the chart.
3. The bottom-most line you read with 100% accuracy gives an
approximation of your visual acuity versus what is considered
normal vision (20/20).
4. Repeat for your right eye, close or cover your left eye.
5. Record your results below, use the second set of blanks after
removing your glasses, if you wear any.
a. Left eye 20/_____b. Right eye 20/_____c. Left eye
20/____d. Right eye 20/____
^
This test is very primitive as compared to the advanced
instruments an optician can use to determine your visual acuity and
correct deficiencies in vision.
Explanation: If your vision is 20/40, you can see at 20’ what can
be seen from 40’ in a person with normal vison; you have worse than
average vision. If your vision is 20/15, you can see at 20’ what a
person with normal vision can only see clearly from 15’ (closer up),
you have better than average vision.
Astigmatism
Astigmatism is a refractive error in the eye caused by an
unevenness in the cornea or lens that can blur or distort vision at all
distances. These surface abnormalities tend to bend light irregularly
based upon the convex and/or concave shape of the eye surface.
The result is the scattering of light and a lack of clarity in a portion
of the field of vision. Astigmatism is normally corrected by glasses,
contacts or surgery. If left uncorrected, astigmatism can lead to

152 | Chapter 7
headaches, fatigue, squinting and pain in the muscles around your
eye.

Chapter 7 | 153
 ____ To Test for Astigmatism: Use the astigmatism wheel
^
charts on the wall, stand 20’ away. Do not squint.
1. Test 1 eye at a time, do the left eye first.
2. Close or cover your right eye. Focus your vision on the center
circle, while examining each line that radiates off of it. If you do not
have astigmatism, the lines will appear sharply focused and equally
dark. You may have astigmatism if some lines appear sharp and dark,
while others are blurred and lighter.
3. Test the right eye following the same steps. Record your
observations below.
Astigmatism a. Left eye: Yes / No b.
Right eye: Yes / No
^
This test is very primitive as compared to the advanced
instruments an optician can use to diagnose astigmatism.
*Which part(s) of the eye are abnormal in an astigmatism?
________________________________________
______________________________________
Superimposition
Superimposition refers to the process by which the separate
images detected by each eye are combined into a single three-
dimensional image by the brain. Since each eye has a separate field
of view, the two images differ slightly, but your brain combines them
into one cohesive image. For this activity, you are going to trick your
brain by having your eyes send conflicting information about what
you are seeing.

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 ____ To Demonstrate Superimposition: Use the hollow paper
tube at your table.
1. Find an object on the wall, such as an exit sign, as your object to
view.
2. Close your left eye and keep your right eye open. Raise the
tube and hold it up against your right eye and view the wall object
through the tube. Your field of view should be the sign through the
tube.
3. Raise your left hand 12” in front of your left eye alongside the
tube with your palm facing away, while holding the tube steady.

Chapter 7 | 155
 4. Close your right eye and open your left eye. You field of view
should be the back of your hand.
5. While leaving the tube and your hand in place, open both eyes
and note what you see. Slide your hand up and down the tube with
your palm facing away to highlight this optical illusion.
6. Switch sides with the tube if the effect is minimal- one eye is
often dominant and the brain prefers info from that side.
*Describe what you see when looking through the tube with both
eyes open:
_________________________________________
_____________________________________
Explanation: one is generally unaware of superimposition under
normal conditions- the brain combines the separate images into
a single visual perception which generally does not conflict. This
exercise created a situation called a binocular rivalry in which one
is directly aware of the two separate fields of view.
Afterimages
We see because the rods and cones are generating nerve impulses
that are transmitted to the brain. Occasionally, the brain retains an
image even after the impulses have stopped (afterimages). Positive
afterimages are when the bright parts of the object remain bright
& the dark parts remain dark. Negative afterimages are when the
bright parts of the object appear dark & the dark parts appear
bright.
____To Demonstrate Afterimages: Use fluorescent strips, black
paper, white paper.
1. Center the fluorescent green strip of paper on the black
construction paper and stare intently at the green strip for 30
seconds without shifting the eyes. Then have your partner quickly
slide a white sheet of paper over the green strip. Record what
afterimage you see, if any (possibly a flash of different color).
* Green afterimage- describe what you
see:________________________________________
______
Repeat the procedure using the fluorescent orange strip of paper.

156 | Chapter 7
 * Orange afterimage- describe what you
see:________________________________________
______
The Blind Spot of the Eye
The blind spot occurs where the optic nerve exits the retina.
Since the surface of the optic nerve lacks any photoreceptors, when
light rays strike this portion of the retina, no image is detected due
to the absence of both rods and cones.
____ To Demonstrate the Blind Spot: Use the strip of paper
which has a small circle and a cross.

1. Test 1 eye at a time, do the left eye first.

2. Hold the paper strip at arm’s length with the cross directly in
front of your left eye and the circle to the left. Close your right eye.
3. Stare only at the cross, do not let your left eye wander from it
(the circle will be in the periphery).
4. Slowly move the paper toward your eye until the circle
disappears.
5. Repeat as needed to find the blind spot (adjust it closer/further
to find the exact distance it disappears).
6. With your partner’s help, measure the distance from your eye
to the paper using a meter stick, record in cm.
7. Repeat procedure with your other eye, record distance.
*Blind spot distance: Left: ___________ cm Right:
___________ cm

Chapter 7 | 157
 *Which part of the eye which lacks rods & cones and causes the
blind spot? ______________________
Explanation: one is generally unaware of the blind spot under
normal conditions- the brain interprets what we perceive in part on
past experience and essentially, fills in missing gaps. This exercise
created an artificial situation in which one is directly aware of how
perception if constrained by eye anatomy.
Accommodation of the Eye
When the eye accommodates to see objects at different distances,
the shape of the lens changes. When you are looking at a distant
object, the lens is flatter. When you are looking at a closer object, the
lens becomes more curved (rounded). The lens shape is controlled
by the ciliary muscles attached to it. The rounded lens bends light
more to accommodate the closer image to fit into the eye. The
ciliary muscles and the elasticity of the lens determines how well
the eye can accommodate, and lens elasticity decreases with age,
a condition called presbyopia. Presbyopia is the reason many older
people need reading glasses to see near objects. The near point is
the closest distance at which your eye can change shape to bring an
object into focus (accommodation).

Figure: Light from a distant object and light from a near object
brought to a focus on the retina. Notice how the lens is flatter for

158 | Chapter 7
distant objects and is rounder for close objects. The lens rounds to
accommodate near objects.
____ To Demonstrate Accommodation/ Determine Near
Point:Use a pencil and meter stick.
1. Test 1 eye at a time, do the left eye first.
2. Hold the pencil at full arm’s length with the pencil tip pointing
towards the ceiling. Close your right eye.
3. Focus on the pencil tip, and slowly move it toward your left eye
until the end is out of focus.
4. Repeat as needed to find the distance (adjust closer/further to
find the exact distance it goes out of focus).
5. With your partner’s help, measure the distance from your eye
to the pencil using a meter stick, record in cm.
6. Repeat procedure with your other eye, record distance.
7. Compare your near point accommodation with values from the
chart below. Determine the “age” of your eye.
*Near point accommodation: Left: ___________ cm
Right: ___________ cm

*What is the “age” of each eye? Left: ___________ Right:

___________
*Which part of the eye changes shape to accommodate?
______________________________________
Color Blindness
Color blindness is the decreased ability to see color or color
differences and is due to a lack of functional cones (photoreceptor
proteins) on the retina. Although a given color wavelength of visible
light strikes the retina, it is not detected since there are no
functional cones to detect it, no stimulus is sent to the brain and
the person is ‘color blind.’ The genetic condition is more common
in males versus females since the genes responsible for most forms
of color blindness are on the X chromosome (females have two

Chapter 7 | 159
copies, so if one is defective, and the second copy functions, the
individual would not be color blind). Diagnosis is typically with the
Ishihara color test; but a number of other testing methods have
been developed.
__To Test for Color Blindness: Use the Ishihara’s Tests for Colour
Deficiency book at the table.
1. Observe plates 1-14 with both eyes. Plates will contain numbers,
lines or patterns distinct from the surrounding dots. Count the
number of plates you can clearly read.
• Plate No. 1 is a control and should be readable as ‘12’ by all
persons with basic visual abilities.
• Plates 1-11 determine normal/defective color vision. Plates 12-14
determine the type and degree of color vision deficiencies.
• Analyze your results and look up explanations in the small
booklet provided with the Ishihara book.
* Your Color vision score (#plates read):
_________________________
10 or more plates: normal color vision7 or fewer: color vision
deficient.See booklet for explanations
* Is color-blindness caused by a lack of functional rods or cones
in the retina? _________________
Sense of Touch and Sense of Hot & Cold
The sensory receptors in skin respond to touch, pain,
temperature, and pressure. Each of these stimuli have different
receptors that detect them (hot & cold receptors are also separate),
as well as free nerve endings, which respond to pressure, pain, and
temperature. These messages are sent as electrical stimuli to the
brain and processed.
____ To Measure Sense of Touch:
Use the grey calipers to pressure the skin and measure the
distance between points. You will be testing the subject’s ability
to discriminate between the two points of the calipers at the four
different locations listed below.
*A laboratory partner is required for this procedure. Enter your
data, not your partner’s data.

160 | Chapter 7
 1. The subject must be seated with eyes closed. Hold the points of
the calipers 20 mm apart on the given skin area, with both points
gently touching the subject. Ask the subject whether the experience
involves ‘one or two?’ touch sensations.
2. Move the calipers a few mm closer each time until the subject
can only discriminate a single point. Record the shortest distance
between the caliper points the subject can make a two-point
discrimination.
3. Record the data in the blanks below. Remember, the subject
cannot look at the calipers when being tested.
a. Forearm: ____________ mm
b. Back of the neck: ____________ mm
c. Index finger: ____________ mm
d. Back of the hand: ____________ mm
*Which area had the smallest two-point discrimination?
______________________________________
This area would have the most nerve endings allowing for the
greatest sense of touch.
____ To Measure Sense of Hot & Cold:
Use the three large beakers containing hot, cold & room
temperature tap water (on cart).
1. Immerse your left hand in the ice water beaker and your right
hand in the hot water beaker for 30 seconds.
2. Simultaneously move both hands very quickly to the room
temperature water in the middle beaker.
3. Record the immediate sensation you feel in both your L and R
hands. Switch the beakers if you have time.
Temperature perceived in: a. Left hand: ____________
b. Right: ____________
* Explain your results:
___________________________________________
______________________
_________________________________________
___________________________________________
Explanation: Your skin has separate receptors for pressure, hot,

Chapter 7 | 161
and cold. Pressure receptors are more accurate than temperature
receptors. In all three beakers, the pressure receptors are active (so
nothing ‘changes’ when you place your hands immediately in the
middle beaker). Thus, after saturating your pressure and your hot or
cold receptors in separate beakers, your brain initially gets a mixed
message (pressure and hot + cold) in the middle beaker. Since your
brain never expects to get a message of hot + cold from the same
place simultaneously, whichever temperature is the most intense
(hottest or coldest) is probably the one you perceive in the middle
beaker, not both (varies).
Ears, Hearing, and Equilibrium
Anatomy of the Ear
The ear of mammals can be divided into three main regions:
the outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear. The outer ear consists of
the pinna, which is the external portion of the ear visible outside
the head, and the auditory canal (ear canal). The structure of the
auricle serves as a sort of funnel which collects sound and directs it
into the auditory canal.
The middle ear consists of the tympanic membrane (eardrum),
the ossicles, the tympanic cavity, and the Eustachian tube
(=auditory tube). When sound waves enter the auditory canal, they
strike the tympanic membrane, causing it to vibrate. These
vibrations are then transmitted to the ossicles (three small bones
in situated in the tympanic cavity): the malleus (“hammer”), then to
the incus (“anvil”), and finally the stapes (“stirrup”). The Eustachian
tube, which connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx is not
directly involved in hearing, and is normally collapsed, but opens
during swallowing and with positive pressure. Its main functions
include the drainage of mucus from the middle ear into the throat,
as well as equalization of pressure between the middle ear and
the atmosphere. When pressure in the middle ear is different from
atmospheric air pressure (such as when at high altitudes, flying,
or scuba diving), the pressure can be equalized by yawning,
swallowing, or chewing gum, all of which open the Eustachian tubes,

162 | Chapter 7
resulting in a small popping sound as the pressure in the middle air
is equalized.
The inner ear contains a fluid-filled, spiral, snail shell-shaped
organ called the cochlea, which is where auditory stimuli are
converted to electrochemical signals that are sent to the brain for
processing via the cochlear nerve.
When sound waves enter the ear, they cause the tympanic
membrane to vibrate. These vibrations are then passed through
the malleus, incus, and stapes (the ossicles), and the vibration of
the stapes is transmitted to the oval window on the outside of
the cochlea. The vibration of the oval window causes vibration of
fluid inside the cochlea, which causes movement of hair cells in the
organ of Corti inside the cochlea. Hair cells are sensory receptors
that transform the sound vibrations into electrical signals that are
relayed to the brain through the cochlear nerve. Other parts of
the inner ear include the vestibule and semicircular canals, which
are involved in equilibrium, balance, and perception of positional
information. Using the figures on the following pages, try to locate
all of the structures of the outer, middle, and inner ear on the
provided model. Additionally, answer the question on transmission
of sound waves/signals on the worksheet at the end of this lab
exercise.

Chapter 7 | 163
 Anatomy of the ear.

Events involved in audition (hearing).

