Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 256 (2023) 105823

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

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Tectonic and structural elements of Southern Granulite Terrane, South

India: Inferences from gravity and magnetic studies
Muthyala Prasad a, b, Chandra Prakash Dubey a, *
a
Solid Earth Research Group, National Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram 695011, India
b
Department of Marine Geology and Geophysics, Cochin University of Science and Technology (CUSAT), Kochi 682022, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Southern Granulite Terrane (SGT), at the southern tip of the Indian shield, is an integral component in the
Southern Granulite Terrane Proterozoic orogens of India. It is a collage of several crustal blocks amalgamated through several tectonic
Shear zones processes. These blocks are demarcated by several shear zones that can be traced across different Gondwana
Crustal blocks
fragments. Characterizing the tectonics and anatomy of shear zones is essential to understand the controlling
Qualitative interpretation
Joint modeling
factors for mineral deposition, igneous activity, migmatisation, and crustal deformation. In the present study, we
utilized terrestrial and satellite-derived gravity data, EMAG2v3 global Earth Aeromagnetic data, and computed
gravity gradient to understand structural heterogeneities within geological formations. The Bouguer anomaly
and gravity gradients in the region highlight spatial variability of the terrane at different depth scales, and
unambiguously decipher the Mayur-Bhavani-Cauvery Shear System (MBCS) and its continuity to a lower crustal
depth of 30–40 km, similar to other shear zones. In contrast, signatures of the Achan-Kovil shear zone (AKSZ) and
other minor shear zones disappear at shallow depths whereas the Palghat gap, Nilgiris hills, and Coorg block
extend up to deeper levels. The derived reduced-to-pole map, however, reveals an extended wide negative
magnetic anomaly, which clearly marks the band of low-amplitude anomalies separating SGT from the northern
Dharwar craton. The 2-D joint modelling across the NNW-SSE traverses across the SGT covering the major Shear
zones (AKSZ, PCSZ, and MBSZ) and EDC, revealing a four-layer crustal configuration constrained by seismic
results. The Moho ranges from 36 km to 45 km along the profile, and beneath the Palghat gap. The Moho is
upwarping (~5 km) showing positive gravity anomaly caused by high density material (2.80 gm/cc) at inter­
mediate crustal levels. The combined analysis of qualitative interpretation of gravity and magnetic anomalies
and joint modelling results clearly distinguishes between different crustal block and their bounding shear zones
in accordance with the available tectonic framework.

1. Introduction and Gondwana reconstruction models (Brandt et al., 2014; Dev et al.,
2021). The large amount of geochemical and geochronological data
Gondwana correlations were made primarily by characterizing the available (Collins et al., 2014), the tectono-thermal evolution of SGT has
timing and duration of magmatic and metamorphic records in various also been characterized using various geophysical methods (Ratheesh-
crustal blocks. The Southern Granulite Terrane (SGT) is one of the Kumar et al., 2020; Mandal et al., 2021; Prasad et al., 2021 and reference
largest exposed deep continental Precambrian crusts in the world, with a therein). All these studies have produced innumerable publications with
geological record spanning two billion years of Earth’s history (Ghosh several modern concepts and innovative ideas, but with different and
et al., 2004; Collins et al., 2014; Brandt et al., 2014; Plavsa et al., 2015; contrasting interpretations.
Santosh, 2020). The SGT is located in the southernmost part of penin­ The SGT and associated shear zones provide a unique opportunity to
sular India and covers an area of approximately 200,000 km2, spanning trace the crustal evolution, tectonic history, and reconstruction of the
the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and some parts of Karnataka. The SGT Gondwana supercontinent. Several structural and isotopic studies have
is critical to the study of granulite facies metamorphism and the su­ been conducted to correlate these shear zones in the SGT with their
percontinent cycle, as it forms an integral part of the Columbia, Rodinia counterparts in the Gondwana uplift model (Drury et al., 1984; Harris

