See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/293078066

Sydney sandstone and shale parameters for tunnel design

Article · March 2014

CITATIONS READS

32 5,108

1 author:

Rob Bertuzzi
PSM
21 PUBLICATIONS 318 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Rob Bertuzzi on 25 July 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 CORRIGENDUM 1

The paper by Robert Bertuzzi published in Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 omitted much of the text – the
missing text is now presented with apologies to the author

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN

Robert Bertuzzi
Pells Sullivan Meynink, Unit G3 56 Delhi Road, North Ryde NSW 2113, Australia

1 BACKGROUND
Inherent in any set of rock mass parameters are various assumptions regarding, amongst other things the depth of cover,
the proportion of materials encountered and the scale of the proposed excavations. The characteristics used to define
rock mass parameters of strength and stiffness comprise:
 rock type (lithology)
 strength of the rock substance (intact rock strength)
 fracturing of the rock mass by defects (bedding, joints, shears, etc.)
o persistence and spacings of defects
o number of defect sets
o infill material
o roughness of defects
 groundwater pressures
 reactivity of the rock substance to environmental change (shrink/swell, slaking)
The intention of this paper is to present typical geotechnical characteristics that can be used for tunnelling projects in
Sydney’s Hawkesbury Sandstone and Ashfield Shale based on the Sydney classification system (Pells et al 1998). It
provides the following information.
 A brief discussion about the Sydney rock mass classification system
 A table summarising suggested classification parameters for tunnelling projects for the 10 classes
 Validation of these suggested classification parameters from recent tunnelling projects
 Tables summarising suggested rock mass parameters for tunnelling projects. Two sets of material properties
are provided to cater for different scales as rock mass parameters are scale dependent.
o Overall tunnel scale – properties to be used in continuum analyses e.g. FLAC, Phase 2, PLAXIS, Abaqus.
Specific geological structures, one or two at most, can be included in these types of models.
o Approximately 1 to 2 m3 scale – properties to be used in discontinuum analyses where numerous
geological structures are explicitly modelled, e.g. UDEC and potentially jointed network finite elements
such as that available in Phase2
 Summary sheets showing examples of core photographs and typical Geological Strength Index (GSI) and Q values
for:
o Sandstone – Class I to V; Faults and Shears
o Shale – Class I to V; Fault and Shears.
This paper updates Bertuzzi and Pells (2002) with data from recent tunnelling projects. The database now includes
information from the Ocean Outfalls, Sydney Harbour Tunnel, M2, Eastern Distributor, M5 East, Cross City, cable
tunnels, Epping to Chatswood rail link, Lane Cove, CBD Metro, Wynyard Walk and the Northwest Rail link projects.
Detailed borehole logging from the last three projects has been especially used. This paper also brings into
consideration the rock mass behaviour types recommended by the Austrian Society for Geomechanics (2010). The
example of a nominally 8 m diameter TBM at depths of up to 50 m is used.
It is important for readers to appreciate that any set of design parameters also communicates the designer’s assumptions
regarding the ground conditions to those in the field responsible for implementing the designs. It is vital that those in
the field are vigilant in observing, documenting and interpreting geological structures that may dominate support
requirements at a particular location which would render the “average” rock mass class irrelevant and feed back to the
designers where conditions are different from those anticipated.

2 SYDNEY ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

The classification system for Sydney sandstone and shale - Pells et al. (1998) which updated Pells et al. (1978) - was
intended to assist in the design of foundations on rock in the Sydney area. The classification system is based on rock

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 2 June 2014 95

 CORRIGENDUM 1

strength, defect spacing and allowable seams as shown in Table 1. All three factors must be satisfied. Seams include
clay, fragmented or highly weathered zones.

Table 1: Sydney Classification System (Pells et al., 1998)

DEFECT SPACING (a) ALLOWABLE

UCS
CLASS SEAMS
[MPa] [mm] Description %
I > 24 > 600 Widely spaced < 1.5
II > 12 > 600 Widely spaced <3
Sandstone

III >7 > 200 Moderately spaced <5

IV >2 > 60 Closely spaced < 10
V >1 NA NA
I > 16 > 600 Widely spaced <2
II >7 > 200 Moderately spaced <4
Shale

III >2 > 60 Closely spaced <8

IV >1 > 20 Very closely spaced < 25
V >1 NA NA
(a)
Defect spacing based on ISO/DIS 14689 & ISRM suggested methods replaced the degree of fracturing terms in the
Pells et al. (1978) paper
Pells et al. (1998) recommended that the zone of rock being classified be “over a length of core of similar
characteristics”. That is, “the classification system be applied to portions or units of rock mass having similar UCS,
defect spacing and seam characteristics” (Bertuzzi & Pells, 2002). An example profile of a mapped face was provided
in that paper to clarify the correct method of applying the classification system. This is reproduced in Figure 1.

Figure 1: The wrong and right way to classify (Bertuzzi & Pells, 2002)
While the Sydney Classification System was not intended for tunnelling, it does represent a good method for
communicating rock mass quality in Sydney sandstone and siltstone. It is also useful for linking values put forward for
designs with measured and back-figured parameters from existing excavations (e.g. Bertuzzi & Pells, 2002; Clarke &
Pells, 2007). Hence, it is often used as the basis for tunnelling projects in Sydney. However, the defect spacings which
are appropriate for foundation problems have been found to cover a too narrow range for tunnelling, which needs to
consider spacing in three dimensions.

96 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 2 June 2014

 CORRIGENDUM 1

Typical spacing for bedding and for jointing is therefore suggested in Table 2. It is not intended that this replaces the
Sydney Classification System (Pells et al., 1998) but rather used as a guide as to what to expect in the tunnelling
environment.
Table 2: Suggested conditions for tunnelling projects.
DEFECT SPACING [m]
ALLOWABLE
CLASS UCS [MPa] TYPICAL SEAMS
DEFECTS [%]
BEDDING JOINTS
I > 24 > 0.6 > 1.5 >2 < 1.5
II > 12 > 0.6 >1 >1 <3
Sandstone

III >7 > 0.2 > 0.5 > 0.5 <5

IV >2 > 0.06 > 0.2 > 0.2 < 10
V >1 NA NA
I > 16 > 0.6 >1 >1 <2
II >7 > 0.2 > 0.5 > 0.5 <4
Shale