164 | Chapter 7
 Organ of Corti inside cochlea, and magnified view of hair cells.
Perception of Sound
Sound, as defined in physics, is a vibration that propagates as
a wave of pressure through a gas, liquid, or solid. Sounds are
perceived differently based on characteristics of these waves. One
feature of sound waves that affects their perception is their
amplitude. The higher the amplitude of a sound wave, the louder
that sound will be perceived. There is also a relationship between
a sound wave’s frequency and its perceived pitch. The frequency
of a sound wave has an inverse relationship with the wavelength of
that wave (in other words, the longer the wavelength, the lower the
frequency; conversely, the shorter the wavelength, the higher the
frequency of that wave). The frequency of sound waves is usually
measured units called Hertz, which are defined as cycles per
second. You have been provided with several tuning forks, each
of which is stamped with its vibrational frequency in Hertz. Take
one of the provided tuning forks, and note its frequency. Strike
the tuning fork on the provided rubber wedge, and note the sound
produced. Repeat this for the other tuning forks. Did you notice the
relationship between the frequency and pitch of each tuning fork?
Answer the question regarding this on the worksheet at the end of
this lab exercise.

Chapter 7 | 165
 Characteristics of waves.

Diagram showing physical manifestation of a sound wave

through air from a speaker to a human ear
Locating Sound

1. Sounds are located using the combined perception of those

sounds by both ears. Differences in hearing between the ears
can result in an incorrect determination for the location
between sounds. In this exercise, you and your partner will
explore your abilities to determine the location of sounds.
Follow the directions below to conduct this activity:
2. Have your partner be seated, with eyes closed.
3. Strike the provided tuning fork with the lowest frequency at

166 | Chapter 7
 one of the following locations relative to your partner’s head
(use a random order for these):

a. Directly below and behind the head:

______________________________________
b. Directly behind the head:
______________________________________
c. Directly above the head:
______________________________________
d. Directly in front of the face:
______________________________________
e. To the right side of the head:
______________________________________
f. To the left side of the head:
______________________________________
4. Ask your partner to give the exact location of each sound, and
record their responses in the blanks above.
5. Repeat the process using the provided tuning fork with the
highest frequency, and record your partner’s responses below:
a.Directly below and behind the head:
______________________________________
b. Directly behind the head:
______________________________________
c. Directly above the head:
______________________________________
d. Directly in front of the face:
______________________________________
e. To the right side of the head:
______________________________________
f. To the left side of the head:
______________________________________
6. Switch roles with your partner, with yourself trying to
determine the location of sound as above.
7. Answer the questions regarding this activity on the worksheet
at the end of this lab exercise.

Chapter 7 | 167
 The inner ear also contains several organs collectively referred
to as the vestibular system, shown in the figure on the following
page. The organs of the vestibular system include the vestibule,
the utricle, the saccule, and three semicircular canals. Each of
these organs contains hair cells, similar to the cochlea, but are
not involved with hearing. Instead, these organs are involved with
equilibrium, balance, and detection of positional information and
directional acceleration. The saccule and utricle sit below a
gelatinous layer of the vestibule, with the cilia of their hair cells
projected into the gelatin. Inside the gelatin layer are crystals of
calcium carbonate called otoliths (which literally means “ear
stones”). Changes in the angular position of the head causes these
crystals to shift, bending the cilia of the hair cells in the utricle and
saccule. The bending of the hair cells stimulates neurons, which
carry this signal information to the brain via the vestibular nerve.
The semicircular canals are fluid-filled tube-like structures that
also contain hair cells. These canals are involved in the detection of
angular acceleration and deceleration from rotation. When turning
your head, this shifts fluid in these canals, which also bends the cilia
of hair cells inside the canals, and signals from the canals are sent to
the brain for processing. When movement in a particular direction
is accelerated or decelerated, this also causes movement of fluid in
these canals. One way to think about this is if you are standing still
and holding a glass of water, and suddenly begin walking quickly
forward, some of the water may splash backwards onto your hand.
Then, if you suddenly stop walking, the water may splash forward.
In this way, the semicircular canals are responsive to changes in
velocity. This information is also relayed through the vestibular
nerve to the brain for processing.

168 | Chapter 7
 Organs of the vestibular system of the inner ear.
Illustration of Post-rotatory Nystagmus
In this activity, you will examine nystagmus, which is the
movement of the eyes in response to stimulation of hair cells in the
semicircular canals. Nystagmus displays two component motions,
called the slow phase and the fast phase. When the head is rotated,
the eyes move slowly in the opposite direction, then quickly back
to the other side, and then begins the slow movement again. Using
the steps below, you will induce post-rotatory nystagmus, which is
the result of repeated rotational movement, followed by cessation
(stopping) of that movement. To illustrate post-rotatory nystagmus,
follow the steps below:

1. Get your partner to sit in his or her chair, and raise his/her
feet off the floor.
2. Your partner should then bend their head forward at an angle
of about 30 degrees.
3. Rotate your partner in their chair to the right (clockwise) for
about 20 seconds at a rate of one turn every two seconds. (Be
careful not to fling your partner out of their chair!)
4. Suddenly stop the rotation, and quickly observe the movement
of your partner’s eyes as soon as the rotation stops, noting the
direction of movement of the slow and fast phases of
nystagmus.

Chapter 7 | 169
5. Repeat Steps 1-4, only this time rotating your partner to the
left (counter-clockwise).
6. Answer the question on the worksheet at the end of this lab
exercise.
7. Repeat, switching roles with your partner so that they may
observe nystagmus of your eyes.

The Chemical Senses: Smell and Taste

Both smell and taste are chemical senses, in which chemical
stimuli are received by chemoreceptors (in the nose in the case
of smell, and on the tongue in the case of taste). In the following
activities, you will explore your own senses of smell and taste, as
well as familiarize yourself with the anatomy of organs involved in
each of these senses, as well as the physiology of how chemical
stimuli are detected and processed.
Sense of Smell
Olfaction is the technical term used to describe the sense of
smell. In the superior (upper portion) nasal cavity, there are multiple
olfactory receptor cells, which are hair cells with cilia, similar to
those seen in the cochlea and the vestibular apparatus. As molecules
in the air are inhaled, they pass over the olfactory epithelial tissue
and become dissolved in the mucus coating the surface of that
tissue. These molecules then bind to proteins, which help transport
them to the olfactory dendrites. Once these odorant molecules
(and proteins to which they are bound) reach the olfactory
dendrites, they bind to receptor proteins in the dendrites’ cell
membranes. The binding of these molecules to the olfactory
dendrites is then converted to an electrical signal, which is carried
to the olfactory bulb on the inferior (lower) surface of the brain. This
information is then carried via the olfactory tract for processing
by various parts of the brain, including the olfactory cortex,
hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. Many of these parts of
the brain are also part of the limbic system, which is associated
with emotions and memory. This is one reason that certain smells

170 | Chapter 7
often evoke certain memories associated with those particular
scents.
Humans have a total of about 40 million olfactory receptors, each
of about 350 different subtypes. Stimulation of different olfactory
receptors in various combinations allow us to distinguish about
10,000 different odors. Many other mammals have an even greater
sense of smell. For example, mice have about 1,300 different types of
olfactory receptors, almost 4 times as many as humans, and so are
probably able to distinguish many more odors than humans. Dogs
also have LOTS more olfactory receptors than humans. Though
the number of olfactory receptors in dogs varies among individuals
and different breeds, just as an example, German shepherds have
about 2 BILLION olfactory receptors (individual receptor cells, not
subtypes), which is four times the number of total olfactory
receptors in humans!

Illustration of (a) bipolar neurons found in the nasal cavity, and

(b) olfactory epithelial tissue and the olfactory bulb.

Chapter 7 | 171
 The olfactory system
To test your olfactory abilities, you will use several vials
containing artificial and natural scents. Each table has been supplied
with 10 of these vials, numbered 1-10. One pair of students at each
table has a basket with vials 1-5, and the other pair of students
should have vials 6-10. For this exercise, you will need to smell all
10 vials, so share with your tablemates as necessary. For each vial,
you should unscrew the lid and smell the contents. Though not
necessary, you may wish to close your eyes to reduce visual stimuli
and focus more on your sense of smell. After smelling each vial,
record what you think the scent in that vial is supposed to be in the
table on the worksheet at the end of this lab exercise. After smelling

172 | Chapter 7
each vial and recording what scent you think is in each vial, your
instructor will provide you with the actual scents to compare to
your guesses, and to also record in the table.
Sense of Taste
Like olfaction (the sense of smell), gustation (the sense of taste)
is also a chemical sense, involving chemoreceptor cells that respond
to chemical stimuli, convert that information to electrical signals
that is relayed to the brain for interpretation. Though smell and
taste are often perceived as completely separate senses, the two
senses do work together to form impressions of perceived flavors.
You may have noticed, for example, that your sensation of flavor is
dulled somewhat if you have a stuffy nose.
The primary organ of taste is the taste bud, which is a cluster
of taste cells. Taste buds are found on bumps, called papillae, on
the tongue. Look at the figure on the following page, and notice
that there are several different types of papillae on the tongue,
and each type differs in the numbers of taste buds they possess.
For example, the filiform papillae, found all over the tongue, do
not have any taste cells. The fungiform papillae, which are mainly
located on the anterior (front) two thirds of the tongue, contain 1-8
taste buds each, as well as pressure and temperature receptors. The
circumvallate papillae, which are quite large, and form an upside-
down “V” near the rear of the tongue contain 100-250 taste buds.
Finally, the foliate papillae, which are found in parallel folds along
the edges and back of the tongue, contain approximately 1,300 taste
buds each. Taste bud cells are replaced about every 10 to 14 days.
When eating, molecules in food are dissolved in saliva, and bind
with and stimulate taste hairs on the tips of taste bud cells. Most
of the taste receptors on the tongue are found on the outer edge
and front of the tongue. There are different types of taste receptors
for different flavors. Humans perceive five main primary tastes, and
each of these different types of tastes has one corresponding type
of receptor. The five primary tastes humans can detect include
salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and umami. Salty foods contain sodium
chloride, and ingesting them dissolves the sodium chloride into

Chapter 7 | 173
sodium and chloride ions. The sodium ions directly enter into taste
neurons, exciting them. Sour tasting foods contain acids. When
acids bind to receptors, that triggers hydrogen ion channels to
open, allowing hydrogen ions into the receptors, triggering them.
Sweet, bitter, and umami tastes require a special kind of receptor
(called a G-protein coupled receptor, or GPCR), which uses a
protein (a G protein) that acts as a molecular switch inside cells. The
sense of taste has a tendency to decline with age, often dramatically
beginning around age 50.

(a): Schematic drawing of a taste bud.

(b): micrograph of human tongue tissue.

174 | Chapter 7
 Illustration of the various types of papillae on the tongue, as
well as a magnified view of a taste bud.
In the following exercise, you will examine your own sense of
taste, as well as learn something about the microscopic anatomy of
your own tongue. For this exercise, you have been provided with
4 vials of paper strips. One vial of these strips contains “Control”
paper, which is just plain paper. The other vials contain strips of
paper which are impregnated with various chemicals, including
Phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), thiourea, and sodium benzoate. The
interesting thing about each of these chemicals is that some people
vary in terms of whether they are able to taste those compounds.
Interestingly, the ability to taste each of these compounds is
genetic, as the genes involved in whether individuals do/do not
taste these compounds are genes that affect the expression of
specific receptor proteins in taste buds.
For example, the ability to taste PTC (detecting it as a bitter
flavor) is due to a dominant allele. Non-tasters thus have two
recessive alleles coding for the receptor protein in question.
Individuals that are homozygous dominant (have two dominant

Chapter 7 | 175
alleles) may perceive the taste of PTC to be more bitter than
heterozygotes (individuals with one dominant and one recessive
allele), though heterozygotes are able to taste PTC as bitter. In
a group of studies, individuals that were tasters of PTC tended
to avoid broccoli and grapefruit juice, and tend to find green
vegetables quite bitter.
Thiourea is another compound somewhat similar to PTC, but
the ability to taste it is inherited independently. Thus, the ability to
taste PTC does not mean that PTC tasters will also be able to taste
thiourea, and vice versa. To tasters, thiourea also tends to have a
very bitter taste.
Sodium benzoate is commonly used as a preservative in many
foods, but in very low concentrations. However, some people are
very sensitive to its taste. Perceptions of the taste of sodium
benzoate (in tasters) varies, with some perceiving it as sweet, some
as salty, some as bitter, and some as sour. The ability to taste sodium
benzoate is also inherited independently of the ability to taste PTC,
but the interactions to sensitivity to each of these molecules has
been shown to influence people’s reactions to different foods. For
example, PTC tasters that taste sodium benzoate as salty tend to
like sauerkraut, buttermilk, turnips, and spinach more than the
average person, and PTC tasters that taste sodium benzoate as
bitter tend to like those foods less than the average person.

1. Using the provided vials of control, PTC, thiourea, and

sodium benzoate paper, follow the directions below:
2. Obtain a piece of “Control Paper”. This strip of paper is
nothing more than paper, and will be used for a basis for
comparison to the other strips.
3. Place the piece of control paper in your mouth. You should
notice no strong flavor, other than just the bland flavor of the
paper itself. Try to remember the general baseline flavor of this
paper.
4. Remove the control paper from your mouth and throw it
away.

176 | Chapter 7
5. Next, take a piece of PTC paper, and put it on your tongue.
If you do not immediately detect a noticeable flavor, briefly
chew the strip of PTC paper. If you do not notice any flavor at
all, you are a non-taster for PTC.
6. Remove the PTC paper from your mouth (do not swallow
it), and throw it away.
7. Repeat steps 5 & 6 for both the thiourea paper and the
sodium benzoate paper.
8. Record your observations of your perceived taste/lack of
taste of each compound in the table on the worksheet at the
end of this lab exercise.

