Fuel Processing Technology 126 (2014) 298–308

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Fuel Processing Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuproc

Review

Technological aspects for thermal plasma treatment of municipal

solid waste—A review
Biswajit Ruj a,⁎, Subhajyoti Ghosh b
a
Thermal Engineering Department, CSIR-Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Durgapur 713209, India
b
Mechanical Department, GDGWI-Lancaster University, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The 21st century earth is a new world, with numerous urban areas, exponentially growing population, global
Received 19 February 2014 warming, global markets and with it, increased consumerism which has led us to amass huge amounts of munic-
Received in revised form 5 May 2014 ipal solid waste (MSW). This waste is difficult to manage using conventional methods and is ever increasing,
Accepted 12 May 2014
blocking essential space that has become an expensive commodity in today's world. Conventional techniques
Available online xxxx
such as combustion/incineration have been the conventionally preferred method of waste management for sev-
Keywords:
eral nations in lieu of land-filling, releasing toxic emissions onto an already over polluted environment. In this
Thermal plasma paper we shall explore a novel MSW management technology in the form of plasma torches and thermal plasma
MSW treatment that enables us to reduce waste density by as much as 95%, without any toxic emissions, while produc-
Syngas ing a synthetic gas as by-product. Synthetic gas or syngas is presently being used to generate energy. Some re-
searchers are also exploring the possibility of hydrogen extraction through this route. This paper discusses the
current limitations of this technology and highlights a few researches that are being conducted around the
world that may soon take this concept from technical feasibility to practical reality.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
1.1. MSW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
1.2. Plasma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
1.3. Plasma generators (torches) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
2. Thermal plasma treatment of MSW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
2.1. Plasma gasification & industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
2.2. Plasma gasification: future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
3. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

1. Introduction grew with the development of new technologies that gave people ac-
cess to a variety of products in huge quantities with substantially consis-
Since the beginning of industrial revolution in the 18th century there tent quality and by 1939 the concept of consumerism grew on a global
has been a steady growth in urban population as more people from rural scale as more countries such as Germany, France and the USA, following
areas were migrating into cities to be part of a revolution that would the example of the British Empire, had rapidly developed their industri-
provide people with jobs, food and clothing. This was the beginning of al capabilities. The end of the Second World War and the rise of the USA
the creation of an urban consumer market. The concept of consumerism as a new superpower, saw a new form of consumerism—the consump-
tion of products in huge quantities, not just limited to those that are
considered essentials to fuel economic growth [1].
⁎ Corresponding author at: Principal Scientist Thermal Engineering Department CSIR-
Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute (CMERI) M.G. Avenue, Durgapur-
The growth of consumerism meant that the supply of products
713209 India. Tel.: +91-343-6452156. must be unhindered. Industry grew and along with it the demand for la-
E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Ruj). bour. The World Health Organisation reports that in the beginning of

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2014.05.011
0378-3820/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 B. Ruj, S. Ghosh / Fuel Processing Technology 126 (2014) 298–308 299

