Drishti IAS Presents...

2025

A rt and C ulture (January 2024 — January 2025)

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 Contents
Architecture ............................................. 3 Asian Buddhist Conference for Peace......................... 21

Konark Wheels at Rashtrapati Bhavan.......................... 3 Harvest Festivals.......................................................... 22

Corridor Projects for Vishnupad Modhweth Festival...................................................... 22

and Mahabodhi Temples............................................... 4 Hornbill Festival........................................................... 23
Journey of Sanchi Stupa to Europe............................... 5 Maha Kumbh Mela 2025............................................. 24
Martand Sun Temple Glows in Tricolor ........................ 7
Heritage & Other Important Sites
Amravati as a Buddhist Site........................................... 7
Puri Jagannath Temple’s Ratna Bhandar....................... 9
and Cultural Institutions.......................... 27
Sanskrit Inscription Found in POK............................... 27
Restoration of Virupaksha Temple Pavilion................ 10
Cultural Exchange and Growth of
Hoysala’s Sri Madhava Perumal
Kashmir’s Craft Industry.............................................. 27
Temple Reveals Trade Route....................................... 11
Kashmir’s Magic Carpet............................................... 29
ASI Survey of Bhojshala Complex................................ 12
Revival of National Mission
Literature ............................................... 14 for Manuscripts (NMM) ............................................. 30

5 New Classical Languages and Change in Criteria...... 14 Gingee Fort Nominated for

International Abhidhamma Divas................................ 15 UNESCO World Heritage Site...................................... 31

Madhika Language on Brink of Extinction................... 16 Tell Umm Amer and Assam’s Charaideo
Moidams Recognised by UNESCO............................... 32
Visual Arts .............................................. 18 Humayun Tomb World Heritage Site Museum........... 32
51,200 Year Old Cave Painting Discovered................. 18 Kozhikode, UNESCO’s City of Literature...................... 33
GI Tag to Majuli Masks, Manuscript ASI to Delist Lost Monuments..................................... 34
and Narasapur Crochet Lace Craft .............................. 19 6 New MP Sites Listed on Tentative
UNESCO’s Memory of the World World Heritage Sites List............................................. 35
Asia-Pacific Regional Register...................................... 20 Sri Sri Auniati Satra Vaishnavite Monastery................ 37

Religion, Philosophy, Festivals and Miscellaneous ........................................ 39

Traditions................................................ 21 Swami Vivekananda.................................................... 39
1st Asian Buddhist Summit........................................... 21 Maratha Military Landscapes...................................... 40

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Architecture
Konark Wheels at (1238–1264 AD). Its grand scale and intricate
Rashtrapati Bhavan design symbolise the strength and cultural values
of the Eastern Ganga Empire.
Four sandstone replicas of the iconic Konark wheels F The Eastern Ganga dynasty also known as Rudhi
from the Konark Temple have been installed at the Gangas or Prachya Gangas.
Rashtrapati Bhavan’s Cultural Centre and Amrit Udyan.
F It was a major Indian royal dynasty that ruled
This initiative is among various efforts to incorporate
Kalinga from the 5th to early 15th century.
traditional cultural and historical elements into Rashtrapati
Bhavan. v Key Features of Temple:

‹ Konark temple was declared a UNESCO world heritage F The vimana (principal sanctuary) was surmounted
site in 1984. It is built in the Odisha School form of by a high tower with a shikhara (crowning cap)
temple architecture. also known as Rekha deul, which was razed in
the 19th century.
Odisha School of Temple Architecture
F To the east, the Jagamohana (audience hall or
‹ It is a sub-schools of Nagara School of Architecture
Mandap) dominates the ruins with its pyramidal
and comes under East Indian Temples.
mass.
‹ The main architectural features of Odisha temples
F Farther to the east, the natmandir (dance hall),
are classified into three orders, i.e., rekhapida,
pidhadeul and khakra. today unroofed, rises on a high platform.
‹ Most of the main temple sites are located in ‹ Architectural Significance:
ancient Kalinga—modern Puri District, including v Chariot Design: Temple is shaped as a colossal
Bhubaneswar or ancient Tribhuvanesvara, Puri chariot with 7 horses symbolising the days of the
and Konark. week and 24 wheels representing 24 hours in a day.
‹ In general, the shikhara, called deul in Odisha, v Wheel Construction: Each wheel, 9 feet 9 inches
is vertical almost until the top when it suddenly in diameter, has 8 thick and 8 thin spokes, serving
curves sharply inwards. as ancient sundials.
‹ Deuls are preceded, as usual, by mandapas called F The intricate carvings include circular medallions,
jagamohana in Odisha. animals, and foliage on the rims, as well as
‹ Odisha temples usually have boundary walls. luxury scenes within the medallions.
‹ The ground plan of the main temple is almost v Symbolic Elements: The 12 pairs of wheels signify
always square, which, in the upper reaches of its the months of the year, while some interpretations
superstructure, becomes circular in the crowning relate the wheel to the ‘Wheel of Life’—the cycle
mastaka.
of creation, preservation, and realization.
‹ Compartments and niches are generally square,
‹ Cultural Heritage:
the exterior of the temples are lavishly carved,
their interiors generally quite bare. v Dharma and Karma: The Konark Wheel is akin
to the Buddhist Dharmachakra, symbolising
What are Key Facts and the cosmic cycle of Dharma (righteousness) and
Significance of the Konark Sun Temple? Karma (action).
‹ About Konark Temple: v Zodiac Representation: Another interpretation
v The 13th-century Konark Sun Temple, near Puri suggests the 12 wheels represent the zodiac signs,
in Odisha, was built by King Narasimhadeva I linking it to astrological and cosmic principles.

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‹ Sundial Functionality: Corridor Projects

v Time Measurement: Two of the wheels can
determine the time from sunrise to sunset.
for Vishnupad and
v Spoke Arrangement: Wider spokes denote 3-hour Mahabodhi Temples
intervals, thinner spokes represent 1.5-hour The Union Budget 2024-25 revealed plans to develop
periods, and beads between spokes mark 3-minute corridor projects for the Vishnupad Temple at Gaya and
increments. the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar.
v Midnight Mark: The top center wider spoke ‹ Modelled after the Kashi Vishwanath Corridor, these
symbolizes midnight, with the dial moving anti- projects aim to enhance both temples as major pilgrim
clockwise to display time. and tourist destinations.
Rashtrapati Bhavan Halls Renamed ‹ The temples are about 10 kilometres apart and are
culturally significant.
In a bid to align with Indian cultural values and
reduce traces of colonial influence, Rashtrapati Bhavan What are the Key Facts About Vishnupad
has officially renamed two of its prominent halls. Temple and the Mahabodhi Temple?
‹ Durbar Hall is now Ganatantra Mandap, reflecting ‹ Vishnupad Temple at Gaya: It is situated on the banks
the Republic concept, replacing the colonial term of the Phalgu/Falgu river in Gaya district of Bihar. The
‘Durbar’ (courts and assemblies of Indian rulers temple is dedicated to Lord Vishnu.
and the British). v Legend: According to local mythology, a demon

‹ Ashok Hall has been renamed Ashok Mandap, named Gayasur requested the gods to grant him
the power to help others attain moksha (liberation
honouring Emperor Ashoka and Indian cultural
from the cycle of rebirth).
significance. This change aims to remove anglicized
F However, after misusing this power, Lord Vishnu
influences and align with the ethos associated with
subdued him, leaving a footprint in the temple,
the word ‘Ashok.’
believed to be a mark of that event.
v The Rashtrapati Bhavan statement mentioned
v Architectural Features: The temple stands about
that Ashok Hall was originally a ballroom. The 100 feet tall and features 44 pillars constructed
word ‘Ashok’ signifies being free from sufferings from large gray granite blocks (Munger Black
or sorrow, and also refers to Emperor Ashok, stone) joined with iron clamps.
a symbol of unity and peaceful co-existence. F The octagonal shrine is oriented towards the east.
v The word also refers to the Ashok tree, which v Construction: It was constructed in 1787 under
holds deep significance in Indian religious the orders of Queen Ahilyabai Holkar.
traditions, arts, and culture. v Cultural Practices: The temple is particularly
‹ The Rashtrapati Bhavan in New Delhi is the largest significant during Pitra Paksha, a period dedicated
residence of any Head of State in the world. It was to honoring ancestors, attracting many devotees.
originally built as the ‘Viceroy House’ for the British F The Brahma Kalpit Brahmins, also referred to
Viceroy of India and later renamed Rashtrapati as Gayawal Brahmins, have been the traditional
Bhavan when India became a Republic in 1950. priests of the temple since ancient times.
v It was designed by British architect Sir Edwin
‹ Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya: It is believed to be
the site where Gautam Buddha attained enlightenment
Landseer Lutyens, who combined Indian, Mughal,
under the Mahabodhi Tree.
and European architectural styles.
v Construction of Temple: The original temple
Read More: Kartavya Path was built by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century

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BC, with the current structure dating back to the ‹ Key Features:
5th–6th centuries. v Boost to Tourism and Economy: The expansion of
v Architectural Features: It comprises the 50 m high religious tourism is expected to generate foreign
grand temple (the Vajrasana), sacred Bodhi Tree exchange and create jobs, with India’s tourism
and other 6 sacred sites of Buddha’s enlightenment. revenue rising by 65.7% year-on-year (Economic
F It is surrounded by numerous ancient Votive Survey 2023-24).
stupas, well maintained and protected by inner,
v Preservation and Restoration: Projects like the
middle and outer circular boundaries.
Kashi Vishwanath Corridor expand and restore
F It is one of the earliest brick temples from the
temple areas, including smaller temples like Sheetla
Gupta period, influencing later brick architecture.
Mata and Shri Ram Temple.
F The Vajrasana (the Diamond Throne) was
originally installed by Emperor Asoka to mark v Enhanced Visitor Experience: Improvements include
the spot where Buddha sat and meditated. reducing congestion, offering virtual tours, and
v Sacred Sites: providing amenities such as restrooms, shops, and
F Bodhi Tree: Believed to be a direct descendant
improved accessibility with escalators and ramps.
of the tree under which Buddha attained
Enlightenment. Journey of Sanchi
F Animeshlochan Chaitya: Where Buddha spent
the second week of meditation after attaining Stupa to Europe
enlightenment.
India’s External Affairs Minister visited the replica of
F Ratnachakrama: Site of Buddha’s third week
the East Gate of Sanchi Stupa standing in front of
after attaining enlightenment.
Humboldt Forum museum in Berlin, Germany.
F Ratnaghar Chaitya: Site of Buddha’s fourth
week after attaining enlightenment. ‹ It is a 1:1 reproduction of the original structure
standing at almost 10 metres high and 6 metres
F Ajapala Nigrodh Tree: Site of Buddha’s fifth
week after attaining enlightenment. wide, and weighing roughly 150 tonnes.
F Lotus Pond: Site of Buddha’s sixth week after Journey of East Gate of Sanchi Stupa to Europe
attaining enlightenment.. ‹ The East Gate of Sanchi Stupa was cast in plaster
F Rajyatana Tree: Site of Buddha’s seventh week by Lieutenant Henry Hardy Cole for the Victoria
after attaining enlightenment..
and Albert Museum in the late 1860s.
v Recognition: It has been a UNESCO World Heritage
‹ Multiple copies of this cast were later made, and
Site since 2002.
displayed across Europe.
v Pilgrimage Site: The Mahabodhi Temple attracts a
large number of national and international pilgrims, v A plaster cast of the original gate was on display
highlighting its spiritual significance. in the entrance hall of the Königliches Museum
für Völkerkunde Berlin from 1886.
Note:
‹ Other famous tourist places in Bihar are Vishwa v A cast of this preserved copy was made of
Shanti Stupa in Rajgir, Nalanda, Ancient city of artificial stone in 1970.
Patliputra, Valmiki Nagar Tiger Reserve in the ‹ The latest Berlin replica too traces its origin to this
West Champaran, etc,. original cast.
What is the Pilgrim Corridor Project (PCP)? v It was made with the help of 3D scanning,

‹ The Pilgrim Corridor Project (PCP) involves upgrading modern robots, skilled German and Indian
religious sites into world-class destinations for spiritual sculptors, and enlarged photos of the original
and tourism purposes. torana for aid.

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What are Key Facts about the Sanchi Stupa? v Yashti: It is the central pillar supports a triple

‹ Construction of Sanchi Stupa: It was built by Ashoka umbrella structure called chattra.
in the third century BC. v Railing: It surrounds the stupa, demarcating the

v Its construction was overseen by Ashoka’s wife

sacred area and providing a physical boundary
Devi, who hailed from the nearby trading town between the holy space and the external
environment.
of Vidisha.
v Pradakshinapatha (Circumambulatory Path): It is a
v The development of the Sanchi complex was
walkway around the stupa that allows devotees to
supported by patronage from Vidisha’s mercantile
walk in a clockwise direction as a form of worship.
community.
v Torana: Torana is a monumental gateway or
‹ Expansion: During the 2nd century BC (Shunga period),
entrance structure in Buddhist stupa architecture.
the stupa was enlarged with sandstone slabs, a
circumambulatory walkway, and a harmika with a v Medhi: It refers to the base which forms a platform
chattra (umbrella). on which the main structure of the stupa stands.
v From the 1st century BC to the 2nd century AD, ‹ UNESCO Recognition: Sanchi Stupa was inscribed as
four stone gateways or toranas were added, a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1989.
adorned with detailed carvings depicting Buddhist What are the Key Features of
iconography and stories. the Gateways of Sanchi Stupa?
‹ Rediscovery of Sanchi Stupa: It was in abject ruins
‹ Construction: The four gateways (toranas), oriented
when it was discovered by British officer Henry
to the four cardinal directions, were constructed in
Taylor in 1818.
the first century BCE.
v Alexander Cunningham led the first formal survey
v Gateways were built over a period of a few decades
and excavations at Sanchi in 1851.
during the Satavahana dynasty’s rule.
‹ Preservation Efforts: In 1853, Sikander Begum of ‹ Structure: These gateways are made of two square
Bhopal offered to send Sanchi gateways to Queen pillars which support a superstructure comprising
Victoria, but the removal plans were delayed due to three curved architraves (or beams) with spirally-
the 1857 revolt and transportation issues. rolled ends.
v In 1868, the Begum renewed the offer, but the ‹ Engravings: The pillars and the architraves are adorned
colonial authorities declined it, opting for in-situ with beautiful relief and sculptures depicting scenes
preservation. A plaster cast of the eastern gateway from the Buddha’s life, stories from the Jataka tales,
was created instead. and other Buddhist iconography.
v The site was restored to its present condition by v It includes the shalabhanjika (a fertility emblem
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) director- represented by a yakshi grasping the branch of
general John Marshall in the 1910s with funding a tree), elephants, winged lions, and peacocks.
from the begums of nearby Bhopal. v However, the gates do not represent the Buddha
F Marshall’s efforts led to the creation of a museum in his human form.
in 1919 at the site to preserve artefacts and ‹ Philosophical Significance: The three curved architraves
manage conservation. (or beams) have the following philosophical significance.
‹ Architecture of Sanchi Stupa: v Upper Architrave: It represents the seven Manushi
v Anda: It is a hemispherical mound built on earth. Buddhas (previous Buddhas incarnation).
v Harmika: Square railing on top of the mound. It v Middle Architrave: It depicts the scene of the
is believed to be the living place of god. Great Departure, when prince Siddhartha leaves
v Chattra: It is the umbrella built on the top of the Kapilavastu to live as an ascetic in search of
dome. enlightenment.