• ___________________________________
___________________________________
________

Image Credits:
Accommodation By Pearson Scott Foresman – Archives of
Pearson Scott Foresman, donated to the Wikimedia Foundation,
Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/
index.php?curid=3606348
Near Point Chart By http://www.ssc.education.ed.ac.uk/
courses/outreach/dublini.html
Astigmatism By The original uploader was Tallfred at English
Wikipedia – Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here., BSD, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/
index.php?curid=3098293
Astigmatism By BruceBlaus (Own work) [CC BY-SA 4.0
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)], via Wikimedia
Commons
Anatomy of the ear: Chittka L. Brockmann – Perception
Space—The Final Frontier, A PLoS Biology Vol. 3, No. 4, e137
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030137 (Fig. 1A/Large version), vectorised
by Inductiveload; Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5
Generic.

Chapter 7 | 177
 Audition: https://archive.cnx.org/contents/
238b840d-2428-4d16-bcd3-ab481a44522a@1/derived-copy-of-
sensory-perception
Organ of Corti: https://archive.cnx.org/contents/
238b840d-2428-4d16-bcd3-ab481a44522a@1/derived-copy-of-
sensory-perception
Sound wave diagram: Wikimedia Commons; author Pluke;
licensed under Creative Commons – CC0 1.0 Universal
Vestibular system: http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/balance/
balance_disorders.asp
Olfactory neurons, epithelial tissue, and olfactory bulbs:
modification of work by Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator; C. Carl
Jaffe, MD, cardiologist
Olfactory system: https://archive.cnx.org/contents/
13be3d63-b803-4d7b-9265-14da1c5585ae@1/sensory-perception
Closeup of taste bud: Jonas Töle; released to public domain;
Micrograph of tongue tissue: https://archive.cnx.org/contents/
370f4538-a2ec-4bf7-a3f4-c00b15548c04@5/the-other-senses
Tongue & papillae: https://legacy-staging1.cnx.org/content/
m10555/latest/?collection=col10044/latest (modification of work
by Vincent Rizzo).

BI 102 Lab Worksheet: Senses Name

_________________________________ Section
_______
Visual acuity:
Left eye:20/___ Right eye:20/__
Astigmatism:
Left eye: ______________ (yes/no) Right eye:
______________ (yes/no)
Accommodation:table 30.2

178 | Chapter 7
 Left eye: ______ cm “Age” of your L eye: _____
Right eye: ______ cm “Age” of your R eye: _____
Blind spot:
Left eye: ______ cm Right eye: ______ cm
Color Blindness Score: _______ (count # of plates you cannot
read)
Superimposition
Describe what you saw during the superimposition exercise.

Afterimages:
Describe what you saw during the afterimages exercise using the
strip of green paper.

Describe what you saw during the afterimages exercise using the
strip of orange paper.

2-point discrimination (touch):

Forearm: ___ mm Back of neck: ___ mm Index finger:
___ mm Back of hand: ____ mm
Which area contains the greatest density of touch receptors?
Why do you think this is the case?

Sense of Heat and Cold:

Describe the sensations experienced in your left and right hands
during this exercise.

The Ear, Hearing, and Equilibrium:

Chapter 7 | 179
 Number the following structures below in the order in which
sound waves/vibrational pass through them.
_____ Auditory canal
_____ Cochlea
_____ Cochlear nerve
_____ Incus
_____ Malleus
_____ Oval window
_____ Pinna
_____ Stapes
_____ Tympanic membrane
Perception of Sound:
What is the relationship between the frequency of a sound and its
perceived pitch?

Locating Sound:
Was it more difficult for you to accurately locate sounds with
lower or higher pitches?

Illustration of Post-rotatory Nystagmus:

Describe the direction of eye movements during the slow and fast
phases of nystagmus below:
After rotating clockwise: Direction of slow phase:
__________ Direction of fast phase: __________
After rotating counter-clockwise: Direction of slow phase:
_______ Direction of fast phase: _______
Sense of Smell:

180 | Chapter 7
Vial # What you think is the scent The actual scent

Sense of Taste:

Describe taste (no taste, sweet, sour, salty, or

Type of Paper
bitter)

Control No taste

Phenylthiocarbamide
(PTC)

Thiourea

Sodium benzoate

Chapter 7 | 181
8. Chapter 8

LAB 8

Basic Mammalian Anatomy

Prepared by Dr. Jeff Ray, Dept. of Biology, UNA

OBJECTIVES
After completing these laboratory activities, you should
understand/be able to:

• Have a basic understanding of the steps of a dissection of a

mammal, and how the dissection of the fetal pig is a surrogate
for the human.
• Identify the structures of the fetal pig as specified by your
instructor and know the basic function of each.
• Identify the structures of the human models as specified by
your instructor and know the basic function of each.

Introduction
In today’s lab, you will dissect and study the anatomy of the fetal
^
pig as a surrogate for the human. The fetal pig is exceedingly
similar to the internal human anatomy in multiple aspects. While
performing the dissection, keep in mind these structures are
present in the same location and serve the same basic function in
humans. Be sure to compare the anatomical structures in the pig
with the human torso model.
^
These pigs were not killed for the purposes of being dissected,

182 | Chapter 8
but are the by-product of the food processing (pork) industry and
would be otherwise be used as fertilizer or thrown away if not used
for dissection purposes.
*Instructions*
Check off each structure on the
worksheet as you find it.*
Work in groups of 2-3. Wear gloves and a disposable apron if you
are dissecting or assisting the “surgeon.” If you are not participating,
it is your job to read and instruct the surgeon on the proper steps
and to make sure all activities are completed. The pigs will be
washed, but after opening the body cavity, it will be useful to rinse
fluids out of the cavity to better observe internal anatomy. Have
™
paper towels ready and also use Febreze to spray the inside of
the pig to remove any smell-use liberally. Ask your instructor for
assistance.
External Anatomy
All Mammals possess mammary glands and hair. Both pigs and
humans are placental mammals, and development occurs within
the uterus (in utero). An umbilical cord is the pipeline between
the fetus and the placenta. At this interface, oxygen and nutrients
are exchanged for carbon dioxide and wastes. Within the umbilical
cord, one umbilical vein carries nutrients to the fetus while two
umbilical arteries carry wastes away. Pigs and humans are also both
tetrapods–four-limbed vertebrates. Pigs actually walk on their toes
(their toenails are hooves). Notice the bones of the ankle are halfway
up the hind leg.
*What key features define pigs and humans as mammals?
_____________________________________
*Securing the Pig to the Dissection Pan*
1. Place the pig on its back in the pan. Tie a string around one front
leg, then bring the string underneath the pan, and tie the string to
the other front leg. Do not tighten the knot until you have removed
any slack from the string or the pig will not stay in place.
2. Repeat this process for the back legs- tie a string around one
back leg, bring the string underneath the pan, and then tie the string

Chapter 8 | 183
to the other hind leg. This will hold the pig with all four limbs
extended.
*Check the
boxes as you complete each exercise
____
Umbilical Cord
1. Locate the umbilical cord arising from what will become the
“belly button.”
2. Cut the umbilical cord near the end and observe the three
tubes within it – 2 umbilical arteries and 1 umbilical vein (use the
blunt probe to find these).
* What is the function of the umbilical arteries?
___________________________________________
__
* What is the function of the umbilical vein?
___________________________________________
____
____ Nipples and Hair:
1. Locate and count the number of small nipples, the external
openings of the mammary glands. Nipples are not an indication of
^
gender, since both males and females possess them . In Mammals,
there are generally two mammary glands for each offspring (on
average).
2. All mammals have hair. *Where is the hair on your pig
located?______________________________
* How many nipples does your pig have?
___________________________________________
_____
^
Explanation: During early embryo development, the nipples
start to form before gender is expressed; this explains why both
female and male mammals have nipples and is known as a
developmental constraint.
___ Anus and External Genitalia:
1. Locate the anus, the opening of the digestive system, under the
tail.

184 | Chapter 8
 2. Just below the anus, locate the urogenital opening, and the
urogenital papilla projecting from it. If present, your pig is female.
3. If absent, look below the umbilical cord and locate the
urogenital opening. If present, your pig is male. Below this
urogenital opening and hidden under the skin is the penis, which is
held inside the body. Depending on the size of your pig, a scrotal sac
may be developing near the anus. Within this sac, are the testes.
4. Find another group nearby who has a pig of the other gender
and examine it – you are responsible for identifying pigs of either
gender.
* Is your pig male or female? __________________
Oral Cavity and Pharynx
Within the oral cavity (mouth), notice the teeth (watch out for
sharp canines!) and muscular tongue. To the back of the oral cavity
is the pharynx, which contains three openings: glottis, esophagus,
and nasopharynx. The glottis is the opening that leads to the
trachea (“windpipe”). The esophagus is dorsal (towards the back) to
the trachea and leads to the stomach. The nasopharynx leads up to
the nasal passages.
____ Oral Cavity & Pharynx
1. To expose the pharynx, use the scalpel to carefully cut back
from the corner of the mouth 1” or more through the thick muscle
and ligaments on each side to separate the upper and lower jaws.
2. Apply pressure with your hands to separate (tear) the tissues so
the mouth stays open.
3. Locate the hard palate (ridged roof) and soft palate (smooth),
which is posterior (to the back of) it. Notice the lack of a uvula
(downward extension of soft palate) in the pig (humans have a uvula).
4. Continue to dislocate the jaws using your hands to expose the
epiglottis, a flap of elastic tissue that covers the glottis (opening to
trachea) when swallowing to prevent choking.

Chapter 8 | 185
 5. Insert a blunt probe into the glottis to show it leads to the
trachea. Insert the probe into the back of the pharynx into the
nearby opening- this is the esophagus.
*What is the function of the epiglottis?
___________________________________________
_________
*Why is it correct to say that food and air passages cross in the
pharynx? _________________________
_________________________________________
__________________________________________
Thoracic and Abdominal Cavities
1. Make a series of careful incisions with the scalpel to expose
the internal organs. Do not make deep, plunging cuts, instead make
shallow, but firm cuts to penetrate the skin and muscle, but NOT
the organs. Try not to cut the diaphragm. Better to make several
shallow cuts into skin and muscle than one deep cut.
2. Follow the incision diagram below.
3. Starting at the hair of the chin, cut down to near the

186 | Chapter 8
diaphragm. The thick sternum must be cut through in the chest.
Next, make two lateral cuts, one above the forelimbs, one below.
4. Cut posteriorly from the diaphragm to near the umbilical cord.
5. Cut around the umbilical cord to avoid damaging the umbilical
arteries and urinary bladder.
6. Make a lateral cut posterior to (below) the diaphragm.
7. Make two cuts, one on each side of the umbilical cord flap, just
anterior to (in front of) the hindlegs.
8. Lifting the umbilical cord flap first requires the umbilical vein
to be tied then cut. Tie short strings above and below the umbilical
vein between where you will cut it.
9. Leaving your pig on the tray, take it to the sink and rinse out the
body cavity after it is cut open. Spray the organs generously with
™
Febreze to minimize odor.
10. If needed, use dissecting pins to hold structures open or in
place. Suction out any excess fluids with your pipette.

____ Cervical region (Neck)

Chapter 8 | 187
 1. Use the scalpel and blunt probe to separate the many muscles
and ligaments of the neck from other tissues. Be careful not to
destroy the thyroid, which sits atop the trachea. In the fetal stage,
the thymus, which looks like fat globs, is extensive in the cervical
region and into the thoracic (chest) region.
2. Separate tissues to expose the trachea (windpipe), which looks
like an earthworm, due to its cartilage rings. The thyroid is a small,
butterfly-shaped organ sitting atop the trachea (often damaged). It
is easier to find in the torso model.
3. Use the blunt probe to find & hook the esophagus, which is
immediately dorsal to (behind) the trachea. The esophagus looks
like a flat tube, which stretches to accommodate food and water as
they pass to the stomach.
4. At the superior end of the trachea, find the whitish, enlarged
larynx (“voicebox”) composed of hyaline cartilage.
5. Trace the trachea to the bronchi and then the lungs of the
thoracic cavity.
* Describe the location of the trachea relative to the esophagus:
________________________________
____ Thoracic (Chest) Cavity
The major organs of the thoracic cavity include the heart and
lungs. Notice how the heart is slightly offset to the left resulting in
asymmetry of the two lungs in terms of size and number of lobes (4
R, 3L). Many blood vessels, including the aorta and vena cava, serve
the heart.
1. Notice the compartments of each lung and the heart and the
membranes covering them, these minimize friction and isolate/
protect these organs.
2. Find the atria of the heart which are small, lighter-colored flaps
atop the heart. Find the aorta.
3. Find the 4 right and 3 left lobes of the lungs. Find the left and
right bronchi branching from the trachea.
4. Notice the diaphragm inferior to the thoracic cavity.
* Which lung is larger?

188 | Chapter 8
___________________________________________
_____

___
Abdominal Cavity
*Be sure the
abdominal cavity is well-rinsed in order to
view all organs*
The major organs of the abdominal cavity serve the digestive,
lymphatic, endocrine, urinary, and reproductive systems. The
largest organ of the abdominal cavity is the liver, although the small
intestine is extensive. Notice the clear membrane (peritoneum)
covering the abdominal wall and organs. Sheets of peritoneum
(mesentery) extend from the body wall and support the organs.
1. Find the liver, which fills the upper right quadrant. The liver has
various functions including storing vitamins & minerals, recycling
red blood cells, producing blood proteins, and storing/releasing
glucose to maintain blood glucose levels. Find the greenish
gallbladder on the underside of the liver. The gallbladder stores the
bile produced by the liver.

