Introduction construction .

It is necessary for the civil

engineer to become conversant with the
What is Construction Materials and properties of such materials.
Testing?
The service conditions of buildings
Construction Materials and Testing (CMT) is demand a wide range of materials and
a field in civil engineering that focuses on various properties such as water
understanding, selecting, and testing the resistance, strength, durability,
materials used in construction projects. It temperature resistance, appearance,
ensures that materials meet the required permeability, etc. They are to be properly
strength, durability, and safety standards studied before making final selection of
before being used in buildings, roads, any building material for a particular use.
bridges, and other structures.
Construction Materials
Basic Concepts in Construction
Materials Testing When it comes to structural design, and
there are several different materials that
Learning the properties of the construction are used in construction. Common
materials is just a part of the course. The materials include steel, concrete, masonry,
course lets students learn about the and wood. These materials have different
sources of these materials, the different strengths, weight, cost, and durability.
American Standard for Testing Materials
The material used will all depend upon the
(ASTM) standards used in testing them,
structure that is being constructed.
common defects of these materials and the
ways to safeguard the construction from Structural design services will help their
these defects, precautions in handling clients pick the right material depending
these materials for better durability, and to upon what the building is going to be used
guide students in choosing the proper for and the size of that structure.
material for a particular purpose in Construction Materials Certain materials
construction. can be used to create structures, but the
materials are subject to QUALITY CONTROL
Students should also be able to understand
before they are used.
which tests are possible for the materials in
constructions as well as be knowledgeable Materials used in construction must meet
in the standard values to expect from current standards.
these laboratory tests.
Civil engineer/Material Engineer will look
Learning these parameters with the at the specifications for the project,
properties of these materials will guide the including the building materials. They will
contractor in handling and working with examine the standards and comply with
them. the standards when constructing the
structure.
Engineering structures are composed of
materials. These materials are known as
engineering materials or materials of
Types of Construction Materials decoration. Glazing increases it’s strength
and seals it to make it waterproof.
1)NATURALLY AVAILABLE MATERIALS
WOOD is a hard, fibrous substance that
forms the trunk, stems, and branches of
trees. It can be processed to make lumber,
plywood, or other wood products used in
construction.

WOOD can be generally classified as

either a hardwood or a softwood .

TIMBER is lumber that is 5” or larger in

width and thickness, and is used mainly for
support posts or beams.

Sand is a granular material composed of

finely divided rock and mineral particles. It
is defined by size, being finer than gravel
and coarser than silt.

ROCK it is considered the longest lasting

material available, it is a dense material
and it also offers protection; on the other
hand this material has drawbacks, too,
such as weight and it is not very easy to
keep it warm.

A boulder is any rock larger than 256 mm

(10 inches) in diameter.

Artificial or Industrial Materials

CEMENT is a binder, a substance used for
Earth Clay Soil is soil that is comprised of construction that sets, hardens, and
very fine mineral particles and not much adheres to other materials to bind them
organic material. The resulting soil is quite together.
sticky since there is not much space Cement is rarely used on its own, but
between the mineral particles. rather to bind sand and gravel (aggregate)
Clay is easily shaped, but firing that clay at Cement mixed with fine aggregate
high temperatures preserves the shape, produces mortar for masonry , or with
color, and texture. After firing, this sand and gravel, produces concrete.
“ceramic” also becomes resistant to heat,
cold, moisture, acids, and salts. It can be
glazed, colored, and textured for
Artificial or Industrial Materials Rebar significantly increases the tensile
strength of the structure.
REINFORCING STEEL BAR (RSB) also
known as (Rebar), is a steel bar or mesh of Rebar’s surface often “deformed” with
steel wires used as tensioned device in ribs, lugs or indentations to promote better
reinforced concrete and reinforced bond with concrete and reduce the risk of
masonry structures to strengthen and aid slippage
the concrete in tension. Concrete is strong
under compression, but has weak tensile
strength.
MASONRY is used to indicate the art of MATERIAL PROPERTIES
building structure. The masonry wall is
built of individual blocks of materials such Physical Properties
as stones, bricks, concrete hollow blocks A material undergoes transition under the
(CHB) etc. influence of temperature and pressure,
Concrete Hollow Block (CHB ) is a type of and these changes are physical in nature,
Concrete Block used for building internal because their molecules remain intact.
and external walls. CHB saves time in [Density, specific gravity, porosity, water
building walls due to its large dimensions. absorption, etc.
Due to the load carrying capacity, the DENSITY (p) Density, ρ is defined as mass
Hollow Block is playing an important role in per unit volume for a material in kg/m³.
the construction industry.