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C.P. Dubey).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2023.105823
Received 4 December 2022; Received in revised form 3 August 2023; Accepted 11 August 2023
Available online 12 August 2023
1367-9120/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Prasad and C.P. Dubey Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 256 (2023) 105823

et al., 1994; Bartlett et al., 1995; Yoshida et al., 1999; Bhaskar Rao et al., 2. Geology and tectonic setting of the study area
2003; Ghosh et al., 2004; Chetty and Rao, 2006). Geophysical studies
including gravity, magnetic field, resistivity, magneto-telluric, and The SGT is situated in a central region of the Gondwana supercon­
seismic methods over the major shear zones and crustal blocks of the tinent, which contains evidence for numerous magmatic, metamorphic,
SGT, have provided valuable insights into our understanding of domain and deformational events dating from the Late Archean to the Neo­
boundaries, crustal dynamics, crust–mantle interaction, and litho­ proterozoic. It consists of an assemblage of blocks exposing middle to
spheric structure (Gupta et al., 2003a; Rajaram et al., 2003; Mishra and lower crustal rocks cut by several crustal-level shear zones (see Fig. 1a).
Kumar, 2005; Harinarayana et al., 2006; Rajendra Prasad et al., 2006; The major crustal blocks of the SGT are referred to as Coorg, Salem,
Singh and Stephen, 2006; Vijaya Rao et al., 2006; Kumar et al., 2009; Biligiri Rangan Hills, Shevaroy Hills, Nilgiri, Madurai, Trivandrum, and
Patro et al., 2014; Harikrishnan et al., 2023; Roy et al., 2023; Dubey and Nagercoil (Raith et al., 1997; Collins et al., 2014; Brandt et al., 2014;
Tiwari, 2022; Dubey et al., 2023). From the analysis of aeromagnetic Kumar et al., 2017). The northern Mesoarchean to Neoarchean Salem
data (Rajaram and Anand, 2014) in the SGT, there are several W-E block is separated from the Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic Madurai
trending high amplitude magnetic anomalies associated with the block by the east and west trending Palghat-Cauvery shear zone (PCSZ;
extrusion of deep sources from the PCSZ to the AKSZ, suggesting that Santosh et al., 2009), while to the north it is separated from the Dharwar
both are suture zones. Chetty and Rao (2006) studied various shear craton by the WNW-ESE oriented Moyar-Bhavani-Cauvery shear system
zones in this region and suggested a crustal-level floral structure that (Fig. 1a) (MBCS; Brandt et al., 2014), which is approximately 200 km
typically forms in a transpressional tectonic regime. Magnetotelluric long. The transition boundary between the high-grade and low-grade
studies (Harinarayana et al., 2003) along the Kuppam–Palani transects terranes was previously referred to as the ‘‘Fermor line’’, a vertical
in the northern SGT show large shear zones with steeply dipping block displacement that represents a fundamental crustal discontinuity sepa­
structures with alternating resistive and highly conductive zones from rating the exposed Charnockitic, and non-Charnockitic regions (Fermor,
shallow to the deep crust. Reddy et al. (2003) modeled deep seismic data 1936). To the south, the Madurai block is separated from the southern
along the same geotransect and delineated a thick crust (40–45 km) with Trivandrum and Nagercoil blocks by the NW-SE trending Achankovil
a divergent reflection pattern. shear zone (AKSZ; Rajesh and Chetty, 2006). In addition, two other
However, large discrepancies still exist between the structural ele­ major shear zones are reported from the Madurai block, namely the NE-
ments associated with the different shear zones of the South Indian SW trending Suruli shear zone dividing Madurai into the west and east
Shield and their tectonic blocks. The understanding of the lateral and blocks (SSZ; Srinivasan and Rajeshdurai, 2010; Dev et al., 2022) and the
vertical distribution of the shear zones and their association with the V-shaped Karur-Kambam-Painavu-Trichur shear zone (KKPTSZ; Ghosh
different block is still very poor to validate a geodynamic evolution et al., 2004). The northern Salem block consists of massive charnockites,
model of the South Indian Shield. Considering all these aspects into granitoid and mafic granulites, and HT-UHT metapelites (Raith et al.,
account, the present work aims to combine the interpretation of 1997; Clark et al., 2009), whereas, the Madurai block consists pre­
terrestrial gravity and magnetic data to allow a better characterization dominantly of charnockite massifs, granitoids, alkaline intrusive rocks,
of the tectonic architecture of the SGT. To this end, the different crustal and metasediments along with metamorphic rocks with high to very
blocks and shear zones and their extension from shallow to deeper layers high temperatures and estimated P-T conditions of up to 12 kbar and
are studied using filtering techniques, power spectral analysis, analytical 1200 ◦ C (Brandt et al., 2014; Dev et al., 2021, 2022).
signal, gravity gradients (Tzx, Tzy, and Tzz) and joint modeling approach. The network of major shear zones crossing the SGT was first recog­
nized based on LANDSAT images (Drury and Holt, 1980). The MBCS
separating Dharwar from the Madurai block represents a transition zone