Chapter 8 | 189
 2. Locate the stomach and spleen in the upper left quadrant. The
stomach is a J-shaped organ that looks like a deflated ball in the
pig. The spleen looks like a long skinny tongue that is held to the
stomach by mesentery. The spleen is bean-shaped in humans; it
functions in immunity and red blood cell storage.
3. Beneath the stomach, find the pancreas, which is poorly
defined, and looks like a small collection of tapioca or corn meal.
The pancreas produces digestive enzymes and hormones (insulin/
glucagon) for blood glucose homeostasis.
4. Find the small intestine, a mass of bends and coils held by
st
mesentery. Find where the stomach attaches to the 1 part of the
small intestine (=duodenum). The small intestine chemically digests
& absorbs nutrients.
5. Find the large intestine or spiral colon in the pig. The last
portion of the large intestine is the rectum, which leads to the anus.
In the fetal pig, the colon will contain waste, which will become the
first bowel movement (poop). Be careful not to puncture the colon.
The large intestine looks like a question mark in the human.
6. Folding back the flap of the umbilical cord, find the umbilical
arteries, which are two tubes where the umbilical cord enters the
body. Between these arteries is the urinary bladder, which stores
urine.
7. Push the intestines to the side, and locate both kidneys in the
dorsal (back) side of the abdominal cavity. The kidneys filter wastes
from the blood, which are carried to the bladder via the ureters, two
dull colored tubes which drain to the urinary bladder. Sitting atop
each kidney are the adrenal glands, which are easily viewed in the
torso model.
*What
structure separates the thoracic and
abdominal
cavities?_____________________
___________
*When finished with the dissection*
Remove all dissecting pins, place these with your tools for

190 | Chapter 8
cleaning. Take the pig and tray to the sink. Leaving the strings on
the pig, place it in the tub marked for used pigs. Clean your tray,
tools, and beaker, then place them on the cart to dry. Spray and wipe
down your work area and replenish all materials for the next lab.
Thoroughly wash your hands with soap before handling any other
materials.
Human Anatomy: Torso Model
____
Examine a Torso Model, Locate the
Organs, Compare to the Fetal Pig:
Following the checklist on your lab worksheet, find all structures
listed for the torso model. You are responsible for knowing all listed
terms for the lab practical- many of these are structures already
studied in previous labs. Notice many structures, including the
carotid arteries, thyroid, aorta, adrenals, and ureters that may not
have been found on the fetal pig. Blood vessels are easier to find and
identify. The structures and organs on your list won’t necessarily be
uniquely numbered or lettered- one to the next, many are the same.
*Attempt to take the torso model completely apart and put it
back together correctly- looks easy, but it
can be difficult, as it will only fit together one way.*

Chapter 8 | 191
b09 Classic Unisex Torso, 12-part
© 3B Scientific GmbH, Germany, 2019, www.3bscientific.com

192 | Chapter 8
 b09 Classic Unisex Torso, 12-part
© 3B Scientific GmbH, Germany, 2019, www.3bscientific.com

Review Questions- complete using the lab manual, your textbook

or other resources.
What two features identify/define a mammal?
____________________________________
_____________________________________
________
What difficulty may occur if the epiglottis was surgically removed
due to cancer?
____________________________________

Chapter 8 | 193
_____________________________________
________
What structure separates the thoracic and the abdominal
cavities? _____________________________
Name two organs in the thoracic cavity and give a function for
each.___________________________
____________________________________
_____________________________________
________
Name the largest organ in the abdominal cavity and list two
functions. _________________________
____________________________________
_____________________________________
________
Why is it proper to associate the gallbladder with the liver?
____________________________________
_____________________________________
________
Where is the pancreas located (near what other organ/
structure)?_____________________________
Name two or more internal differences between the fetal pig and
the human organs.
____________________________________
_____________________________________
________
____________________________________
_____________________________________
_______
Credits
Fetal pig images https://www.biologycorner.com/pig/
review.html This work is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Human torso model used with Permission of 3B Scientific, images
from https://www.a3bs.com/classic-unisex-
torso-12-part-1000186-b09-3b-scientific,p_58_186.html

194 | Chapter 8
 BI 102 Lab Worksheet: Anatomy Name
_________________________________ Section
_______
Other group members:
___________________________________________
______________
*Is your pig a female or male? ____________ Observe a pig of
the other gender for comparison.
List the number / letter of the parts on the torso model. If they
are not labeled, find them and put a check mark in the blank. Find
the corresponding parts on the pig. Ask the instructor for help.
Check if found on pig (in order of dissection)
_____ Umbilical cord
_____ Umbilical artery
_____ Umbilical vein
_____ Urogenital papillae (female pig only)
_____ Pharynx (a space)
_____ Epiglottis
_____ Larynx
_____ Thymus (pig only)
_____ Thyroid gland (on neck)*
_____ Trachea
_____ Esophagus
_____ Carotid artery
_____ Thoracic cavity (a space)
_____ Heart
_____ Atrium, left and right
_____ Ventricles, left and right
_____ Aorta
_____ Vena Cavae (superior & inferior)
_____ Lungs, left and right
_____ Diaphragm
_____ Abdominal cavity

Chapter 8 | 195
 _____ Liver
_____ Gall Bladder
_____ Stomach
_____ Pancreas
_____ Spleen
_____ Small Intestine
_____ Duodenum
_____ Large Intestine
_____ Urinary Bladder
_____ Umbilical arteries
_____ Kidney
_____ Adrenal gland (atop kidneys)*
# / letter on torso model (top to bottom)
_____ Pharynx (not labeled, a space)
_____ Larynx
_____ Thyroid gland
_____ Trachea
_____ Esophagus
_____ Carotid artery
_____ Jugular vein
_____ Thoracic cavity (not labeled, a space)
_____ Heart
_____ Atrium, left and right
_____ Ventricles, left and right
_____ Aorta
_____ Vena Cavae (superior & inferior)
_____ Pulmonary trunk
_____ Lungs, left and right
_____ Diaphragm
_____ Abdominal cavity (not labeled, a space)
_____ Liver
_____ Gall Bladder
_____ Stomach
_____ Small Intestine
_____ Duodenum (part of the small intestine)

196 | Chapter 8
 _____ Pancreas
_____ Spleen
_____ Large Intestine
_____ Cecum
Remove organs to find
_____ Aorta (abdominal)
_____ Vena Cavae (inferior)
_____ Kidney
_____ Renal artery (not labeled, red blood vessel)
_____ Renal vein (not labeled, blue blood vessel)
_____ Adrenal gland
_____ Ureter
_____ Urinary Bladder
*Note: Difficult to find on pig, but often color-coded and easier to
locate on torso
OVER
What is the function of the following organs/structures?
a. Diaphragm:
b. Kidneys:
c. Pancreas:
d. Spleen:
e. Thymus:
f. Thyroid gland:
g. Umbilical artery/vein:
h. Liver:
i. Gall Bladder:
Label this figure:

Chapter 8 | 197
198 | Chapter 8
9. Chapter 9

LAB 9

Reproduction and Development

Prepared by Dr. Jeff Ray, Dept. of Biology, UNA

OBJECTIVES
After completing these laboratory activities, you should
understand / be able to:

• The basic structure and function of the male and female

anatomy.
• The path of sperm in the male and female and the path of egg
in the female.
• The process and locations of fertilization and implantation.
• Embryonic and fetal development in humans and the organs
involved, using chick embryos for comparison.
• The composition & function of the placenta as a shared organ
between mother and baby.
• The unique pathway for fetal circulation and the composition
and function of the umbilical cord.

Human Reproductive Anatomy

Reproduction is a shared characteristic of all living things from
bacteria to blue whales. Most animals reproduce sexually, and have

Chapter 9 | 199
separate male and female genders. The production of egg and sperm
cells via meiosis– those containing half the usual number of
chromosomes (n, haploid) is a necessary precursor to sexual
reproduction. The fusion of these haploid cells results in a
genetically unique diploid (2n) organism called a zygote, which then
divides by mitosis to grow and differentiate into a fully formed
offspring.
We will cover the male anatomy first since the remainder of the
lab activity will focus on female anatomy, fertilization &
implantation, offspring development, and pregnancy.
*Instructions**
Check the boxes as you complete each
exercise
Male Anatomy
____ Observe the male pelvis model, find the numbers/letters
indicated on the worksheet at the end of this lab activity.
The primary male sexual organs are the testes and penis which
produce and deliver sperm to the female reproductive tract,
respectively. The testes are also responsible for the production of
male hormones called androgens. After production in the testes,
sperm passes through a series of structures which help it to become
fully functional. Accessory glands add important substances which
facilitate the sperm to ultimately reaching the egg; collectively the
sperm plus these substances is known as semen.

200 | Chapter 9
 After initial formation in the testes, sperm pass through the
following structures, in order:
The epididymis is a whitish mass of tightly coiled tubes against
the testicles, acts as a maturation and storage for sperm before
they pass into the vas deferens. The vas deferens is a thin tube
approximately 12” long that carries the sperm from the epididymis
to ejaculatory duct. From the ejaculatory duct, the sperm move
through the urethra until their exit from the body. Sperm that do
not leave via ejaculation are reabsorbed by the body.
Three accessory glands provide fluids that lubricate the duct
system and nourish the sperm cells: seminal vesicles, prostate
gland, and bulbourethral glands (Cowper’s gland).
*What is the path of sperm in the male from where it forms to
where it leaves the body?
(word bank: ejaculatory duct, epididymis, testes, urethra, vas
deferens)
_______________→ ______________→
_______________→ _______________→
_____________
Female
Anatomy
____ Observe the female pelvis model, find all numbers/letters
indicated on the worksheet at the end of this lab activity.
Major reproductive organs of the female are the ovaries, uterus,
and vagina. The female reproductive system involves hormonal
communication between key organs, particularly the ovaries and
uterus, whose basic functions are to produce the egg, and house the
developing embryo, respectively.

Chapter 9 | 201
 The ovaries are paired and produce both eggs and sex hormones
(e.g. estrogen); they are the functional equivalent of the male testes.
Ovaries are about the size of a walnut, and at birth contain
approximately two million ova (eggs) each. During nearly every
menstrual cycle, one (or more) eggs mature and are released during
ovulation from the follicle within the ovary, which also releases
estrogen. Upon release, the egg passes into a narrow tube known
as the oviduct (uterine tube) which is lined with cilia that sweep the
egg towards the uterus.
The uterus is fist-sized and thick smooth muscle that contracts
during labor & childbirth. The interior lining of the uterus is the
endometrium, which thickens during the menstrual cycle in
anticipation of housing the developing offspring. The lowermost
portion of the uterus narrows into an opening known as the cervix.
The vagina is a muscular organ that serves as a passageway into
and out of the uterus. Externally, the female reproductive anatomy
(known as the vulva) includes the labia major, labia minor, and
clitoris.

202 | Chapter 9
 Fertilization and Implantation
____ Observe the fertilization model, find the locations of
fertilization & implantation, and trace the path of egg and sperm in
the female.
Fertilization & Implantation occur in separate locations and at
different times; implantation normally occurs about 8 days post-
fertilization. Fertilization (conception) is the process by which the
nuclei of a single-celled egg and sperm fuse to form a zygote.
Fertilization normally occurs in the oviduct (uterine tube), where
the egg travels from the ovary. To reach the egg, sperm cells must
travel a distance approximately 100,000 times their body length,
which is equivalent to a person running a 110 mile race! Predictably,
not all sperm reach the egg, and the first ones that do, generally do
not fertilize the egg, since they must penetrate the outer covering of
the egg; a single sperm that follows ultimately fuses with the nuclei
of the egg to form the zygote.
The zygote is swept by cilia that line the oviduct toward the
uterus. As it slowly moves, it undergoes successive rounds of
mitosis that build the single cell into a hollow ball of ~100 cells
called a blastocyst. After approximately one week, it will reach the
uterus where implantation occurs in the blood vessel-rich tissue of
the uterus, the endometrium. On occasion, the blastocyst will not
reach the uterus and may start to implant on the oviduct. If so, the
pregnancy is inviable as this location is not large enough to allow for
embryo growth – this is known as an ectopic or tubal pregnancy.
An egg, even if fertilized, may also fail to implant in the uterus and
then leaves the body during menstruation.

Chapter 9 | 203
 Locations of fertilization and implantation
*Where does fertilization normally occur?
________________________________________
*Where does implantation normally occur?
________________________________________
*What is the path of the egg from where it forms to where it
leaves the body if not fertilized?
(word bank: cervix, ovary, oviduct, uterus, vagina)
_______________→ ______________→
_______________→ _______________→
_____________
*What is the path of the sperm from where it enters the female to
where it fertilizes the egg?
(word bank: cervix, oviduct, uterus, vagina)
_________________→ ________________→
________________→ ________________
Early Stages of Development (Chick Embryo)
If the blastocyst successfully implants into the endometrium and
continues with mitosis and development, a predictable series of
structures form. Three embryonic tissue (or germ) layers

204 | Chapter 9
(endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm) are established, and the organ
level of development continues until all organs have formed. The
first organs to develop are the 1) heart, 2) brain & neural tube, and
3) digestive tract.
____ Examine the early stages of development in the chick
embryos under the microscopes. On your worksheet, sketch the
stage(s) of the chick embryo and identify/label at least 2 structures.
24 Hour Chick Embryo
Early structures that are visibly forming include somites (blocks
of developing muscle tissue), head fold, notochord (below surface),
neural groove and fold, and surface ectoderm. See the figure next
to the microscope for complete details.
38-43 Hour Chick Embryo
Many organs are now more clearly visible: the heart is now
contracting and circulating blood; the brain has several distinct
regions (forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain); the eye has a developing
lens; the somites enlarge; the neural tube is clearly visible.

72-Hour Chick
Embryo
In addition to the clearly visible heart, eye, brain, and other major
organs, a wingbud and hindlimb bud have noticeably formed. The
brain has continued to differentiate, while the neural tube has
closed along the length of the body—it is now called the spinal cord.