UNIT WEIGHT (y) is the ratio of

material’s weight to material’s
volume N/m³.

PAINT is any pigmented liquid, liquefiable, Specific Gravity (Sg) is the ratio of solid
or solid mastic composition that, after density of material and density of distilled
application to a substrate in a thin layer, water at a temperature of 4 C.
converts to a solid film. It is most
commonly used to protect, color, or
provide texture to objects.
A colored substance which is spread over a
surface and dries to leave a thin decorative Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of
or protective coating. the voids in the material to the over all
Plastics are usually reasonable in cost, volume.
moisture and corrosion resistant,
lightweight, tough, and easily molded into
complex shapes. Plastics are replacing
many natural building materials due to low
maintenance requirements.
Voids Ratio (e) •the ratio between the Mechanical Properties
volume of the voids to the volume of solid
material. Strength
the ability of the material to resist failure
under the action of stresses and loads

Stress, σ is the applied force P divided by

the area A
Water Absorption (Ww or Wv) •denotes
the ability of the material to absorb and
retain water. It is expressed as percentage
in weight or of volume of dry material.

Types of Stress
There are several types of stress
which depend on types ofapplied
Weathering resistance load. These stresses can be
classified as:
It is the ability of a material toendure
alternate wet and dry conditions for a Compression Stress- A force that
longperiod without considerable
pushes materials together,causing
deformation and loss of mechanical
strength. them to shorten.
Water permeability Tension Stress - A force that pulls
It is the capacity of a material to allow materials apart, causingthem to
water to penetrate under pressure. stretch.
Materials like glass, steel and bitumen are
impervious. Shear Stress- A force that causes
parts of a material to slidepast
Frost Resistance
each other.
It denotes the ability of a water saturated
material to endure repeated freezing and Bending Stress- A force that
thawing with considerable decrease of causes a material to
mechanical strength. Under such
bend,experiencing both
conditions the water contained by the
pores increases in volume even up to 9 compression and tension.
percent on freezing.
IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
2. Weigh the Sample
Know the sources of construction Record the total dry
materials; weight before sieving.
identify and know the properties of various
construction materials.
3. Arrange the Sieves
Know how the materials are tested as per Stack sieves in descending order
ASTM standards (largest mesh on top, smallest
Know how to choose proper material from at the bottom).
the commercially available varieties for a Place a pan at the bottom to
particular purpose of construction. collect fine particles.
Know common defects in the materials

Know various precautions to be taken 4. Sieve the Sample

while constructing for better durability. Pour the sample into the top
sieve.
MODULE 2 Shake using a mechanical
EQUIMENT/APPARATUS shaker for 10–15 minutes.

FOR SOIL AND SOIL

AGGREGATES
SIEVE ANALYSIS OR GRADATION
A sieve analysis is a practice or
procedure used to assess the particle
size distribution of a granular material
by allowing the material to pass
through a series of sieves of
progressively smaller mesh size and
weighing the amount of material that is
stopped by each sieve as a fraction of
the whole mass.
STEP BY STEP PROCEDURES:

1. Prepare the Sample

Collect a representative soil or
aggregate sample. Oven-dry it
at 110°C for 24 hours.
 Slump Test – Measures
5. Weigh the Retained
workability and consistency of
Material
fresh concrete.
Weigh the material on each sieve.

Ensure the total weight matches the

initial weight (±1% error).

6. Calculate Results
Compute the percentage retained on
each sieve. Concrete Materials Testing
Find cumulative percentages and Compressive Strength Test –
determine grain size distribution. Determines how much load Concrete
Can withstand.
7. Plot the Grain Size
Distribution Curve

Use a semi-log graph to analyze soil

classification.