Fig. 1. (a) A regional geology and Tectonic map of the Southern Granulite Terrane (modified after Kumar et al., 2017), (b) Topography map. Abbreviations: SGT –
Southern Granulite Terrane, WDC – Western Dharwar craton, EDC, Eastern Dharwar craton, CG – Closepet Granite, NH – Nilgiri Hills, BRH – Biligiri Ranjan Hills, SH
– Shevaroy Hills, CB – Coorg Block, MB – Madurai Block, WMB – Western Madurai Block, EMB – Eastern Madurai Block, TB – Trivandrum Block, NB – Nagercoil
Block; MSZ – Moyar Shear Zone, BSZ – Bhavani Shear Zone, PCSZ-Palghat Cauvery Shear Zone, SASZ – Salem Attur Shear Zone, MBCS – Moyar-Bhavani-Cauvery
Shear zone-System, MtSZ – Mettur Shear Zone, KKPTSZ – Karur-Kambam-Painavu-Trichur shear zone, AKSZ – Achankovil Shear Zone. GSZ-Gangavalli shear zone,
SSZ-Suruli shear zone. The selected A-B profile used for 2-D joint modelling shown in solid green line. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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M. Prasad and C.P. Dubey Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 256 (2023) 105823

characterized by a change in structural trends and a gradation of SGT.

metamorphism from gneisses in the north to charnockite in the south.
The MBCS has two components: the northernmost Moyar shear zone 3.1. Topography data
(MSZ) and the southernmost Bhavani shear zone (BSZ). Although
discrete Meso-Neoarchean crustal blocks have been separated by these In general, gravity anomalies are governed by diverse parameters,
shear zones (Samuel et al., 2014 and references therein), they are including topography, rock type, and geologic structures, which are also
commonly referred to as the northern granulite block or Salem block crucial for comprehending geodynamic studies. Recent tectonic activ­
(Brandt et al., 2014 and references therein). The E-W trending PCSZ is a ities such as faults, fractures, lineaments, shear zones, etc., can be
deeply eroded tectonic unit that formerly served to divide the southern influenced by the topography data and associated with the gravity
Indian Shield into two distinct crustal blocks, northern and southern anomaly. In this study, the topography was taken from the Shuttle Radar
(Collins et al., 2007; Santosh et al., 2009; Collins et al., 2014). Regional Topography Mission 15+ (SRTM) global digital elevation model (htt
structural fabric trends indicate that the PCSZ is a crescent-shaped shear ps://topex.ucsd.edu/pub/srtm15_plus/). The topographic map of the
zone that extends from Kozhikode on the west coast through Malap­ SGT (Fig. 1b) shows various landforms, from lowlands to the highest
puram and Palghat to the east coast and southwest of Namakkal, where mountain peaks of the Indian subcontinent after the Himalayas. Eleva­
it merges with the Cauvery-Bhavani shear zone. The AKSZ forms the tion ranges from 0 to 2600 m, and all major topographic features of the
southern tip of the SGT trends at NW-SE and extends over a strike length study region are shown on the map.
of ~150 km, separating the Madurai block to the north from Trivandrum
and the Nagercoil block to the south. The AKSZ is interpreted as a key to 3.2. Terrestrial gravity data
the juxtaposing of the East Gondwana supercontinent terranes (Santosh
et al., 2014), although an alternative model for the origin and tectonics For the present study, a map of the complete Bouguer anomaly (CBA)
of the AKSZ has also been proposed (Brandt et al., 2014). of southern peninsular India was prepared from previous literature
(GMSI, 2006; Kumar et al., 2009; Kumar et al., 2011) with an equal
3. Data utilized interval of 5 mGal contours with a total of 14,000 data points. Based on
this, the terrestrial gravity map was digitized with a root mean square
Geophysical potential field methods, particularly gravity and mag­ error (RMSE) of ± 0.5 mGal, and then a revised CBA map was created
netic field methods, measure the Earth’s potential fields as affected by using the interpolation method. The gravity anomaly map (Fig. 2a)
the surface, and subsurface rocks, structures, and physical properties agrees well with the surface geology, topography, crustal block archi­
such as density and susceptibility distributions. Satellite-derived global tecture, and structural elements, and reflects the heterogeneous distri­
gravity models have some limitations, because they do not represent bution of masses. The minimum and maximum anomalies range from
short wavelengths in the Earth’s gravity field. However, unlike satellite − 107 mGal to +40 mGal. The short wavelength negative anomalies are
derived gravity field data, terrestrial gravity field data have better res­ attributed to the presence of low-density charnockites, while the long
olution and include all possible longer to short wavelengths of the wavelength anomalies can be associated with regional compensation of
Earth’s gravity field. The available terrestrial gravity field data in the elevated charnockite massifs in the form of increased topography
study area are very sparse and contain many gaps in inaccessible areas, (Subrahmanyam and Verma, 1982).
especially in the hilly regions. Therefore, in the present work, we have
analyzed and interpreted both satellite and terrestrial datasets to un­
derstand the tectonics of the different crustal blocks and shear zones in