Chapter 9 | 205
 96-Hour Chick Embryo
Tissue differentiation has continued to produce visibly distinct
organs. The amnion noticeably surrounds the embryo and the
number of somites has increased.
Human Embryonic & Fetal Development
____ Observe & measure the embryo/fetal models on the back
table (from 4 wks to 6 mo. gestation).
Normal human development requires a full nine months (40
weeks) of gestation to support a fully functioning offspring. Embryo
development includes the first eight weeks (two months). By the
end of development, all organs have initially formed, but are not
functional enough to support independent life. During fetal
development (seven months), organs mature and become
functional; dramatic weight gain also occurs. The offspring
increases greatly from <1” at 4 weeks to about 20” at 38 weeks. It will
double in weight from about 4 to 8 pounds between months 7 and 9.
*At _____weeks the baby is 1.5 inches long (use ruler). Size at
5 months (20 weeks)? ____ inches

206 | Chapter 9
 The Placenta & Pregnancy
Placenta
The placenta is a large, blood vessel-rich organ containing tissues
from both mom and offspring. It serves as an interface that allows
for exchange of nutrients and wastes, while keeping mom and
offspring isolated from each other. Blood is not exchanged between
mom—offspring, as their bodies may contain incompatible
differences (including blood type) between their immune systems.
The fetus is housed in the uterus (womb) and connected to the
mother via the umbilical cord which leads to the placenta. The
maternal portion of the placenta is the endometrium. The fetal
portion of the placenta is the chorion. In addition, the amnion is
the layer in which the fetus is housed and surrounded by protective
amniotic fluid.
*What materials are exchanged between mother and fetus at the
placenta? ________________________
* At the placenta, blood IS / IS NOT exchanged between mother
and fetus?

Chapter 9 | 207
 Pregnancy
____ Examine
the pregnancy model, be sure to find and
name the following structures: 31, 37, 38:
Pregnancy, also known as gestation, lasts approximately 267 days
from conception to birth (280 days if calculated from the last
menstrual period to childbirth). Pregnancy can be divided into
trimesters, each is approximately three months long. The first
trimester has the highest possibility of miscarriage (natural death
of embryo or fetus). During the second trimester, fetal movements
may be felt. At 28 weeks, more than 90% of babies can survive
outside of the uterus if provided with high-quality medical care. The
third trimester is marked by rapid weight gain.
Major anatomical, metabolic, and physiological changes occur in
the mother, including considerable weight gain occurs during a
normal pregnancy. As pregnancy progresses, the uterus pushed into
the abdominal cavity, exerting pressure on many organs, collecting
pushing up against the diaphragm. Physiological changes may
include morning sickness, which is thought to be related to elevated
hormone levels.

208 | Chapter 9
• * Using the pregnancy model, which maternal organs are most
compacted by the fetus? _____________
• * Name the two structures (#36-37) the fetus must pass
through during birthing: ________, __________

Chapter 9 | 209
 Fetal Circulation Model
___ Observe the fetal circulatory system model and find the oval
opening and the arterial duct.
Two structures in the fetal heart are present that allow blood to
bypass a non-utilized organ in the baby—the lungs. In the heart,
the oval opening (foramen ovale) between the right atrium and
left atrium shunts blood away from the lungs. Also, the arterial
duct (ductus arteriosus) connects two blood vessels, the pulmonary
trunk and the aorta, to again shunt blood away from the lungs.
These structures close after birth in normal development: the oval
opening becomes the fossa ovalis, while the arterial duct becomes
the ligmentum arteriosum.

* Which two chambers of the heart are connected by the oval

opening? ____________, ____________
* The arterial duct connects which two blood vessels?
_________________, ____________________

210 | Chapter 9
 * Which structure is non-functional and being bypassed by the
blood? ___________________________
Umbilical Cord
____ Find the umbilical arteries and vein in the model.
The umbilical cord contains a total of 3 blood vessels within
it, these facilitate movement of nutrients and wastes between the
fetus and the placenta. There are two umbilical arteries going from
the fetus to the placenta and one umbilical vein going from the
placenta to the fetus (specifically to the liver of the fetus). The
umbilical arteries carry wastes away from the fetus including CO2
(they are O2-poor); the umbilical vein brings O2 and nutrients to the
fetus. Following birth, the umbilical arteries and vein become non-
functional: the umbilical vein becomes the round ligament of the
liver, the umbilical arteries regress and become the medial umbilical
ligament, and a branch of the anterior division of the internal iliac
artery. After it is cut, the remnants of the umbilical cord become the
navel or “belly button.”

* Do the umbilical arteries carry O2 rich or O2 poor blood?

____________________________________

Chapter 9 | 211
 * What does the umbilical vein become once the fetus is born?
_________________________________
____________________________________
_____________________________________
_______
Male anatomy By Male_anatomy.png: alt.sex FAQderivative work:
Tsaitgaist (talk) – Male_anatomy.png, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6569849By
Ttrue12 – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19679961
Female anatomy By BruceBlaus. When using this image in external
sources it can be cited as:Blausen.com staff (2014). “Medical gallery
of Blausen Medical 2014”. WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. – Own work, CC BY
3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=29600451
48 hour chick embryo https://sites.newpaltz.edu/histology/
developmental-biology/chick/chick-48hr-1x/
72 hour chick embryo https://sites.newpaltz.edu/histology/
developmental-biology/chick/chick-72hr-0-6x/
Blastocyst By Seans Potato Business (derivative of the source cited
above) – Blastocyst.png, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3306843
Fetal Growth by https://medium.com/@sonal9896225664/
stages-of-pregnancy-649b2588423b
Embryo attached to placenta in amniotic cavity By OpenStax
College – Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions Web site.
http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/, Jun 19, 2013., CC BY 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=30148598
Pregnancy Growth By OpenStax College – Anatomy & Physiology,
Connexions Web site. http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/, Jun
19, 2013., CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/
index.php?curid=30148608
Pregnancy anatomy by http://baldaivirtuves.info/wp-content/
uploads/2017/12/human-anatomy-pregnancy-human-anatomy-
pregnancy-anatomy-detail-birth-example-human-free-ideas.jpg

212 | Chapter 9
 Umbilical cord By http://www.jdimesmedivisual.com/wp-
content/gallery/anatomy/BC_Umbilical-Cord_FINAL.jpg

BI 102 Lab Worksheet: Reproductive Name

___________________________ Section _______
1-2. Number the following structures of the reproductive system
on the male & female models on your lab table
Male
______ Epididymis
______ Vas deferens
______ Testis
______ Prostate gland
______ Scrotum
______ Urethra
______ Ureter (look at urinary system)
______ Urinary bladder
______ Penis
Female
______ Vagina
______ Oviduct
______ Ovary
______ Urethra
______ Cervix
______ Uterus
______ Urinary bladder
______ Clitoris
______ Rectum
3. In the human female, where does fertilization occur? (where
sperm & egg fuse; see model) ______________________
4. In humans, the embryo/fetus develops in which part of the

Chapter 9 | 213
mother’s body (hint: also called the womb)?
__________________________
5. Using the pregnancy model at your table, which maternal
organs are most compacted by the fetus?
6. Go to the Microscopes: sketch, label & list 2 structures visible in
the chick embryo. List embryo stage.
Sketch Structure Name
Stage (days or hours)
A.
B.
Go to the back counter:
7. At _____weeks the baby is 1.5 inches long (use ruler). Size at 5
months (20 weeks)? ______ inches

8. In humans, embryonic development occurs during the first

________ months, fetal development occurs during the last
________months.

Go to the front cart:

9. The placenta has a fetal (baby) & maternal (mom) portion.
Which forms the fetal portion of the placenta?
_______________________________.

Which forms the maternal portion?

______________________________

10. Oval opening (foramen ovale): an opening between which two

chambers of the heart? (see model)

_________________________
________________________________

214 | Chapter 9
 11. Arterial duct (ductus arteriosis) a blood vessel connecting
which two blood vessels?
_______________________________
_____________________________

12. What organ is bypassed by much of the blood in fetal

circulation using structures in Q# 10-11 (not used, mom does this
task)? ______________________

Chapter 9 | 215
10. Chapter 10

LAB 10

Plant Diversity & Flowering Plant Organization

Prepared by Jason R. Jones, University of North Alabama

OBJECTIVES
After completing these laboratory activities, you should
understand/be able to:

• Define the terms angiosperm, autotroph, bryophyte, consumer,

eudicot, gametophyte, gymnosperm, heterotroph, meristem,
monocot, producer, pteridophyte, secondary growth, sporophyte,
vegetative propagation
• The basic anatomy of plant roots, stems, and leaves.
• The three basic types of tissues in vascular plants: dermal
tissue, ground tissue, and vascular tissue
• The two types of vascular tissue in plants, and what they
transport: xylem (water & ions), and phloem (transports sugars)
• Identify each of the following structures on a plant: leaf, blade,
petiole, node, internode, axillary bud, apical bud, taproot, lateral
roots.
• The major anatomical differences between monocots and
eudicots.
• The botanical distinction between vegetables and fruits.
• Give examples of vegetables and recognize whether the eaten
portions are roots, stems, or leaves.

216 | Chapter 10
 • Examine secondary (woody) growth in angiosperms, and learn
how to determine the age of trees.

INTRODUCTION
Plants are a crucial part of every ecosystem on Earth. Through the
process of photosynthesis, plants combine carbon dioxide, water,
and light energy harvested from the sun, and store that energy in
the form of the chemical bonds in glucose and other carbohydrates.
Since plants make their own food, they are referred to as producers
(or autotrophs, literally “self feeders”). This energy is then available
to other organisms (consumers, aka heterotrophs) that utilize this
stored energy.
Plants are an extremely diverse group of organisms, with an
estimated 300,000 species globally. Of this diversity, plants can be
further broken down into several sub-groups:

• Bryophytes (non-vascular plants, including mosses, liverworts,

and hornworts – approximately 22,750 species
• Pteridophytes (vascular seedless plants, including ferns,
horsetails, and their relatives) – approximately 15,000 species
• Gymnosperms (vascular non-flowering seed plants including
conifers and their relatives) – approximately 1,050 species
• Angiosperms (vascular flowering seed plants): plants with
specialized tissues for transport of water and nutrients;
produce seeds housed inside fruits which are derived from
flowers – about 250,000 species

In this lab, you will examine the diversity and anatomy of

angiosperms, or flowering plants., particularly the three main
organs in flowering plants: roots, stems, and leaves. The lab is set up
with several different stations at each lab table, you must visit each
lab table, and observe the various materials at each. The stations can
be completed in any order you like.
*Answer all questions in the worksheet at the end of this lab
exercise.*

Chapter 10 | 217
 STATION I: Plant Diversity
At this station, there are several examples of angiosperms
(flowering plants). angiosperms, are vascular plants that produce
flowers, fruits, and seeds. Angiosperms are divided into two major
groups, the monocots and the eudicots, based on several different
characteristics, some of which are shown in Figure 4 below.

Figure 4. Several differences between monocots and eudicots.

Credit: Flowerpower207 on Wikipedia (modified).
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monocotyledon#/media/
File:Monocot_vs_Dicot.svg)
Using the characteristics of leaves and flowers as shown in Figure
4, determine whether each Angiosperm at this station is either a
Monocot or a Eudicot, and fill in the table on the worksheet at the
end of this lab exercise.
Basic Angiosperm Anatomy
All angiosperms consist of two major organ systems: the
subterranean (below ground) root system, and the above ground
shoot system. The shoot system also includes other important plant
organs: leaves, and in angiosperms only, flowers. Overall, however,

218 | Chapter 10
the major non-reproductive organs of angiosperms are roots,
stems, and leaves.
The root system of monocots and eudicots are different.
Monocots have a root system that is referred to as a fibrous root
system, composed of many roots all about the same size. Eudicots,
on the other hand, typically have one large central root, called the
taproot, which may have many smaller lateral roots extending from
it. The root systems of plants serve several functions: (1) anchor a
plant into place, (2) absorb water and minerals from the soil in which
they grow. Examine the modified roots that serve other purposes in
some plants.
The shoot system of angiosperms includes both the stem and
leaves. The primary function of most stems is to provide support to
the leaves, which are the primary site of glucose (food) production
during photosynthesis. The stems of angiosperms can be divided
into several regions. The points at which leaves emerge from the
stem are referred to as nodes, and the lengths of stem in between
the nodes are called internodes. The leaves themselves can be
divided into two main regions. The blade of the leaf is the large,
expanded portion of the leaf where the majority of chloroplasts (the
site of photosynthesis) can be found, and the petiole is the stem-like
portion of the leaf that attaches it to the stem. Occasionally buds,
which can produce either new leaves or flowers can be found on
the stem. Buds that are found at the tips of stems are referred to as
apical buds, while buds found along the axis of the stem are called
axillary buds. Familiarize yourself with the previously described
angiosperm anatomy, using Figure 5 to assist you.

Chapter 10 | 219
 Figure 5. Basic eudicot anatomy. Credit: Kelvinsong on
Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany#/media/
File:Plant.svg)
STATION II: Root Anatomy & Diversity
Examine the basic anatomy of roots, compare the root systems
of monocots and eudicots, examine a few adaptations of roots for
different purposes, examine relationships between plant roots and
other organisms, and also observe several roots used as food.
First, examine the model of a monocot root. Make sure you are
able to locate and identify the following structures, and their
functions. Notice the three main types of tissues found in vascular
plants: dermal tissue, which forms the “skin” of plants, and protects,

220 | Chapter 10
ground tissue which mostly serves as support tissue, and a site
for storage/secretion of materials, and vascular tissue, which
transports water and nutrients throughout plants.
Locate the root epidermis. The epidermis is the outer layer of
cells covering the root’s surface, and mostly provides protection to
the root. Next, look at the cross sectional view from the top of the
model, and locate the cortex, which is composed of parenchyma
cells (ground tissue), and forms the majority of the interior of the
root. Next, locate the two types of vascular tissue in the root. Xylem,
which transports water throughout vascular plants, is composed of
two different types of cells (tracheids and vessel members), both
of which are actually dead at functional maturity. Phloem, which
transports sugars in vascular plants, consists of several types of
cells, including sieve elements, companion cells, fibers, and
parenchyma cells, which are alive at functional maturity.
Also locate the root apical meristem on the root model. In plants,
meristems are areas of plant tissue where active cell division takes
place. The word “apical” means “near the tip”, so this is the region of
active cell division near the root’s tip where root elongation occurs.
Incidentally, the tips of plant shoots also have apical meristems,
which lengthen the shoots. Some plants also have lateral meristems
that increase root/shoot girth instead of length.
Also notice that the tips of roots are protected by a root cap.
The root cap is produced by cells formed during cell division at
the apical meristem. Initially, these cells differentiate into a type of
cell called columella cells, which contain structures that allow for
gravity detection, and thus directs the root to grow downward. If
the root cap is removed from a root, the root would grow in random
directions instead of downward. The root cap also serves to protect
the delicate, newly-produced cells generated during cell division
at the apical meristem, as well as to lubricate the root, allowing
it to more easily penetrate the soil. Additionally, notice that the
exterior of the root has multiple projecting root hairs. Using the
model, answer the questions on the worksheet at the end of this lab
exercise.