Los Angeles Abrasion Test (ASTM

C131) – Measures the hardness
and durability of aggregates.
Materials Testing Moisture-Density Relationship
Aggregate & Soil Testing (ASTM D698) – Ensures proper
soil compaction for road
Sieve Analysis (ASTM C136) –
foundations.
Determines particle size distribution for
grading requirements. (Grading Test). California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test
(ASTM D1883) – Evaluates soil
strength for pavement design.
 FIBER GLASS

for PLASTIC LIMIT TEST

Plastic limit test is one of the laboratory
tests used internationally to
differentiate or classify soils into
groups. As the starting procedures of
steps
liquid limit test and plastic limit test are
1) Prepare the SaMple common, the both tests are executed
2) Load sa MaChine at the same time in most of the
3) ReMove and Sieve purposes. The Swedish Scientist, A.
4) Weigh and CalCulate
Atter berg defined the plastic limit as,
RESULTS: The lower the abrasion boundary of soil between the plastic
Material’s resistanCe to wear and solid state.

CASAGRANDE CUP APPARATUS

for LIQUID LIMIT TEST

The liquid limit is the moisture content

at which the groove, formed by a
standard tool into the sample of soil
taken in the standard cup, closes for 10
mm on being given 25 blows in a
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER
standard manner. This is the limiting
moisture content at which the cohesive ABSORPTION FOR AGGREGATES
soil passes from liquid state to plastic Specific gravity test of aggregates
state.
is done to measure the strength
or quality of the material while
water absorption test determines
the water holding capacity of the
coarse and fine aggregates .
The main objective of these test is
to, To measure the strength or
quality of the material.
 STANDARD PROCTOR TEST
EQUIPMENT or PROCTOR
COMPACTION TEST APPARATUS
Standard Proctor Test is used to
determine the compaction of soil
& the properties of different
types of soil with a change in
LOS ANGELES ABRASION moisture content.
MACHINE
Abrasion test is carried out to
test the hardness property of
aggregates. The principle of Los
Angeles abrasion test is to find
the percentage wear due to
relative rubbing action between
the aggregate and steel balls used
as abrasive charge.
SAND CONE DENSITY APPARATUS
The Sand Cone Apparatus is used
to determine the in place density
of any soil that can be excavated
to a stable condition with hand
tools.

AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE

TESTING MACHINE
The aggregate impact value is a
measure of resistance to sudden
impact or shock, which may differ
from its resistance to gradually
applied compressive load.
EQUIMENT/APPARATUS FOR
CEMENT

FINENESS CEMENT APPARATUS

Fineness of Cement is measured
by sieving cement on standard
sieve. The proportion of cement
of which the cement particle sizes
are greater than the 90 micron is EQUIMENT/APPARATUS FOR
determined. FRESH CONCRETE
SLUMP TEST APPARATUS
Concrete slump test equipment is
used to measure the consistency
and workability off resh concrete,
and indirectly, the water/cement
ratio of the concrete mix.
LE-CHATELIER APPARATUS
The test used for determining
soundness o fcement is known as
“Le-Chatelier apparatus test.” By
soundness of cement, it is
understood that, its capacity to
form a non-disintegrating, hard
uniformly strong mass on the
setting. This depends on its
original composition, proper
burning, and grinding.
COMPACTION FACTOR EQUIMENT/APPARATUS FOR
APPARATUS HARDENED CONCRETE,
REINFORCING STEEL BAR (RSB),
Compaction factor test
TIMBER, ETC…)
equipment is used to measure
the workability of fresh concrete. UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
(UTM)
A universal testing
machine(UTM), also known as a
universal tester, materials testing
machine or materials test frame,
is used to test the tensile strength
and compressive strength of
EQUIMENT/APPARATUS FOR materials. An earlier name for a
HARDENED CONCRETE, tensile testing machine is a
REINFORCING STEEL BAR (RSB), tensometer. The "universal" part
TIMBER, ETC…) of the name reflects that it can
UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE perform many standard tensile
(UTM) and compression tests on
materials, components, and
A universal testing machine structures (in other words, that it
(UTM), also known as a universal is versatile).
tester, materials testing machine
or materials test frame, is used to
test the tensile strength and
compressive strength of
materials.
EQUIMENT/APPARATUS FOR
ASPHALT
MARSHALL IMPACT COMPACTOR
Marshall Impact Compactor
Machine is designed to provide a
stable and rigid mechanism to be
used for preparation of
bituminous specimens for
Marshall Stability Tests.