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v Lower Architrave: It depicts Emperor Ashoka ‹ Association with Harsha: King Harsha (1089 AD to
visiting the Bodhi tree under which the Buddha 1101 AD) of the first Lohara dynasty who looted
attained enlightenment. temples for treasure, is noted for sparing the Martand
Temple, unlike other temples which he desecrated
for wealth.
Martand Sun
‹ Destruction: The temple is believed to have been
Temple Glows in Tricolor partially demolished by Sultan Sikandar Shah Miri,
who ruled Kashmir from 1389 to 1413, though this
The Martand Sun Temple in Anantnag district, J&K
is disputed by some historians.
has been illuminated with the tricolors of the Indian flag
as part of the Independence Day celebrations. v Today, the temple stands partially intact with its

‹ The illumination has filled local residents and tourists impressive grey walls and carved deities still visible.
with a deep sense of pride and joy, drawing large ‹ Current State: The ruins of the temple have been
crowds to witness this historic moment. protected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI),
including during the decade of militancy in the 1990s,
What are Key Facts as a “monument of national importance”.
About Martand Sun Temple?
Kashmiri Temple Architecture
‹ Construction: The Martand Temple was constructed
‹ The Kashmiri temple architecture has its unique
around 1200 years ago by King Lalitaditya Muktapida
features suited to local geography and are renowned
of the Karkota dynasty, who ruled Kashmir from 725
for its exquisite stone carvings.
AD to 753 AD.
‹ Due to its location on the important trade routes,
v It was dedicated to Martand, the Sun god, and
the architectural style is inspired by many foreign
featured grand architecture with influences from
sources.
Egyptian, Greek, and Gandharan styles.
‹ Temple-making reached a great height under the
v The temple had massive grey stone walls and a
rulers of Karakota dynasty and Utpala dynasty.
courtyard filled with river water, symbolising its
‹ The main features of Kashmir style of architecture
grandeur and significance in Kashmiri architecture.
are:
‹ Historical Reference: The temple’s history is
v Trefoil arches (Gandhara influence)
documented in the Rajatarangini, written by Kalhana
v Cellular layout and Enclosed courtyard
in the 12th century.
v Straight-edged Pyramidal roof
‹ Architectural Features: The temple had three distinct
chambers i.e., the mandapa, garbhagriha, and v Column walls (Greek influence)
antralaya, making it unique among Kashmiri temples. v Triangular pediments (Greek influence)
v The ruins suggest the temple was surrounded by a v Relatively more number of steps.
peristyle of 84 pillars, a characteristic of Kashmiri
temple architecture.
Amravati as a Buddhist Site
v The use of lime mortar in the construction, unusual
for its time, suggests the involvement of immigrant The Finance Minister announced Rs 15,000 crore in
Byzantine architects. financial support for Andhra Pradesh to build its capital
‹ Cultural Assimilation: The Martand Temple’s city, Amravati, and boost other development activities
architecture shows a confluence of styles, including in the state.
Classical Greco-Roman, Buddhist-Gandhara, and North ‹ This has brought back focus on Amravati, a site
Indian, reflecting Kashmir’s historical connections of immense historical and spiritual significance in
with various cultures and empires. Andhra Pradesh that remains relatively unrecognised.

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What are the Key Facts About role in the spread of Buddhism, contrasting with
Amravati and Andhra Buddhism? the royal patronage (king Bimbisara or Ajatashatru)
seen in North India.
‹ Historical Evolution:
v Influence on Political Rulers: Traders’ success
v In the late 1700s, Raja Vessareddy Nayudu
and their association with Buddhism influenced
unknowingly discovered ancient limestone ruins
Andhra’s political rulers, who issued inscriptions
in Andhra’s Dhanyakatakam village, which he and
supporting the Buddhist sangha, suggesting a
the locals used for construction, leading to the
bottom-up spread of Buddhism.
renaming of the village to Amravati.
v Integration of Local Practices: Buddhism in
v The systematic destruction of the ruins continued
Andhra integrated local religious practices, such as
until 1816, when Colonel Colin Mackenzie’s intensive
survey, despite causing further damage, led to the megalithic burials, and Goddess and Naga (snake)
rediscovery of the grand Amravati Stupa. worship, into its doctrines, reflecting a unique
adaptation of Buddhism to regional traditions.
v In 2015, the Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister
announced the new capital, Amaravati, inspired ‹ Significance of Amravati in Buddhism:
by the historic Buddhist site, aiming to develop v Amravati is renowned for being the birthplace of
it into a modern city akin to Singapore. Mahayana Buddhism, one of the major branches
‹ Amravati and Andhra Buddhism: of Buddhism that emphasizes the path of the
Bodhisattva.
v Buddhism, which emerged in the fifth century BCE
in the ancient kingdom of Magadh (present-day v Acharya Nagarjuna, a prominent Buddhist
Bihar), made its way to Andhra Pradesh mainly philosopher, lived in Amravati and developed the
through trade routes in Andhra Pradesh. Madhyamika philosophy, focusing on the concept
F Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama,
of emptiness and the middle way.
who attained enlightenment and became known v From Amravati, Mahayana Buddhism spread across
as the Buddha. South Asia, China, Japan, Korea, and Southeast
v The first significant evidence of Buddhism in Andhra Asia..
Pradesh dates back to the 3rd century BCE when ‹ Factors Leading to the Decline of Buddhism in
Emperor Ashoka set up an inscription in the Andhra Pradesh:
region, providing a major impetus to its spread. v Rise of Shaivism: One of the primary factors
F Monks from Andhra were present at the first contributing to the decline of Buddhism in Andhra
Buddhist council held in 483 BCE at Rajgir, Bihar. Pradesh was the rise of Shaivism.
v Buddhism thrived in the region for nearly six F By the seventh century CE, Chinese travellers
centuries until the 3rd century CE, with isolated noted the decline of Buddhist stupas and the
sites like Amravati, Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayapeta, thriving Shiva temples, which received patronage
Salihundam, and Sankaram continuing to practice from aristocrats and royals.
the religion until the 14th century CE. F The growing influence of Shaivism offered
v Historians note that Buddhism’s presence in a more structured and socially integrated
Andhra coincided with its first urbanisation religious framework that appealed to the local
process, significantly aided by oceanic trade, populace and rulers, drawing support away
which facilitated the religion’s spread. from Buddhist institutions.
‹ Difference Between the Nature of Northern Buddhism v Decline of Urbanisation: During the third century
and Andhra Buddhism: BCE, the region experienced significant urbanisation
v Merchant Patronage: In Andhra, merchants, and trade, which supported Buddhism’s spread
craftsmen, and wandering monks played a crucial due to its emphasis on a casteless society.

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F However, six centuries later, economic v The art often features narrative panels depicting
degradation led to a decline in patronage for scenes from the life of the Buddha, Jataka tales,
Buddhist institutions. and various Buddhist rituals and practices.
F By the fourth century CE, Buddhist institutions v A particular depiction of the Buddha from Amravati,
found themselves without much patronage. with the robe on the left shoulder and the other
v Arrival of Islam: With the arrival of Islam, the hand in abhaya (gesture of fearlessness), became
Islamic rulers, who were generally more inclined iconic and was replicated in other parts of South
towards supporting Islamic institutions, withdrew and Southeast Asia.
royal patronage from Buddhist establishments. v Unlike the Mathura and Gandhara schools, which

What are the Key Features show Graeco-Roman influences, the Amravati
school developed a unique style with little external
of the Amravati School of Art?
influence, emphasizing indigenous artistic traditions.
‹ About:
‹ Global Dispersion of Amravati Art:
v During the post-Mauryan period, the Amravati
v Today, sculptures from the Amravati Stupa are
school of art from the ancient Buddhist site of
scattered across the world, with significant
Amravati in Andhra Pradesh emerged as one of
collections in the British Museum, the Art Institute
the three most significant styles of ancient Indian
of Chicago, Musee Guimet in Paris, and the
art, alongside the Mathura and Gandhara schools.
Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.
‹ Historical Context and Influences:
v Indian museums such as the Government Museum
v Amravati Stupa:
in Chennai and the National Museum in New Delhi
F The Amravati Stupa, a grand Buddhist monument, also house pieces of Amravati art.
was the centrepiece of the Amravati School of
v Australia remains the only country to have returned
Art. This site became a hub of artistic and
a stolen Amravati-style sculpture.
architectural activity, significantly contributing
to the development of Buddhist art in India.
F In the early 19th century, government indifference Puri Jagannath
to conserving ancient monuments led to local
people and British officials using stupa materials
Temple’s Ratna Bhandar
for construction, causing further degradation. The Odisha government unlocked the revered Ratna
F Excavations by officials like Walter Elliot in 1845 Bhandar of the 12th-century Jagannath temple in Puri
and the shipment of sculptures to Calcutta, after 46 years.
London, and Madras also contributed to the
What is Jagannath
site’s decline.
Temple’s Ratna Bhandar?
‹ Key Characteristics of Amravati School of Art:
v Major Centres: Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda. ‹ About:
v Patronage: This school was patronised by Satvahana v The Ratna Bhandar is a valuable collection of
rulers. treasures, located on the northern side of the
Jagamohana (assembly hall of temple).
v Key Feature: Tribhanga posture, i.e. the body with
three bends was used excessively by Amaravati v It contains the priceless jewelry of the sibling
school in its sculptures. deities Lord Jagannath, Lord Balabhadra, and
v The sculptures from Amravati are noted for their
Goddess Subhadra which have been offered by
high aesthetic quality and intricate detailing, former kings over many centuries and by devotees
primarily crafted from palnad marble, a special from around the globe.
kind of limestone that allows fine and intricate v The Records of Rights created in accordance with
carvings. the Puri Sri Jagannath Temple Act, 1952, includes

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an inventory of the precious jewelry and assorted

Hastidwara North Brings wealth
adornments belonging to Lord Jagannath. (Elephant Gate)
v It contains two chambers namely the outer (Bahara
Aswadwara South Helps one shed kama
Bhandar) and inner chamber (Bhitar Bhandar), (Horse Gate) (lust)
which has remained closed for the past 46 years.
Vyaghradwara West Reminds one of one's
v As per the inventory last made in 1978, the Ratna (Tiger Gate) dharma (cosmic
Bhandar has a total 128.38 kg of gold and 221.53 law underlying right
kg of silver. behaviour and social
v The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), is the order)
custodian of the temple and had performed a ‹ It is also called as ‘Yamanika Tirtha’ where, according
structural inspection of the Ratna Bhandar in 2008 to the Hindu beliefs, the power of ‘Yama’, the god of
but could not enter the inner chamber. death, has been nullified in Puri due to the presence
of Lord Jagannath.
What are the Key Facts
‹ Associated Major Festivals: Snana Yatra, Netrotsava,
About Jagannath Temple? Rath Yatra, Sayan Ekadasi.
‹ Puri’s Jagannath temple is among the most revered Odisha School (Kalinga Architecture)
Hindu shrines in the state (and India), is dedicated
to the worship of Lord Jagannath, believed to be an ‹ It is a sub-school of the Nagara school, developed
in various parts of the Kalinga empire. Some of its
incarnation of Vishnu, along with his older brother
features were:
Balabhadra and sister Subhadra.
v The exterior walls were lavishly decorated
‹ It is known as the “White Pagoda” and is one of the
with intricate carvings, but the interior walls
chardhams, four of the most sacred pilgrimage sites were plain.
for Hindus.
v There was no use of pillars in the porch. Iron
‹ It is also part of the Golden Triangle of Odisha which girders were used instead to support the roof.
includes three major tourist destinations in the state v The shikhara in the Odisha school was known
that form a triangle and are well-connected. as rekha deul. They were almost vertical roofs
v The other two destinations include Bhubaneswar which suddenly curved inwards sharply.
(City of Temples) and Sun Temple of Konark (Black
Pagoda).
‹ It was constructed by a famous king of Ganga Dynasty
Restoration of
Ananta Varman Chodaganga Deva dating back to Virupaksha Temple Pavilion
the 12th century.
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has decided
v It is an outstanding example of Kalinga architecture, to restore work on the collapsed saalu mantapa or
featuring distinctive curvilinear towers, intricate pavilion (a type of Mandapa) at the iconic Virupaksha
carvings, and ornate sculptures. temple aPrauda Deva Raya part of the Group of
v The four gates of the Jagannath temple are located Monuments at Hampi, designated as a UNESCO World
on the mid-points of its boundary wall, and face Heritage Site.
the four cardinal directions. They are named after
What are the Key Facts
different animals.
About Virupaksha Temple Hampi?
Gate Direction Belief ‹ Virupaksha Temple is the 7th-century Shiva temple in
Singhadwara East Attain moksha Hampi, Central Karnataka.
(Lion's Gate) (liberation from the ‹ Lord Virupaksha, also referred to as Pampapathi is
cycle of birth-rebirth) the main deity in Virupaksha Temple.

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‹ The Virupaksha Temple was built in the Vijayanagara Hoysala’s Sri Madhava
style of architecture and was built by Lakkan Dandesha,
a nayaka under the ruler Deva Raya II, also known as Perumal Temple Reveals
of the Vijayanagara Empire. Trade Route
Group of Monuments at Hampi
Inscriptions found at Sri Madhava Perumal Temple
‹ Hampi, located in central Karnataka on the banks indicate the existence of a major trade route over 1,000
of the Tungabhadra River, is a UNESCO World years ago, connecting the Kongu region in western Tamil
Heritage Site. Spread over an area of nearly 4,200 Nadu with southern Karnataka and Kerala.
hectares, the site contains over 1,600 surviving
monuments, including forts, temples, palaces, What are the Key Facts About the Madhava
and other structures. Perumal Temple?
v It was once the capital of the Vijayanagara ‹ About:
Empire, known for its historical and archaeological v It is dedicated to the Hindu deity Vishnu, who is
significance. worshipped as Madhava Perumal. It is located in
‹ The location of Hampi, amid craggy hills and the Mylapore, Chennai, Tamil Nadu.
Tungabhadra River, provided a natural defensive v The Mylapore region came under the rule of the
setting for the capital city. Hoysala dynasty, particularly King Veera Ballala III.
‹ Hampi’s monuments showcase the pinnacle of v The general of the Hoysala army, constructed
Vijayanagara architecture, a synthesis of the Dhandanayaka Fort, 680 years ago. The temple in
Dravidian style with Indo-Islamic influences. the Dravidian style of architecture was constructed
inside the fort.
‹ Architectural Marvels: The Vitthala Temple complex,
features exquisitely carved pillars and the iconic F The area was later ruled by the Vijayanagara

Stone Chariot. Empire and Tipu Sultan.