Chapter 10 | 221
 Comparing monocot and eudicot roots
The root systems of monocots and eudicots are different. Firstly,
the root systems of monocots consist of numerous small roots that
are all about the same size in diameter. This is what is referred to
as a fibrous root system. Eudicots, on the other hand, typically have
one large central root called a taproot, which may have numerous
smaller lateral roots that extend from it. Grass would be a good
example of a monocot showing a fibrous root system, and a carrot
(a eudicot) would be a good example of a taproot. The roots of
monocots and eudicots also differ in terms of the arrangement
of their vascular tissue, which you will examine later at another
station.

Figure 6. Fibrous and tap root systems.

Look at the provided sedge (grass) and dandelion plants. Compare
their roots and answer the questions on the worksheet at the end of
this lab exercise.
Normally, roots typically develop from other root tissues.
However, occasionally, plants will develop new roots from other
plant organs, such as stems or leaves. These types of roots are
known as adventitious roots, and they may play additional or
different roles beyond those performed by “normal” roots. Two
examples of plants displaying adventitious roots are provided:
English ivy and corn, both of which develop adventitious roots

222 | Chapter 10
that arise from stem tissue. Examine these adventitious roots, and
answer the questions about them on the worksheet at the end of
this lab exercise.
Finally, observe the examples of root vegetables provided at this
station. If you are curious about the technical botanical difference
between vegetables and fruits, that distinction is made based on
which plant part is being eaten. Vegetables, botanically speaking, are
edible plant parts that are derived from either the roots, stems, or
leaves of plants, while fruits are edible plant parts that are derived
from the ovary/ovaries of flowers, and contain seeds. At this station,
you may notice that there are some vegetables you’d expect to see
here, as you might think of them as roots, but you may be surprised
to actually correctly find them placed at another station.
*Answer the questions on the worksheet related to the root
model.*
STATION III: Stem Anatomy & Diversity
The main functions of plant stems are to support the organs of
photosynthesis, the leaves, but also to carry water and minerals
to the leaves (through xylem), and to carry sugars made during
photosynthesis to other parts of the plant (through phloem). At
this station, you will be observing the major differences between
the stems of monocots and eudicots, observing several examples
of modified stems, learning a few vegetables that are composed
of stem tissue, and examining secondary growth (also known as
woody growth) in eudicots, and learning how to determine the age
of trees by examining this secondary growth.
The stems of both monocots and eudicots contain all three major
types of plant tissue: dermal tissue, ground tissue, and vascular
tissue. Observe the models of both monocot and eudicot stems, and
locate the following structures on each: epidermis (composed of
dermal tissue), cortex (composed of ground tissue), and the xylem
and phloem (vascular tissue). Also notice that in stems, the vascular
tissue is arranged in vascular bundles, which are surrounded by
vascular bundle girdles. Notice that the way that these vascular
bundles are arranged differs in monocots and eudicots. Use these

Chapter 10 | 223
models to answer the questions about stem anatomy on the
worksheet at the end of this lab exercise.
Now you will examine some examples of modified stems that do
not look like “typical” stems. These include specialized stems called
stolons, rhizomes, bulbs, and tubers.
First, look at the herbarium sheet showing a grass plant exhibiting
a stolon, which is a horizontal plant stem that takes roots at points
along its length to form new plants, or, in other words, is a means
for plants that have them to engage in vegetative propagation,
which is a form of asexual reproduction that produces new plants
that are clones of the original parent plant. For another example
of vegetative propagation, you can also examine the mother of
thousands plant at Station 1. Another example of a stolon can be
seen in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Vegetative propagation in a grass through the use of

stolons.
Another type of modified stem is a rhizome, which is similar to
a stolon. A rhizome is a a horizontal underground stem that puts
out lateral shoots and adventitious roots. This type of modified stem
can be seen in plants such as irises, and also ginger. Examine the
provided iris and ginger rhizomes, and note the lateral shoots and

224 | Chapter 10
adventitious roots on the iris rhizome. An example of a rhizome can
also be seen in Figure 8.

Figure 8. A rhizome.
Another type of modified stem is a bulb. A bulb is an underground
stem that consists of one or more buds enclosed in overlapping
fleshy or membranous leaves. Bulbs primarily serve as food storage
organs as a source of stored carbohydrates that are used during
periods when the rest of the plant is dormant. Some examples of
bulbs that are used as food include onions, garlic, and shallots.
Even though you might think of these as “root vegetables”, they truly
are not, as the part that is eaten is actually stem tissue. Examine the
provided onions and garlic, and observe the small roots at the base
of the bulb.
A final type of modified stem that you will examine this week
is the tuber. A tuber is a much thickened underground part of a
stem, serving as a food reserve, and producing buds from which
new plants arise. A classic example of a tuber used as food is the
white potato. Potatoes are very rich in starch, which is a polymer of
glucose molecules. In this way, tubers are similar to bulbs, in that
both serve as underground food storage organs for the plants that
produce them. Incidentally, the “eyes” of potatoes are buds that can
produce new potato plants.
Finally, at this station, you will observe secondary growth, also
known as woody growth, which produces (unsurprisingly) wood.
True woody growth is only seen in eudicots, and not monocots.
In secondary growth, woody eudicots produce additional vascular

Chapter 10 | 225
tissue (xylem and phloem) as they grow, as well as bark, consisting of
new ground and dermal tissue. These additional tissues are actually
produced by two lateral meristematic regions (remember,
meristems are areas of active cell division in plants). Also, since
these meristematic regions are lateral tissues, cell division in each
of these meristems results in an increased girth in woody plants as
they grow.
In eudicots that exhibit secondary (woody) growth, the
meristematic region that produces new vascular tissue is a layer
called the vascular cambium, which is a layer found between the
primary xylem and primary phloem. As woody eudicots grow, new
layers of secondary xylem and secondary phloem are formed,
increasing the diameter of the eudicot, forming the characteristic
growth rings that can be observed in woody eudicots. The actual
tissue that is referred to as wood is actually the secondary xylem
tissue. The darker wood towards the center of woody eudicots is
often referred to as heartwood, and consists of dry dead cells that
no longer transport water, and primarily serves to support the
woody eudicot. The lighter wood surrounding the heartwood is
known as the sapwood, which contains xylem that is actually
transporting water and nutrients through the plant.
Additionally, as woody eudicots grow, another layer of lateral
meristematic tissue called the cork cambium, produces cork, a
protective substance consisting of dead cells, and new epidermal
tissue, as well as new living parenchyma tissue, all of which
constitute the bark. See Fig. 9 on the following page for an
illustration of secondary growth.

226 | Chapter 10
 Figure 9. Differences between primary and secondary growth
in eudicots.
Examine the model of secondary growth in woody eudicots,
which is essentially a model illustrating a cross section through a
tree. Using Figure 9 on the previous page, try to identify the primary
xylem, primary phloem, vascular cambium, secondary xylem,
secondary phloem, cork cambium, cork, and epidermis. Also, notice
the ring-like pattern of growth in the wood, which displays wider,
lighter colored rings called early wood, and thinner, darker rings
called late wood. The early wood, per its name, is produced during
periods of rapid growth in the spring and early summer, and late
wood is produced in late summer and fall. The rings of late wood are
thinner because growth is slower during that time of year. Together,
a single ring of early wood and the following single ring of late wood
represent a single year’s worth of growth, and are referred to as
annual rings. See Figure 10 below for an example of these.
Examine the provided “tree cookies” (yes, they’re actually called
that!) of various woody eudicot species, and see if you can
determine how old they were when they were cut. Pick at least 2 of

Chapter 10 | 227
the available species, and record your estimates of their age when
cut on the worksheet at the end of this lab exercise.

Figure 10. Annual growth rings in trees.

STATION IV: Leaf Anatomy & Diversity
Leaves are the primary photosynthetic organs in plants. At this
station, familiarize yourself with basic leaf anatomy, examine the
major difference between the leaves of monocots and eudicots,
learn about various characteristics of leaves, examine the
differences between simple and compound leaves, as well as
observe several examples of leaves used in food, and for other
culinary purposes.
The basic structure of angiosperm includes all three types of
plant tissues (dermal, ground, and vascular tissues). The upper and
lower surfaces of leaves consist of single layers of dermal cells
arranged to form the epidermis of the leaf. In many species, these
epidermal cells produce a waxy secretion deposited on top of the
epidermal cells, and formsia protective called the cuticle, which
primarily serves to reduce water loss. On the lower epidermis, pore-
like openings called stomata (singular = stoma)primarily function

228 | Chapter 10
in gas exchange. During photosyntheis, plants use carbon dioxide
as a carbon source for producing glucose, and CO2, enters the leaf
through the stomata. Plant cells also produce oxygen as a waste
product during photosynthesis; O2, is also released from leaf tissue
through the stomata. The drawback of having stomata openfor gas
exchange, is that water is lost from the leaf. Fortunately, plants
regulate when stomata are open, in the form of two bean-shaped
guard cells on either side of each stoma. When conditions are hot
and dry, the guard cells change shape to close the stomata to reduce
water loss in this way.
Just beneath the upper epidermis is a layer of ground tissue called
the palisade mesophyll, whose cells contain numerous chloroplasts,
the site of photosynthesis. The cells of the palisade mesophyll are
arranged in a very regular fashion, making this layer easy to
distinguish. Below the palisade mesophyll, is another layer of
mesophyll tissue (also containing numerous chloroplasts) called the
spongy mesophyll. Spongy mesophyll cells are arranged much more
haphazardly than the palisade mesophyll, and have lots of air spaces
between them, which allow for more efficient air circulation and gas
exchange.
Additionally, leaves of vascular plants such as angiosperms also
possess vascular tissue in the form of xylem and phloem, which,
in the leaves, take the form of vascular bundles that form veins.
The xylem in leaf veins brings water from the roots (through the
stem) to the leaf tissue, and the phloem in leaf veins carries sugars
manufactured in the leaves during photosynthesis to other parts of
the plant. Examine Figure 11 on the following page and the provided
leaf tissue model, and try to identify each of the structures shown
below on the leaf model. Answer the questions on the worksheet at
the end of this lab exercise.

Chapter 10 | 229
 Figure 11. Basic leaf anatomy. Credit: H McKenna on Wikimedia
Commons (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Leaf_anatomy.svg)
One of the major differences between the leaves of monocots and
eudicots is the pattern in which their leaf veins are arranged. You
may have noted this difference back at Station 1 when you were
identifying each of the provided angiosperms as either a monocot
or eudicot. To refresh your memory, examine the laminated figure
showing the difference in the venation (vein arrangement pattern)
in monocot and eudicot leaves, and answer the questions on the
worksheet at the end of this lab exercise.
Leaves can be described based on a number of their
characteristics, including such things as the shape of the leaf, the
shape of the leaf’s margin, the pattern of veining in the leaf, and
whether it is a simple leaf or a compound leaf. Remember, a leaf’s
petiole joins the stem of a plant at a node. A simple leaf is a leaf
whose petiole has a single blade. However, a compound leaf is a
leaf whose blade tissue is subdivided to form several leaflets, all
of which are connected to a single petiole. Compound leaves can
be pinnately compound, where several leaflets emerge along the
sides (and tip) of the petiole, much in the way that the barbs of
a feather are all joined to the feather’s central shaft. Alternatively,
compound leaves can be palmately compound, in which all leaflets
emerge from a single point on the tip of the petiole, similar to
how all of your fingers emerge from your hand. Look at Figure 12,
the laminated sheet of leaf characteristics, and the provided leaf

230 | Chapter 10
examples to familiarize yourself with the differences between leaf
types. Answer the question on the worksheet at the end of this lab.

Figure 12. Simple and compound leaves.

Similar to modifications seen in roots and stems, many plants
have modified leaves that serve different and/or additional
functions besides photosynthesis. For example, the leaves of the
Venus flytrap are photosynthetic, but they are also modified to
capture insect prey. Venus flytraps grow in areas where the soil
is very poor in nitrogen, an important element for plant growth.
Insects, are a very rich source of nitrogen, and their modified “trap
jaw” leaves are adaptations that allow Venus flytraps to obtain
sufficient nitrogen.