CORE DRILLING MACHINE

Machine is designed to cut cores
up to 150 mm diameter from
concrete, asphalt and similar hard
construction materials.
MODULE III–SOIL AND SOIL mechanical means such as
AGGREGATES agitation in water.
SOIL AND SOIL AGGREGATE The ORGANIC constituents are
composed of debris from plants
Learning Outcome:
and from the decomposition of
Students will learn how to: many tiny life forms that inhabit
•Define the Soil and Soil or live in the soil, while the
Aggregate in the field of INORGANIC components of soil
engineering. are composed of rocks and
minerals, that have been
•Familiarize, enable to list out gradually broken down by
and describe the different weather, chemical action and
classification of Soil. other natural processes.
•Develop a basic understanding The behavior of a structure
of the engineering properties of depends upon the properties of
each soil. the soil materials on which the
•Describe a soil profile in terms of structure rests.
color, texture, etc… Engineering properties of soil
•Perform laboratory experiment includes; shear strength, stiffness
for gradation, specific gravity, and permeability. These
specific weight, water absorption properties are being considered
of aggregates, abrasion and in order to determine and design
density and uniformity of the type of foundations,
aggregates. earthworks, pavements and other
structures.
•Determine the minimum testing
requirements as per standard and SOIL FORMATION is a continuous
specifications. and evolutionary process still in
action today. The Earth’s crust
INTRODUCTION
consists of rock, which classify
SOIL is defined as a natural into three groups:
aggregate of mineral grains, with
IGNEOUS —formed by cooling
or without organic constituents,
from a molten state.
that can be separated by gentle
SEDIMENTARY—formed by the transportation such as water,
accumulation and cementing of wind, ice, and the force of gravity.
the particles and remains of
TRANSPORTED SOIL classify into
plants and animals.
six (6) categories:
METAMORPHIC—formed from
 Alluvial Soil
existing rocks that have been
 Marine Soil
subjected to heat and pressure.
 Lacustrine Soil
 Aeolian Soil
Exposed to the atmosphere, rock  Glacial Soil
undergoes a PHYSICAL and  Colluvial Soil
CHEMICAL PROCESS called LACUSTRINE [luh kuhs trin ]
WEATHERING, which soils are transported soils
decomposes the rock into a loose, deposited in freshwater lakes.
incoherent mixture of gravel, They are typically fine grained
sand, and finer material. This soils, the result of being
process over a sufficient length of brought into freshwater lakes
time disintegrates the three rock by streams or rivers
types and produces soils of
various designations. AEOLIAN [ee oh lee uhn ] soils
are transported by wind rather
RESIDUAL SOIL is any soil that than water.
remains in place during the
weathering process. A mantle of GLACIAL soil (or drift) is
residual soil will reflect the material transported by an
characteristics of the underlying advancing ice sheet. It could
parent rock from which it was have been pushed ahead,
derived. carried upon, or carried within
the ice.
TRANSPORTED SOIL is any soil
that moved to a place other than COLLUVIAL [kuh loo vee ahl ]
its original location during the soil consists of mixed loose
weathering process. Transported earth material that has
soils often bear properties accumulated at the base of a
induced by its mode of hill through the action of
gravity, such as piles of talus,
 avalanche debris, and sheets PARTICLE SIZE
of detritus moved by soil creep
The size of the particle grains in
or frost action.
the soil mass determines how the
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS soils are divided into groups.
The physical characteristics of A sieve is a screen attached across
soils aid in determining their the end of a shallow cylindrical
engineering characteristics and frame. (Figure JM-01) The screen
are the basis of any soil permits particles smaller than the
classification system. openings to fall through while
retaining larger ones. When
The most common engineering
sieves of different sizes are
classification systems for soils are
stacked so the largest screen
the Unified Soil Classification
openings are at the top and the
System (USCS) and the American
smallest at the bottom, soil can
Association of State Highway and
be separated into particle groups
Transportation Officials
based on size.
(AASHTO).
SOIL PARTICLE SIZE
CLASSIFICATIONS
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
SOILS
 PARTICLE SIZE
 PARTICLE SHAPE
 GRADATION MIT –Massachusetts Institute of
 COMPACTNESS Technology
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY USDA –U.S Department of
 SOIL MOISTURE Agriculture
 Sources of Water in Soils
 Plasticity AASHTO –American Association
 Effects of Soil Moisture of State Highway and
Organic Soils Transportation Officials
 ORGANIC SOILS USCS–Unified Soil Classification
System
ASTM–American Society of The bulky shape has the following four
Testing Materials subdivisions listed in descending order
of desirability for construction:
Angular—recently broken up particles
PARTICLE SHAPE characterized by jagged projections,
sharp ridges, and flat surfaces. Seldom
The shape of the particles found in nature because of weathering,
influences the strength and angular gravels and sands are generally
stability of a soil. Bulky and platy the best materials for construction
(Figure JM-02) are two general because of their interlocking
characteristics but must usually be
shapes recognized in the USCS
produced artificially by crushing.
and they may be located within
the same geological area. Subangular—particles that have been
weathered to the extent that the
sharper points and ridges have been
worn off.