the 20th century, 20% of the population dwelled in urban areas, by 1990 tyres, metal components and medical wastes such as soiled bandages,
that number rose to a little less than 40% and is expected to rise to a syringes, cotton, and plastics are infectious wastes or red bag wastes
staggering 70% by 2050. These statistics show that there is a growing which may be contagious and pose health and environmental hazards
trend in people migrating into urban areas for better job, lifestyle and [14–16], and therefore are required to be segregated from the typical
livelihood [2]. The increase in urban population and the steady rise in waste pile gathered from residential areas. The World Bank reports
consumption have adverse effects on the environment such as rapid that while countries with high income have a collection rate of 98%,
global population increase (currently the global population stands at low income countries have a very low collection rate of a mere 48%
7.2 billion people and rising as per United Nation's Department of Eco- even though a substantially large amount of their municipalities'
nomic and Social Affairs [3]) and the generation of huge quantities of waste management budget goes into collection; separation of various
municipal solid waste (MSW) is increasing along with the increasing types of wastes is generator dependent, however in regions with low-
numbers of urban dwellers (Table. 1). While most countries do not income, the generators have insufficient knowledge and motivation to
regard population increase as an immediate threat, the excessive accu- categorise and separate their waste and their governments lack funding
mulation of MSW has led to major concerns in the developed and de- and/or the inclination to prioritise sorting, post collection. So it must be
veloping nations [4,6] as conventional methods [4,8–10] are not able assumed that the presence of industrial and medical wastes is highly
to effectively dispose off the waste at rates at which they are being probable in MSWs if sourced from regions of low income or with poor
generated. While MSW recycling is essential it is dependent on the waste management policies [4]. Although medical wastes and industrial
government's motivation to take the necessary measures to promote wastes may require special processing, it has been established that ther-
awareness. However the generation of waste will continue to grow mal plasma pyrolysis techniques can be used to treat both medical
making it essential for us to formulate a solution to effectively manage wastes [10,12,14,16] and industrial wastes [11,13,16–20], generating
waste regardless of geographical or income of a country, factors that syngas without producing any toxic by-product and using it for energy
play an important role. generation.
Accumulation of waste results in decomposition and harmful emis- There are no specific data available on the composition of MSW,
sion of gases and some methods of storage require large tracts of land making it difficult to determine a standard. However the World Bank re-
which are becoming increasingly valuable with increase in population. ports in [4] that a global MSW composition estimate can be represented
The World Bank reports that there are presently three billion urban res- in the form of a pie chart, Fig. 1.
idents generating 1.2 kg per person per day of MSW and that number is As shown in Fig. 1, MSW is pre-dominantly composed of organic
projected to grow to 4.3 billion urban residents generating 1.42 kg per wastes. As mentioned earlier organic waste can be food scraps, yard
person per day of MSW by 2025 [4]. Hence an unconventional yet effec- trimmings, and process residues; its composition will vary from region
tive solution is required which can be found in the form of thermal plas- to region based on the income of the region, geography, etc. C. Ducharme
ma pyrolysis which this paper seeks to explore. in [6] noted that organic component of MSW can be approximated by
the formula C6H10O4, an observation stated by Themelis et al. in [30]
1.1. MSW on his study of New York City MSW. The formula can guide researchers
when considering the organic component of the MSW sample, and de-
MSW has various compositions, varying from region to region, termine its composition percentage.
country to country and from people to people based on their income,
lifestyle/culture, climate, energy sources and economic affluence. Devel- 1.2. Plasma
oping countries such as India and China, with a rapidly growing urban
population, produce MSW which is mostly organic in nature, such as After solid, liquid and gas, plasma is considered to be the fourth state
food scraps, wood, leaves, and process residues from farms whereas de- of matter; plasma is essentially composed of electrons, ions and neutral
veloped countries with a wealthier population show higher consump- particles. However, plasma in its entirety is electrically neutral.
tions in inorganic materials such as plastic, paper, metal, and e-wastes [4]. Plasma has a long history of utility in industry. It was first employed
E-wastes are essentially discarded electronic appliances such as for metallurgical processes in the 19th century and later in the 20th cen-
computers, cellular devices, televisions or components such as discarded tury. It was used for acetylene extraction from natural gases in the
mother boards, and processors (this may consist of carcinogenic heavy chemical industry. The reason for using plasma was its ability to provide
metals such as lead, mercury, chromium, which defies other forms of high temperatures. The very same reason saw NASA develop this tech-
processing and may enter our food cycle through water and soil contam- nology extensively for simulating the high temperatures that missiles
ination, if not treated/neutralised effectively), due to e-waste high de- and space-crafts routinely face upon re-entry into earth's atmosphere
gree of mercury contamination can be expected in MSW [5]. due to the rapid ionisation. The technologies that we currently use in
The MSW composition cannot be simply categorised as organic and waste processing are derivatives of the technology initially developed
inorganic wastes. Industrial wastes, mostly inorganic such as plastic, by NASA [10].

Table 1
MSW Generation by country [4].

Current available data Projections for 2025

Country Total urban population Total MSW generation Urban population Total MSW generation
(tonnes/day) (tonnes/day)

India 321,623,271 109,589 538,055,000 376,639

China 511,722,970 520,548 822,209,000 1,397,755
USA 241,972,393 624,700 305,091,000 701,709
Russia 107,386,402 100,027 96,061,000 120,076
United Kingdom 54,411,080 97,342 59,738,000 110,515
France 47,192,398 90,493 53,659,000 107,318
Germany 60,530,216 127,816 61,772,000 126,633
Brazil 144,507,175 149,096 206,850,000 330,960
Israel 5,179,120 10,959 8,077,000 16,962
South Korea 38,895,504 48,397 41,783,000 58,496
Japan 84,330,180 144,466 86,460,000 146,982
300 B. Ruj, S. Ghosh / Fuel Processing Technology 126 (2014) 298–308

The third type of plasma, warm plasma has high translational

temperatures of around 2000 K, although it is significantly lower than
thermal plasmas. This plasma dissipates energy into the environment
through non-equilibrium discharges. Microwave plasmas are one such
type of plasma with physical properties that allow for a stable condition
to generate, under a range of external parameters.
The second type of plasma, or the cold plasma is another example of
non-equilibrium plasma, with low energy levels as the energy transfer
from electrons into gas heating is very slow. The energy level is low
enough for the molecules of the plasma to rapidly cool to the surround-
ing temperatures. Corona discharges, whether AC, DC or pulsed, are ca-
pable of producing this kind of plasma, at atmospheric pressure.
In Fig. 2 a segregation on the types of plasma is shown based on def-
initions provided byA. Bogaerts et al. in [21] and A. Gutsol in [7].
In this paper, we are going to discuss low temperature plasmas, es-
pecially thermal plasmas which have been used extensively in several
researches dealing with MSW processing, as they have high arc temper-
ature, high intensity and energy density and most importantly high
non-ionising radiation which is useful in destroying highly toxic com-
pounds and dehydrogenate organic chlorine in an eco-friendly manner
Fig. 1. Pie-chart illustrating the global solid waste composition [4].
[10].