III >2 > 0.06 > 0.1 > 0.2 <8

IV >1 > 0.02 > 0.1 > 0.1 < 25
V >1 NA NA

3 FIELD DATA VALIDATION

Recent tunnelling projects have provided a large database of drill core logs, comprising 6 km of logs containing over
7200 records of defect characteristics as well as field estimated strengths, point load index tests and laboratory UCS
tests. The data has been collected by several different geotechnical organisations and various geotechnical engineers
and engineering geologists. Hence, any bias of particular geotechnical organisations or individuals should be balanced
out in the collated data.
The database has been accessed to assess the variability in intact strength and the spacing, characteristics and
orientation of defects for each particular class of sandstone and shale. The variability is presented in Figures 2 and 3
and in Tables 3 and 4. The terms used in these tables are from the following standards and guidelines.
 Field estimate strength terms are those of AS 1729-1993 Geotechnical site investigations
 Defect spacing based on ISO/DIS 14689 & ISRM suggested methods
 Defect characteristics follow AS 1729-1993 Geotechnical site investigations
It is submitted that this data validates the bedding and joint spacing for tunnelling projects suggested in Table 2.
In terms of orientation, the recorded data shows bedding is obviously sub-horizontal (to 10°) in both the sandstone and
shale whereas joint patterns differ (Figure 4). In the sandstone, two sub-vertical joint sets are apparent - striking north-
northeast and east-southeast. While these two orientations are also apparent in the shale, other joint sets do occur
dipping between 30 to 50° in various directions.

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 2 June 2014 97

 CORRIGENDUM 1

Figure 2: Distribution of logged spacing and aperture for bedding planes and joints for Hawkesbury Sandstone

Figure 3: Distribution of logged spacing and aperture for bedding planes and joints for Ashfield Shale

98 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 2 June 2014

 CORRIGENDUM 1

Table 3: Variability in strength and spacing as recorded in the drillhole database.

TYPICAL SPACING
STRENGTH TOTAL CORE
RANGE [m]
CLASS AXIAL Is(50)[MPa] SAMPLE
FIELD
BEDDING JOINT LENGTH [m]
ESTIMATE TESTS RANGE AVERAGE
I High 1575 1.0 – 3.0 1.7 0.6 - > 6.0 0.6 - > 6.0 2478
II High 827 0.3 – 3.0 1.5 0.6 - 6.0 0.2 - 6.0 890
Sandstone

III Medium to High 625 0.3 – 3.0 1.4 0.2 - 2.0 0.2 - 2.0 590
IV Low to High 260 0.1 – 3.0 1.0 0.06 - 2.0 0.06 - 2.0 241
V Very low to High 41 <0.03 – 3.0 0.9 0.06 - 2.0 0.06 - 2.0 42
I Medium to High 69 0.3 – 3.0 1.5 0.2 - 6.0 0.2 - 6.0 471
II Low to High 130 0.1 – 3.0 1.3 0.2 - 6.0 0.2 - 6.0 499
Shale

III Low to High 100 0.03 – 3.0 1.0 0.06 - 2.0 0.06 - 2.0 271
IV Very low to High 31 <0.03 – 3.0 0.5 0.06 - 2.0 0.06 - 2.0 130
V Very low to High 10 <0.03 – 3.0 0.08 0.06 - 2.0 0.06 - 2.0 96

Table 4: Variability in the defect characteristics as recorded in the drillhole database.

DEFECT DEFECT CHARACTERISTICS DEFECTS

CLASS
TYPE ROUGH SHAPE APERTURE (mm) INFILL RECORDED
BG Rough Planar – Undulating Clean to 1 - 5 Clay 1066
I
JN Rough Planar – Undulating Clean - 315
BG Rough Planar - Undulating Clean to 1 - 10 Clay 952
II
JN Rough Planar Clean to Veneer Clay - Fe 230
Sandstone

BG Rough Planar Clean to 1 - 50 Clay - Fe 1369

III
JN Rough Planar Clean to Veneer Clay - Fe 511
BG Rough Planar 1 – 50 Clay - Fe 897
IV
JN Smooth - Rough Planar Clean to 1 - 5 Clay - Fe 376
BG Rough Planar - Undulating 1 – 100 Clay - Fe 117
V
JN Smooth - Rough Planar - Undulating 1–5 Clay – Fe 73
BG Smooth - Rough Planar Clean to Veneer Clay 106
I
JN Smooth - Rough Planar Clean - 217
BG Smooth - Rough Planar Clean to 1 - 5 Clay - Fe 314
II
JN Smooth - Rough Planar Clean to Veneer Clay - Fe 467
BG Smooth Planar Clean to 1 - 50 Clay - Fe 420
Shale

III
JN Smooth - Rough Planar - Undulating Clean to Veneer Clay - Fe 411
BG Smooth Planar 1 – 50 Clay - Fe 205
IV
JN Smooth - Rough Planar - Undulating Clean to 1 – 5 Clay - Fe 108
BG Smooth Planar 1 – 100 Clay - Fe 124
V
JN Smooth - Rough Planar - Undulating Clean to 1 – 5 Clay - Fe 18

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 2 June 2014 99

 CORRIGENDUM 1

Based on the field data presented, the typically observed defect characteristics and those characteristics which can occur
but represent adverse conditions are summarised in Tables 5 and 6 for Hawkesbury Sandstone and Ashfield Shale,
respectively.
Table 5: Typical and adverse conditions of defects in Hawkesbury Sandstone.

PARAMETER TYPICAL ADVERSE

Persistence [m] > 20 > 20
Roughness Rough Slightly rough
Bedding Shape Undulating Planar
Aperture [mm] <1 > 10
Infill None / limonite Sandy clay
Persistence [m] > 10 > 10
Class I to V

Roughness Rough Slightly rough

Cross-bedding Shape Undulating Planar
Aperture [mm] <1 <1
Infill None / limonite None
Persistence [m] 5 > 10
Roughness Rough Slightly rough
Jointing Shape Planar Planar
Aperture [mm] <1 > 10
Infill None / limonite Sandy clay
Table 6: Typical and adverse conditions of defects in Ashfield Shale.