Chapter 10 | 231
 Figure 13. Venus flytraps showing leaves modified for prey
capture. Credit: Юкатан on Wikimedia Commons
(http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Venus_flytrap_in_Utopia_park_Israel_-_01.jpg)
Another great example of a group of plants with leaves modified
for another purpose are the cacti. Look at the provided cactus,
and identify the spines all over its surface. The spines of cacti are
actually modified leaves that protect cacti from herbivores. Using
this information, answer the question on the worksheet at the end
of this lab exercise.
Examine some examples of leaves used as food, as well as for
other culinary purposes. First, examine the stalk of celery in the
beaker of colored water. You might be tempted to think that a celery
stalk is actually stem tissue, but celery is technically a leaf vegetable,
because the celery stalk is actually a modified petiole, or the leaf
stalk from which the blades of the celery leaves emerge. Notice that
in the celery, certain tissue is stained the same color as the water in
which the stalk is sitting. Using what you have learned about plant
tissues so far, answer the question on the worksheet at the end of
this lab exercise.
Finally, examine the other examples of leaves used as food and
other culinary purposes. This includes several different leaf
vegetables, tea, which is brewed from leaves of the tea plant, and
several different herbs. Incidentally, the difference between herbs
and spices, botanically speaking, is that herbs are food seasonings
derived from the leaves of plants, and spices are food seasonings
that are derived from other plant parts (bark, seeds, roots, etc.).
Answer the question on the worksheet at the end of this lab
exercise.
STATIONS V-VI: Microscopic Examination of Plant Tissues
These last two stations are located on the back two tables in
the lab, and consist of several microscopes set up for you to make
microscopic examinations of various plant tissues, including root
tissue, stem tissue, and leaf tissue. Essentially, all you will do for
these stations is to make sure you visit each microscope and view

232 | Chapter 10
the slide set up on each one, and use those to answer question on
the worksheet at the end of this lab exercise.

BI 102 Lab Worksheet: Plants I Name

_________________________________ Section
_______
STATION I: Plant Diversity

• List each of the angiosperms at Station 1 in the table below,

and identify each of those plants as either a monocot or a
eudicot. Also list the characteristic(s) you used to determine
whether each is a monocot or a eudicot.

Plant Monocot or Characteristic(s) used to determine

Name Eudicot? monocot or eudicot

STATION II: Root Anatomy & Diversity

2. Write the number(s) on the structures on the root model next
to the correct names of the structures below:
_____ Apical meristem
_____ Cortex
_____ Epidermis
_____ Phloem
_____ Root cap
_____ Xylem
3. Based on its roots, is the grass a monocot or a eudicot? What
about the dandelion?

Chapter 10 | 233
4. What is the function of adventitious roots in ivy or Virginia
creeper?

5. What are the functions of prop roots in corn?

STATION III: Stem Anatomy & Diversity

6. Write the number(s) on the structures on the monocot stem
model next to the correct names of the structures below:
_____ Cortex
_____ Epidermis
_____ Phloem
_____ Vascular bundle girdle
_____ Xylem
7. Write the number(s) on the structures on the eudicot stem
model next to the correct names of the structures below:
_____ Cortex
_____ Epidermis
_____ Phloem
_____ Vascular bundle girdle
_____ Xylem
8. What is the major difference between the arrangement of
vascular bundles in monocot and eudicot stems?

9. Onions and potatoes grow underground. However, they are not

considered root vegetables. Why not?

10. Pick at least two of the provided “tree cookies”, and list the
species you chose, and your estimates of their ages below:

234 | Chapter 10
 Tree species Estimated age (years)

STATION IV: Leaf Anatomy & Diversity

11. Write the number(s) from the leaf model next to the correct
names of the structures below:
_____ Chloroplast
_____ Cuticle
_____ Lower epidermis
_____ Palisade mesophyll
_____ Phloem
_____ Spongy mesophyll
_____ Stoma
_____ Upper epidermis
_____ Vascular bundle sheath
_____ Xylem
12. In the space below, sketch a monocot leaf and a eudicot leaf,
making sure to illustrate the differences in the arrangement of their
veins. Label each picture as either a monocot or a eudicot, and also
give a description of the arrangement of their leaf veins.

13. Knowing that the spines on the provided cactus are actually
modified leaves, what is the green portion of the cactus at this
station, and where (in what structure) would photosynthesis occur
in this cactus?

14. What specific tissue in the celery stalk is stained the same
color as the colored water? How did you come to this conclusion?

15. What is the botanical difference between herbs and spices?

Chapter 10 | 235
STATIONS V-VI: Microscopic Examination of Plant Tissues
16. Look at the slide showing a longitudinal section of a root with
root hairs on its surface. What do you think might be the function
of root hairs?

236 | Chapter 10
11. Chapter 11

LAB 11

Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Prepared by Jason R. Jones, Modified by J. Ray
University of North Alabama

OBJECTIVES
After completing these laboratory activities, you should
understand/be able to:

• Define angiosperm, flower, pollen, fruit, ovule, seed, perfect

flower, imperfect flower.
• The following flower parts and their functions: anther, carpel,
filament, ovary, ovule, petals, receptacle, sepals, stamen, stigma,
style.
• The botanical distinction between fruits and vegetables.
• The difference between simple fruits, aggregate fruits, and
multiple fruits, and be able to give examples of each.
• The main mechanisms of how seeds are dispersed (wind,
animals, and water), and some examples of each.
• The importance of seed dispersal.
• Why pollination is advantageous for angiosperms.

INTRODUCTION
The angiosperms (flowering plants) are the most diverse plant
group, with 300,000+ species comprising 95% of all vascular plants,

Chapter 11 | 237
and 90% of all plants as a whole. The success of angiosperms can
be directly attributed to their unique reproductive strategy that
utilizes structures not seen in any other plants: flowers, pollen, and
fruits. In these lab activities, you will learn about reproduction in
angiosperms, and familiarize yourself with the anatomy of flowers,
different types of fruits, examine the differences in anatomy and
development of monocot and eudicot embryos, methods of seed
dispersal, and the process of pollination, as well as the anatomy of a
pollen grain.
STATION I: Flower Anatomy and Dissection
Examine the basic anatomy of a flower using a model of a “typical”
flower, but also through dissection of a flower. Flowers represent
the reproductive parts of flowering plants, and are essentially
modified leaves. Depending on the species of angiosperm in
question, (1) perfect flowers contain both male and female
reproductive organs, (2) imperfect (unisexual) flowers have male
and female reproductive organs on separate flowers or (3)
monoecious species are either male or female (on separate
individual plants). The flowers you observe and dissect today, are
perfect flowers. Compare Figure 1 below to the flower model in lab.
Identify all named structures on the plant model as you can. Know
the functions of the flower parts on the following pages, as this
material will likely be on your quiz next week.

238 | Chapter 11
 Figure 1. Anatomy of a generalized flower.
Flowers are highly modified leaves. Non-reproductive regions
called the sepals and petals emerge from the receptacle. One whorl
of leaves is modified into sepals, which protect and support the
flower. Sepals are often green, but may be other colors and look
very similar to the petals. Another whorl of leaves form the petals.
In animal-pollinated plants, petals are brightly-colored to attract
pollinators. Some flowers may also have markings that reflect light
waves in the ultraviolet (UV) spectrum, which we cannot see but are
visible to some pollinators, even at night. Animal-pollinated flowers
often have a nectary, a region containing a sugar-rich liquid, which
serves as a reward for pollinators.
The reproductive structures of flowers includes the male portion
called the stamen, which consist of several distinct parts: a stalk-
like filament, which is topped by an expanded region called the
anther. The anther contains several pollen sacs, which themselves
contain cells that divide by meiosis and eventually develop into the
pollen grains.
The female reproductive portion is the carpel, which includes

Chapter 11 | 239
several distinct structures. The ovary is the expanded base of the
carpel, and contains ovules, which, after fertilization, become seeds.
From the top of the ovary extends a stalk-like structure called the
style, which supports at its top the stigma, which receives pollen
grains during pollination.
When pollen (~sperm) is carried by animals from one plant to
another, pollination occurs. If the pollen reaches the ovule, double
fertilization occurs, in which one sperm cells fuses with the egg cell
to form an embryo, and the other sperm cell fuses with embryo sac
to form the endosperm, which serves as a source of nutrients for
the embryo. The embryo and endosperm (the seed) are contained
within the ovary.
Flower Dissection
Dissect one of the provided flowers; identify as many structures
as you can. Make a cross section through an anther, and observe it
under the dissecting microscope. See if you can identify the pollen
sacs and possibly pollen grains inside the anther. Make a
longitudinal section through the carpel of your flower, and examine
it under your dissecting microscope. See if you can see any ovules
inside the ovary.
*Answer the questions on the worksheet at the end of this lab
exercise relating to the above material*
STATION II: Simple Fleshy Fruits
After fertilization, the ovary, now containing one or more seeds,
develops into a fruit. A fruit, defined botanically, is the seed-bearing
structure formed from the ovary. Fruits function to ensure seed
dispersal from the parent plant.
Fruits can be classified as simple fruits, (formed from a single
ovary of a single flower), aggregate fruits, (from multiple ovaries of a
single flower), or multiple fruits (from the fusion of multiple ovaries
on multiple flowers). In the case where other structures fuse with
the ovary and become part of it, they are called accessory fruits.
Simple fruits can be further subdivided into two main classes:
fleshy simple fruits and dry simple fruits. Fleshy simple fruits
are fruits in which the ripened wall of a flower’s ovary, and any

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accessory parts, when applicable) develop into soft, succulent
tissue. At this station, you will learn about different types of fleshy
simple fruits, and observe examples of them.
To help you learn and understand more about how fleshy simple
fruits are classified, it is important to learn about the different layers
that make up the pericarp (outer portion) in a fruit.
Outer: exocarp, which forms the outer skin of the mature fruit.
Middle: mesocarp, typically the thickest layer of the pericarp in
fleshy fruits, and usually the part that is eaten. Inner: endocarp,
which directly surrounds the seeds.

Figure 4. A fleshy fruit illustrating the layers of the pericarp

(derived from the ovary), and parts of a seed (derived from an
ovule).
Fleshy simple fruits are classified based on the characteristics of
the layers of the pericarp (exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp), as well
as the number and types of seeds found within them.
Types of fleshy fruits:
Pome, an accessory fruit with an ovary whose pericarp (at least
partially) forms a tough core (usually discarded) which contains the
seeds, and fleshy tissue derived from the receptacle of the flower.
Example: Apple.

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 Figure 5. Note the core of the apple is derived from the pericarp
(ripened ovary wall). Though not labeled, the darker line forming
the outer boundary of the core is the exocarp. The fleshy portion
of the apple that is eaten, including the skin (labeled “Floral Parts”
in this figure) is derived from receptacle tissue.
Drupe, a fleshy simple fruit with a succulent exocarp (skin) and
mesocarp (flesh), with a single seed surrounded by an extremely
hardened endocarp. Olives and the peach shown in Figure 6 are
drupes.

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 Figure 6. A peach (a drupe) showing the fleshy exocarp and
mesocarp, with the seed being surrounded by the stony endocarp.
Collectively, the endocarp and enclosed seed of a drupe are
referred to as the “stone” or “pit” of a drupe.
Other drupes include almonds and coconuts. An almond is
actually only the seed of the fruit, surrounded by parts which are
not are eaten. In the unripe almond fruit in Figure 7, note the pale
seed (which is eaten) in the middle of the split almond, and the
layers surrounding the seed, which are not eaten.

Figure 7. An almond fruit (a drupe) showing the edible seed, and

endocarp, mesocarp, and exocarp, which are not eaten.
Coconut. In coconuts, the exocarp and mesocarp of are fibrous,
and forms the “husk”. The edible white “flesh” of the coconut is
actually the endosperm from inside the seed, which is surrounded
by the hardened “shell”, consisting of the seed coat of the seed itself,
bounded to the outside by the stony endocarp. See Figure 8 below,
and see if you can identify the exocarp, mesocarp, endocarp, seed
coat, and endosperm of the coconut.

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 Figure 8. A coconut palm and its fruit (a drupe).
Berry. A fleshy fruit that develops from a single flower with a
single ovary, containing one or more seeds, in which the entire
pericarp develops into potentially edible tissue. Many fruits that
have “berry” in their names (such as strawberries, raspberries, and
blackberries) are not actually berries. Grapes are a classic example
of berries (figure 9). These grapes differ from the grape in the
diagram in that they are seedless. Seedless fruits cannot, by
definition, reproduce sexually, and thus seedless varieties of fruits
are produced by vegetative propagation or through genetic
engineering.

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 Figure 9. Anatomy of a grape (a berry).
Pepo. A modified berry which develops from a single ovary on a
single carpel (not formed from fused carpels) with multiple ovules,
in which the exocarp forms a relatively hard outer rind. Examine the
provided examples of pepos.
Hesperidium. A modified berry which develops from multiple
carpels that fuse. The endocarp is thick and fleshy, and is divided
into segments, indicating the boundaries between fused carpels.
The mesocarp typically develops into a white pith, with the exocarp
developing into a leathery rind.

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 Figure 10. An orange (a hesperidium), showing the thick outer
leathery rind (exocarp), white pithy mesocarp, and a fleshy
endocarp divided into segments separated by septa between
fused ovaries. Credit: Ekko on Wikimedia Commons
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit_anatomy#/media/
File:Orange_cross_section_description.png)
STATION III: Dry Simple Fruits
A dry simple fruit is formed from 1 pistil (which may consist
of multiple fused carpels), and whose coat is dry at maturity. Dry
simple fruits can be split into two main groups based on whether
they naturally split open at maturity to release the seeds (dehiscent
dry simple fruits), or do not naturally split open at maturity to
release the seeds (indehiscent dry simple fruits).
First, we’ll start with dehiscent dry simple fruits. Again, these are
dry simple fruits that naturally split open at maturity to release
these seeds. Some examples of dehiscent dry simple fruits include
legumes, capsules, and follicles, which, with some other types of
dehiscent dry simple fruits can be seen below in Figure 11.