Subrounded—particles that have been

further weathered and are still
somewhat irregular in shape but have
no sharp corners and few flat areas.
Frequently found in streambeds, if
composed of hard, durable particles,
subrounded material is adequate for
most construction needs.

BULKY SOILS Rounded—particles weathered to the

point that all projections have been
Cobbles, gravel, sand, and silt particles removed, with few irregularities in
cover a large range of sizes; however, shape remaining. Usually found in or
they are all bulky in shape. The term near streambeds or beaches, they
“bulky” is confined to particles that are resemble spheres of varying sizes.
relatively large in all three dimensions,
as contrasted to platy particles, in
which one dimension is small as
compared to the other two.
PLATY SOIL COMPACTNESS
Platy (or flaky) particles have flat, plate- Compactness refers to how closely a
like grains with two dimensions much mass of soil particles are packed
larger than the third. Clay is a common together; for a given unit of volume,
example. Because of their shape, platy the closer the packing, the greater its
particles have a greater contact area for compactness and weight.
moisture and are undesirable for
In a dense structure with a high degree
construction purposes.
of compactness, closely packed soil
particles interlock with smaller grains
filling the voids between the larger
particles. With each particle closely
surrounded by other particles, grain-to-
grain contact is increased. This lessens
the tendency for individual grain
displacement under load, and the soil is
GRADATION capable of supporting heavier loads.
The sizes and shapes of soil particles Usually, well-graded coarse materials
deal with properties of the individual are dense and exhibit strength and
grains in a soil mass. Gradation stability under load.
describes the distribution of the In a loose structure, the particles lack
different size groups within a soil compactness and are not packed as
sample. closely together as possible. Loose,
open structures have voids, which will
lead to foundation settlement or to
road disintegration when traffic loads
are applied.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Specific gravity, designated by the

symbol 𝑮𝑺is defined as the ratio
between the weight per unit volume
of a material and the weight per unit
volume of water at a stated
temperature—usually 20°C. Using the
system international (SI) (metric)
system, you can determine specific
gravity by the following formula:
SPECIFIC GRAVITY rock and constantly acted upon by one
or more external forces.
varies between 2.60 and 2.80 for MOST
INORGANIC SOILS. GRAVITY-CONTROLLED WATER —seeks
a lower layer and moves through the
SAND PARTICLES (composed of voids or spaces until it reaches some
quartz) have a SPECIFIC GRAVITY of restriction such as bedrock or an
about 2.65and, impervious layer of soil with openings
CLAYS can have values as high as 3.50. or voids are so small it prevents water
passage.
CAPILLARY MOISTURE —voids or
SOIL MOISTURE spaces form continuous tunnels or
A soil’s moisture content is often the tubes causing the water to rise in the
most important factor affecting its tubes by capillary action; the smaller
engineering characteristics. Water may the tube, the stronger the capillary
enter from the surface or move action. Water rises higher in finer soils
through the subsurface layers by which have smaller interconnected
gravitational pull, capillary action, or voids. The area of moisture above a
absorption. Moisture to some degree is free water layer or pool is called the
present in most cases and it influences capillary fringe.
the various soils differently. Moisture ATMOSPHERE ABSORPTION
probably has the greatest effect upon MOISTURE —moisture evaporates from
soil behavior when the soil is subjected the soil surface, which draws more
to loading. moisture from the soil below that also
evaporates. This process continues until
the soil is in an air-dry condition (the
Sources of Water in Soils moisture in the soil is in equilibrium
Soil moisture may come from surface with the moisture vapor in the air). In
an air-dry state, the moisture in the soil
or subsurface water, gravity, capillary
is in the form of thin films of water
action, or absorption.
surrounding individual soil particles.
SURFACE WATER —from precipitation This is called hydroscopic moisture.
or runoff, which enters the soil through Hydroscopic moisture is the result of
openings between particles. It may naturally occurring electrical forces
adhere to the particles or penetrate the binding the water molecules to the soil
soil to some lower layer. particles. This moisture may be
removed from air-dried soil by heating
SUBSURFACE WATER —collected or
held in pools or layers beneath the the material in an oven at a controlled
surface by a restricting layer of soil or temperature for 24 hours or until
attaining a constant weight.
PLASTICITY