F The Battle of Sathyamangalam (1790), during
v The Royal Enclosure with its majestic structures
the Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792), also
like the Lotus Mahal and Elephant Stables.
took place near the fort.
v The Hazara Rama Temple, is known for its
v The temple is believed to be the birthplace of
intricate stone carvings and sculpted panels.
Peyalvar, one of the first three of the twelve Alvar
v The massive Virupaksha Temple, one of the
saints of the 6th-9th century CE.
oldest and most sacred sites in Hampi.
v The temple, largely submerged in the water-
‹ Notable Structures: Krishna temple complex, spread area of the Bhavanisagar dam in Erode
Narasimha, Ganesa, Hemakuta group of temples, district, became visible as the water level in the
Achyutaraya temple complex, Vitthala temple dam dipped.
complex, Pattabhirama temple complex, and Lotus ‹ Temple Inscription:
Mahal complex.
v The inscriptions revealed the existence of a village
‹ The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 named Thuravalur.
by an engineer and antiquarian named Colonel
v The area served as a trunk road, and traders
Colin Mackenzie. crossed River Bhavani and River Moyar to reach
‹ In recognition of its outstanding universal value, Wayanad in Kerala and various places in Karnataka.
the United Nations Educational, Scientific and v Construction of the Bhavanisagar dam in 1948
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) inscribed Hampi resulted in the relocation of nearby residents and
as a World Heritage Site in 1986. the shifting of temple idols to new locations in 1953.

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v Hoysala architecture is known for its distinctive

Bhavanisagar Dam
blend of Bhumija style prevalent in Central India,
‹ It is located in Erode district, Tamil Nadu, India. the Nagara traditions of northern and western
‹ The dam is constructed on the Bhavani River. It is India, and the Karnataka Dravida modes favoured
one of the world’s largest earthen dams. by the Kalyani Chalukyas.
‹ Bhavani River originates from the Nilgiri hills of the F These contain multiple shrines grouped around
Western Ghats, enters the Silent Valley National a central pillared hall and laid out in the shape
Park in Kerala and flows back towards Tamil Nadu. of an intricately designed star.
The Bhavani River is one of the main tributaries of
v They are made out of soapstone which is a relatively
the Cauvery River.
soft stone, the artists were able to carve their
What are the Key Facts sculptures intricately.
about the Hoysala Dynasty?
‹ Origin and Rise: ASI Survey of
v The Hoysalas were feudatories of the Chalukyas Bhojshala Complex
of Kalyana, or the Western Chalukya Empire.
F The first kings came from the hills northwest The Indore Bench of the Madhya Pradesh High Court
of Dorasamudra (present-day Halebid), which has ordered the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) to
became their capital in 1060 AD. conduct a scientific survey of the Bhojshala Temple-Kamal
Maula Mosque complex in Dhar district to clarify its
v The most notable rulers of the Hoysala dynasty
original nature.
were Vishnuvardhana, Veera Ballala II, and Veera
Ballala III. What is the Bhojshala Temple-Kamal Maula
F Vishnuvardhana (also known as Bittideva) was Mosque Complex?
the greatest king of the Hoysala dynasty. ‹ About:
v They governed areas spanning Karnataka and v The Bhojshala Temple-Kamal Maula Mosque
Tamil Nadu in the Kaveri (Cauvery) river valley complex was originally a temple of goddess Sarasvati
between the 11th- 14th century. built by Parawara King Bhoja in 11th Century AD.
v Later, the Vijayanagar dynasty succeeded the v The mosque is built using structural members of
Hoysalas. the temple. The monument also retains some slabs
‹ Religion and Culture: inscribed with Sanskrit and Prakrit literary works.
v The dynasty patronised various religions, such as v Noted as a great patron of art and literature, King
Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. Bhoja is said to have established a school, now
v King Vishnuvardhana was initially a Jain but later known as Bhojashala.
converted to Vaishnavism under the influence of v Under an agreement with the ASI, Hindus perform
the Saint Ramanuja. puja in the temple every Tuesday, and Muslims
‹ Temple Architecture: offer Namaz every Friday.
v The Hoysala Temples were built during the 12th ‹ Dispute:
and 13 centuries CE, showcasing the unique
th
v The controversy revolves around the original status
architectural and artistic brilliance of Vesara style. of the site as a temple.
v Among Hoysala temples, Chennakeshava Temple in v The petitioner cites an ASI report claiming that
Belur, Hoysaleshwara Temple in Halebid, Keshava the original Bhojshala and Vagdevi temples
Temple of Somanathapur are UNESCO World were demolished to build a mosque. A survey
Heritage Sites and protected by Archaeological was requested to determine the actual history
Survey of India (ASI). of the site.

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v One respondent challenged the suit’s maintainability, v Passive Methods: Measure existing physical
citing the principle of res judicata (a thing adjudged), properties.
noting a similar petition was dismissed by the High F Magnetometry: Detect magnetic anomalies
Court’s Principal Bench in 2003. caused by buried structures.
‹ High Court’s Order: F Gravity Surveying: Measure gravitational force
v The court noted that the temple’s character remains variations due to subsurface features.
mysterious until determined. All parties agree on v Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR):
the need to clarify the monument’s nature, a task
F ASI uses GPR to produce a 3-D model of buried
assigned to the ASI under the Monument Act, 1958.
archaeological features.
F The court mandated the ASI to promptly conduct
F GPR operates by introducing a short radar
a comprehensive scientific survey, excavation,
impulse from a surface antenna and records
and investigation using advanced methods like
the time and magnitude of return signals from
GPR-GPS and carbon dating, encompassing not
only the site but also its 50-meter peripheral the subsoil.
ring area. F Radar beam spreads like a cone, causing
reflections before the antenna passes over
What are the Methods the object.
Adopted by the ASI for Excavation? F Radar beams spread out in a cone, leading to
‹ Invasive Methods: reflections that may not directly correspond
v Excavation, the most invasive archaeological to physical dimensions, creating false images.
technique, involves digging using stratigraphic v Carbon Dating:
principles to gather information about the past F Determine organic material age by measuring
while simultaneously destroying it. carbon content (C-14).
F Stratigraphy is adopted by archaeologists to peel
off layers in reverse order and understand the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
logical formation of the archaeological record. ‹ ASI, under the Ministry of Culture, is the premier
‹ Non-Invasive Methods: Non-invasive methods are organization for the archaeological research and
used when investigations are undertaken inside a protection of the cultural heritage of the nation.
built structure and no excavation is permitted. It has ‹ It administers more than 3650 ancient monuments,
several Methods: archaeological sites, and remains of national
v Active Methods: Inject energy into the ground importance.
and measure the response. The methods provide ‹ Its activities include carrying out surveys of
an estimate of the ground’s material properties, antiquarian remains, exploration and excavation of
such as density, electrical resistance, and wave archaeological sites, conservation and maintenance
velocity. of protected monuments, etc.
F Seismic Techniques: Use shock waves to study ‹ It was founded in 1861 by Alexander Cunningham-
subsurface structures. the first Director-General of ASI. Alexander
Cunningham is also known as the “Father of Indian
F E l e c t ro m a g n et i c M et h o d s : M e a s u re
Archaeology”.
electromagnetic responses after energy injection.
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Literature
5 New Classical Languages F Distinct Evolution: The classical language and
literature are distinct from modern, there can
and Change in Criteria also be a discontinuity between the classical
language and its later forms or its offshoots.
The Union Cabinet has approved the recognition of
five more languages as “classical,” expanding the nation’s v In 2024, criteria for declaring a language as classical

list of culturally significant tongues. were revised.

F Under which “Knowledge Texts: Presence of an
‹ Other than 6 languages, Marathi, Pali, Prakrit,
original literary tradition not borrowed from
Assamese, and Bengali have been included in the
another speech community” was replaced by
prestigious category.
“Knowledge texts, especially prose texts in
What is a Classical Language? addition to poetry, epigraphical and inscriptional
‹ About: evidence”.
‹ Benefits:
v In 2004, the Indian government began designating
languages as “Classical Languages” to acknowledge v Languages designated as ‘classical’ receive various
and preserve their ancient legacy. government benefits aimed at promoting their
study and preservation.
v The 11 classical languages of India serve as
v Two international awards are given annually to
custodians of the nation’s rich cultural heritage,
scholars who have made notable contributions to
representing key historical and cultural milestones
the research, teaching, or promotion of classical
for their communities.
Indian languages.
v Indian classical languages (Shastriya Bhasha) are
F These are the Presidential Award of Certificate
languages with a rich historical legacy, profound
of Honour and the Maharshi Badrayan Samman
literary traditions, and distinctive cultural heritage.
Award.
‹ Significance:
v The University Grants Commission (UGC) supports
v These languages have played a key role in the the creation of Professional Chairs in central
intellectual and cultural evolution of the region. universities and research institutions to focus on
v Their texts provide valuable insights into diverse classical Indian languages.
fields such as literature, philosophy, and religion. v To safeguard and promote these linguistic treasures,
‹ Criteria: It was revised in 2005 and 2024 on the government established the Center of Excellence
recommendations of Linguistic Experts Committees for Studies in Classical Languages at the Central
(LEC) under Sahitya Akademi. Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL) in Mysore.
v Revised criteria in 2005 are as follows: What are the Other
F High Antiquity: Early texts and recorded history Provisions to Promote Language?
spanning 1,500–2,000 years. ‹ Eighth Schedule: To promote the progressive use,
F Ancient Literature: Possession of a body of enrichment and promotion of the language. Consists
ancient literature/texts considered valuable of 22 languages:
heritage by generations. v Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada,
F Knowledge Texts: Presence of an original Kashmiri, Konkani, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi,
literary tradition not borrowed from another Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil,
speech community. Telugu, Urdu, Bodo, Santhali, Maithili and Dogri.

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‹ Article 344(1) provides for the constitution of a v After having returned to the earth again, he
Commission by the President on the expiration of five conveyed the message to his disciple Sariputta.
years from the commencement of the Constitution ‹ Mark of Event: Abhidhamma Divas coincides with
for the progressive use of Hindi . the end of the rainy retreat (Vassa) and the Pavāraņā
‹ Article 351 provides that it shall be the duty of the festival.
Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language v Rainy retreat (Vassa) is an annual three-month
‹ Other Efforts to Promote Languages: monastic retreat practised especially in the
v Project ASMITA: The project ASMITA aims to Theravada Buddhist tradition during the monsoon
produce 22,000 books in Indian languages within season.
five years. v The Pavāraṇā festival marks the conclusion of
v New Education Policy (NEP): The NEP policy aims Vassa, where monks come together to confess
to turn Sanskrit universities into multi-disciplinary any faults or mistakes made during the retreat
institutions. and invite their fellow monks to point out any
v Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL): This shortcomings they may have noticed.
institute works to promote four classical languages: v Pavāraṇā festival is celebrated on full moon day
Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, and Odia. of the 11th lunar month which usually in October.
v Central Sanskrit Universities Bill, 2019: It granted What is Abhidhamma Pitaka?
Central status to three deemed Sanskrit universities:
‹ The Abhidhamma Pitaka is the last of three
the Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan and Shri Lal Bahadur
Pitakas that constitute to Pali Canon, one of the
Shastri Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeeth in Delhi,
most popular scriptures of Theravada Buddhism.
and the Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeeth in Tirupati.
v Abhidhamma Pitaka is a detailed scholastic
analysis and summary of the Buddha’s teachings
International in the Suttas. It deals with the philosophy,
Abhidhamma Divas doctrine, psychology, metaphysics, ethics, and
epistemology of Buddhism
Recently, India’s Prime Minister addressed a ceremony v The other remaining Pitakas of Tipitaka are
in celebration of International Abhidhamma Divas (IAD) Vinaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka.
and recognition of Pali as a classical language.
F Vinaya Pitaka is the monastic rules of conduct
‹ It was organised by the International Buddhist
for monks and nuns of the Sangha.
Confederation (IBC) and the Ministry of Culture.
F Sutta Pitaka contains suttas (teachings/
What are Key Facts About discourses) delivered by the Buddha and
International Abhidhamma Divas? his close disciples.
‹ About IAD: Abhidhamma Divas commemorates the ‹ The Abhidharma Pitaka consists of seven different
descent of Lord Buddha from the celestial realm of books.
the thirty-three divine beings (Tāvatiṃsa-devaloka) v Dhammasangani (Enumeration of Phenomena)
to Sankassiya (Sankisa Basantapur, Farrukhabad) in v Vibhanga (Book of Treaties)
Uttar Pradesh. v Dhatukatha (Discussion with Reference to the
v The importance of this location is highlighted by Elements)
the presence of the Asokan Elephant Pillar. v Puggalapanatti (Description of Personality)
‹ Story behind Abhidhamma: According to the Pali v Kathavatthu (Points of Controversy)
texts, Buddha preached the Abhidhamma first to the
v Yamaka (Book of Pairs)
Gods of the Tavatimsa heaven, who were headed
by his mother. v Patthana (Book of Relations)

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What are Key Facts About Pali Language? F The neglect of Madhika is attributed to the social

‹ Origin of Pali: Pali belongs to the Indo-European stigma associated with the Chakaliya community.
language family. They were considered untouchables.
v Initially, Pali was thought to be identical with v Due to the lack of documentation (no script) and the
Magadhi, the language of Magadha (modern- passing of older speakers, there is a significant risk
day Bihar). that Madhika may not survive beyond individuals.
v Recent studies show Pali has a stronger resemblance ‹ About the Chakaliya Community:
to the Prakrits of Western India. v The Chakaliya community was originally nomadic
‹ Classical Language: The Union Cabinet has approved and worshippers of Thiruvenkatramana and
the recognition of Pali alongwith Prakrit, Marathi, Mariamma. They migrated from the hilly regions
Assamese, and Bengali as classical languages. of Karnataka to northern Malabar centuries ago.
‹ Connection with Ashoka: Emperor Ashoka’s inscriptions v Originally categorised as a Scheduled Tribe (ST),
were written Pali especially in modern-day Uttar the community was subsequently reclassified into
Pradesh. the Scheduled Caste (SC) group in Kerala.
‹ Connection with Buddhism: Pali is the language of the
three Theravada Buddhist canon i.e., Vinaya Pitaka,
What is the Status of
Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. Linguistic Diversity in India?
‹ Scripts of Pali: Originally it was written in Brahmi and ‹ Indian Linguistic Space: India has a rich linguistic
Kharosthi scripts. As Buddhism spread, Pali was written heritage, with diverse languages and writing systems.
in local scripts like Sinhalese in Sri Lanka, Burmese in Writing in India dates back to the days of the Indus
Myanmar, Thai in Thailand and Khmer in Cambodia. Valley Civilization, around four thousand years ago.
v Linguistic Survey:
Madhika Language F During colonial rule the first linguistic survey was
conducted during 1894 to 1928 and identified
on Brink of Extinction
179 languages and 544 dialects.
In the remote colony of Kookanam, near Karivellur F In 1991, the Census of India listed 1576 mother
grama panchayat, Kerala the Chakaliya community is tongues’ with separate grammatical structures
grappling with the imminent loss of its unique language and 1796 speech varieties that are classified
Madhika. as other mother tongues’.
‹ There are only two people left, who are the last fluent „ As per UNESCO, any language spoken by
speakers of Madhika. They fear that with their passing, less than 10,000 persons is considered
the language will be lost to the world.
“potentially endangered.
What are the Key Facts about Madhika v Language Families of India:
Language and Chakaliya Community? F There are major language families in India,
‹ About Madhika Language: including Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austric,
v Madhika is a language with no script and is a Tibeto-Burman, and others.
blend of Telugu, Tulu, Kannada, and Malayalam. ‹ Threat of Extinction: As per People’s Linguistic Survey
Despite sounding similar to Kannada, it can bewilder of India (PLSI), a linguistic survey by an NGO (Bhasha
listeners due to its diverse linguistic influences. Research and Publication Centre), there are around
v Madhika is largely influenced by Havyaka Kannada, 400 languages that are at the risk of extinction in
an old form of Kannada. the next 50 years.