A. Gutsol in [7] states that plasma can be categorised into three 1.3. Plasma generators (torches)
types, thermal plasma, cold plasma and warm (intermediate) plasma.
Thermal plasma attains high temperatures, although not as high as The fundamental concept of plasma generation is, when huge
‘hot plasma’ found in thermo-nuclear research and astrophysics, and amounts of electrical energy are provided to a gas at certain temperature
is in thermal equilibrium. Thermal equilibrium infers that all the species and pressure, it tends to excite and ionise it, generating electrons that
of the plasma, such as ions, atoms, electrons and neutral species, all re- further collide with consequent atoms in-elastically thereby generating
tain the same temperature. A. Bogaerts et al. in [21] classified this type of more ions and electrons. This process continues in a self-sustaining
plasma as fusion plasma, a type of plasma that is commonly found in manner, provided a steady source of energy is continually applied.
stars with a temperature range of 4000 K to 20,000 K. The other two High temperature is generated due to the significant electrical resistivity
types of plasma are classified as non-thermal equilibrium plasma. that generates across the system.
Plasma is created through the application of energy sourced from Thermal plasma can be generated by various methods of discharges
electric discharges of frequencies ranging from Direct Current (DC) to which A. Bogaerts et al. have elaborated upon in [21], however we shall
the optical range which is in the order of 1015. The energy absorbed look into the two methods of thermal plasma discharges that are being
by the electrons is spent in excitation of atoms and molecules, non- extensively used in concerned experiments, arc generated plasma using
elastic collisions for ionisation and for elastic collisions for direct gas Direct Current (DC) and Radio Frequency (RF) inductively coupled dis-
heating. This spent energy is subsequently dissipated into the environ- charges [16,21,22].
ment. Plasmas considered by A. Gutsol have low ionisation degree Arc generated plasma using Direct Current (DC) involves the use of
thereby the degree of energy dissipation depends on the translational DC electric currents as high as 1 × 105 A, depending on the specifications
gas temperature T0. A plasma becomes thermal plasma if the energy of the torch, across two electrodes which create a potential difference
transfer from the electrons to gas heating occurs fast enough for T0 to across the input gas. The gas is forced to pass through the confined
equal the electron temperature Te thereby attaining thermal equilibri- space between the two electrodes which provides the energy required,
um. In order for the electrons to be capable of ionising the gas molecules beginning the electrical breakdown that leads to plasma generation. The
with ionisation energy in the order of 10 eV, it must attain an energy in plasma leaves the torch through a circular opening in one of the elec-
the level of 1 eV or Te of 10,000 K. A. Gutsol infers that plasma must have trodes, usually the anode (non-transferred arc generators). The plasma
a temperature of 10,000 K or above to be stated as thermal plasmas, arc that comes out is unstable. Therefore, an external magnetic field is
which is within the temperature range of plasmas found in stars as used to stabilise the arc. The stabilisation of the arc can also be done
stated by A. Bogaerts et al. in [21]. by controlling the flow rate of the plasma gas.

Direct Current
discharge
Thermal/Equilibrium
Radio Frequency
discharge
Low temperature
Corona discharge
(cold plasma)
Non-thermal/Non-
Plasma equilibrium Micro Wave
plasma (warm
Laser fusion plasma)
High temperature plasma / Hot
plasma

Fig. 2. Types of plasma.

 B. Ruj, S. Ghosh / Fuel Processing Technology 126 (2014) 298–308 301

Working
gas

Cathode
Water
Jacket

Type: Direct Current Plasma torch.

Plasma jet
Anode Temperature: 10000K-14000K [non-transferred]
12000-20000K [transferred].
Electrode erosion: takes place, has a life span
Non-transferred Arc plasma torch
ranging from 1000-3000h in inert gas, lesser in
Working
gas oxidative gas ranging from 200-500h.

Heat sinking: Required to cool the electrodes.

Stabilise the arc operation and prevent corrosion or
Cathode Water melting of electrodes.
Jacket

Ignition of plasma: Easy.

Plasma jet Anode Volume of plasma: Small.

Efficiency of power supply device: 50%

Influence of solid feeding on plasma stability: No.

Transferred Arc plasma torch

Carrying
Type: Radio Frequency plasma torch.
Gas

Temperature: 3000-8000K.
Electrode erosion: No erosion takes place.
Heat sinking: Cooling water flowing inside the coil
Ignition of plasma: Difficult
Volume of plasma: Medium
Efficiency of power supply device: 40-70%
Influence of solid feeding on plasma stability:
Yes.

Fig. 3. Plasma generators (torches) characteristics and schematic diagrams [16,20].

However the designs of DC plasma arc generators differ greatly sputtering where the discharged ions and atoms from the plasma gas
depending on whether they are non-transferred [Fig. 3] or whether collide with cathode surface causing the release of secondary electrons
they are transferred. In transferred arc generators, one of the electrodes, and some atoms from the cathode which later either deposits along
usually the anode has a large separation with respect to the cathode. It is the circular anode surface or passes through the opening, along with
usually a conducting material such as graphite, which also has refracto- the arc and contaminates the reactants. Due to this phenomenon the
ry properties and does not require to be water cooled. It can have a hole cathodes have a definite life span and require time-bound replacements
through it to allow the plasma gas to pass through or the gas could be which increase maintenance cost and frequency of maintenance. In ad-
made to pass through the cathode externally, guided by a constrained dition, more than 50% of electrical energy fed into thermal plasma is
wall [Fig. 3]. Transferred arc reactors can utilise multiple rod electrodes wasted through cooling water which is necessary for stable arc opera-
to generate a plasma arc. Non-transferred DC arc torches are used tion. Otherwise, metallic electrodes are readily corroded or melted.
popularly for their high temperature plasma arcs and better mixing of This is the major drawback that results in the energy efficiency of ther-
the reactants (e.g. MSW) with plasma, although some designers and mal plasma to be poor.
researchers have opted for transferred plasma arcs due to economic rea- In the case of an RF inductively coupled discharges of thermal plas-
sons as cheaper nitrogen gas can be used instead of argon as the work- ma, which is being increasingly considered as their design prevents
ing gas [11] [6,10,16,20,21]. any contact between the plasma gas and the electrodes, the energy nec-
There is one major drawback with DC thermal plasma arc generators essary to generate the plasma is provided by the RF induction coils and
which A. Bogaerts et al. [21] have mentioned, a phenomenon called allows the feed to be injected directly through the plasma region [9],
302 B. Ruj, S. Ghosh / Fuel Processing Technology 126 (2014) 298–308