PARAMETER TYPICAL ADVERSE

Persistence [m] > 20 > 20
Roughness Slightly rough Smooth
Bedding Shape Undulating Planar
Class I, II & III

Aperture [mm] <1 > 10

Infill None / limonite Silty clay
Persistence [m] 3 >5
Roughness Slightly rough Smooth
Jointing Shape Planar Planar
Aperture [mm] <1 > 10
Infill None / limonite Silty clay
Persistence [m] > 20 > 20
Roughness Slightly rough Smooth
Bedding Shape Undulating Planar
Class IV & V

Aperture [mm] <1 50

Infill Clay coating Silty clay
Persistence [m] 3 >5
Roughness Slightly rough Smooth
Jointing Shape Planar Planar
Aperture [mm] <1 50
Infill Clay coating Silty clay
Notes:
Persistence of cross-bedding is controlled by sandstone bed thickness
Geotechnical models should consider and include adverse conditions, particularly that of defect persistence

100 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 2 June 2014

 CORRIGENDUM 1

Figure 4: Equal area projections for Hawkesbury Sandstone on the left (4675 defects) and Ashfield Shale on the right
(1338 defects)

4 ROCK MASS PROPERTIES

The rock mass properties presented in Tables 7 and 8 are derived following the GSI approach (Hoek & Brown, 1997;
Hoek et al., 2002; Hoek & Diederichs, 2006) tempered with field measurements (e.g. Pells, 1990; Pells, 2004; Clarke &
Pells, 2007). Values of GSI and Q for the various classes are presented in the accompanying summary sheets. Table 9
lists suggested Mohr-Coulomb strength and stiffness parameters based on defect shear tests carried out for the
tunnelling projects.
In order to calculate the Q value an estimate of the in situ stress is required, or more correctly, the ratio of intact rock
strength to stress. Enever (1999) collated in situ stress data that suggested the following stepped profile for the upper
bound major horizontal stress (H):
 Approximately 2.5 MPa above the vertical stress (V) for depths less than 20 m
 Approximately 6.5 MPa above V for 20 – 200 m depths
 Approximately 15 MPa above V for 200 – 1200 m depths
Rather than adopting this profile with seemingly arbitrary steps, Pells (2004) suggested H can be related to V to
simplify the design process as: H = (1.2 to 2.0)V + 1.5. Adopting this same approach to the data presented in
McQueen (2004), the relationship, H = 2.0V + 2.5, is proposed as shown in Figure 5.
This means that the typical in situ principal stresses for depths less than 50 m (stresses at specific locations may be
different) can be assumed to be:
 σv up to 1.2 MPa
 σH ≈ 2.5 + 2.0 σv MPa, i.e. up to 5 MPa.

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 2 June 2014 101

 CORRIGENDUM 1

Figure 5: Major horizontal stress versus depth with the design line H = 2.0V + 2.5 shown (after McQueen, 2004).

102 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 2 June 2014

 CORRIGENDUM 1

Table 7: Hawkesbury sandstone

PARAMETER Class I Class II Class III Class IV Class V

Uniaxial compressive strength, UCS
30 25 15 10 5
(MPa)
Substance

Young’s modulus, E (MPa) 8000 6000 4000 3000 1000

Unit weight,  (kN/m3) 24
Poisson’s ratio,  0.25 0.3
mi 12

Mass Young’s modulus, Emass (MPa) 6000 4000 2500 1500

GSI 85 80 65 55

See tunnel scale

Not applicable
1-2 m3 scale

mb 7.023 5.874 3.438 2.406

parameters
Hoek-Brown (1) s 0.1889 0.1084 0.0205 0.0067
a 0.5 0.501 0.502 0.504
cꞋ (kPa) 1900 1200 400 250
Mohr-Coulomb (2) Ꞌ (°) 55 55 50 45
t (kPa) 500 250 100 25

Mass Young’s modulus, Emass (MPa) 3000 2000 1000 500 100
GSI 75 65 55 45 35
Tunnel scale

mb 4.914 3.438 2.406 1.683 1.178

Hoek-Brown (1) s 0.0622 0.0205 0.0067 0.0022 0.0007
a 0.501 0.502 0.504 0.508 0.516
cꞋ (kPa) 1000 500 300 200 150
Mohr-Coulomb (2) Ꞌ (°) 55 50 50 40 35
t (kPa) < 300 < 100 < 40 < 10 0

Table 8: Ashfield shale

PARAMETER Class I Class II Class III Class IV Class V
Uniaxial compressive strength, UCS
25 15 8 4 1
(MPa)
Substance

Young’s modulus, E (MPa) 6000 4500 2000 1000 250

Unit weight,  (kN/m3) 24
Poisson’s ratio,  0.25 0.3
mi 8

Mass Young’s modulus, Emass (MPa) 3500 2000 500

GSI 65 60 50
See tunnel scale
Not applicable
1-2 m3 scale

mb 2.292 1.917 1.341

parameters

Hoek-Brown (1) s 0.0205 0.0117 0.0039

a 0.502 0.503 0.506
cꞋ (kPa) 600 350 180
Mohr-Coulomb (2) Ꞌ (°) 50 45 38
t (kPa) 200 100 20

Mass Young’s modulus, Emass (MPa) 2000 1000 300 110 15

GSI 55 50 40 30 20
Tunnel scale

mb 1.604 1.341 0.939 0.657 0.459

Hoek-Brown (1) s 0.0067 0.0039 0.0013 0.0004 0.0001
a 0.504 0.506 0.511 0.522 0.544
cꞋ (kPa) 400 250 150 90 40
Mohr-Coulomb (2)
Ꞌ (°) 45 40 35 25 15
t (kPa) < 100 < 60 < 10 0 0
1. Damage parameter D of 0, assumes minimal disturbance to rock mass surrounding tunnel
2. Normal stress range of 0 to 2 MPa assumed

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 2 June 2014 103

 CORRIGENDUM 1

Table 9: Defect properties.

SHEAR
STRENGTH STIFFNESS
INFILL
THICKNESS (MPa/m)
DEFECT TYPE INFILL TYPE MODULUS
(mm) cꞋ Ꞌ (MPa)
(kPa) (°) NORMAL SHEAR
kN kS
Tight Clean or hard mineral 0 40 NA >10000 >1000
Sandstone
1-5 Firm clay 50 30 20 6000 600
Bedding, joints
5-10 Soft clay 10 20 5 800 80
Tight Clean 0 30 N/A >10000 >1000
Shale
1-5 Firm clay 50 25 20 6000 600
Bedding, joints
5-10 Soft clay 10 20 5 800 80
Faults, shears, Equivalent to
Soft clay 10 20 5 150 15
erosional contacts 50 mm

5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is indebted to his colleagues Andrew de Ambrosis, Derek Anderson, Mark Eggers and Ben Rouvray, for
their constructive comments and opinions; and Dan Sandilands and James Smith for their manipulation of spreadsheets.
It is hoped that practitioners will find this paper useful in their work in Sydney.