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v Most of the languages at risk are spoken by marginal tribes, whose children receive little to no education. If
they go to school instructions are often provided in one of India’s 22 languages recognized in the Constitution.
v Languages without scripts have greater risk of extinction like the Bhili language.
‹ Initiatives Taken to Conserve Threatened Languages:
v Scheme for Protection and Preservation of Endangered Languages (India)
v International Mother Language Day (UNESCO)

What are the Constitutional Provisions Related to Languages in India?

‹ Article 29: Protects the interests of minorities, ensuring that all citizens have the right to preserve their distinct
language, script, or culture.
‹ Eighth Schedule: Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with the official languages. The Eighth Schedule
recognizes 22 official languages.
v Six languages in India currently have ‘Classical’ status.
‹ Article 350A: Provides that every state must provide primary education in the mother tongue.
‹ Article 350B: Provides for the appointment of a “Special Officer” for linguistic minorities.
‹ Article 351: Gives power to the Union government to issue a directive for the development of the Hindi language.
nnn

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Visual Arts
51,200 Year Old Cave v There is a significant amount of rock art in locations
such as Madhya Pradesh in India, but there has
Painting Discovered not been a dating method of this kind.
Recent research has revealed that the world’s oldest F The oldest paintings of Bhimbetka, Madhya
known figurative cave painting is approximately 51,200 Pradesh are estimated to be around 30,000
years old, as determined by the use of a new dating years old.
technique. ‹ Significance:
‹ The painting is located on the ceiling of a limestone v Researchers found that figurative art of humans
cave in the Island of Sulawesi, Indonesia. and animals in scenes has deeper historical roots
than previously thought.
What are the Key
F Neanderthals began marking caves around
Observations about Painting? 75,000 years ago, but their markings were
‹ Artistic Representation: The painting shows: non-figurative.
v A pig standing still with its mouth partly open. v This not only provides insights into the cultural
v Three human-like figures surrounding the pig: practices of early humans but also suggests the
F The largest figure with outstretched arms
emergence of a sophisticated narrative tradition that
employed visual arts to represent the relationships
gripping a rod.
between humans and animals.
F The second figure in front of the pig, holding
a stick. Bhimbetka Rock Paintings
F The third figure upside-down, with legs pointing ‹ Location: It is located south of Bhopal in Vidhyan
upwards and one hand reaching toward the ranges of Madhya Pradesh with rock shelters having
pig’s head. more than 500 rock paintings.
‹ Technique Used in Dating: v The caves of Bhimbetka were discovered in
v Researchers dated rock art using uranium series 1957–58 by V. S. Wakankar
(U-series) analysis of calcite deposits in limestone v It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site
caves. in 2003.
F Researchers used laser beams to compare the ‹ Timeline: The oldest paintings are estimated to
ratio of a specific isotope of uranium to a specific be 30,000 years old and have survived due to its
isotope of thorium in order to determine the location deep inside the caves.
age of the paintings. v There is marked continuity in occupancy of the
„ An isotope is a variant of an atom within caves from 100,000 BC to 1000 AD with many
the same element, sharing the same atomic paintings being painted on top of another.
number and chemical properties but differing F In some places, there are as many as 20 layers
in atomic mass and physical characteristics. of paintings, one on top of another
v This method was also used to date another cave v The paintings at Bhimbetka belong to Upper
painting at Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4, initially estimated Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Chalcolithic, early
to be 43,900 years old. historic and medieval period.
F The findings showed the painting is at least 4,000 F However, most of the paintings belong to
years older than previously thought. the Mesolithic age.

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F Artisans use a single crochet hook to create

‹ Painting Techniques: Various colours like red ochre,
purple, brown, white, yellow and green are used, loops and interlocking stitches, forming delicate
obtained from natural resources. lace patterns.
v Narsapur’s hand-made crochet industry produces a
v Haematite ores were used for red colour and
white probably from Limestone. diverse range of products made of lace— garments,
home furnishings and accessories including Doilies,
v Green prepared from a green coloured rock
Pillow covers, Cushion covers, Bedspreads, Table-
called Chalcedony.
runners, Table cloths, Hand purses, Caps, Tops,
v The Brushes were made of plant fibre.
Stoles, Lampshades, and Wall hangings.
‹ Themes of the Paintings: Every-day life of prehistoric
v Narsapur’s crochet lace products find their way to
men often in stick-like human figures.
global markets, with exports reaching destinations
v Various animals like elephant, bison, deer, such as the UK, USA, and France.
peacock and snake are depicted.
‹ Geographical Indication (GI) Tag:
v Hunting scenes and war scenes with armed men.
v The Department of Promotion of Industry and
v Simple geometric designs and symbols. Internal Trade (DPIIT) under the Ministry of
Commerce and Industry registered the craft in the
Geographical Indications Registry (GIR), certifying
GI Tag to Majuli Masks, that the craft is geographically limited to 19
Manuscript and Narasapur mandals in West Godavari and Dr. B.R.Ambedkar
Konaseema districts in the Godavari region.
Crochet Lace Craft F Narsapur and Palacole are the major trade points
The traditional crochet lace craft of Narasapur in for lace products in West Godavari district. In
Andhra Pradesh receives a Geographical Indications (GI) Konaseema region, Razole and Amalapuram
tag to preserve its unique identity amidst competition are known for the craft.
from machine-made lace from China. ‹ Challenges Faced by Narasapur Artisans:
‹ Similarly, Majuli masks and manuscript painting in v The craft market has been stagnant since the
Assam gain GI recognition, enhancing their cultural Covid-19 pandemic, resulting in a lack of new
significance and safeguarding against decline. orders and decreased production.
v While over 15,000 women are associated with
‹ These GI tags aim to rejuvenate and promote traditional
the craft, only around 200 are actively involved
crafts, ensuring their continued legacy and heritage
in regular production.
preservation.
v Machine-made lace products from China have
What are the Key Highlights About dominated the market, posing a significant threat
Narasapur Crochet Lace Craft? to the demand for Narasapur lace products.
‹ Narasapur Crochet Lace Craft: What are Majuli Masks
v The crochet lace craft originated in 1844 and and Majuli Manuscript Painting?
endured challenges like the Indian famine (1899) ‹ Majuli Masks:
and the Great Depression (1929). By the early v Majuli masks are intricately crafted masks made
1900s, more than 2,000 women were involved in by hand using traditional techniques.
lace crafting in the Godavari region, highlighting v The handmade masks are traditionally used to
its cultural importance. depict characters in bhaonas (a traditional form
v The craft involves transforming thin cotton threads of entertainment, with religious messages), or
into intricate artefacts using delicate crochet theatrical performances with devotional messages
needles of varying sizes. under the neo-Vaishnavite tradition, introduced

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by the 15th-16th century reformer saint Srimanta

‹ Ajrakh textiles consisting of vibrant colours like
Sankardeva. indigo, red and white, are traditionally worn by
F The masks can depict gods, goddesses, demons, nomadic communities like Rabaris, Maldharis,
animals and birds — Ravana, Garuda, Narasimha, and Ahirs.
Hanuman, Varaha Surpanakha all feature among Bela Block Printing:
the masks. ‹ It is another craft from the same region of Kutch,
v Made from a variety of materials including bamboo, which is lesser-known and obscure, mainly practised
clay, dung, cloth, cotton, and wood, the masks by the Khatri community.
can vary in size from covering just the face to ‹ It is a traditional textile art known for its bold
encompassing the entire head and body of the designs, striking colour combinations, and graphic
performer. motifs such as elephants and horses on textured
v Traditional practitioners are modernizing Majuli fabrics.
mask-making by moving beyond the confines of ‹ It has also been listed as an endangered craft by
sattras (Monastery) to embrace contemporary the Office of the Development Commissioner for
contexts. Handicrafts, the national agency that works to
F Sattras were founded by Srimanta Sankardev promote and export Indian handicrafts.
and his disciples to serve as centres of religious, Read More: Geographical Indication (GI)
social, and cultural reform.
F Majuli, with its 22 sattras, is a hub for these
cultural practices. The mask-making tradition is UNESCO’s Memory
predominantly found in four sattras: Samaguri of the World Asia-Pacific
Sattra, Natun Samaguri Sattra, Bihimpur Sattra,
and Alengi Narasimha Sattra. Regional Register
‹ Majuli Manuscript Painting:
In 2024, the Ramcharitmanas, Panchatantra, and
v The manuscript paintings of Majuli are a form of
Sahṛdayāloka-Locana were included in ‘UNESCO’s
religious art closely linked to the island’s Vaishnavite
Memory of the World Asia-Pacific Regional Register’.
culture, centred around worship.
‹ ‘Sahṛdayaloka-Locana’, ‘Panchatantra’, and
v One of the earliest examples of this art form is
‘Ramcharitmanas’ were authored by Acharya
attributed to Srimanta Sankardev, depicting the
Adya Dasama of the Bhagwat Purana in Assamese. Anandvardhan, Pt. Vishnu Sharma, and Goswami
It continues to be practised in every sattra in Majuli. Tulsidas, respectively.
v Majuli Manuscript Painting are inspired by the ‹ The Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA)
Pala school of Painting art. played a vital role in securing the historic moment
F Pala art refers to the style of Buddhist art that during the 10th meeting of the Memory of the World
developed in the Pala Empire of eastern India Committee for Asia and the Pacific (MOWCAP).
(8th-12th centuries). It is characterized by its v This marks the first time IGNCA has submitted
vibrant colors, detailed work, and emphasis nominations to the Regional Register since its
on religious themes. inception in 2008.
Ajrakh Craft and Bela Block Printing ‹ The Memory of the World (MoW) Program is a global
initiative launched by UNESCO in 1992 to safeguard
Ajrakh, a craft of resist-dyeing from Kutch, received
a GI tag, providing legal protection to arts from specific important documentary heritage.
geographical regions. ‹ In the Asia Pacific region, a specific branch called the
‹ Ajrakh, a centuries-old block-printed textile art MOWCAP was established in 1998.
from Kutch, Gujarat, uses natural dyes and intricate v MOWCAP covers 43 countries, representing one
designs to tell stories on cotton fabric. of UNESCO’s five regional programs.

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Religion, Philosophy, Festivals and Traditions

1st Asian Buddhist Summit Note:
‹ Buddha Bhoomi Vandan Yatra was organised by
Why in News? the Indian Council of Cultural Relations (ICCR)
Recently, the first Asian Buddhist Summit (ABS) was in 2022 that facilitated Buddhist scholars from
organised by India’s Ministry of Culture and the countries like Japan, South Korea, and Sri Lanka
International Buddhist Confederation (IBC) in New Delhi, to explore India’s Buddhist sites and learn about
India. its Buddhist heritage.
‹ The IBC is a Buddhist umbrella body based in
What are the Key Highlights of the 1st ABS? New Delhi that serves as a common platform for
‹ About: It’s a significant international gathering aimed Buddhists worldwide.
at fostering dialogue, promoting understanding, and
What are India’s Recent Initiatives to
addressing contemporary challenges in the Buddhist
Support Buddhism?
community across Asia.
‹ Theme: “Role of Buddha Dhamma in Strengthening ‹ Buddhist Tourism Circuit in India
Asia” which emphasises Asia’s collective, inclusive, ‹ First Global Buddhist Summit
and spiritual development. ‹ Asian Buddhist Conference for Peace
‹ Key Themes of the Summit: ‹ Classical Status to Pali Language
v Buddhist Art, Architecture, and Heritage: Highlights ‹ International Abhidhamma Diwas
the rich cultural legacy of Buddhist landmarks like
Sanchi Stupa and Ajanta caves.
Asian Buddhist Conference
v Buddha Cārikā and Dissemination of Buddha
Dhamma: Focuses on Buddha’s travels (Buddha for Peace
Cārikā) and his role in spreading teachings across
The Asian Buddhist Conference for Peace (ABCP), a
India.
voluntary mass movement of Buddhists in Asia convened
v Role of Buddhist Relics and its Relevance in Society: its 12th General Assembly in New Delhi.
Buddha relics inspire devotion and mindfulness,
support local economies through pilgrimage What are the Major Highlights of the 12th
tourism, and promote peace and compassion. General Assembly of ABCP?
v Role of Buddhist Literature and Philosophy in the ‹ Theme: ABCP - The Buddhist Voice of Global South,
21 Century: Demonstrates Buddhism’s enduring
st
reflects India’s commitment, as demonstrated through
relevance in modern philosophical discourse. its G20 presidency and the Voice of Global South
v Buddha Dhamma in Scientific Research and Well- Summit.
being: Integrates Buddhist principles with scientific ‹ India’s Commitment to Buddha’s Legacy: India was
research to enhance mental and physical health. featured as a nation guided by the principles of Buddha.
‹ Exhibition: A special exhibition titled “India as the v Proactive role of India was highlighted in developing
Dhamma Setu (Bridge) connecting Asia” highlighted the Buddhist circuit and establishing the India
India’s role in spreading Buddhism across Asia. International Centre for Buddhist Culture.
‹ Significance for India: The summit supports India’s Act ‹ Constitutional Recognition of Buddha’s Influence:
East Policy and Neighborhood First Policy, focusing on Emphasis was placed on the depiction of Lord Buddha
collective, inclusive, and spiritual development in Asia. in the artwork of the Indian Constitution, specifically