Fig. 3. However there are certain limitations to this type of plasma torch char, tar and toxic gases such as oxides of sulphur or nitrogen or patho-
which are shown in Fig. 3. gens, from medical wastes. Conventional gasifier and incinerators,
where MSW is combusted in excess of oxygen, due to low operating
2. Thermal plasma treatment of MSW temperatures of 400 to 800 °C, cannot break down all the materials at
molecular level. It becomes essential to include several stages of scrub-
Thermal plasma treatment has certain unique advantages, based on bers to clean the produced gas thereby increasing the processing cost.
the plasma properties mentioned earlier, that have prompted re- Another drawback is that conventional gasifiers cannot process hetero-
searchers to investigate extensively on MSW and other hazardous geneous wastes such as MSW and will require pre-sorting, further
wastes such as medical wastes, believing it to be the most feasible solu- adding to the processing cost [10,16,27].
tion to the impending and escalating waste management crisis [16]. There is a difference between plasma pyrolysis and gasification; the
gasification of MSW or any biomass using plasma yields two products,
1. Thermal plasmas can be used to treat all kinds of waste streams, be it
syngas and vitrified slag, Fig. 4, the quantity of which can be controlled
solid such as regular MSWs, liquid such as urine or poisonous gases.
by us, an added advantage. The gasification of MSW in zero oxygen en-
2. Due to the high temperature and high energy density generated by
vironment will provide us with low yield of gas and higher yield of
thermal plasma, we can accommodate a large throughput with a
vitrified slag. To increase the syngas yield we need to introduce the con-
small scale reactor.
trolled amounts of steam and oxygen. Either of the products has benefi-
3. The high flux densities generated by the plasma at the reactor
cial application, the slag produced can be processed to extract metals or
boundaries lead to a rapid attainment of steady state conditions, ef-
used in construction site where as the syngas produced has a significant
fectively reducing the start-up and shutdown times.
calorific value and can be used for power generation [10,11,13,24] or for
4. The reactors do not require any oxidants to produce the heat source
extraction of pure hydrogen which is foreseen as the future alternative
since we are relying on plasma and not the combustion of conven-
to fossil fuels, prompting researchers such as Y. Byun et al. to perfect an
tional fuels; therefore a small volume of gas is produced which
extraction technique which will complement plasma gasification units,
makes the entire process much more manageable and cost effective
providing a system with MSW as input and pure hydrogen as output
as well as environmentally friendly as the emissions of CO2, which
[26].
is a greenhouse gas and a major concern related to global warming,
Several researchers have conducted experiments on biomass gasifi-
are much lower than accepted levels.
cation using thermal plasma to obtain data necessary to understand the
5. The steep thermal gradient that exists in these reactors allows for
thermodynamic process taking place within a plasma furnace, to deter-
quenching process which is beneficial when trying to recover mono-
mine the composition of the syngas obtained and to test its calorific
mers from polymer wastes as described by H. Huang, and L. Tang in [9].
value so as to understand the feasibility of the process as a waste to en-
Thermal plasma treatment exists effectively in two forms. ergy converter. G. Van Oost et al. [24] using crushed wood as a model
substance and a novel gas–water stabilized plasma torch developed
a. Plasma pyrolysis
and patented by IPP-ASCR, Prague, were able to study the effects of var-
b. Plasma gasification
iable feed rate, plasma gas flow rate and the introduction of CO2 on the
Plasma pyrolysis is the decomposition of any given feed by gasifica- gasification process and were able to determine that even at low plasma
tion in an oxygen starved environment where as plasma gasification flow rates a proper mixing of the reactants and plasma is possible and
involves the addition of limited amounts of oxygen and steam. In more intense mixing is possible at high feed rates. They were also able
both processes plasma is the sole source of heat. No combustion takes to procure data on the effects of the presence of oxygen and CO2 on plas-
place and the end result is the production of synthetic gas (syngas), ma gasification. Similarly, A. Vaidyanathan et al. [25] have simulated
composed pre-dominantly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, although solid waste gasification using plasma to produce syngas using two
certain percentage of carbon dioxide and hydrochloric acid are present, types of feeds: 1) carpet wastes containing polyester, polyethylene,
along with vitrified slag which contains molten form of all the inorganic nylon fibres, and styrene butadiene polymers, and 2) wastes procured
components such as metal scrap present in the MSW feed along with from a military base which consisted mostly of paper towels, aluminium
any residual toxic components in inert form. The output products cans, bread, floor mating, tyres, PVC tubes plastic bags, and soft drink
from conventional gasification units are similar to those from plasma bottles. The syngas percentage obtained towards the end of the experi-
gasification/pyrolysis, however the syngas produced from plasma ment, its composition and the predicted thermal power value, for carpet
gasification/pyrolysis is cleaner, devoid of huge quantities of soot, waste came to 23.5–33.5 kW whereas for waste from military base was