6 REFERENCES
AUSTRIAN SOCIETY FOR GEOMECHANICS, 2010. Guideline for the geotechnical design of underground
structures with conventional excavation. Salzburg, Austria.
BERTUZZI, R. & PELLS, P. J. N. 2002. Geotechnical parameters of Sydney sandstone and shale. Australian
Geomechanics Journal, 37, 41-54
CLARKE, S. & PELLS, P. J. N. 2007. A large scale cable jacking test for rock mass modulus measurement, Lucas
Heights, Sydney
ENEVER, J. R. 1999. Near surface in-situ stress and its counterpart at depth in the Sydney metropolitan area.
Australian Geomechanics, 65-76
HOEK, E. & BROWN, E. T. 1997. Practical estimates of rock mass strength. International Journal of Rock Mechanics
& Mining Sciences, 34, 1165-1186
HOEK, E., CARRANZA-TORRES, C. & CORKUM, B. Hoek-Brown failure criterion - 2002 edition. North American
Rock Mechanics Symposium, 2002 Toronto
HOEK, E. & DIEDERICHS, M. S. 2006. Empirical estimation of rock mass modulus. International Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 43, 203-215
INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR ROCK MECHANICS, 1978. Suggested Method for Quantitative Description of
Discontinuities in Rock Masses
ISO 14689-1:2003. Geotechnical investigation and testing -- Identification and classification of rock -- Part 1:
Identification and description
MCQUEEN, L. B. 2004. In situ rock stress and its effect in tunnels and deep excavations in Sydney. Australian
Geomechanics, 39, 43-58
PELLS, P. J. N. 1990. Stresses and displacements around deep basements in the Sydney area. 7th Australian Tunnelling
Conference. Sydney, Australia
PELLS, P. J. N. 2004. Substance and mass properties for the design of engineering structures in the Hawkesbury
Sandstone. Australian Geomechanics, 39, 1-21
PELLS, P.J.N., MOSTYN, G. & WALKER, B.F. 1998. Foundations on Sandstone and Shale in the Sydney Region.
Australian Geomechanics Journal , 33 Part 3

104 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 2 June 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone Class I

Example Core

Fine to medium grained, pale grey to yellow, poorly to well-developed bedding, thinly
Lithology laminated to massive, quartz sandstone (av. 70% content) within kaolinite clay (up to
20%) matrix and some siderite.

Massive and cross-bedded sandstone beds.

Sub-horizontal (<05°/160-200°) undulating, rough bedding planes with occasional up
Characteristic

Defects to 10 mm thick clayey silty sand. Individual beds are typically 2 m thick, ranging 1 m
to 5 m. Two sub-vertical joint sets occur (75°/120° and 75°/020°) and are typically
planar, rough & tight. One set spaced at approx. 3 m, the other at 5 m to 10 m

Strength High strength; 30 MPa typical.

Weathering Typically fresh

RQD 90-100%

< 0.01 to 25 Lugeon (log mean 0.02 uL)

Permeability
except up to >100 uL where flow governed by individual defects.

4 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone Class I

DEFECT BEDDING CROSS-BEDDING JOINTING

Dip [°] 0 to 5° 0° to 20° 60 to 90°
Dip direction (gn) [°] 160 to 200° Mostly 0° to 90° 90-140° and 350-030°
Case Typical Adverse Typical Adverse Typical Adverse
Characteristic

Spacing [m] 2 0.5 2 0.5 5 2

Persistence [m] > 20 > 20 > 10 > 10 5 > 10
Slightly Slightly Slightly
Roughness Rough Rough Rough
rough rough rough
Shape Undulating Planar Undulating Planar Planar Planar
Aperture [mm] <1 > 10 <1 <1 <1 > 10
None / None / None /
Infill Sandy clay None Sandy clay
limonite limonite limonite

Characteristic GSI – 1m3 (orange highlight) and TBM Tunnel Scale (green shade)

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 5

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone Class I

1 STABLE
Ground Behaviour Type Stable ground with the potential of small local
gravity induced falling of rocks

Typical In situ Stress σv ≤ 1.2 MPa

for depths ≤ 50 m σH ≈ 2.5 + 2.0 σv MPa, i.e. ≤ 5 MPa
(stresses at specific locations may be σh = 0.7 σH, i.e. ≤ 3.5 MPa
different) hence, σc/σ1 > 5

Q RQD Jn Jr Ja Jw SRF

22.5 – 150
90-100 2-4 1-3 1 1 1
Good to Extremely Good

6 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone Class II

Example Core

Fine to medium grained, pale grey to yellow, poorly to well-developed bedding, thinly
Lithology laminated to massive, quartz sandstone (av. 70% content) within kaolinite clay (up to
20%) matrix and some siderite.

Massive and cross-bedded sandstone beds.

Sub-horizontal (<05°/160-200°) undulating, rough bedding planes with occasional up
Defects to 10 mm thick clayey silty sand. Individual beds are typically 2 m thick, ranging 1 to
5 m. Two sub-vertical joint sets occur (75°/120° and 75°/020°) and are typically
Characteristic

planar, rough & tight. One set spaced at approx. 3 m, the other at 5 m to 10 m.

Strength High strength; 25–30 MPa typical.

Weathering Slightly weathered to fresh.

RQD 90-100%

< 0.01 to 25 Lugeon (log mean 0.02 uL)

Permeability
except up to >100 uL where flow governed by individual defects

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 7

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone Class II

DEFECT BEDDING CROSS-BEDDING JOINTING

Dip [°] 0 to 5° 0° to 20° 60 to 90°
Dip direction (gn) [°] 160 to 200° Mostly 0° to 90° 90-140° and 350-030°
Case Typical Adverse Typical Adverse Typical Adverse
Characteristic

Spacing [m] 2 0.5 2 0.5 5 2

Persistence [m] > 20 > 20 > 10 > 10 5 > 10
Slightly Slightly Slightly
Roughness Rough Rough Rough
rough rough rough
Shape Undulating Planar Undulating Planar Planar Planar
Aperture [mm] <1 > 10 <1 <1 <1 > 10
None / None / None /
Infill Sandy clay None Sandy clay
limonite limonite limonite

Characteristic GSI – 1m3 (orange highlight) and TBM Tunnel Scale (green shade)

8 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone Class II

1 STABLE
Ground Behaviour Type Stable ground with the potential of small local
gravity induced falling of rocks

Typical In situ Stress σv ≤ 1.2 MPa

for depths ≤ 50 m σH ≈ 2.5 + 2.0 σv MPa, i.e. ≤ 5 MPa
(stresses at specific locations may be σh = 0.7 σH, i.e. ≤ 3.5 MPa
different) hence, σc/σ1 > 5

Q RQD Jn Jr Ja Jw SRF

5 – 75
90-100 4 1-3 1-2 1 1-2
Fair to Very Good

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 9

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone Class III

Example Core

Fine to medium grained, pale grey to yellow, poorly to well-developed bedding, thinly
Lithology laminated to massive, quartz sandstone (av. 70% content) within kaolinite clay (up to
20%) matrix and some siderite.