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in Part V, where he is featured in the section on Union ‹ Cultural Significance: Sankranti rituals, including
governance. bathing, offering Naivedhya (food) to Lord Surya,
giving charity, performing Shraddha, and breaking
What is the Asian Buddhist
fast, are performed during the day.
Conference for Peace?
v Devotees often bathe in sacred rivers like the
‹ About: ABCP was founded in 1970 at Ulaanbaatar, Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery.
Mongolia as a voluntary movement of followers
‹ Regional Celebrations:
of Buddhism with both monastic (monks) and lay
v Tamil Nadu (Pongal): The four-day festival marks
members.
the rice harvest, with Tamilians decorating their
v ABCP then emerged as a collaborative effort of
homes with traditional kolams made from rice
Buddhist dignitaries from India, Mongolia, Japan,
powder.
Malaysia, Nepal, the then USSR, Vietnam, Sri Lanka,
South and North Korea. v Karnataka: Locals have a tradition of sharing
sesame and jaggery mixture symbolising harmony
‹ Headquarters: Gandanthegchenling Monastery in
and goodwill.
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.
F Farming communities dress their cattle in colorful
v The Supreme Head of Mongolian Buddhists is the
current ABCP President. costumes and jewels, making them jump over
a fire pit in a display called ‘Kicchu Haisodu’.
‹ Aims of ABCP:
v Punjab (Lohri): Lohri involves bonfires, folk songs,
v Bring together efforts of Buddhists in support
and offerings like groundnuts and popcorn to the fire.
of consolidating universal peace, harmony and
cooperation among peoples of Asia. v Bihar: A festival called ‘Khichdi’ is celebrated
and a dish of the same name (rice and lentils) is
v Furthering their economic and social advancement
prepared. Sesame and jaggery ladoos or chikkis
and promoting respect for justice and human dignity.
are distributed.
v Disseminating the Buddhist culture, tradition
v Rajasthan and Gujarat: Celebrated with kite-
and heritage.
flying competitions and festivals, including the
International Kite Festival in Ahmedabad.
Harvest Festivals F In the evening, sky lanterns light up the skies.
The President of India has greeted citizens on the v Assam (Magh Bihu): Magh Bihu in Assam celebrates
eve of Lohri, Makar Sankranti, Pongal and Magh Bihu. the annual harvest and marks the beginning of
‹ These are harvest festivals celebrated in diverse the Assamese new year.
forms across the various regions of India.
What are the Harvest Festivals in India? Modhweth Festival
‹ About: They are celebrated to mark the end of the The Toda tribe, one of the oldest Dravidian ethnic
harvesting season across India under various names groups in the Nilgiris Hills of Tamil Nadu, celebrated
e.g., Makar Sankranti, Pongal, Magh Bihu, Lohri, etc. their traditional ‘Modhweth’ festival to mark the New
‹ Astronomical Significance: It marks the transition of Year.
the Sun into the Capricorn (Makara) zodiac sign and
What is the Modhweth Festival?
the start of the Sun’s northward journey (Uttarayan).
v It represents the shift from winter to warmer ‹ About:
months, symbolizing the end of inactivity. v It is celebrated annually on the last Sunday of
v Unlike festivals based on the lunar cycle, it follows December or the first Sunday of January.
the solar cycle, resulting in a fixed date of 14th v It is held at the Moonpo temple in Muthanadu
January. Mund village, located in the Nilgiri district.

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v The Moonpo temple features a unique vertical

v Home to several tribal groups such as the
spire with a thatched roof and a flat stone on Adiyan, Aranadan , Kader, Kurichian, Kuruman
top, making it one of the last Toda temples of its , and Kurumbas.
kind in the Nilgiris.
v It portrays the confluence of Afro-tropical and
‹ Rituals and Celebrations: Indo-Malayan biotic zones of the world.
v Prayers are offered to the deity, Thenkish Amman, ‹ Fauna:
for good health, rains, and a bountiful harvest in
v Animals like Nilgiri tahr, Nilgiri langur, gaur,
the coming year.
Indian elephant and freshwater fishes such as
v Participants perform a dance outside the temple Nilgiri danio (Devario neilgherriensis), Nilgiri
as part of the celebrations. barbare are found here.
‹ Unique Customs: ‹ Protected Areas in NBR:
v Toda youth showcase their strength and masculinity v The Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Wayanad
by lifting a greased boulder weighing around 80 kg. Wildlife Sanctuary, Bandipur National Park,
v As per traditional customs, women do not Nagarhole National Park, Mukurthi National
participate in the celebrations. Park and Silent Valley are the protected areas
present within this reserve.
What is the Toda Tribe?
‹ About:
v Toda Tribe is a pastoral tribe of the Nilgiri Hills of
Hornbill Festival
southern India. The Prime Minister of India has congratulated the
v The Todas are classified as a Particularly Vulnerable people of Nagaland on the completion of 25 years of the
Tribal Group (PVTG) in Tamil Nadu. Hornbill Festival. Nagaland is known as the land of
v The Toda language is Dravidian but is the most festivals, and the Hornbill festival is referred to as the
unusual and different among the languages festival of festivals.
belonging to the Dravidian family.
What is the Hornbill Festival?
‹ Significance:
v Toda lands are part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve,
‹ About: The Hornbill Festival, initiated in 2000, is
designated as an International Biosphere Reserve Nagaland’s premier cultural event, showcasing the
by UNESCO. heritage of its 17 Naga tribes. Held from 1st December
to 10th December, it coincides with Nagaland Statehood
v Their territory is recognized as a UNESCO World
Day(1st December).
Heritage Site.
v Hornbill Festival is named after the hornbill bird,
‹ Religion and Beliefs:
a symbol of fidelity, beauty, and grace in Naga
v Their religious practices revolve around a pantheon
folklore.
of gods, with Tökisy (goddess) and Ön (god of the
underworld) as the central deities. ‹ Cultural Celebration: Hornbill Festival serves as a
platform for the Naga tribes to display their rich
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve traditions through performances, dances, and
‹ About: exhibitions.
v It was the first biosphere reserve in India v Warriors, dressed in full ceremonial attire, perform
established in 1986. traditional dances and war cries that narrate stories
v The reserve spans across three Indian states: of victories, harvests, love, and tribal legends.
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala. F Their distinctive attire features hornbill feathers,
v It is India’s first biosphere reserve under boar tusks, and colorful woven sashes, creating
UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme. a striking display of Naga heritage and pride.

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v It serves as the state’s largest tourist event, v The Maha Kumbh Mela is celebrated at Prayag
attracting over 1.5 lakh visitors in 2023, including after 144 years (after 12 ‘Purna Kumbh Melas’).
international tourists. v Maagh Kumbh is celebrated every year in the
Hornbill month of Maagh (Jan-Feb) in Prayagraj.
‹ The Great Indian Hornbill (Buceros bicornis), ‹ Historical Evolution:
also known as the Concave-Casqued Hornbill, is v Background: The Maha Kumbh Mela, transcribed
a large bird found in the Indian subcontinent and by Adi Shankaracharya, originates from the
Southeast Asia. Puranas, describing gods and demons battling for
v It primarily inhabits evergreen and moist the sacred pitcher of Amrit, with Lord Vishnu (as
deciduous forests. Mohini) securing it from demons.
v It thrives in the canopy of tall trees in the
v Ancient Origins: During the Maurya and Gupta
Western Ghats, northeastern states, and the
periods (4th century BCE to 6th century CE), the
Himalayas.
Kumbh Mela began as smaller gatherings of pilgrims
v It is the state bird of Arunachal Pradesh a. India
from across the Indian subcontinent.
hosts nine hornbill species, with the northeast
having the highest diversity. F Its significance increased with the rise of
Hinduism, particularly under rulers like the
Guptas who elevated its status.
Maha Kumbh Mela 2025 F Harshavardhana king of the Pushyabhuti dynasty
The Maha Kumbh Mela 2025, a sacred pilgrimage, started the organisation of the Kumbh fair at
will be held in Prayagraj from 13th January to 26th February Prayagraj.
2025, drawing millions of pilgrims for spiritual purification, v Medieval Patronage: Supported by royal dynasties
cultural celebration, and unity. like the Chola and Vijayanagar empires, Delhi
‹ The word ‘Kumbh’ comes from the root ‘kumbhak’ Sultanate, and Mughals.
(the sacred pitcher of elixir of immortality). F Akbar promoted religious tolerance and granted
What are the Key Facts About Kumbh Mela? Naga Sadhus the honour of leading the royal
entry to the Mela in 1565.
‹ About:
v Colonial Period: British administrators, fascinated
v It is the largest peaceful congregation of pilgrims
by the Kumbh Mela’s scale and diversity, observed
on earth, during which participants bathe or take
and documented the festival.
a dip in a sacred river. This gathering takes place
at 4 different places, namely: F In the 19th century, James Prinsep chronicled its

F In Haridwar, on the banks of the Ganges.

ritualistic practices and socio-religious dynamics.
F In Ujjain, on the banks of Shipra. v Post-Independence Significance: The Kumbh
Mela symbolises national unity and India’s cultural
F In Nashik, on the banks of Godavari (Dakshin
heritage, recognized by UNESCO in 2017 as an
Ganga).
intangible cultural heritage of humanity for its
F In Prayagraj, at the confluence of the Ganges,
enduring ancient traditions.
the Yamuna, and the mythical invisible Saraswati.
‹ Kumbh 2019 Created 3 Guinness World Records:
‹ Different Types of Kumbh:
v Largest traffic and crowd management plan.
v The Kumbh Mela is celebrated 4 times over a
course of 12 years. v The biggest painting exercise of public sites under

v At Haridwar and Prayagraj, Ardh-Kumbh Mela is the Paint My City Scheme.

held every 6th year. v Biggest sanitation and waste disposal mechanism.

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‹ Significance of Kumbh: „ Udaseen Akharas: Founded by Chandra Dev

v Spiritual Relevance: Bathing at the Triveni Sangam (son of Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru).
(Ganges, Yamuna, Sarasvati confluence) is believed to v Peshwai Processions: A grand spectacle featuring
purify sins and lead to spiritual liberation (Moksha). the traditional procession of Akharas, known as
v Cultural Showcase: At the Kumbh Mela, devotional ‘Peshwai,’ which includes participants on elephants,
kirtans, bhajans, and traditional dances like Kathak, horses, and chariots.
Bharatanatyam, and Kuchipudi, highlight themes v Spiritual Discourses: The event features spiritual
of spiritual unity and divine love. discourses led by revered saints and spiritual
v Astrological Timing: Determined by the alignment leaders, alongside a vibrant convergence of Indian
of the Sun, Moon, and Jupiter, making the event music, dance, and crafts.
highly auspicious for spiritual activities. UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of
F At Nashik and Ujjain, if the mela is held when a Humanity
planet is in Leo (Zodiac), it is called Simhastha ‹ This coveted list is made up of those intangible
Kumbh. heritage elements that help demonstrate the
‹ Rituals and Activities: diversity of cultural heritage and raise awareness
v Shahi Snan (Royal Bath): Procession of saints and about its importance.
Akharas (spiritual orders) performing ceremonial ‹ The list was established in 2008 when the Convention
baths. Also known as ‘Rajyogi Snan,’ it signifies the for Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage
start of the Maha Kumbh Mela. came into effect.
F The word ‘akhara’ originates from ‘akhand,’ ‹ Intangible Cultural Heritage of India, recognised
meaning indivisible. Adi Guru Shankaracharya by UNESCO:
sought to unify ascetic organisations to safeguard v Intangible cultural heritage is the practices,
the ‘Sanatan’ way of life. expressions, knowledge and skills that
communities, groups and sometimes individuals
F Akharas symbolise social order, unity, culture,
recognise as part of their cultural heritage.
and ethics, focusing on spiritual and ethical
v Also called living cultural heritage, it is usually
values. They emphasise virtue, morality, self-
expressed in one of the following forms:
restraint, compassion, and religiosity, and are
symbols of unity in diversity. F Oral Traditions
F Performing Arts
F Akharas can be categorised based on their
favoured deity. F Social Practices

„ Shaiva Akharas: Worship Lord Shiva in F Rituals and Festive events

various forms. F Knowledge and Practices concerning nature

„ Vaishnava Akharas: Worship Lord Vishnu in

and the universe
various forms. F Traditional Craftsmanship

S.No. Intangible Cultural Heritage Element Year of Inscription

1 Kutiyattam, Sanskrit Theater 2008
2 Tradition of Vedic Chanting 2008
3 Ramlila, the Traditional Performance of the Ramayana 2008
4 Ramman, Religious Festival and Ritual Theatre of the Garhwal Himalayas, India 2009
5 Chhau Dance 2010
6 Kalbelia Folk Songs and Dances of Rajasthan 2010

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7 Mudiyettu, Ritual Theatre and Dance Drama of Kerala 2010

8 Buddhist Chanting of Ladakh: Recitation of Sacred Buddhist Texts in the Trans-Himalayan 2012
Ladakh region
9 Sankirtana, Ritual Singing, Drumming, and Dancing of Manipur 2013
10 Traditional Brass and Copper Craft of Utensil Making among the Thatheras of Jandiala 2014
Guru, Punjab
11 Nowruz 2016
12 Yoga 2016
13 Kumbh Mela 2017
14 Durga Puja in Kolkata 2021
15 Garba of Gujarat 2023
nnn

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Heritage & Other Important Sites and Cultural Institutions

Sanskrit Inscription Found v Gwalior Inscription (King Bhoja I): Describes

in POK grants to Brahmins and mentions Agraharas,

reflecting socio-economic practices under the
4th century CE Sanskrit inscription was found near Gurjara-Pratiharas.
Gilgit in Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir (POK), written in v B a n s k h e ra C o p p e r P l ate : S i g n e d b y
Brahmi script. Harshavardhana, it provides details about his
‹ The inscription found in Gilgit mentions “Pushpasingha” ancestry, administration, and governance.
installing a Mahesvaralinga for the merit of his guru v Deopara Prashasti: Celebrates the achievements
(name partially lost). of Bengal’s Vijay Sena, providing insights into
Note: the socio-political scenario of the time.
‹ Earlier in 2024, a 10th–century CE Sanskrit and
Sharada script (used in Kashmir for Sanskrit and
Kashmiri) inscription was discovered near Peshawar,
Cultural Exchange
referencing Buddhist Dharini chants with the and Growth of
mention of “Da(Dha)rini” in line six.
v Buddhist Dharini refers to sacred mantras
Kashmir’s Craft Industry
or chants used in Buddhism for protection, Artisans from Kashmir and Central Asia reunited after
purification, and invoking blessings. nearly 500 years in Srinagar for a three-day craft exchange
v These chants are believed to have spiritual initiative, celebrating shared heritage and reviving cultural
power and are often recited in rituals to promote connections.
well-being. Dharinis typically contain sacred
‹ The event celebrated Srinagar’s recognition as a
syllables or phrases.
“World Craft City” by the World Crafts Council (WCC).
Some Important Inscriptions of Ancient India How did Central Asia Influence the
‹ Political Inscriptions: Development of Crafts in Srinagar?
v Junagarh (Girnar) Inscription (Rudradaman): ‹ Historical Craft Connections: Zain-ul-Abidin, the 9th
A 2 -century CE Sanskrit inscription detailing
nd
Sultan of Kashmir (15th century), introduced Central
Rudradaman’s achievements and mentioning Asian craft techniques to Kashmir with the help of
the construction of the Sudarshana Lake dam by artisans from Samarkand, Bukhara, and Persia. Post
Chandragupta Maurya’s governor, Pushyagupta. his reign, these connections weakened and came to
v Bhitari Pillar Inscription: Chronicles Skandagupta’s an end by 1947.
military success against the Hunas and his v Located on the historic Silk Route, Srinagar became
administrative reforms. a melting pot of cultural, economic, and artistic
‹ Administrative and Land Grant Inscriptions exchanges. This cross-cultural interaction played
v Paharpur Inscription (Buddha Gupta): Found a vital role in the development of Kashmir’s
in Bangladesh, it highlights land grants and distinctive crafts.
religious patronage during the Gupta period. ‹ Craftsmanship Techniques:
v Mandsaur Inscription : Details Yashodharman’s v Wood Carving: Kashmiri artisans, known for their
victory over the Huns, emphasizing his role in intricate woodwork, adopted techniques from
restoring stability in the region. Central Asia.