Fig. 2. (a) Complete Bouguer anomaly map obtained from the terrestrial gravity data (Kumar et al., 2011). (b) Computed Bouguer anomaly map of the study area
derived from the satellite EGM2008 gravity model. The white doted lines showing major shear zones and white dotes represent minor shear zones taken from (Kumar
et al., 2017), All maps are superimposed by topography shaded relief and tectonic features.

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M. Prasad and C.P. Dubey Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 256 (2023) 105823

3.3. Satellite gravity data (EGM2008) units (Hinze et al., 2013). In this study, a global Earth Magnetic Anomaly
Grid (EMAG2v3) (ngdc.noaa.gov/geomag/emag2.html) with a resolu­
In general, gravity measurements using ground-based or airborne tion of 2 arc-minute was used. This EMAG2v3 model was assembled
systems are considered expensive. Currently, established satellite grav­ from a wide range of satellite, airborne magnetic, and shipboard mag­
ity models in combination with many gravity field models can provide netic measurements (Meyer et al., 2017). Analysis of the total magnetic
higher resolution. Such global gravity field models can be effectively intensity map (Fig. 8a) shows a strong correlation with the surface
used in solid Earth applications such as lithosphere modeling, geological geologic map and well describes the major tectonic elements with values
interpretation, and exploration geophysics. Global satellite gravity field ranging from − 327 nT to +393 nT.
data from the Earth Gravitational Model (EGM2008) produced by the
International Center from Global Earth Models (https://icgem.gfz- 4. Methodology
potsdam.de/calcgrid) were used for this study. The derived EGM2008
model data are computed up to degree 2190 and order 2159 (Pavlis 4.1. Filtering technique
et al., 2012). The advantage of these configured data is that they can
provide better information on areas that were previously inaccessible or In general, the complete Bouguer anomaly consists of two compo­
poorly covered in terrestrial mapping. For the final CBA computation, nents: long wavelength anomalies (large and deep structures) and short
terrane correction of the satellite data was performed using Geosoft wavelength anomalies (shallow structures) originating from different
Oasis Montaj software for a radius of 167 km with high-resolution digital sources at different depths. We used two-dimensional wavelength
elevation data from SRTM 15+. filtering to determine the depth and magnitude of the different subsur­
In the study region, gravity anomalies are predominantly negative face masses causing the gravity signatures (Zurflueh, 1967). The low-
and vary between − 107 mGal and +42 mGal (Fig. 2b). A comparison pass filter (LP) is applied to the gridded CBA at various wavelengths
between the terrestrial and EGM2008 gravity anomaly maps (Fig. 2a and between 50 km and 500 km at each 50 km interval (Fig. 3(a-d)) to
2b) shows a similar pattern in shape, orientation, and amplitude. The identify different trends and distribution of crustal blocks and shear
terrestrial gravity anomaly map better reflects geologic boundaries and zones that may be at different depths. The wavelengths of < 100 km on
subsurface structures than the satellite-derived anomaly. In particular, the CBA maps, as shown in Fig. 3a and 3b, do not have any deviations
the highest positive and negative signatures accurately illustrate each from the original map because the major geologic unit extends to about
other, and may represent long-wave signatures (eg., WDC, EDC, MB, CB, 30 km depth, especially along coastal regions. In addition, increased low
NH, BRH, SH, and along coastal areas, etc.). Although the terrestrial CBA pass filtered maps (Fig. 3c and 3d) with wavelengths of >200 km
represents short and long wavelengths of the Earth’s gravity field, the considering the regional anomalies, reflecting sources at Moho depths
EGM2008 gravity model still provides a data-poor representation of (Chakraborty and Agarwal, 1992; Lefort and Agarwal, 1996).
short wavelengths, so it can only be used for regional explorations.
Therefore, we used a terrestrial gravity anomaly map for further inter­
pretation and a better understanding of the crustal architecture of 4.2. Analytical signal
various crustal fragments and associated shear zones.
The analytical signal method, also known as the total gradient
method, was developed by (Nabighian, 1972). This technique is
3.4. Magnetic data commonly applied to potential field anomalies used to determine the
margins/boundaries of geologically induced anomalies and the depth of
The magnetic method measures variations in the Earth’s magnetic sources (Al-Badani and Al-Wathaf, 2018). The analytical signal is
field caused by lateral differences in the magnetization of subsurface defined as the square root of the two horizontal derivatives and the