Massive and cross-bedded sandstone beds.

Sub-horizontal (<05°/160-200°) undulating, rough bedding planes with occasional up
Defects to 10 mm thick clayey silty sand. Individual beds are typically 2 m thick, ranging 1 m
to 5 m. Two sub-vertical joint sets occur (75°/120° and 75°/020°) and are typically
Characteristic

planar, rough & tight. One set spaced at approx. 3 m, the other at 5 m to 10 m

Strength High strength; 15 MPa typical.

Weathering Moderately to slightly weathered.

RQD 75-100%

< 0.1 to 25 Lugeon (log mean 1 uL)

Permeability
except up to >100 uL where flow governed by individual defects.

10 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone Class III

DEFECT BEDDING CROSS-BEDDING JOINTING

Dip [°] 0 to 5° 0° to 20° 60 to 90°
Dip direction (gn) [°] 160 to 200° Mostly 0° to 90° 90-140° and 350-030°
Case Typical Adverse Typical Adverse Typical Adverse
Characteristic

Spacing [m] 2 0.5 2 0.5 5 2

Persistence [m] > 20 > 20 > 10 > 10 5 > 10
Slightly Slightly Slightly
Roughness Rough Rough Rough
rough rough rough
Shape Undulating Planar Undulating Planar Planar Planar
Aperture [mm] <1 > 10 <1 <1 <1 > 10
None / None / None /
Infill Sandy clay None Sandy clay
limonite limonite limonite

Characteristic GSI – 1m3 (orange highlight) and TBM Tunnel Scale (green shade)

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 11

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone Class III

2 BLOCK FALL
Ground Behaviour Type Discontinuity controlled, gravity induced falling and sliding
of blocks, occasional local shear failure on discontinuities

Typical In situ Stress σv ≤ 1.2 MPa

for depths ≤ 50 m σH ≈ 2.5 + 2.0 σv MPa, i.e. ≤ 5 MPa
(stresses at specific locations may be σh = 0.7 σH, i.e. ≤3.5 MPa
different) hence, σc/σ1 > 3

Q RQD Jn Jr Ja Jw SRF

1.5 – 25
75-100 4-6 1-2 2-3 1 1-2.5
Poor to Good

12 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone Class IV

Example Core

Fine to medium grained, yellow to orange to red-brown, poorly to well-developed

Lithology bedding, thinly laminated to massive, quartz sandstone (av. 70% content) within
kaolinite/illite clay (up to 30%) matrix and some siderite.

Massive and cross-bedded sandstone beds, weathering very well developed along
discontinuities.
Sub-horizontal (<05°/160-200°) undulating, rough bedding planes with up to 50 mm
thick of clayey silty sand.
Defects
Individual beds are typically 2 m thick, ranging 1 m to 5 m. Two sub-vertical joint
sets occur (75°/120° and 75°/020°) and are typically planar, rough with iron staining
Characteristic

and some sandy clay infill to 5 mm.

One set spaced at approx. 2 m, the other at 2 m to 10 m

Strength Low to moderate strength; 10 MPa typical

Weathering Highly to moderately weathered

RQD 50-75%

1 to 50 Lugeon (log mean 5 uL)

Permeability
except up to >100 uL where flow governed by individual defects

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 13

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone Class IV

DEFECT BEDDING CROSS-BEDDING JOINTING

Dip [°] 0 to 5° 0° to 20° 60 to 90°
Dip direction (gn) [°] 160 to 200° Mostly 0° to 90° 90-140° and 350-030°
Case Typical Adverse Typical Adverse Typical Adverse
Characteristic

Spacing [m] 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 5 2

Persistence [m] > 20 > 20 > 10 > 10 5 > 10
Slightly Slightly Slightly
Roughness Rough Rough Rough
rough rough rough
Shape Undulating Planar Undulating Planar Planar Planar
Aperture [mm] <1 > 10 <1 <1 <1 > 10
None / None / None /
Infill Sandy clay None Sandy clay
limonite limonite limonite

Characteristic GSI – 1m3 (orange highlight) and TBM Tunnel Scale (green shade)

14 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone Class IV

2 BLOCK FALL TO
3 SHALLOW FAILURE
Discontinuity controlled, gravity induced falling and sliding of blocks,
Ground Behaviour Type occasional local shear failure on discontinuities
to
Shallow stress induced failure in combination with discontinuity and gravity
controlled failure

Typical In situ Stress σv ≤ 1.2 MPa

for depths ≤ 50 m σH ≈ 2.5 + 2.0 σv MPa, i.e. ≤ 5 MPa
(stresses at specific locations may be σh = 0.7 σH, i.e. ≤ 3.5 MPa
different) hence, σc/σ1 > 2

Q RQD Jn Jr Ja Jw SRF

0.2 – 10
50-75 6-9 1-2 3-4 0.66-1 1-5
Very Poor to Good

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 15

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone Class V

Example Core

Fine to medium grained, yellow to orange to red-brown, poorly to well-developed

Lithology bedding, thinly laminated to massive, quartz sandstone (av. 70% content) within
kaolinite/illite clay (up to 30%) matrix and some siderite.