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F While Kashmiri woodcarvers used chisels F Mughal Emperor Akbar promoted the craft
and hammers for detailed designs, Iranian by commissioning shawls for the royal family.
woodcarvers typically employed a single chisel v Kashmiri Carpets: Renowned for their rich designs,
for floral motifs.
particularly the traditional Persian-style carpets.
v Carpet Weaving: Kashmir’s carpet weaving was
F The unique hand-knotted kashmir carpets
profoundly shaped by Persian techniques.
use a coded script called Taleem for design
F The Persian knotting methods, including the
instructions. These carpets feature traditional
Farsi baff and Sehna knots, were incorporated
into Kashmiri carpets. oriental and floral motifs and are made from
F Additionally, Kashmir’s carpet patterns named
various materials like silk and wool.
after Iranian cities like Kashan and Tabriz highlight v Paper Mâché: It is the art of creating objects
the cultural ties, with artisan exchanges further from molded paper pulp, traditionally painted
enhancing skills and inspiring craftsmanship. and lacquered.
v Embroidery: Uzbekistan’s suzani embroidery was F In Kashmir, it began with pen cases and evolved
recognized as a precursor to Kashmir’s sozini work. into a distinct art of surface decoration (naqashi).
Similarities were observed in techniques, color
v Embroidered Textiles: Fine embroidery techniques
palettes, and floral motifs.
like Sozni and Aari work, used in garments and
What is the World Craft City? accessories.
‹ About: The “World Craft City” initiative, launched F Sozni shawls originate from Kashmir, with “Sozni”
in 2014 by the World Crafts Council AISBL (WCC- meaning needle in Persian.
International) under the WCC-World Craft City
v Wood Carving: Intricate designs carved into walnut
Programme, recognizes cities for their contributions
to cultural, economic, and social development through wood, creating beautiful furniture and home décor.
crafts. v Copperware: Traditional Kashmiri metal crafts,
v The WCC AISBL, established in 1964 as a non- especially the copper samovars and tea sets. Part
profit organization, aims to enhance the status of of the ancient heritage of Kashmir, with artisans
crafts in cultural and economic life and promote skilled in metallurgy.
fellowship among crafts persons through support v Khatamband: It is a handcrafted art of making
and guidance.
ceilings by fitting small pieces of walnut or deodar
‹ Indian Cities: Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir), Jaipur
wood into geometric patterns without using nails.
(Rajasthan), Mamallapuram (Tamil Nadu) and Mysore
(Karnataka) have been recognized as World Craft Note: In 2021, Srinagar city was designated a creative
Cities by WCC. city as part of the UNESCO (United Nations Educa-
v The WCC announced the ‘Seal of Authenticity tional, Scientific and Cultural Organization) Creative
of the Craft’ for Kashmir’s handicrafts, certifying City Network (UCCN) for crafts and folk arts.
handmade products from J&K. This initiative aims ‹ Other Indian cities in the UCCN include Jaipur as

to provide global recognition and enhance quality the ‘City of Crafts and Folk Arts’ (2015), Varanasi
in the textile industry. as the ‘Creative City of Music’ (2015), Chennai as
‹ Key Crafts of Srinagar: the ‘Creative City of Music’ (2017), Mumbai as
the ‘City of Film’ (2019), Hyderabad as the ‘City
v Pashmina Shawls: Known for their fine quality and
of Gastronomy’ (2019), Kozhikode as the ‘City
intricate handwoven patterns. Pashmina shawls
originate from Kashmir, where the Pashmina fabric of Literature’ (2023), and Gwalior as the ‘City of
is hand-spun and hand-woven. Music’ (2023).

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‹ Historical Context:
Geographical Indication Tag for Kashmir Crafts
v Legacy of Zain-ul-Abidin: The carpet craft traces
‹ Kashmir’s seven crafts including the Kashmiri
its roots back to the 15th century when Badshah
Carpets, pashmina, sozni, kani shawl, walnut wood
Zain-ul-Abidin invited artisans from Persia and
carving, khatamband, and papier mache, have
Central Asia to settle in Kashmir.
earned Geographical Indication (GI) tags under the
Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration v From Shawls to Carpets: Initially, the focus was
and Protection) Act, 1999. on weaving exquisite pashmina shawls. However,
with the decline of demand due to jacquard looms
in Europe, artisans shifted their skills to carpet
Kashmir’s Magic Carpet weaving.
v British Recognition: Kashmiri carpets gained global
The famous Hazratbal Dargah in Srinagar is attracting
locals for a rare spectacle of the washing and clipping of acclaim after being exhibited at the Great London
Exhibition of 1851.
the largest carpet woven in Kashmir so far.
v Prizes and Distinction: These carpets continued to
What is Kashmir’s Magic Carpet?
shine at exhibitions in Chicago, Paris, and London
‹ About: during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
v Kashmir’s magic carpet made in Kashan Style is v Weaving Secrets: The secret blueprints, known as
an intricate marvel, 72 feet in length and 40 feet talim, guide artisans across generations, preserving
in width, weighing 1,685 kg, and featuring over the ancient techniques.
three crore knots.
Government Initiatives for Empowering Kashmir’s
v It has taken eight years to weave, with artisans Carpet Weavers
returning to the traditional trade and overcoming
‹ Revival of Namda Craft under PMKVY 3.0:
several challenges including the 2014 floods, the
v Objective: The Ministry of Skill Development
abrogation of Article 370 in Jammu and Kashmir
and Entrepreneurship (MSDE) launched a special
in 2019, and the waves of the Covid-19 pandemic.
pilot project under the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal
F At least 30 people are required to unroll this Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) to revive the traditional
mammoth carpet. Namda craft of Kashmir.
F A dedicated team of 30-35 professional washers v Namda Craft: Namda is a unique rug made of
diligently tends to it on a daily basis. sheep wool using the felting technique instead
F It is likely to embellish a palace in the Middle East. of the normal weaving process.
‹ Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) for Artisans
v Kashmiri artisans are competing for the first time
and Weavers:
against their long-standing Iranian competitor,
v The RPL component of PMKVY focuses on
who have crafted a carpet the size of a soccer field
upskilling artisans and weavers.
at 60,468 square feet.
v The initiative aims to upskill 10,900 artisans and
‹ Kashan Style: weavers in Jammu and Kashmir.
v The carpet follows the Kashan style, a historic v By enhancing productivity through RPL
design borrowed from the Iranian city of Kashan. assessment and certification, the project ensures
v The Kashan style of ceramic art, originating from the continuation of Kashmir’s weaving legacy.
the historic city of Kashan in Persia (modern-day ‹ Geographical Indication (GI) Tag for Kashmiri
Iran), has captivated art enthusiasts for centuries. Carpets:
v Known for its exquisite execution and intricate v GI Registry: The Jammu and Kashmir government
patterns, Kashan ware represents a harmonious initiated a Geographical Indication (GI) registry
blend of tradition, innovation, and artistic finesse. for the famed Kashmiri carpet.

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v QR Code: Each GI-tagged carpet now comes Manuscripts

with a quick response (QR) code, providing ‹ Definition: A manuscript is a handwritten
details of artisans and materials used. composition created on materials such as paper,
v Export: The first consignment of GI-tagged bark, cloth, metal, or palm leaf, and it must be at
carpets was exported to Germany, marking a least 75 years old.
significant step in safeguarding this craft. ‹ Exclusions: Lithographs and printed volumes are
not considered manuscripts.
‹ Script Variability: Often, one language is represented
Revival of National Mission in multiple scripts. For instance, Sanskrit is written
in scripts like Oriya, Grantha, and Devanagari.
for Manuscripts (NMM)
‹ Distinction from Historical Records: Unlike historical
The Union Ministry of Culture has decided to revive records (e.g., epigraphs, firmans, revenue records),
and relaunch the National Mission for Manuscripts which document historical events, manuscripts
(NMM). primarily contain knowledge content.
v Manuscripts provide knowledge on philosophy,
What are the Key Points of the Revived science, literature, and art.
NMM? ‹ Historical Interest: In the 18th century, the Nawab
of Awadh presented an illuminated manuscript of
‹ National Manuscripts Authority: The Union Ministry
the Padshahnama to King George III of England.
of Culture plans to form an autonomous body named
v Hiuen Tsang, a 7th century Chinese traveller,
National Manuscripts Authority under the Ministry
took many manuscripts back to China.
of Culture.
‹ British Interest: William Jones, C.P. Brown, John
v Presently, NMM is a part of the Indira Gandhi Leyden, Colin Mackenzie, Charles Wilkins, H.H.
National Centre for Arts. Wilson, and HT Colebrooke played significant roles
‹ Achievements of NMM: Between 2003-24, metadata in studying and preserving Indian manuscripts.
of 52 lakh manuscripts have been prepared, over 3 ‹ Early Efforts in Cataloging: Efforts to catalogue
lakh titles have been digitised and one-third of them Indian manuscripts began as early as 1803 with
the efforts of HT Colebrooke, Asiatic Society of
have been uploaded.
Bengal’s fourth president.
‹ Concerns: Only about 70,000 of the 1.3 lakh uploaded
manuscripts are accessible. What are the Key Facts About NMM?
v A significant portion of manuscripts is privately ‹ About: It is an initiative of the Ministry of Culture
to preserve and document India’s vast collection of
owned, with limited incentive for owners to make
manuscripts.
them publicly accessible.
v It was launched in 2003 to uncover, document,
‹ Future Roadmap: conserve, and make accessible India’s vast
v Establishment of university chairs abroad in manuscript heritage.
departments focusing on ancient Indian studies. ‹ Implementing Bodies: The Department of Culture is
v Suggestions for involving Intellectual property responsible for implementing the mission, while the
Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA)
rights (IPRs) and legal experts to address issues
serves as the nodal agency.
related to the sale of manuscripts abroad and
‹ Objectives: It is dedicated to conserving manuscripts
private ownership.
and disseminating the knowledge contained in them,
v Emphasis on preserving non-Brahmi and lesser- working toward its motto “conserving the past for
known scripts. the future.”

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‹ Scope and Collection: India possesses an estimate ‹ Architectural Features:

of five million manuscripts, probably the largest v The fort complex houses several temples and shrines.
collection in the world. F It includes significant structures such as a
v 70% of manuscripts are in Sanskrit. stepped well, Kalyana Mahal, durbar hall,
cannon, clock tower, armory, elephant tank,
stable, granary, gymnasium, Venkataramana
Gingee Fort Nominated temple, and Sadathtulla mosque.
for UNESCO v Water Supply Systems: Gingee Fort features two
sophisticated water supply systems, ensuring
World Heritage Site a continuous water supply even at the highest
The Gingee Fort in Tamil Nadu’s Villupuram district points of the fort.
has been nominated for UNESCO’s World Heritage Site v Rajagiri Hill: It is the tallest hill at 800 metres,
list as part of the Maratha Military Landscapes proposal, featuring a citadel and the temple of Ranganatha.
which includes 11 other forts. F Krishnagiri Citadel is notable for its Indo-Islamic
architecture, including an audience hall with a
What are the Key Facts Regarding Gingee domed roof.
Fort of Tamil Nadu? v Venkataramana Swamy Temple: It is located in the
‹ Geographical Feature and Significance: Gingee Fort Lower Fort complex and adorned with intricate
is renowned for its historical importance and strategic carvings from Hindu epics.
location atop three hillocks: Rajagiri, Krishnagiri, and v Kalyana Mahal: It is an architectural jewel with
Chandragiri. eight storeys, used as the royal ladies’ quarters.
v It is also known as the “Troy of the East,” as it UNESCO World Heritage Site
is one of the most impregnable fortresses in
‹ A World Heritage Site is a location recognized
peninsular India. by UNESCO for its exceptional cultural or natural
v Its strategic location and robust defences, including significance.
a 60-foot-wide rampart and an 80-foot-wide moat, ‹ UNESCO promotes the identification, protection, and
made it vital during the Carnatic Wars between preservation of cultural and natural heritage sites
the French and British. globally that hold outstanding value to humanity.
‹ Historical Overview: The fort was originally built by ‹ As of September 2024, India has 43 World Heritage
Ananta Kon of the Konar Dynasty in 1200 CE and Sites (cultural sites-35, natural sites-7, mixed-
named it Krishnagiri. criteria site-1) with the latest addition being the
Mound-Burial System of Ahom Dynasty.
v Vijayanagar Empire undertook significant
renovations of the fort. ‹ Process for nominating a site to UNESCO’s World
Heritage List
v In 1677, the fort was captured by Chhatrapati
v A country creates a list of important cultural
Shivaji and remained under Maratha control until
and natural heritage sites.
1698, when it fell to the Mughals.
v The country selects sites from the Tentative
F The Fort became the last stronghold for the List and prepares nomination details.
Marathas (Rajaram I, son of Shivaji) during v The International Council on Monuments
their resistance against the Mughal forces. and Sites (ICOMOS) and IUCN evaluate the
v Briefly ruled by Raja Desingh (Tej Singh), it was nominated property.
taken over by the Nawabs of Arcot in 1714 and v The Committee meets annually to decide which
remained under their dominion until 1749. sites to add to the World Heritage List, based
v From 1750 to 1770, the French held the fort before on advisory recommendations and criteria
it eventually passed into Britishers. fulfillment.