Fig. 4. Block diagram showing the end products of plasma gasification/vitrification process in a waste to energy plant [25].
 B. Ruj, S. Ghosh / Fuel Processing Technology 126 (2014) 298–308 303

27.5–41 kW. A. Vaidyanathan et al. concluded, based on the results ob-

tained, that the experiment was not successful as efficiency was not
optimised and the amount of gas obtained gave a heating value much
lower than the 90 kW power supplied to the torch. However it is expect-
ed that with certain modifications in the process such as longer process-
ing time and improved feed delivery system can provide better results.
The conclusion drawn by A. Vaidyanathan et al. has highlighted an
essential problem that exists with several researchers who have
attempted to simulate successful experiments related to plasma gasifi-
cation, to replicate the data and to device new experiments based on
that data. While some researchers are successful at replication, they
find several complications while contemplating and executing new ex-
periments. These complications can only be removed by trial and error
methods through repeated experimentation. The essential problem is
that plasma based experimentation is a time consuming and costly pro-
cess, as operating a plasma torch requires huge amounts of electricity.
This often limits the number of experiment capabilities a researcher
can conduct, due to budget constraints within which they all operate.
Plasma gasification is a thermo-chemical process and the plasma fur-
nace is the central part of the process within which several chemical con- Fig. 5. Shows the effects of moisture and different components on the calorific value of
versions take place that can be defined by the following formulas [27]: MSW, extract from [29].

C(s) + H2O = CO + H2 [heterogeneous water gas shift reaction the feasibility of the process in real-time. The pilot plant consists of
—endothermic] five important sections:
1) MSW storage unit and feeding system;
C(s) + CO2 = 2CO [Boudouard equilibrium—endothermic]
2) Integrated furnace fitted with two thermal non-transferred torches
and an assistant LPG gas burner;
C(s) + 2H2 = CH4 [hydrogenation gasification—exothermic]
3) Steam generator;
4) Effluent gas treatment system which contains a bag filter, water
CH4 + H2O = CO + 3H2 [methane decomposition—endothermic]
quencher and scrubber;
5) Secondary combustion chamber; and
CO + H2O = CO2 + H2 [water gas shift reaction—exothermic].
6) Air pre-heater/gas cooler.
These chemical conversions are the basis of an equilibrium model A schematic diagram of the pilot plant is shown in Fig. 6. The waste is
designed by A. Mountouris et al. [27] to aid the researcher in predicting stored in the storage unit which has an air curtain that prevents any
the performance of a plasma gasification process, called the GasifEq. odour from escaping. The waste is then sorted using magnetic separa-
This model has been created using recent thermodynamic data taken tors to remove metals, processed by crushers to reduce their size and
from various sources such as National Institute of Standard and Technol- then continuously fed into the integrated furnace, pre-heated to about
ogy (NIST) and Design Institute for Physical Properties (DIPPR) consid- 873 K using LPG burners. The burners are also responsible for igniting
ering all operational parameters such as moisture content, oxygen the waste. The entering feed is oxidised immediately by hot air which
amount, and gasification temperature and deduce its effects on the is being fed into the reactor simultaneously. This reduces the electricity
composition of the syngas produced as well as providing the energy consumption of the torches. The MSW undergoes gasification at a tem-
and energy efficiency analysis. The model GasifEq is a possible solution perature of 1673 K. The slag produced is tapped out from underneath
to the problems that researchers such as A. Vaidyanathan et al. have the furnace and water cooled to produce granules. The syngas produced
faced, by predicting the optimum operational conditions required and is then taken to the steam generators where the gas temperature is re-
the corresponding syngas composition, for operational parameters set duced from 1673 K to 453 K and the resultant thermal transfer is used to
by the researchers thereby resulting in greater experimental success generate steam. The cooled syngas is then made to pass through the bag
and creating avenues for further research to improve efficiency of the filters where any residual fly ash is removed. Here the gas is doped with
processes as well as discovering more effective process techniques Ca(OH)2 which reduces acidic gases present and increase the efficiency
and process variables. of fly ash capture. The syngas is subsequently passed through a water

2.1. Plasma gasification & industry

Magnetic
MSW storage Hydraulic Integrated
seperator &
A major drawback of the use of thermal plasma torches based on unit
Crusher
feeder Furnace
DC discharge is that they consume huge amounts of electricity. While
some researchers such as M. Punčochář et al. [11] and S. K. Nema and
Ganeshprasad [10] have proposed the generation of electricity using Steam Water
syngas produced from gasification of plastic waste and medical waste Bag filters Scrubber
generators quencher
respectively, heterogeneous wastes such as MSW are a greater chal-
lenge as they contain a mixture of various products ranging from
organic to inorganic, of varying proportions, hence the output syngas S
Secondary Air pre- t
composition would vary and thereby its calorific value, Fig. 5. Combustion heater/ gas a
In order to make thermal plasma treatment of MSW an industrially chamber cooler c
feasible process, we need to be able to simulate the process in the k
form of an experiment. Y. Byun et al. [23] have developed a working
MSW plant capable of processing 10 ton of waste per day to observe Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of the pilot plant for thermal plasma treatment of MSW [23].
304 B. Ruj, S. Ghosh / Fuel Processing Technology 126 (2014) 298–308