Massive and cross-bedded sandstone beds, weathering very well developed along
discontinuities.
Well-developed bedding parallel clay seams 50-150mm thick.
Sub-horizontal (<05°/160-200°) undulating, rough bedding planes with up to 50 mm
Defects thick of clayey silty sand.
Individual beds are typically 2 m thick, ranging 1 to 5 m. Two sub-vertical joint sets
Characteristic

occur (75°/120° and 75°/020°) and are typically planar, rough with iron staining and
some sandy clay infill to 5 mm.
One set spaced at approx. 2 m, the other at 2 m to 10 m

Strength Low strength; 5 MPa typical

Weathering Extremely to highly weathered

RQD < 50%

1 to 50 Lugeon (log mean 5 uL)

Permeability
except up to > 100 uL where flow governed by individual defects

16 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone Class V

DEFECT BEDDING CROSS-BEDDING JOINTING

Dip [°] 0 to 5° 0° to 20° 60 to 90°
Dip direction (gn) [°] 160 to 200° Mostly 0° to 90° 90-140° and 350-030°
Case Typical Adverse Typical Adverse Typical Adverse
Characteristic

Spacing [m] 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 5 2

Persistence [m] > 20 > 20 > 10 > 10 5 > 10
Slightly Slightly Slightly
Roughness Rough Rough Rough
rough rough rough
Shape Undulating Planar Undulating Planar Planar Planar
Aperture [mm] <1 > 10 <1 <1 <1 > 10
None / None / None /
Infill Sandy clay None Sandy clay
limonite limonite limonite

Characteristic GSI – 1m3 (orange highlight) and TBM Tunnel Scale (green shade)

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 17

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone Class V

3 SHALLOW FAILURE TO
7 CROWN FAILURE
Ground Behaviour Type Shallow stress induced failure in combination with discontinuity and gravity
controlled failure
to
Large overbreak in the crown with progressive shear failure

Typical In situ Stress σv ≤ 1.2 MPa

for depths ≤ 50 m σH ≈ 2.5 + 2.0 σv MPa, i.e. ≤ 5 MPa
(stresses at specific locations may be σh = 0.7 σH, i.e. ≤ 3.5 MPa
different) hence, σc/σ1 > 2

Q RQD Jn Jr Ja Jw SRF

0.02 – 3
0-50 6-12 1 3-6 0.66-1 1-5
Extremely Poor to Poor

18 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone – Faults and Shears

Example Core

Rehealed fault

- Bedding parallel shears - Faults

Fine to medium grained, pale grey to yellow, poorly to well-developed bedding, thinly
Lithology laminated to massive, quartz sandstone (av. 70% content) within kaolinite clay (up to
20%) matrix and some siderite.

Steeply dipping fault zones are characterised by several discrete sub-parallel and
interconnected fault planes within a blocky rock mass. Individual fault planes may be
characterised by highly fractured zones and/or sandy clay infilling. A high degree of
jointing is evident within the adjacent rock mass. Joints are generally planar, rough,
Defect Characteristics

clay coated joints dipping 40-80°. Steeply dipping faults are typically normal faults
and exhibit displacement of millimetres to approximately 10 m.
Defects
Sub-horizontal shears are characterised by 20-100 mm seams of clay or crushed
sandstone. Shears are generally bedding parallel but may ‘step up’ 1-5 m from one
prominent bedding surface to another. In cross-bedded facies, shears may follow
cross-beds before breaking through the rock mass to connect to another cross-bed
allowing for a shallow overall angle.

Infill of faults and shears ranges from very low (soil – sandy clay) to moderate
Strength
strength (rehealed infill).

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 19

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone – Faults and Shears

Weathering ranges from extremely weathered to fresh depending on proximity to weathered

Weathering
zone. Faults may act as a conduit to weathering resulting in locally deeper weathering profile
Defect Characteristics

RQD <50%

Faulting may have two opposing effects on the permeability of the rock mass. Fault gouge
and clay infilling will create a low permeability zone while highly fractured zones associated
with faulting may act to increase the permeability of a rock mass.
Permeability
Large scale faulting may also act as a link between two separate water tables effectively
increasing the hydraulic head experienced at depth.

DEFECT STEEPLY DIPPING FAULTS BEDDING PARALLEL SHEARS

Dip [°] 60 to 80° 0° to 10°
Dip direction (gn) [°] Various but NE and SE trending typical 160° to 200°
Case Typical Adverse Typical Adverse
Characteristic

Spacing [m] n/a n/a n/a n/a

Persistence [m] < 50 > 50 < 50 > 50
Roughness Rough Slightly rough Rough Slightly rough
Shape Undulating Planar Undulating Planar
Aperture [mm] < 100 > 100 < 10 > 10
Crushed
Infill Rehealed gouge Sandy clay Sandy clay
Sandstone

20 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Sandstone – Faults and Shears

Normal Fault

Bedding Parallel Shearing

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 21

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale Class I

Example Core

Very fine to fine grained, dark grey to black, well developed bedding, thinly
Lithology
laminated, siltstone and claystone with minor carbonaceous content.

Sub-horizontal (<10°/160-200°) undulating bedding planes. Individual beds are

typically 1 m to 3 m thick.
Two sub-vertical joint sets occur (75°/070-110° and 75°/340-040°) and are typically
Defects planar, slightly rough and tight.
One set spaced at approximately 3 m, the other at 5 m to 10 m.
Characteristic

A third joint set can occur (random) with dips of 30-60° and typically dipping towards
the SW or NE.

Strength Moderate to high strength; 25 MPa typical

Weathering Slightly weathered to Fresh.

RQD 90-100%

<0.1 to 25 Lugeon (log mean 0.02 uL)

Permeability
except up to >100 uL where flow governed by individual defects

22 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale Class I

DEFECT BEDDING JOINTING RANDOM JOINTING

Dip [°] 0 to 10° 60 to 90° 30 to 60°
Dip direction (gn) [°] 160 to 200° 070-110° and 340-040° Various
Case Typical Adverse Typical Adverse Typical Adverse
Characteristic

Spacing [m] 3 0.5 3 2 10 2

Persistence [m] > 20 > 20 3 >5 3 >5
Slightly Slightly Slightly
Roughness Smooth Smooth Smooth
rough rough rough
Shape Undulating Planar Planar Planar Planar Planar
Aperture [mm] <1 > 10 <1 > 10 <1 > 10
None / None / None /
Infill Silty clay Silty clay Silty clay
limonite limonite limonite

Characteristic GSI – 1m3 (orange highlight) and TBM Tunnel Scale (green shade)

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 23

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale Class I

1 STABLE
Ground Behaviour Type Stable ground with the potential of small local gravity
induced falling of rocks

Typical In situ Stress σv ≤ 1.2 MPa

for depths ≤ 50 m σH ≈ 0.5 + 2.0 σv MPa, i.e. ≤ 3 MPa
(stresses at specific locations may be σh = 0.7 σH, i.e. ≤ 2 MPa
different) hence, σc/σ1 ≳ 10

Q RQD Jn Jr Ja Jw SRF

22.5 – 100
90-100 2-4 1-2 1 1 1
Good to Extremely Good

24 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale Class II

Example Core

Very fine to fine grained, dark grey to black, well developed bedding, thinly
Lithology
laminated, siltstone and claystone with minor carbonaceous content.