PLASTICITYis a property of the fine-

grained portion of a soil that allows it
to be deformed beyond the point of
recovery without cracking or changing
volume appreciably.
On the other hand, all clay minerals
are plastic and can be rolled into thin CONSISTENCY
threads at certain moisture contents
without crumbling. Since practically all LIMITS or ATTERBERG LIMITS LIQUID
fine-grained soils contain some clay, LIMIT LL is the moisture content
most of them are plastic and the corresponding to the arbitrary limit
degree of plasticity is a general index to between the liquid and plastic state of
the clay content of a soil. a soil Above this value, the soil is
PLASTICITY is determined by observing presumed to be a liquid and behaves as
the different physical states that a such by flowing freely under its own
plastic soil passes through as moisture weight Below this value, provided the
conditions change. The boundaries soil exhibits a plastic state, it deforms
between the different states (described under pressure without crumbling.
by the moisture content at the time of PLASTIC
change) are called CONSISTENCY
LIMITS or ATTERBERG LIMITS. LIMIT PL, is the moisture content
corresponding to the arbitrary limit
CONSISTENCY LIMITS or ATTERBERG between the plastic and semisolid
LIMITS. state. Above this value, the soilis no
CONSISTENCY is the term used to longer pliable and crumbles under
describe the degree of firmness of a pressure.
soil and varies in proportion to the PLASTICITY
water content.
INDEX PI, is the numerical difference in
The consistency of a cohesive soilis moisture content between the two
greatly affected by the water content limits, or the plastic range It defines the
of the soil. A gradual increase of the range of moisture content within which
water content may transform a dry soil the soil is in a plastic state The equation
from solid state to a semi-solid state, is PI ; PI= LL -PL
to a plastic state, and further moisture
increase , into a liquid state. SHRINKAGE

LIMIT SL is the water content boundary

where further loss of moisture will not ORGANIC SOILS
result in any more volume reduction
ORGANIC SOILS contain mineral grains
Beyond this point, further drying does
but with a conspicuous admixture of
not reduce the volume but may cause
vegetable matter. Soils of organic origin
cracking.
are formed by the growth and
subsequent decay of plant life, by an
accumulation of inorganic particles
Effects of Soil Moisture
such as skeletons or shells of
Moisture affects coarse-grained soils organisms, or by a combination of
much less than fine-grained soils. both. An organic soil may be organic
Coarser soils have larger void silt, organic clay, or it may be a highly
openings, which drain more rapidly, organic soil, such as peat or meadow
and capillary action is practically mat with little silt or clay particles.
nonexistent in gravels and sands
ORGANIC SOILS are most often black in
containing few fines. If coarse soils are
color, and usually have a characteristic
above the groundwater table, they will
musty odor. Organic soils are usually
not retain large amounts of water.
easily compressible with poor load-
Also, since the particles in gravelly and bearing properties.
sandy soils are relatively large
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
(compared to clay and silt particles),
they are heavy in comparison to the Soil type is an important factor when
films of moisture that might surround selecting the proper location on which
them. to construct any structure or facility, or
when determining any necessary soil
import amendment to a predetermined
Effects of Soil Moisture location.

On the other hand, moisture in the With the existing soil accurately
voids of fine-grained soil has identified and described, its suitability
considerable effect on the light, small, as foundation material or for
sometimes microscopic, particles. Clays supporting traffic as a subgrade base
often undergo large volume changes can be determined, or it can be
with variations in moisture content, as evaluated for use as an aggregate, filler,
the shrinkage cracks in a dry lakebed or binder for an engineered
can demonstrate. Consequently, compaction mixture.
unpaved clay roads that may be solid
enough when sun -baked will often
lose stability and turn into slick mud
during rainy weather.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS divide plastic when wet and easily crumbles
soils into groups and subgroups based when dry. Silt is slightly plastic.
on common engineering properties
Silt -from0.075 mm to 0.002 mm
such as the grain-size distribution,
liquid limit, and plastic limit. Clay –from 0.002 mmto0.001 mm