Fig. 3. A low pass filtered terrestrial Complete Bouguer anomaly map with cut-off wavelengths (a) At 50 km (b) At 100 km (c) At 300 km and (d) At 500 km. All
maps are superimposed by topography shaded relief and tectonic features.

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M. Prasad and C.P. Dubey Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 256 (2023) 105823

vertical derivatives of the gravity field. The corresponding amplitude of short and long-wavelength anomalies (Dickinson et al., 2010; Dubey
the analytical signal (AS (x, y)) is given by et al., 2014; Dubey and Tiwari, 2016; Prasad et al., 2021).
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2 ( )2 ( )2̅
|AS (x, y)| =
∂G
+
∂G
+
∂G
(1) 4.4. EMAG2v3 - differential reduction to pole
∂x ∂y ∂z
The interpretation of magnetic anomalies is more complex, unlike
Where, G is the gravitational field observed at (x, y), ∂G ∂G
∂x , ∂y are the
gravity anomalies, which contain both positive and negative elements
horizontal derivatives, and ∂∂Gz is vertical derivative. The maxima of the arising from the dipolar nature of magnetism. Geophysicists have
amplitude of the analytical signal can directly delineate the edges of developed different solutions like, Reduction to Equator (RTE), Reduc­
sources. It can effectively reduce the interference among adjacent tion to Pole (RTP), and Differential RTP to remove this skewness of
geological bodies and outline the edges more precisely and clearly. magnetic anomalies caused by the non-vertical direction of magnetiza­
tion. The RTP filter technique is a standard part of magnetic data pro­
4.3. Gravity gradients cessing, especially for large-scale mapping, to eliminate the influence of
oblique magnetization on magnetic anomalies. However, the RTP
Gravity gradients are defined at different spatial scales in spherical operation at low magnetic latitudes (inclination < 15◦ ) especially at the
frames, which are rotated along the radial axis according to the orien­ geomagnetic equator becomes poor and extremely unstable. In order to
tation of the different mass anomalies. The gravity gradients technique overcome this instability of RTP at low latitudes, it is necessary to apply
is useful in order to delineate the overlapped mass anomalies in the Differential RTP technique (Cooper and Cowan, 2005; Arkani-hamed,
original gravity map by enhancing the small signals in the gravity data 2007) to the magnetic anomaly grid in this study. A differential RTP
(Dubey and Roy, 2023; Parveen et al., 2022; Dubey et al., 2017a, 2017b; operator successfully reduces the magnetic anomalies at low latitudes
Dubey and Tiwari, 2016; Dubey, 2015). The mass distribution within the and reliably relocates magnetic anomalies over their sources (Fig. 8b).
earth can be analyzed by using the gravity field; for example, the gravity
field from any mass anomalies having a particular geometry aligned 4.5. Radially averaged power spectrum
with the orientations of the field variations is most easily understood in
terms of its gravity scalar potential field φ(r) at r, which is given by, The radially averaged power spectrum technique has been exten­
sively used to infer the average depths (Spector and Grant, 1970) of
∫
ρ (r′) 3 different horizontal layers and delineate the protuberant subsurface
φ(r) = G d r′ (2)
|r′− r| geological framework. It is capable to differentiate the information from