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Figure 11. Examples of several types of dehiscent dry simple fruits
(dry fruits that split open at maturity to release seeds).
Legume. A dry simple fruit that develops from a single carpel,
and which splits along two seams at maturity. Peas and beans are
classic examples of legumes. Peas are the actual seeds, containing
the embryos of developing pea plants.
Capsule. A dry simple fruit that develops from a single made up of
several carpels, which may split along multiple seams representing
the boundaries between fused ovaries in the pistil.
Follicles. Dry simple fruits that develop from one carpel, and
which split along a single seam at maturity to release the seeds.
We do not have a physical example of a follicle, but the fruits of
the milkweed plant are good examples of follicles. Examine the
laminated picture of a milkweed fruit, and see if you can identify the
single seam along which the fruit splits.
Indehiscent fruits are simple dry fruits that do not naturally split
open to release the seeds at maturity. Examples include achenes,
nuts, samaras, caryopsis, and others shown in Figure 11.

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 Figure 11. Examples of indehiscent dry simple fruits (dry simple
fruits that do not split open to release seeds at maturity).
Achene is a dry fruit with a single seed which is attached to the
fruit wall at a single point. Examine the provided example of an
achene.
Nuts have a single seed, but with a fruit wall that is much thicker
and harder than that seen in the achene. Some fruits with “nut” in
the name, however, are not true nuts, but are technically drupes or
other fruit types.
Samara is an indehiscent dry simple fruit that contains one or
two seeds, with part of the pericarp (fruit wall) expanded into a
wing-like structure. These seeds of these types of fruits are typically
dispersed by wind, with wind currents catching the wing-like
portion of the fruit, often carrying it considerable distances. Several
trees, including elms, ashes, and maples produce this type of fruit.
Examine the provided maple samaras. Take one and, holding it at
shoulder height, drop it, noting its movement as it falls. Answer the
question on the worksheet at the end of this lab exercise. (HINT:
The questions on achenes, nuts, and samaras may be easier to
answer after you have visited Station VI!)
Caryopsis. A one-seeded fruit in which the wall of the fruit and
the seed coat of the seed inside are completely fused. This type
is common in many monocots, such as grasses, corn, wheat, etc.
Examine the provide examples of grains.
STATION IV: Aggregate Fruits, Multiple Fruits, and Fruit
Identification
At this station, you will examine some examples of aggregate
fruits and multiple fruits, as well as use what you have learned
about simple fleshy fruits, simple dry fruits, and aggregate and
multiple fruits to identify several fruits as to their types.
Raspberries. An aggregate fruit, which is a fruit made up of
multiple separate ovaries on multiple separate pistils within a single
flower. Figure 12 shows that each individual ball-like unit of a
raspberry is actually a small single drupe, with a single raspberry

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itself consisting of numerous such small drupes, formed from
multiple individual ovaries on the same original flower.

Figure 12. A raspberry flower (left), showing multiple carpels

(each containing a single ovary), and a raspberry fruit (aggregate
fruit) formed from the fusion of multiple individual drupes, each
formed from a single ovary. Technically, a single raspberry

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consists of numerous tiny fruits held together by the receptacle of
the original flower.
Pineapple. A multiple fruit, which is a fruit formed from carpels
on multiple individual flowers, often fused together with other
accessory structures on each flower. See Figure 13.

Figure 13. Pineapple (a multiple fruit). Each scale-like/plate-like

structure on the surface represents a single fruit formed from
a single carpel of a single flower. Thus, an entire pineapple is
formed from multiple fruits formed from multiple flowers. The
“core” of a pineapple is formed from the peduncle, or the stalk to
which all of the flowers were attached. On the right is a single
fruit from a single pineapple flower. Note the bract, which is a
specialized leaf, often associated with a reproductive structure.
The flesh of each pineapple fruit is composed of ovary tissue. The
individual fruits of a pineapple are technically berries.
Identifying “Mystery” Fruits
After the raspberries and pineapple at this station, there are
several other fruits in trays at this station. In the worksheet at the
end of this lab exercise, make a list of all of these “mystery” fruits
in the provided table, and using what you’ve learned about fleshy

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simple fruits, dry simple fruits, aggregate fruits, and multiple fruits,
and try to see if you can identify the specific type of each of the
provided fruits.

STATION V: Embryonic Development in Monocot & Eudicot Seeds

Angiosperms differ in the anatomy of their embryos, as well as in
the development of those embryos. Monocots and eudicots differ
in terms of the number of their embryonic “seed leaves”, which are
called the cotyledons. Monocots have a single cotyledon (‘mono-‘,
one). Eudicots have two cotyledons. Cotyledons are not true leaves,
because in most angiosperms, the cotyledons are not capable of
photosynthesis. Instead, the cotyledons serve to access the stored
nutrients (endosperm) inside of the seed, providing those nutrients
to the embryo until its first true leaves (two in eudicots, and one in
monocots) emerge from the ground and begin photosynthesizing.
The seed is surrounded by a seed coat, and the embryo is housed
inside the seeds of each. The embryos of each group also have
several features in common.

Figure 14. Embryonic development in eudicot (bean) and

monocot (corn) seeds.
At this station, you will dissect both a germinating monocot (corn)
and eudicot (bean) seed, each containing an embryo. The best way
to do this is to simply use a scalpel or razor blade to slice through
the corn seed in a longitudinal section right through the middle

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of the seed. For the bean seed, you can probably actually slide the
seed coat off of the seed with your hands, and then split the bean
manually along its midline, separating the two cotyledons.
After dissecting each of these seeds, compare them to Figure 14,
as well as the provided models, and see if you can locate and identify
all of the structures mentioned in bold above, as well as shown in
Figure 14. You will also note that at both the monocot and eudicot
dissection stations, you have been provided with a dropper bottle of
Lugol’s iodine solution, which can be used to test for the presence
of starch. Normally, this solution is amber/dark orange in color.
However, in the presence of starch, this indicator turns darker,
often becoming bluish-black in color. After you have dissected each
seed, use the provided Lugol’s iodine, and place a single drop of it
on the interior surface of each seed, and note your observations on
the worksheet at the end of this lab exercise. (NOTE: Careful with
the Lugol’s iodine– it will stain your skin and clothes!)
STATION VI: Seed Dispersal
One major advantage provided by the unique reproductive
method of angiosperms (production of flowers and eventually fruits)
is that fruits (containing seeds) provide an opportunity for seed
dispersal, or movement of fruits (with the seeds and embryos
within) away from the parent plants that produced them. You might
be wondering why this might be such an advantage, but a little bit
of thought about basic plant biology can provide us with several
lines of insight. First, consider the fact that (for the most part),
plants are pretty much confined to the environment in which they
sprouted. If a parent plant’s seeds fell very close to the original
parent plants (which would be larger than the developing seedlings),
the developing offspring would be in direct competition with their
parents for water, nutrients, and light. In such a case, the larger
parents would be at an advantage with their larger size, and would
likely outcompete their own offspring for all of the above resources.
As a result, the fitness of the parental plants (likelihood of survival
of their offspring to eventually produce their own offspring,

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perpetuating their parents’ genes into future generations) would be
reduced.
Additionally, what if the parental plants originally germinated and
grew in an environment that was less than ideal, but more suitable
habitats could be found some distance away? In both scenarios, the
ability to disperse their offspring to other locations is beneficial to
both the parents (due to reduced competition) and the offspring
(additional reduced competition, as well as the possibility of landing
in habitats superior to those of their parents).
In examining the fruits (and enclosed seeds and embryos) of
angiosperms, we see a wide variety of adaptations that allow the
embryos within the seeds (within the fruits) to be dispersed to
areas of varying distances from their parents. Given the diversity of
angiosperms, the diverse range of modifications to fruits that allow
for various methods of seed dispersal should come as no surprise.
However, there are several main mechanisms of seed dispersal that
can be observed using different morphological features of fruits
themselves: dispersal by wind, dispersal by animals, and dispersal
by water. Some less common (but still observed) methods of seed
dispersal include dispersal by explosion, as well as dispersal by
gravity. Figures 15-17 below and on the following pages provide some
examples of seed dispersal mechanisms, as well as examples of
plants that utilize those methods of dispersal.

Figure 15. Examples of seed dispersal by wind.

At this station, you should observe all of the provided fruits (again,
containing seeds, which contain plant embryos), as well as read

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about the methods by which they are dispersed. After observing
each of the example fruits, answer the questions at the end of this
lab exercise.

Figure 16. Examples of seed dispersal by animals.

Figure 17. Examples of seed dispersal by explosion.

STATION VII: Pollination and Pollen Tube Growth
Pollination is another advantage to angiosperms in their
reproduction. Pollination refers to the process of transfer of pollen
from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower. Some plants
have the ability to self-pollinate, when pollen from a flower on one
plant is deposited on the stigma on a flower on the same plant.
However, some plants exhibit what is called self-incompatibility,
meaning that they are unable to pollinate themselves. At its heart,
however, pollination can be advantageous when pollen from one
plant is deposited onto the stigma of another plant of the same
species, or cross-pollination. Cross pollination is advantageous, as
it is a form of sexual reproduction, which, as we have learned,

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introduces genetic variation into populations. Remember, in sexual
reproduction, essentially genetic information from each parent is
being randomly shuffled together into each offspring produced,
providing for the opportunity of numerous new combinations of
genes, any of which may provide advantages in a given stable (or
often changing) environment.
The pollination method(s) employed by angiosperms can often
be deduced from the structure of their flowers. Wind-pollinated
flowers tend not to be very showy, as they don’t need colors, flashy
structures, or nectars to attract animal pollinators. However, wind
pollination tends to be very hit-or-miss, so wind-pollinated plants
tend to produce LOTS of pollen.
Plants that are animal-pollinated vary in terms of their flower
characteristics, based on the identity and biology of their primary
pollinators. For example, plants pollinated by diurnal (active during
the day) insects tend to have brightly colored flowers, often with
markings that reflect UV light (invisible to humans, but visible to
many insect groups). Insect-pollinated plants also tend to have
highly fragrant flowers, which attract insects, who have finely-
tuned chemical senses. These fragrances are not always very
pleasant, however. For example, fly-pollinated flowers often have
fragrances similar to rotting meat, which attracts flies that typically
feed on dead and decaying organisms. Insect-pollinated flowers also
often have nectar, which provides pollinator insects with a sugary
“reward” for transferring their pollen, and the structure of insect-
pollinated flowers is often such that to obtain a nectar reward, the
insect has to crawl into the flower, and thus get coated in lots of
pollen which can be transferred to other plants of the same species
when those pollinators visit those individuals’ flowers.
Bird-pollinated flowers are also typically showy and bright in
coloration, to attract their highly visual avian pollinators. Bird-
pollinated flowers also often have lots of nectar rewards, but may
not necessarily be very fragrant, as the sense of smell of birds is
often comparatively poor.
Flowers that are pollinated by nocturnal animals such as moths

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and bats tend to be white and ghostly in color, to provide contrast
during the dark environment at night, and also tend to be heavily
scented, as well as contain abundant nectar, as both moths and
bats have strong chemical senses. Bat-pollinated flowers also tend
to have very distinct shapes, which form relatively unmistakable
“audible pictures” of their anatomy when “viewed” by bat
echolocation. Examine Figure 18 for just a small sample of
pollination by animals.

Figure 18. Two examples of animal pollination in angiosperms.

At this station, you will make microscopic observations of pollen
grains by making wet mount slides of pollen that has been incubated
in a solution of sucrose and boric acid, both of which stimulate the
growth of pollen tubes. Note, pollen tube growth in this lab has been
pretty hit or miss over the years, depending on the species used,
as well as varied experimental concentrations of both sucrose and
boric acid. You may not be able to observe pollen tube growth, but
you should definitely be able to make microscopic observations of
pollen grains themselves.
After making and observing a wet mount of the provide pollen
grains in solution, answer the questions on the worksheet at the end
of this lab exercise. For a bit of help/context, you may wish to refer
back to the information regarding angiosperm life cycles covered
under Station I.

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 BI 102 Lab Worksheet: Plants II Name
_________________________________ Section
_______
STATION I: Flower Anatomy and Dissection
1. Carefully dissect a flower and identify the parts. Sketch the
basic parts of a flower below. Have your
instructor approve your dissection by initialing here _____.

2. What is the main function of flowers in angiosperms?

3. Which part of the flower produces the pollen: Male or Female?

4. The 2 main parts of the male portion of the flower:
______________________,
_______________________
5. The 4 main parts of the female portion of the flower:
___________________, _____________________,
___________________, _____________________
STATION II: Simple Fleshy Fruits
6. What part does the fruit develop from?
_________________________________
7. What part does the seed develop from?
_________________________________
8. Which fruit is normally thought of as a “bean”, but is actually the
fruit of a berry?

9. Look at one of the cross sections of one of the provided

hesperidia. Below, name the hesperidium you chose, and give the

Chapter 11 | 257
number of visible segments (representing the number of fused
carpels) in that fruit.
STATION III: Dry Simple Fruits
10. Based on what you know about the provided achene and nuts,
how would you guess that the seeds of these fruits are dispersed?

11. What is advantageous about the wing-like shape of the samara

fruits of maples, ashes, and elms?

STATION IV: Aggregate Fruits, Multiple Fruits, and Fruit

Identification
12. Fill in the table below with information about all of the
provided “mystery” fruits.

If If Aggregate or
Simple If Simple, Simple, Aggregate Multiple,
Fruit Fruit Fleshy or Specific or Individual Fruit
Name (Y/N) Dry? Type? Multiple? Type?

STATION V: Embryonic development / Seed Germination

13. Is corn a Eudicot or Monocot? Is a bean and peanut a
Eudicot or Monocot?

14. On the peanut, find and define the following:

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 seed coat:
cotyledons (2):
embryo:
endosperm:
STATION VI: Seed Dispersal
15. How is the fruit of a chestnut dispersed?
_______________Sycamore dispersed?
_______________
Coconut dispersed? ________________

16. Name at least one other species of plant that exhibits seed
dispersal via the following methods:
By wind – By animals –
By water –
STATION VII: Pollination and Pollen Tube Growth
17. Which angiosperm flowers tend to produce more pollen:
Wind-pollinated or Animal-pollinated?

18. What was the most interesting thing you learned about
angiosperms in lab?

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