THE TWO MAJOR CLASSIFICATION Colloids –less than 0.001 mm

SYSTEMSPRESENTLY IN USE ARE THE;
3. ORGANIC darkin color, fibrous
 American Association of State structure and with
Highway and Transportation foul odor as peat and muck
Officials (AASHTO) System and
SOIL and ITS COMPONENT
 Unified Soil Classification
System (USCS). 1.SOIL AGGREGATE ( Dense Graded
Aggregate ) -natural or prepared
The AASHTO SYSTEM is used mainly
mixtures consisting predominantly of
for the classification of highway
stone, gravel or sand and containing
subgrades. It is not used in foundation
silt-clay minus 0.075 mm material.
construction.
2.BINDER ( SOIL BINDER ) -portion of
The Unified Soil Classification System
soil passing 0.425 mm ( N0. 40 ) sieve.
(USCS) is a common soil classification
and reference system that has a 3. STONE -crushed or naturally angular
universal interpretation. In this system, particles of rock which will pass a 75.0
all soils are divided into THREE MAJOR mm sieve and be retained on a 2.00
DIVISIONS. mm ( No. 10 ) sieve.
• Coarsed-Grained Soils 3.1 Coarse Stone -stone passing the 75
• Fined-Grained Soils mm sieve and retained on the 25.0
• Organic Soils mm ( 1 in. ) sieve.
SOIL GROUPS AND ITS IDENTIFICATION 3.2 Medium Stone -stone passing the
25.0 mm sieve and retained on the 9.5
1.COARSED-GRAINED SOILS or
mm ( 3/8 in. ) sieve.
GRANULAR SOILS - individual particles
are visible to naked eyes and it is non- 3.3 Fine Stone -stone passing the 9.5
plastic such as gravel and sand. mm sieveand retained on the 2.00 mm
Gravel –from75 mm to2.0 mm (No. 10 ) sieve.
Sand -from2.0 mm to0.075 mm 4.GRAVEL–rounded or water –worn
pebbles. No plasticity and cohesion.
2. FINED-GRAINED SOILS -individual
Crunchy underfoot. Rounded particles
particles are quite visible to naked eye
of the rock which will pass a 75 mm
such as clay and silt. Clay is
sieve and be retained on a 2.00 mm 6.3 Colloids-materials smaller than
sieve. 0.001 mm

4.1 Coarse Gravel –gravel passing the

75 mm sieve and retained on the 25.0
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS
mm sieve.
1.GRANULAR OR COARSE-GRAINED
4.2 Medium Gravel -gravel passing the
SOIL
25.0 mm sieve and retained on the 9.5
mm ( 3/8 in. ) sieve. • Good load bearing strength
• Easy to drain (permeable)
4.3Fine Gravel -gravel passing the 9.5
• Incompressible when subjected
mm sieve and retained on the 2.00
to static loads
mm ( No. 10 )sieve.
• Not subjected to change in
5. SAND -hard and loose grains. strength or volume due to
Individual grains readily seen and felt. variation in water content
No plasticity and cohesion. If dry, a cast
formed in the hands will fall apart. If
moist, a cast will crumble when 2. FINE-GRAINED SOIL
touched .Granular material resulting
• Poor load bearing strength
from the disintegration, grinding, or
• Impermeable)
crushing of rock and which will pass the
• Compressible under a
2.0 mm sieve and be retained on the
sustained load
0.075 mm sieve.
• Subject to changes in volume
5.1 Coarse Sand –sand passing the 2.0 and strength due to variation
mm sieve and retained on the 0.425 of water content
mm sieve.

5.2 Fine Sand -sand passing the 0.425

3. ORGANIC SOIL
mm sieve and retained on the 0.425
mm sieve. • Considered unsuitable material
• The presence of organic matter
6.SILT CLAY ( Minus 0.075 mm
will adversely affect the
material ) -fine soil particles which will
engineering properties of
pass the 0.075 mm sieve.
either granular or fine-grained,
6.1 Silt Fraction -material passing the if the amount is appreciable.
0.075 mm sieve and larger than 0.002
mm

6.2 Clay Fraction -material smaller

than 0.002 mm