quencher which rapidly cools the gas to 303 K with 40% NaOH solution implement the Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) model
following which a scrubber (pH 9 maintained) removes any remaining as shown in Fig. 7, as opposed to the processes proposed by the other
acidic gases that might be present. The syngas is finally burned in a companies, Table. 3.
secondary combustion chamber, where the temperature is maintained The cost to set up a traditional grate combustion WTE plant is around
at 1173 K and the output gas (syngas) is passed through an air pre- $60/ton of MSW as opposed to $76.8/ton of MSW required to set up a
heater/gas cooler. The air pre-heater/gas cooler collects the air from plasma gasification WTE plant. The values mentioned are shown in
MSW storage unit and heated using the output gas (syngas) from the Table. 3. The cost of setting up a classic grate combustion WTE plant is
secondary combustion chamber, to raise its temperature to 873 K (out- compared to the cost of setting up a base plant, which is essentially a
put gas temperature reduces to 473 K). The output gas (syngas) is then cost assumption made by C. Ducharme in [6], on the capital required
stored in a stack. to set up a plasma gasification WTE plant. The base plant cost estimates
Y. Byun et al. have concluded that their setup has been successful are developed keeping the components of the grate combustion plant
in producing syngas with little or no trace of any poisonous or constant; omitting the cost of components that is irrelevant, such as
hazardous gases, as shown in Table 2, the power consumption is stoker, furnace, boiler, turbine, condenser and stack and including the
1.14 MWh/MSW-ton [thermal plasma torch (0.817 MWh/MSW-ton) + costs of plasma gasification vessel, plasma torches, and water quenching
utilities (0.322 MWh/MSW-ton)] and the amount of LPG used to pre- vessel and engine generators. The cost estimates reveal that the cost of
heat the furnace is 7.37 Nm3/MSW-ton, respectively. The authors setting up a combustion grate plant is significantly cheaper, also the cost
conclude that the recoverable electricity from the syngas produced is involved in maintenance and operation, or variable cost, is significantly
only 0.79MWh/MSW-ton, assuming that the Integrated Gasification higher for plasma gasification plants. Although Westinghouse Plasma
Combined Cycle (IGCC) has an efficiency of up to 35%. This is due to Corporation's IGCC model proves to be a cost effective model as opposed
the fact that there are excess of heat loss in several sections of the to other alternate plasma gasification models, it is still producing sig-
IGCC such as the steam generator where it is estimated that 70% of nificantly less benefit, $12.33 less than the classic grate combustion
the input energy of the gas from the furnace was lost as the heat gener- plants [6].
ated was not reused. Y. Byun et al. believe that by increasing the MSW
capacity and re-using the heat lost at the steam generator, the process 2.2. Plasma gasification: future
can be made more economically viable.
In order to make plasma gasification industrially effective many Plasma gasification technology has proven to be an effective method
companies have tried to combine traditional gasification with plasma for waste disposal, being environmentally friendly while providing en-
torches, such as Europlasma and Plasco, using DC plasma torches ergy in the form of syngas or hydrogen which is later used in generating
to clean the gas produced from auto-gasifiers before introducing them electricity using specially designed generators or as fuel in hydrogen IC
to several scrubbers, then to a Gas engine optimised to use syngas as engines [28] and fuel cells. Current technologies in the field of thermal
fuel, to generate electricity; another company called InEnTec, proposed plasma treatment are limited to the two types of plasma discharges,
the concept of Plasma Enhanced Melter (PEM) which combined the RF discharge and DC discharge, which are either in the research stage
concepts of plasma gasification and glass melting technologies. The or in industry. While the industry focuses on DC plasma arc technology
technology composed of three components, a downdraft pre-gasifier, currently, it is proving to be incapable of competing with traditional
a PEM process vessel and a thermal residence chamber. The MSW is grate combustion WTE plants in terms of cost, reducing its economic
fed into the pre-gasifier which is responsible for the gasification of feasibility. However other than Alter Nrg/WPC technology no other
80% of the waste to syngas, while the remainder is processed in the company has been able to test an economically viable waste to energy
PEM vessel attached to the gasifier. The PEM vessel uses a DC powered project; the factors that influence the economic and financial viability
plasma arc and an AC powered resistance heating system, to reduce the of a project, as elaborated by L. Yang et al. in [29] are:
load on the transferred arc. The inorganic materials are vitrified in the
1. The composition of the waste, its calorific content;
form of a slag and are collected. The design, although innovative, was
2. The plant reactor size;
unable to reduce emissions as opposed to a classic grate combustion
3. The competitive commercial tipping fees for the waste streams;
plant [6].
4. Ratio of organic to inorganic content;
C. Ducharme in [6] has done a comprehensive review of all the
5. Local equipment cost;
present industrial scale plasma assisted waste to energy (WTE) process-
6. Local labour cost;
es including one process developed by Alter Nrg using torches and
7. Local regulation/laws;
cupola designed by Westinghouse Plasma Corporation (WPC), which
8. Sale price per unit of electricity generated; and
is an effective plasma gasification unit that can process MSW directly
9. Design of the plant. Some designs produce enough electricity to meet
without any pre-sorting or pre-gasification, and the syngas produced
process requirements such as in [10].
is then used to generate electricity using customised turbines. This
setup is very similar to the experimental setup by Y. Byun et al., Fig. 6. The most important factor that affects the viability of a project is the
The cost analysis in this report indicates that the model proposed technology that is being implemented. While the technology currently
by Alter Nrg/WPC is beneficial for processing MSW, provided they being pursued by the industry is environmentally viable and barely
meeting the operation cost, researchers are looking into alternate tech-
nology in line with thermal plasma technology that can address the cost
Table 2 factor by increasing the process efficiency and units of power generated.
Composition of syngass output from the integrated furnace in [23]. One such alternate technology is being experimented in Israel by Q.
CO2 (%) 9.9 ± 3.0 Zhang et al. [31,32], called Plasma Gasification Melting (PGM) where
CO (%) 14.2 ± 4.5 MSW gasification and plasma melting of the residues from the gasifica-
O2 (%) 0.4 ± 0.2 tion are achieved in a single moving-bed counter current up-draft gas-
H2 (%) 10.4 ± 3
ifier in a continuous one-step process. The process involves feeding of
HCL (ppm) 0.5 ± 0.4
THC (ppm) 23.2 ± 5.2 air into the melting chamber of the reactor by the plasma torches
SOX (ppm) Not detected which are placed at the bottom of the reactor. The air enters at high
NOX (ppm) Not detected speed and high temperature in the form of plasma jet which effectively
N2 (ppm) Not detected melts the inorganic components of the waste and the air with its resid-
PCDDs/DFs (NG-TEQ/Nm3) 1.04 ± 0.75
ual heat mixes with steam, which is injected through the side walls. This
 B. Ruj, S. Ghosh / Fuel Processing Technology 126 (2014) 298–308 305