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Tell Umm Amer and ‹ The Ahoms, who ruled Assam for six centuries,
practised burial instead of cremation, and the
Assam’s Charaideo Moidams grandeur of the moidams often reflected the status
Recognised by UNESCO of the buried individuals.
‹ Chaolung Sukapha migrated from Burma to the
The World Heritage Committee included Tell Umm
Amer, also known as the Monastery of Saint Hilarion, Brahmaputra valley, establishing the first principality
in the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural in Charaideo. The Ahoms suppressed the older political
Organization’s (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites list, and system, and adopted Hinduism and the Assamese
the List of World Heritage in Danger. language while maintaining their traditional beliefs.
‹ Additionally, Assam’s Charaideo Moidams was added v Sukapha successfully assimilated different
to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites list, marking communities and tribes, earning the title of the
India’s 43rd World Heritage Site. architect of ‘Bor Asom’ or ‘Greater Assam’.
Note: ‹ The Ahom dynasty’s legacy continues to be celebrated
‹ The List of World Heritage in Danger informs the in Assam, notably through events like the 400th birth
international community about threats to the anniversary of Ahom general Lachit Borphukan.
characteristics of a property on the World Heritage Assam celebrates ‘Asom Divas’ on 2nd December
List and aims to encourage corrective action. every year to commemorate Sukapha and his rule.
‹ It includes sites facing dangers such as armed
conflict, natural disasters, pollution, poaching,
urbanisation, and tourist development. Humayun Tomb World
v The inscription on the list can be due to imminent Heritage Site Museum
threats or potential negative effects on the
property’s World Heritage values. The Humayun’s Tomb World Heritage Site Museum
‹ During its 43rd session in Baku in 2019, the World is set to open for visitors. Nestled between Sunder Nursery
Heritage Committee emphasised that listing a and Humayun’s Tomb in Nizamuddin, Delhi, this museum
property as World Heritage in Danger aims to gather promises to offer visitors a unique insight into the life
global support to help the State Party address the and times of the second Mughal Emperor, Humayun.
challenges faced by the property.
What are the Key Highlights
v This involves working with the World Heritage
Centre and Advisory Bodies to develop a plan of Humayun’s Tomb Site Museum?
of corrective measures to achieve the desired ‹ Underground Design: The museum is designed like a
state of conservation for the property. baoli (stepwell) and includes a 100-seat auditorium,
temporary galleries, cafés, meeting rooms, and a library.
What are the Key Facts
About Assam’s Charaideo Moidams? ‹ Unique Personal Items: Artefacts such as a pear-
shaped water vessel belonging to Jauhar Aftabchi,
‹ The Charaideo Moidams in Assam hold historical
a biographer of Humayun, and a helmet used by
significance as the burial sites of the Ahom dynasty,
Humayun as a cooking vessel during his travels to
established in 1253 AD by King Sukaphaa.
Persia.
v These earthen mounds, known as moidams, were
used for burying royalty and aristocracy, reflecting v The artefacts displayed in the museum are on loan
the unique funerary practices of the Ahom people. from the National Museum for 10 years, ensuring
‹ The moidams, resembling ancient Egyptians give a rich and varied display for visitors.
Charaideo moidams the nickname “Pyramids of ‹ Mughal Coins and Throne: Exhibits include coins from
Assam ‘’ are now popular tourist attractions, but the reigns of 18 Mughal-era kings and the throne of
many are in disrepair. Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor.

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v Highlights include: Coins from Akbar’s era with

Humayun
‘Allah’ on one side and ‘Ram’ on the other.
Expensive coins from Jahangir’s era. Rare coins ‹ Early Reign: Humayun, the eldest son of Babur,
faced immediate challenges upon his succession.
minted by Bahadur Shah Zafar.
His governance was marked by administrative and
‹ Architecture and Personality: Focuses on the financial instability.
architecture of Humayun’s Mausoleum and the ‹ Major Battles: Siege of Chunar (1532) Humayun
emperor’s personality. Exhibits convey stories of achieved victory against the Afghans and besieged
Humayun’s travels, administration, interest in reading, Chunar fort. Battle of Chausa (1539) Humayun faced
astrology, the arts, and his patronage of architecture. defeat by Sher Shah Suri, narrowly escaping the
‹ Cultural Figures: Highlights four cultural figures battlefield. Battle of Kannauj (1540) also known as
associated with the Nizamuddin area from the 14th Battle of Bilgram Sher Shah Suri’s complete victory
forced Humayun into exile.
century: Sufi Saint Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya, Poet
v Internal conflicts, including a rebellion by
Amir Khusrau Dehalvi, Rahim, a commander-in-chief
Humayun’s brother Hindal and Kamran’s schemes,
of Akbar’s army and poet, and Dara Shukoh, known
further weakened his position.
for translating the Upanishads into Persian.
v Humayun became an exile for fifteen years.
‹ Conservation Efforts: Managed by the Archaeological During this time, he married Hamida Banu
Survey of India (ASI), the museum is part of a larger Begum and had a son named Akbar.
conservation effort encompassing the 300-acre v Humayun sought help from the Shah of Persia,
Humayun’s Tomb-Sunder Nursery-Nizamuddin who agreed to support him in exchange for certain
Basti area. conditions. With Persian assistance, Humayun
captured Kandahar and Kabul in 1545.
Humayun’s Tomb
‹ Persian Influences: Humayun introduced Persian
‹ Built in 1570, Humayun’s Tomb is the first major administrative practices, improving revenue systems
garden tomb in the Indian subcontinent, setting and promoting Persian arts and culture.
a precedent for Mughal architecture, which ‹ Architectural Achievements: He founded Dinapanah,
culminated in the Taj Mahal. It was commissioned built the Jamali mosque, and initiated the
by his first wife, Empress Bega Begum, in 1569-70 construction of Humayun’s Tomb, which was
and designed by Persian architects. completed by his wife, Hamida Banu Begum.
v It includes other 16th-century Mughal tombs ‹ Cultural Impact: Humayun played a key role in the
like Nila Gumbad and Isa Khan Niyazi, an development of Mughal painting by bringing Persian
Afghan noble. artists like Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad to India.
v He established the Nigaar Khana (painting
‹ The tomb features a charbagh garden, a high-
workshop) and began the project of illustrating
terraced platform, and a marble-clad dome. The
the Hamza Nama, which his successor Akbar
mausoleum, known as the ‘dormitory of the
continued.
Mughals,’ houses over 150 Mughal family members.
‹ Literary Contributions: His sister, Gul Badan Begum,
v The tomb is centred around the Shrine of the authored the “Humayun-Nama,” documenting his
14th century Sufi Saint, Hazrat Nizamuddin reign and legacy.
Auliya. Due to the belief that it is fortunate to
be buried near a saint’s grave. Kozhikode,
‹ It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in
1993 and has undergone extensive restoration work. UNESCO’s City of Literature
‹ The ASI and Aga Khan Trust for Culture manage Recently, UNESCO recognised Kozhikode as the ‘City
the site, ensuring its preservation and protection of Literature’ under the UNESCO Creative Cities Network
under various legislations. (UCCN).

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What is the UNESCO the diversity and vibrancy of Malayalam literature

Creative Cities Network? and culture.
‹ About: ‹ Other Indian cities in the UCCN:
v Jaipur: Crafts and Folk Arts (2015),
v UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN) was
created in 2004. v Varanasi: Creative City of Music (2015),

v The network covers seven creative fields namely v Chennai: Creative City of Music (2017),

Crafts and Folk Art, Design, Film, Gastronomy, v Mumbai: Film (2019),
Literature, Media Arts and Music. v Hyderabad: Gastronomy (2019), and
v The annual conference of mayors and other v Srinagar: Crafts and Folk Art (2021).
stakeholders of network cities offers a unique
occasion to strengthen ties between creative ASI to Delist
cities from across the world.
v In 2024, the conference will be held in July in
Lost Monuments
Braga, Portugal. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has decided
‹ Objective: to delist 18 “centrally protected monuments” because
v In 2024, 350 cities make up this network which it has assessed that they do not have national importance.
aims towards a common objective of placing ‹ These 18 monuments are part of an earlier list of
creativity and cultural industries at the heart of monuments that the ASI had said were “untraceable”.
their development plans at the local level and
Which Monuments are Being Delisted?
cooperating actively at the international level.
‹ Among the monuments that face delisting now are a
v The UNESCO Creative Cities aims to achieve
mediaeval highway milestone recorded as Kos Minar
Sustainable Development Goals 11 through
No.13 at Mujessar village in Haryana, Barakhamba
innovative thinking and action to benefit
Cemetery in Delhi, Gunner Burkill’s tomb in Jhansi
communities at the urban level.
district, a cemetery at Gaughat in Lucknow, and the
‹ Significance: Telia Nala Buddhist ruins in Varanasi.
v UNESCO Creative Cities pledge to share best v The precise location of these monuments, or their
practices and develop partnerships involving current physical state, is not known.
public and private sectors as well as civil society ‹ This is the first such large-scale delisting exercise
to strengthen the creation, production, and in several decades. The ASI currently has 3,693
distribution of cultural activities. monuments under its purview, which will fall to 3,675
Which are Indian Cities in UCCN? once the current delisting is completed.

‹ Kozhikode: What does Delisting a Monument Mean?

v Kozhikode hosts many promiment personalities ‹ Removal from ASI’s Purview:
of Kerala’s literary and cultural world, leading v The delisted monument will no longer be conserved,
media houses, several libraries (over 500 libraries) protected, and maintained by the ASI.
and has also produced many films and theatre F It will effectively be removed from the ASI’s list
professionals over the years. of centrally protected monuments.
v The first Malayalam novel Kundalatha was written ‹ Allowing Construction and Urbanisation:
by Appu Nedungadi in Kozhikode in 1887. v Under The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological
v Many renowned writers like S. K. Pottekkatt, Sites and Remains Act, 1958 (AMASR Act), any
Thikkodiyan and P. Valsala Sanjayan, along with kind of construction-related activity is not allowed
poets, scholars, and publishers have contributed to around a protected site.

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F Once the monument is delisted, activities related

v Applies to monuments over 100 years old in
to construction and urbanisation in the area can
public or private ownership.
be carried out in a regular manner.
‹ Prohibits construction or alteration around ancient
‹ Loss of Legal Protection:
monuments without National Monuments Authority
v The AMASR Act, 1958 provides legal protection to (NMA) approval.
monuments declared to be of national importance.
v NMA established in accordance with the
F Delisting a monument means it will no longer AMASR Act is responsible for the conservation
have this legal protection and could be subject and preservation of monuments and sites (and
to neglect or damage. banned/restricted areas surrounding centrally
‹ Procedure for Delisting: designated monuments).
v Section 35 of the AMASR Act allows the Central v NMA is responsible for implementing the AMASR
Government to declare that any ancient monument Act and granting permission for construction or
or archaeological site of national importance has developmental activity within protected and
ceased to be of national importance through a regulated areas.
notification in the Official Gazette.
‹ Protected area is a 100-metre radius around the
F A gazette notification was issued on 8th March monument, with a regulated area extending up to
2024 for delisting the 18 monuments, followed 200 metres beyond that.
by a two-month window for public objections
v Current restrictions prohibit construction within
or suggestions.
100-metre radius of protected monuments
What does It Mean When the and have strict regulations for permits in an
ASI Declares a Monument “Untraceable”? additional 200-metre radius.
‹ When the ASI declares a monument as “untraceable,”
it means that the monument is no longer physically 6 New MP Sites Listed
locatable or identifiable.
v Factors contributing to the loss of monuments
on Tentative
include urbanisation, encroachments, construction World Heritage Sites List
activities like dams and reservoirs, and neglect
over time. 6 new sites from Madhya Pradesh have found place
v Some monuments, especially smaller or lesser- in the Tentative UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites
known ones, have deteriorated to the extent (WHS).
that there is no surviving public memory of their ‹ The sites included in the new list included Gwalior
existence. Fort, Historical Group of Dhamnar Bhojeshwar
‹ Despite the AMASR Act’s mandate for the ASI to Mahadev Temple, Rock Art Sites of Chambal Valley,
regularly inspect and conserve protected monuments, Khooni Bhandara, Burhanpur, and Gond monuments
the effectiveness of these efforts has been inconsistent. of Ramnagar, Mandla.
‹ Declaring monuments untraceable underscores the What are the Key Features of Sites
loss of valuable cultural heritage and highlights the
Added to Tentative UNESCO List of WHS?
need for better conservation efforts and resource
allocation in the future. ‹ Gwalior Fort: It is renowned for its formidable walls,
stands atop a hill providing panoramic views of the
Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 surrounding city.
(AMASR Act)
v Historically, it is believed that the fort’s first
‹ The aim of the act is to protect and preserve ancient foundations were laid in the 6th century AD by
monuments for future generations. Rajput warrior Suraj Sen.

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F Suraj Sen was the local chieftain who suffered v The name Dhamnar has no historical or literary
from a severe leprosy but was healed by a basis, but evidence suggests it was known as
hermit-saint named Gwalipa. In gratitude for Chandananagari-mahavihara in Buddhist times.
this event, he established the Gwalior City F Scholar K.C. Jain suggested that ‘Dhamnar’ may
named after him. come from the Shaivite term ‘Dharmanatha,’
v The Gwalior fort witnessed a tumultuous history associated with the Linga in the mediaeval
of invasions and reconstructions, notably under Vaishnava temple.
the Tomar ruler Maan Singh in 1398, who added ‹ Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple: It is dedicated to
several monuments to its premises. Lord Shiva and boasts a massive Linga carved from
F After Mansingh Tomar’s reign, Gwalior came a single stone.
under Ibrahim Lodi, then the Mughal Sultanate. v Commissioned by Raja Bhoj in the 11th century,
Akbar regained control in 1550 CE. The Marathas, this temple is revered for its grandeur and unique
led by the Scindias, took over later. architecture.
F The fort briefly fell to General White during the F Raja Bhoj was a celebrated ruler of the Paramara
second Maratha War but returned to Scindia dynasty known for his architectural treatise of
control in 1805 CE until 1857. the Samaranganasutradhara.
„ British rule lasted until 1886 CE when it v The temple’s architecture follows the Bhumija
was exchanged for Jhansi and returned to style characterised by its towering shikhara and
the Scindias. ornate carvings and sculptures.
v The fort boasts several ancient temples, including F Also, the main body of the temple and its
the Teli ka Mandir dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, and shikhara have components influenced by the
Matrikas. Dravidian style of temple architecture.
F The Chaturbhuj temple is notable for its ‹ Rock Art Sites of the Chambal Valley: It hosts the
mathematical significance, featuring one of world’s largest concentration of rock art sites,
the oldest references to zero in mathematics. showcasing scenes from various historical periods
F The Sas Bahu temples, with the larger one and civilizations.
dedicated to Vishnu, date back to 1150 CE and v These sites, spanning across Madhya Pradesh,
are known for their intricate inscriptions. Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh, provide insights
F Additionally, the Gurdwara Data Bandi Chhor into ancient human life and cultural evolution.
commemorates Guru Hargobind Sahib, the F The rock art in the basin includes depictions
sixth Sikh guru. of hunting and gathering scenes created by
v As per its strategic location on the basalt rock hills, Mesolithic hunter-gatherers and those from
it is mentioned as Gopachala, Gopagiri in the old the Protohistoric and later periods.
Sanskrit inscriptions. v They flourish in the hilly regions of Vindhyan,
‹ Historical Group of Dhamnar: It comprises 51 rock-cut Satpura, and Kaimur ranges, marked by parallel
caves, stupas, chaityas, and dwellings dating back ridges and dense vegetation.
to the 7th century AD. v Major rock art sites in the Chambal Basin include
v Among these, the colossal statue of Gautam Buddha Bhimlat Mahadev, Chatturbhuj Nath Nala,
in the nirvana pose is a significant highlight. Garadia Mahadev, Bukki Mata, Chattaneshwar,
v Noteworthy caves include the Bari Kacheri and and Kanyadeh.
Bhima Bazar on the northern bank, known for their ‹ Burhanpur’s Khooni Bhandara: It is an underground
historical importance and architectural features. water management system comprising eight
v The earliest accounts of these monuments come waterworks built by Abdurrahim Khankhana in the
from James Tod, who visited in 1821, followed historical city of Burhanpur.
by James Fergusson in 1845 and Alexander v It was built using the Persian qanat approach and
Cunningham between 1864-1865. designed by Persian geologist, Tabkutul Arz