Sub-horizontal (<10°/160-200°) undulating bedding planes. Individual beds are

typically 1 m to 3 m thick.
Two sub-vertical joint sets occur (75°/070-110° and 75°/340-040°) and are typically
Defects planar, slightly rough and tight.
One set spaced at approximately 3 m, the other at 5 m to 10 m.
Characteristic

A third joint set can occur (random) with dips of 30-60° and typically dipping towards
the SW or NE.

Strength Moderate strength; 15 MPa typical.

Weathering Slightly weathered to Fresh

RQD 75-100%

<0.1 to 25 Lugeon (log mean 0.02 uL)

Permeability
except up to >100 uL where flow governed by individual defects.

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 25

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale Class II

DEFECT BEDDING JOINTING RANDOM JOINTING

Dip [°] 0 to 10° 60 to 90° 30 to 60°
Dip direction (gn) [°] 160 to 200° 070-110° and 340-040° Various
Case Typical Adverse Typical Adverse Typical Adverse
Characteristic

Spacing [m] 3 0.5 3 2 10 2

Persistence [m] > 20 > 20 3 >5 3 >5
Slightly Slightly Slightly
Roughness Smooth Smooth Smooth
rough rough rough
Shape Undulating Planar Planar Planar Planar Planar
Aperture [mm] <1 > 10 <1 > 10 <1 > 10
None / None / None /
Infill Silty clay Silty clay Silty clay
limonite limonite limonite

Characteristic GSI – 1m3 (orange highlight) and TBM Tunnel Scale (green shade)

26 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale Class II

2 BLOCK FALL
Ground Behaviour Type Discontinuity controlled, gravity induced falling and sliding
of blocks, occasional local shear failure on discontinuities

Typical In situ Stress σv ≤ 1.2 MPa

for depths ≤ 50 m σH ≈ 0.5 + 2.0 σv MPa, i.e. ≤ 3 MPa
(stresses at specific locations may be σh = 0.7 σH, i.e. ≤ 2 MPa
different) hence, σc/σ1 ≳ 5

Q RQD Jn Jr Ja Jw SRF

1.5 – 50
75-100 4-6 1-2 1-4 1 1-2
Poor to Very Good

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 27

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale Class III

Example Core

Very fine to fine grained, dark grey to black to yellow brown, well developed
Lithology
bedding, thinly laminated, siltstone and claystone with minor carbonaceous content.

Weathering developed along discontinuities.

Sub-horizontal (<10°/160-200°) undulating bedding planes. Individual beds are
typically 1 m to 3 m thick.
Two sub-vertical joint sets occur (75°/070-110° and 75°/340-040°) and are typically
Defects
planar, slightly rough and tight.
One set spaced at approximately 3 m, the other at 5 m to 10 m.
Characteristic

A third joint set can occur (random) with dips of 30-60° and typically dipping towards
the SW or NE.

Strength Low to moderate strength; 8 MPa typical.

Weathering Moderately to slightly weathered.

RQD 40-75%

0.1 to 50 Lugeon (log mean 1 uL)

Permeability
except up to >100 uL where flow governed by individual defects

28 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale Class III

DEFECT BEDDING JOINTING RANDOM JOINTING

Dip [°] 0 to 10° 60 to 90° 30 to 60°
Dip direction (gn) [°] 160 to 200° 070-110° and 340-040° Various
Case Typical Adverse Typical Adverse Typical Adverse
Characteristic

Spacing [m] 0.3 0.1 3 2 10 2

Persistence [m] > 20 > 20 3 >5 3 >5
Slightly Slightly Slightly
Roughness Smooth Smooth Smooth
rough rough rough
Shape Undulating Planar Planar Planar Planar Planar
Aperture [mm] <1 > 10 <1 > 10 <1 > 10
Clay Clay
Infill Clay coating Silty clay Silty clay Silty clay
coating coating

Characteristic GSI – 1m3 (orange highlight) and TBM Tunnel Scale (green shade)

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 29

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale Class III

2 BLOCK FALL to
3 SHALLOW FAILURE
Discontinuity controlled, gravity induced falling and sliding of blocks,
Ground Behaviour Type occasional local shear failure on discontinuities
to
Shallow stress induced failure in combination with discontinuity and gravity
controlled failure

MW
to
SW

Typical In situ Stress σv ≤ 1.2 MPa

for depths ≤ 50 m σH ≈ 0.5 + 2.0 σv MPa, i.e. ≤ 3 MPa
(stresses at specific locations may be σh = 0.7 σH, i.e. ≤ 2 MPa
different) hence, σc/σ1 ≳ 3

Q RQD Jn Jr Ja Jw SRF

0.2 – 20
40-75 4-6 1-2 2-6 1 1-5
Very Poor to Good

30 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale Class IV

Example Core

Very fine to fine grained, dark grey and brown with minor white clay seams, well
Lithology developed bedding, thinly laminated, siltstone and claystone with minor carbonaceous
content.

Weathering ubiquitous along discontinuities.

Sub-horizontal (<10°/160-200°) undulating bedding planes. Individual beds are
typically 1 m to 3 m thick.
Two sub-vertical joint sets occur (75°/070-110° and 75°/340-040°) and are typically
Defects
planar, slightly rough and tight.
One set spaced at approximately 3 m, the other at 5 m to 10 m.
Characteristic

A third joint set can occur (random) with dips of 30-60° and typically dipping towards
the SW or NE.