Fig. 7. The Alter Nrg/WPC plasma gasification waste to energy plant: schematic diagram of proposed Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC), extract from [6].

technique effectively achieves several processes of drying, pyrolysis, produced to have reduced the amounts of carbon monoxide as well
char gasification and melting of inorganic components, a schematic di- as increase in the yield and the lower-heating-value.
agram illustrating the PGM process is shown in Fig. 8. The benefits of
this process are the following: The concept of PGM reactor was first developed by creating a model
using Aspen Plus. The results of which were compared with the results
1. High energy efficiency; obtained from the test reactor and tallied with the measured results to
2. 95% volume reduction of MSW inputted; find that the process was feasible and by making appropriate adjust-
3. Syngas produced is rich in tar with a lower-heating-value of up to ments, concluded in [31], is a viable alternate to conventional plasma
10 MJ/Nm3; and technology for industrial scale implementation in the future.
4. The application of high-temperature steam in the process affects the There is another approach being taken by G. Galeno et al. in the form
water–gas and water–gas-shift reactions which causes the syngas of an Integrated Plasma Gasification Fuel Cell system (IPGFC) in [34].

Table 3
A comprehensive comparison of all processes industrially available currently, extract from [6].

Classic combustion Gasification Westinghouse Plasma InEntec Europlasma Plasco

Corporation (WPC)

Availability 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%

Number of commercial plants 4 0 0 0
Pilot plant 1 1 0 2
Feedstock MSW MSW MSW + lime + met coke MSW MSW/industrial waste NA
Oxidant Air Enriched oxygen Enriched oxygen Enriched oxygen Air/CO2 NA
Energy for plasma torches 115.2 34 133 NA
(kWh per ton MSW)
Composition of syngas with MSW
%CO – 41% 31.50% 41.40% 41% NA
%CO2 – 13.80% 8.33% 16.60% 4% NA
%N2 – NA 12.10% 5.60% 14% NA
%H2 – 33.70% 16.20% 34.80% 33% NA
%CH4 – 4.10% 1.00% 0.10% NA NA
%H2S – 0.13% 0.02% NA NA NA
%HCL – 0.13% 0.03% 0.00% NA NA
%H2O – 6.30% 29.20% 1.50% 8% NA
Economics ($ per ton of MSW) WTE Base plant assumptions WPC InEntec Europlasma Plasco
Net power out (kWh) 500 533 617 450 500 533
Capital cost 60 76.8 81 76.8 86 96
Labour cost 10 10 10 10 10 10
Variable cost 28.80 43 32 43 53 43
Sale power 50 53.3 61.7 40 50 53.3
Sale slag/metals 2.25 2.47 2.47 2.47 2.47 2.47
Net benefit ($) 19.05 −8.68 6.72 −16.98 −30.98 −30.15
306 B. Ruj, S. Ghosh / Fuel Processing Technology 126 (2014) 298–308

another method of discharge called microwave plasma discharge,

which is being explored for the following benefits which was elaborated
by Y. Ko et al. [33]:

1. Production of high ionisation levels and molecular dissociation with-

out heating the contained matter excessively;
2. Reactor designs are simpler and free from contaminations and less
subject to damage;
3. Little electronic interference is generated;
4. Absence of high voltages means there is reduced chances of shock
hazard;
5. Lower power consumption thereby more energy efficient; and
6. Ability to tolerate high concentrations of water which is particularly
beneficial when treating MSW which has a significant moisture
content.