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F During the Mughal era, technologies like Persian ‹ Types of Heritage Sites: There are three types of
Qanats from Iran and Iraq were imported to sites: Cultural, Natural, and Mixed.
India as useful public utilities. v Cultural heritage includes artifacts, monuments, a
v In the early 1900s, 8 sets of these underground group of buildings and sites, and museums that have
conduits were excavated and traced, with 6 of a diversity of values including symbolic, historic,
them remaining intact to this day. artistic, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological,
F The hint of red colour in this mineral rich water, scientific and social significance.
gave it the name khooni (bloody). v Natural heritage sites are limited to exceptional
‹ Gond Memorial of Ramnagar, Mandla: The region natural areas with outstanding ecological and
formerly known as the Central Provinces of India evolutionary processes, unique natural phenomena,
and covering parts of the present-day states of habitats hosting rare or endangered species, etc.
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra; v Mixed heritage sites incorporate aspects of both
was historically called Gondwana, the home of the
natural and cultural significance, blending elements
largest heterogenous tribe of India, the Gond tribe.
such as historic buildings or archaeological sites
v The cluster of monuments include the following: with exceptional natural features or ecological
F Moti Mahal processes.
F Raibhagat ki Kothi ‹ India’s WHS: India currently has 42 UNESCO World
F Suraj Mandir (Vishnu Mandir) Heritage Sites. The most recent ones include:
F Begum Mahal v 41st: Santiniketan, established by Nobel laureate
F Dalbadal Mahal Rabindranath Tagore in West Bengal.
Note: 3 sites from Madhya Pradesh are already included v 42nd: The Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas in
in UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites. These include The Karnataka, which encompass a group of exquisite
Khajuraho Group of Monuments (1986), Buddhist Hoysala era temples.
Monuments of Sanchi (1989), and The Rock Shelters
of Bhimbetka (2003). Sri Sri Auniati Satra
What is the Tentative UNESCO Vaishnavite Monastery
list of World Heritage Sites?
Sri Sri Auniati Satra is a more than 350-year-old
‹ World Heritage Sites: World Heritage Sites are special
Vaishnavite monastery in Assam’s Majuli district.
places around the world that are considered to be of
outstanding value to humanity. What are the Key Facts about
v They are designated by the United Nations Sri Sri Auniati Satra Vaishnavite Monastery?
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
‹ Establishment:
(UNESCO) and are given special protection to
ensure they are preserved for future generations. v The Sri Sri Auniati Satra was established in the

v It is backed by the international agreement known

year 1653 in Majuli, Assam. It has a history of over
as the Convention concerning the Protection of the 350 years, making it one of the oldest Satras in
World Cultural and Natural Heritage, established the region.
by UNESCO in 1972. F A Satra is an institutional centre for Assamese
‹ Tentative UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites: It is a Vaishnavism, a bhakti movement that emerged
list of sites identified by individual countries (States in the 15th century.
Parties) that they consider to have “outstanding v The Satra is located in Majuli, which is the largest
universal value” and may be suitable for inscription inhabited river island in the world. Majuli is situated
on the World Heritage List. in the Brahmaputra River in the northeastern state
v It is published by the World Heritage Centre. of Assam, India.

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‹ Religious Significance: deep devotion and love towards the god Vishnu
v The Satra is a center of Assamese Vaishnavism, a and his various incarnations.
bhakti movement that revolves around the worship ‹ Key Features:
of Lord Krishna. v Devotion to Vishnu: The central focus of Vaishnavism
v The original idol of Lord Krishna in the form of is devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu, who is considered the
Govinda is said to have been brought from the Supreme Being and the sustainer of the universe.
Lord Jagannath Temple at Puri. Vaishnavas believe in a personal relationship with
‹ Cultural Heritage: Vishnu, expressing love, reverence, and devotion
v Vaishnavite monasteries like Auniati Satra are toward the deity.
not only places of worship but also centers for the F Vishnu is believed to have incarnated on Earth
preservation of traditional art forms, literature, in various forms known as avatars to restore
and cultural practices. These Satras play a crucial cosmic order and righteousness. The ten
role in promoting and sustaining the cultural primary avatars are collectively known as the
heritage of the region. Dashavatara, with popular incarnations including
v Vaishnavite Satras traditionally serve as centres Rama and Krishna.
for learning and spiritual activities. Monks and v Dashavatara: The ten avatars of Vishnu are Matsya
disciples engage in religious studies, meditation, (fish), Kurma (turtle), Varaha (boar), Narasimha
and community service. (half-man, half-lion), Vamana (dwarf), Parashurama
‹ Bhaona and Traditional Art Forms: (the warrior with an axe), Rama (the prince of
Ayodhya), Krishna (the divine cowherd), Buddha
v Bhaona, a traditional art form, is practiced at the
(the enlightened one), and Kalki (the future warrior
Satra. It is a combination of acting, music, and
on a white horse).
musical instruments.
v Bhakti and Liberation: Vaishnavism places a strong
v Bhaona is a significant performing art form that
emphasis on the path of bhakti, which involves
aims to convey religious messages to villagers
intense devotion and love toward Vishnu. The
through entertainment.
ultimate goal for many Vaishnavas is liberation
v The main drama is usually preceded by a musical (moksha) from the cycle of birth and death
performance called the Gayan-Bayan. (samsara) and union with Vishnu.
What are the Key Facts Related to Majuli Island? v Variety of Sects: Vaishnavism encompasses a variety
‹ Majuli is a river island located in the Brahmaputra of sects and groups with different interpretations
River in the northeastern state of Assam, India. It is of the relationship between the individual soul
recognized as the largest river island in the world. (jiva) and God. Some sects emphasise qualified
nondualism (vishishtadvaita), while others
‹ The island is a result of the dynamics of the
subscribe to dualism (dvaita) or pure nondualism
Brahmaputra River system, characterized by the
(shuddhadvaita).
shifting courses and channels of the river.
F Srivaishnava Sect: Emphasises qualified
‹ The island is surrounded by the Brahmaputra River
nondualism based on the teachings of Ramanuja.
and its tributaries, creating a unique fluvial landform.
Wetlands known as Beels and Chaporis (islets) F Madhva Sect: Professes dualism, asserting the
contribute to the ecological diversity of the region. separate existence of God and the soul, following
the philosophy of Madhva.
What is Vaishnavism? F Pushtimarg Sect: Maintains pure nondualism
‹ About: according to Vallabhacharya’s teachings.
v Vaishnavism is a prominent bhakti (devotional) F Gaudiya Sect: Founded by Chaitanya, teaches
movement within Hinduism, and it emphasises inconceivable duality and nonduality.
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Miscellaneous
Swami Vivekananda attachment in his books- Raja-yoga, Karma-
yoga, Jnana-yoga and Bhakti-yoga.
On National Youth Day (162nd birth anniversary of v Revivalism: He laid emphasis on education for the
Swami Vivekananda), Prime Minister participated in the regeneration of our motherland. He advocated a
Viksit Bharat Young Leaders Dialogue 2025. man-making character-building education.
‹ The National Youth Day is celebrated on 12th January ‹ Core Values:
to commemorate the great spiritual leader, philosopher
v Youth: He encouraged the youth to commit to
and thinker Swami Vivekananda.
their goals for success, stressing the importance
‹ The National Youth Policy 2014 defines youth as the of dedication in facing challenges.
persons in the age group of 15-29 which constitute F Swamiji urged them to develop both mental
nearly 40% of India’s total population. and physical strength, with ‘muscles of iron’
What are Key Facts and ‘nerves of steel’.
Regarding Swami Vivekananda? v Ethics: Ethics is a code of conduct that guides a
person to be a good citizen, and purity, being our
‹ About: Swami Vivekananda, born as Narendra Nath
true divine Self or Atman, reflects our real nature.
Datta on 12th January 1863, was a monk and the chief
v Religion: His view of religion sees it as a universal
disciple of Ramakrishna Paramhansa.
experience of transcendent reality, free from
v In 1893, upon the request of Maharaja Ajit Singh of
superstition, dogma, priestcraft, and intolerance..
the Khetri State, he took the name ‘Vivekananda’,
v Education: Vivekananda emphasized education that
changing from ‘Sachidananda’ that he used before.
reveals students’ innate knowledge and power,
‹ Enlightenment: In 1892, Swami Vivekananda was said
focusing on character-building and making them
to have swum to a rock (later named Vivekananda self-reliant to face life’s challenges.
Rock Memorial) in the Indian Ocean from the shores
v Rationality: He fully supported the methods and
of Kanyakumari for meditation.
results of modern science and did not reject reason
v He spent three days and nights there, resulting
in favor of faith.
in his enlightenment.
v Nationalism: His nationalism is based on Humanism
‹ Contributions: and Universalism, the two cardinal features of
v Philosophical: He introduced the world to the Indian spiritual culture.
Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga. F His nationalism is based on concern for the
F He preached ‘neo-Vedanta’, an interpretation of masses, freedom, equality, and Karma Yoga — a
Hinduism through a Western lens, and believed path to political and spiritual freedom through
in combining spirituality with material progress. selfless service.
v Spiritual: Vivekananda’s message on human ‹ Associated Organisations: He founded the Ramakrishna
values draws from the Upanishads, the Gita, and Mission in 1897 to propagate the ideals of service,
the examples of Buddha and Jesus, emphasizing education, and spiritual upliftment.
self-realization, compassion, and selfless service. v In 1899, he established the Belur Math, which
F He advocated the doctrine of service. Serving jiva became his permanent abode.
(living beings) is considered worship of Shiva. ‹ International Address: He addressed the Parliament
F He gave the four pathways of attaining moksha of Religions held in Chicago in 1893, at which he
(liberation) from the worldly pleasure and represented Hinduism.

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v In July, 1896, he addressed a conference of the v This network of forts, varying in hierarchies, scales
London Hindu Association in London. and typological features, is a result of integrating the
landscape, terrain and physiographic characteristics
Views Related to Vivekananda
distinctive to the Western Ghats (Sahyadri Hills),
‹ No other religion preaches the dignity of humanity the Konkan Coast, Deccan Plateau and the Eastern
in such a lofty strain as Hinduism and no other reli- Ghats in the Indian Peninsula.
gion on earth treads upon the poor and the low in
‹ There are more than 390 forts in Maharashtra out of
such a fashion as Hinduism. —Swami Vivekananda.
which only 12 forts are selected under the Maratha
‹ A country where millions have nothing to eat and Military Landscapes of India, of these 8 forts are
where few thousand holy men and brahmins suck protected by the Archaeological Survey of India.
the blood of the poor and do nothing at all for them,
v These are Shivneri Fort, Lohgad, Raigad, Suvarnadurg,
is not a country but a living hell. Is this religion or
Panhala Fort, Vijaydurg, Sindhudurg and Gingee Fort.
a dance of death? —Swami Vivekananda
v Salher Fort, Rajgad, Khanderi Fort and Pratapgarh
‹ Forget not that the lower classes, the ignorant,
are protected by the Directorate of Archaeology
the poor, the illiterate, the cobbler, the sweeper
and Museums, Government of Maharashtra.
are thy flesh and blood, thy brothers. —Swami
Vivekananda. ‹ In the Maratha Military Landscapes of India Salher
‹ So far as Bengal is concerned Vivekananda may Fort, Shivneri Fort, Lohgad, Raigad, Rajgad and Gingee
be regarded as the spiritual father of the modern Fort are hill forts, Pratapgad is a hill-forest fort,
nationalist movement. —Subash Chandra Bose. Panhala is a hill-plateau fort, Vijaydurg is coastal fort
whereas Khanderi fort, Suvarnadurg and Sindhudurg
are island forts.
Maratha Military Landscapes v The Maratha Military ideology originated in the
17th century under the rule of Chhatrapati Shivaji
India has nominated the “Maratha Military
Maharaj in 1670 CE, extending through subsequent
Landscapes” for the UNESCO World Heritage recognition
rulers until the Peshwa rule concluded in 1818 CE.
in 2024-25.
‹ This nomination comprises 12 components, showcasing Note:
the strategic military prowess of the Maratha rule ‹ At present in India there are 42 World Heritage
across various regions. sites, out of which 34 are cultural sites, 7 are
natural sites and one is mixed sites.
What are the Maratha Military Landscapes?
v In Maharashtra there are six World Heritage
‹ The ‘Maratha Military Landscapes’ is a network of 12 Sites, five cultural and one natural.
forts and fortifications that represent the extraordinary F These are, Ajanta Caves (1983), Ellora Caves
military system and strategy of the Maratha rulers (1983), Elephanta Caves (1987), Chhatrapati
in the 17th-19th centuries Shivaji Maharaj Terminus (formerly Victoria
v The twelve parts of this nomination are, Salher Terminus) (2004), Victorian Gothic and Art
Fort, Shivneri Fort, Lohgad, Khanderi Fort, Raigad, Deco Ensembles of Mumbai (2018) and
Rajgad, Pratapgad, Suvarnadurg, Panhala Fort, western Ghats of Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Vijay durg, Sindhudurg in Maharashtra and Gingee Tamil Nadu and Kerala is serial property in
Fort in Tamil Nadu. natural category (2012).
‹ The Maratha Military Landscapes of India are included
in the Tentative List of World Heritage sites in 2021. What is the Process for the UNESCO
v Maratha Military Landscapes is the sixth cultural
World Heritage List nomination?
property nominated for inclusion in the World ‹ The World Heritage List is a list of sites that have
Heritage List from Maharashtra. outstanding universal value for humanity and nature,

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as determined by the United Nations Educational, ‹ The Maratha Military Landscapes of India is nominated
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). under Criterion (iii), Criterion (iv) and Criterion (vi).
‹ Before 2004, World Heritage sites were selected based ‹ A country can’t nominate a property to the World
on six cultural and four natural criteria. Heritage List unless it’s been on its Tentative List
v In 2005, UNESCO modified these criteria and now for at least one year.
has one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must v A Tentative List is an inventory of potential
be of “outstanding universal value” and must meet World Heritage Sites that a country submits to
at least one of the ten criteria. UNESCO. After a property is on the Tentative List,
the country can nominate it for the World Heritage
‹ There are two categories of nomination cultural and List. The World Heritage Committee will review
natural criteria, the Maratha Military landscapes is the nomination.
nominated in the category of cultural criteria. ‹ The list of World Heritage Sites is maintained by
v There are six criteria (i to vi) for cultural sites and the International ‘World Heritage Programme’,
four criteria (vii to x) for natural sites for inclusion administered by the UNESCO World Heritage
in the World Heritage List. Committee.
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