Strength Low strength; 4 MPa typical

Weathering Highly to moderately weathered

RQD < 40%

1 to 50 Lugeon (log mean 1 uL)

Permeability
except up to >100 uL where flow governed by individual defects

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 31

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale Class IV

DEFECT BEDDING JOINTING RANDOM JOINTING

Dip [°] 0 to 10° 60 to 90° 30 to 60°
Dip direction (gn) [°] 160 to 200° 070-110° and 340-040° Various
Case Typical Adverse Typical Adverse Typical Adverse
Characteristic

Spacing [m] 0.2 0.1 3 2 10 2

Persistence [m] > 20 > 20 3 >5 3 >5
Slightly Slightly Slightly
Roughness Smooth Smooth Smooth
rough rough rough
Shape Undulating Planar Planar Planar Planar Planar
Aperture [mm] <1 50 <1 30 <1 30
Clay Clay Clay
Infill Silty clay Silty clay Silty clay
coating coating coating

Characteristic GSI – 1m3 (orange highlight) and TBM Tunnel Scale (green shade)

32 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale Class IV

3 SHALLOW FAILURE to
7 CROWN FAILURE
Ground Behaviour Type Shallow stress induced failure in combination with discontinuity and gravity
controlled failure
to
Large overbreak in the crown with progressive shear failure

HW
to
MW

Typical In situ Stress σv ≤ 1.2 MPa

for depths ≤ 50 m σH ≈ 0.5 + 2.0 σv MPa, i.e. ≤ 3 MPa
(stresses at specific locations may be σh = 0.7 σH, i.e. ≤ 2 MPa
different) hence, σc/σ1 ≳ 2

Q RQD Jn Jr Ja Jw SRF

0.01 – 2
0-40 4-6 1-2 4-12 0.66-1 2.5-10
Extremely Poor to Poor

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 33

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale Class V

Example Core

Very fine to fine grained, red to yellow brown with white clay seams, poorly
Lithology developed bedding, thinly laminated, siltstone and claystone with minor carbonaceous
content.

Weathering ubiquitous along discontinuities.

Sub-horizontal (<10°/160-200°) undulating bedding planes. Individual beds are
typically 1 m to 3 m thick.
Two sub-vertical joint sets occur (75°/070-110° and 75°/340-040°) and are typically
Defects
planar, slightly rough and tight.
One set spaced at approximately 3 m, the other at 5 m to 10 m.
Characteristic

A third joint set can occur (random) with dips of 30-60° and typically dipping towards
the SW or NE.

Strength Very low strength; 1 MPa typical design value.

Weathering Extremely to highly weathered.

RQD < 40%

1 to 50 Lugeon (log mean 1 uL)

Permeability
except up to >100 uL where flow governed by individual defects

34 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale Class V

DEFECT BEDDING JOINTING RANDOM JOINTING

Dip [°] 0 to 10° 60 to 90° 30 to 60°
Dip direction (gn) [°] 160 to 200° 070-110° and 340-040° Various
Case Typical Adverse Typical Adverse Typical Adverse
Characteristic

Spacing [m] 0.2 0.1 3 2 10 2

Persistence [m] > 20 > 20 3 >5 3 >5
Slightly Slightly Slightly
Roughness Smooth Smooth Smooth
rough rough rough
Shape Undulating Planar Planar Planar Planar Planar
Aperture [mm] <1 50 <1 30 <1 30
Clay Clay Clay
Infill Silty clay Silty clay Silty clay
coating coating coating

Characteristic GSI – 1 m3 (orange highlight) and TBM Tunnel Scale (green shade)

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 35

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale Class V

7 CROWN FAILURE to
8 RAVELLING GROUND
Ground Behaviour Type Large overbreak in the crown with progressive shear failure
to
Ravelling of dry or moist, poorly interlocked rocks

>25% clay seams

HW
to
EW

Typical In situ Stress σv ≤ 1.2 MPa

for depths ≤ 50 m σH ≈ 0.5 + 2.0 σv MPa, i.e. ≤ 3 MPa
(stresses at specific locations may be σh = 0.7 σH, i.e. ≤ 2 MPa
different) hence, σc/σ1 < 1

Q RQD Jn Jr Ja Jw SRF

0.005 – 0.3
0-40 6-12 1 4-12 0.66-1 5-10
Exceptionally Poor to Very Poor

36 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale – Faults and Shears

Example Core (NWR-BH012, NWR-BH015, NWR-BH022, NWR-BH023 & NWR-BH024)

Fault Splay

Highly fractured rock adjacent to fault plane

Highly fractured rock adjacent to fault plane

Shearing at Ashfield Shale/Mittagong Formation boundary

- Bedding parallel shears - Faults

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 37

SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale – Faults and Shears

Very fine to fine-grained, dark grey to black, well developed bedding, thinly
Lithology
laminated, siltstone and claystone with minor carbonaceous content.

Faults are typically characterised by 100-400 mm zones of disturbed shale (gouge)

infilling. A high degree of fracturing is usually evident adjacent to the faulted zones.
Fractures are generally planar, rough, clean joints dipping 30-60°. Fault splays often
evident adjacent to main fault. Steeply dipping faults are typically normal faults and
have displacements of millimetres to approximately 10 m.
Defects
Sub-horizontal shears are characterised by 20-100 mm seams of clay or crushed shale.
Shears are generally bedding parallel but may ‘step up’ 1-2 m from one prominent
bedding surface to another. Increased shearing is present near boundaries with
Defect Characteristics

Mittagong Formation and Hawkesbury Sandstone.

Infill of faults and shears will range from very low (soil – silty clay) to moderate
Strength
strength; No laboratory strength testing has been undertaken on this material

Weathering ranges from extremely weathered to fresh depending on proximity to

Weathering weathered zone. Faults may act as a conduit to weathering resulting in locally deeper
weathering profile

RQD 0-50%

Faulting may have two opposing effects on the permeability of the rock mass. Fault
gouge and clay infilling will create a low permeability zone while highly fractured
zones associated with faulting may act to increase the permeability of a rock mass.
Permeability
Large scale faulting may also act as a link between two separate water tables
effectively increasing the hydraulic head experienced at depth.

DEFECT FAULTS BEDDING PARALLEL SHEARS

Dip [°] 60 to 80° 0 to 10°
Dip direction (gn) [°] Varies but often 250 to 290° 160 to 200°
Characteristic

Case Typical Adverse Typical Adverse

Spacing [m] n/a n/a n/a n/a
Persistence [m] < 20 > 20 < 20 > 20
Roughness Slightly rough Smooth Slightly rough Smooth
Shape Undulating Planar Undulating Planar
Aperture [mm] < 100 < 100 < 10 > 10
Infill Rehealed gouge Silty clay Crushed shale Silty clay

38 Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014

 SYDNEY SANDSTONE AND SHALE PARAMETERS FOR TUNNEL DESIGN ROBERT BERTUZZI

Shale – Faults and Shears

Normal Fault

Bedding Parallel Shearing

Australian Geomechanics Vol 49 No 1 March 2014 39

View publication stats