These properties of microwave plasma discharge have prompted

several researchers to investigate their application in processing organic
waste (Table 4). C. J. Lupa et al. [35] tested the suitability of microwave
induced plasma in pyrolysis of waste wood samples that would simu-
late the organic component of MSW which is usually at a high percent-
age. Using a lab-based reactor, a welded steel box lined with a 15 mm
thick refractory lining with an internal pressure of 20 kPa, controlled
by using nitrogen, the reaction is conducted in zero oxygen environ-
ment for pyrolysis to take place. Samples used were 10 g in weight.
Using a Gasmet DX400 FTIR analyser the gas generated by the reactor
during the process was analysed and applying necessary correction fac-
tor the mass ratio was determined to be 66:20:13 and mean mass loss
determined was 7.96 g of the initial 10 g which is a 79.6% reduction
Fig. 8. Schematic diagram showing the PGM process model, extract from [32].
showing the feasibility of the concept of using microwave induced plas-
ma for treatment of biomass.
The basic concept of IPGFC is to combine a conventional plasma gasifica-
tion reactor (PGR) along with an alternate power generation system, 3. Conclusion
which is significantly more efficient than the conventional turbine sys-
tems that are being currently implemented in industrial projects. This The global scenario of MSW generation is getting critical with in-
system involves the integration of the PGR with a high temperature crease in urban population and concomitant reduction in vacant or fal-
fuel cell, particularly the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). The SOFC operates low lands, has prompted several countries to incinerate their wastes in
on the concept that a fuel cell would have oxide ion conducting electro- lieu of land filling or use of both of these options. However both these
lyte which would permit the transference of oxide ions from the cath- processes of waste disposal are harmful to the environment. Thermal
ode to the anode where it would react with the fuel. In this process plasma gasification of MSW has been proven to be an environmentally
the fuel being syngas sourced from the PGR, and generate power, friendly method to process waste. The plasma gasification process in-
Fig. 9. The cathode is fed with air, pre-heated using heat source from volves the dissociation of the waste at molecular level causing genera-
the combustion chamber present in the Fuel Cell Unit. The combustion tion of a synthetic gas composed primarily of carbon monoxide and
chamber is responsible for the incineration of the gas that the fuel cell hydrogen which can later be used to generate electricity using steam cy-
ejects during its operation. Heat is transferred through the exhaust cles or more modern and efficient Integrated Gasification Combined
gases to the Steam Turbine Unit. G. Galeno et al. state that the benefit Cycle.
of this system is that it efficiently uses any excess heat, from the syngas There is also the possibility of extraction of hydrogen, which as some
produced by the PGR in the Plasma Gasification Unit, to the exhaust gas researchers believe, can be used as a replacement to fossil fuels in
from the combustion chamber in the Fuel Cell Unit, by transferring it the near future. However this method has a major disadvantage in the
onto water through heat exchangers, converting it to steam and using form of cost of electricity consumption and setup costs.
it to operate a steam turbine hence generating more power. Also the Research into more novel approaches to thermal plasma treatment
gas ejected from the cathode is at high temperature thereby when fed is required as it is currently being done in terms of plasma gasification
to the plasma torches in the PGR, reduces power consumption and melting reactor or the Integrated Plasma Gasification Fuel Cell design.
increases the efficiency of the process while retaining the same levels Development and optimisation of these new concepts are also expen-
of power production as that of an Integrated Gasification Combined sive and complicated processes due to the rarity of the components re-
Cycle (plasma), the technology currently being implemented in indus- quired, their procurement and operating cost for trials being very high,
try. The model developed by G. Galeno et al. in [34] using Aspen Plus simulation models are much required which would allow researchers to
software has shown that this process has efficiency of 33% as compared formulate new processes or designs and simulate reliable results which
to Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (plasma) which has 30% effi- can subsequently be scaled up for industrial trials. In order to achieve
ciency, the predicted power output is 87kW. this, a standard model is required in line with equilibrium model called
While some researchers are looking into reactor design and novel GasifEq developed by A. Mountouris et al. in [27] or the EquiPlasmaJet
methods of improving the thermal plasma treatment technology for model developed by G. Galeno et al. in [34] which provides near accu-
MSW, other researchers are considering improving the plasma genera- rate results of the performance of plasma gasification reactors; G.
tion technology or rather the method of plasma generation. Galeno et al. were able to simulate the concept of Integrated Plasma
As mentioned earlier, the current technology related to plasma gen- Gasification Fuel Cell using their model which proves the benefits of
eration is limited to RF discharge and DC discharge. However there is the existence of such models.
 B. Ruj, S. Ghosh / Fuel Processing Technology 126 (2014) 298–308 307

Fig. 9. Flow diagram of the Integrated Plasma Gasification Fuel Cell system process model, extract from [34].

While researchers are looking into the modification of existing ther- Acknowledgement
mal plasma technologies to improve efficiency and cost effectiveness
some are looking into microwave induced plasma which promises to Authors are thankful to Director, CSIR-Central Mechanical Engineer-
be a revolutionary new approach to thermal plasma treatment of mu- ing Research Institute, Durgapur, India for constant support and
nicipal solid waste as it is less power consuming, more tolerant of mois- encouragement.
ture which is in high levels in municipal solid waste exhibiting regional
composition variations.
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