different sources (Regional, intermediate, and residual structures) that
Where ρ(r′) is the mass density at the position (r′) and G = 6.668 *
cause the measured gravity/magnetic anomaly. In order to calculate the
10− 11 Nm2kg− 2 is the gravitational constant. The gravity gradient tensor
energy spectrum, we first applied the Fast Fourier transform to both
contains the second-order derivatives of the Earth’s Gravitational po­
gravity and magnetic anomaly. The slope is then calculated using least-
tential φ(r) in the (x, y, z) directions. Gravity and full gravity gradient
square fit after the natural logarithm of power of the relevant anomaly
tensor are easily calculated from the scalar potential using Cartesian
has been plotted against the wavenumber. The slope of each segment
coordinates,
provides the average depth estimate of the ensemble of sources lying
∂φ̂ ∂φ̂ ∂φ̂ beneath the surface.
g(r) = ∇φ(r) = i+ j+ k (3)
∂x ∂y ∂z − slope
Depth = (6)
Gravity gradients are more sensitive to underground mass anomalies 4π
and can be used to derive a fine subsurface structure. How a particular Following slopes at higher frequencies estimate the depth to the
component of gravity varies with position (Dubey and Tiwari, 2016) as shallower/local sources, while slopes at lower wave numbers give the
given below, depth of deeper/regional sources. Here, we have derived the power
∂2 φ ∂2 φ ∂2 φ spectrum for both gravity and magnetic anomaly datasets for the whole
gx (r + δr) = gx (r) +
∂x 2
δx +
∂y*∂x
δy +
∂z*∂x
δz study area considering it as a single block displayed in Fig. 9a and 9b,
using (Oasis Montaj Program v.9.5, 2018). From the gravity anomaly
= gx (r) + Txx δx + Txy δy + Txz δz (4)
spectrum (Fig. 9a), it can be interpreted as a three linear slope segment
Therefore, the full gravity gradient tensor Tij can be illustrated by and has been used to estimate the depth of the density interfaces at 48
km, 22 km, and 05 km, respectively. The magnetic anomaly spectrum
Txx Txy Txz (Fig. 9b) has also been interpreted as two linear slope segments corre­
sponding to sources at a depth of 20 km and 11 km.
Tij = Tyx Tyy Tyz , where i & j = x, y, z (5)
4.6. 2-D joint forward modeling
Tzx Tzy Tzz

The full gravity gradient tensor is used to define nine gravitational In general, any geological modeling that uses gravity or magnetic
component derivatives as expressed in equation (5). It is a symmetric data yields non-unique solutions, and it is very challenging to produce
tensor about its trace, and the sum of the diagonal components (Txx ,Tyy , unique and trustworthy results from a single model approach that was
Tzz ), are identically equal to null, which leads to dependence in source independently generated. Therefore, in order to greatly reduce the
free regions according to Laplace’s equation (Sandwell, 2022). Thus, inherent ambiguity and offer better insights into the nature of subsur­
there are only five mathematically independent components and one face geological structures, we adopted 2-D joint forward modeling. A 2-
dependent component of the gravity gradient tensor (Txx ,Txy , Txz ,Tyy ,Tzz , D gravity and magnetic modeling were performed along the selected
andTzy ). Each of the independent components and combinations of these profile (Fig. 1a) through the 2-D GM-SYS module (Oasis Montaj) based
provide significant subsurface information individually (Dubey et al., on the assumptions of Talwani et al. (1959), and Talwani (1964). The
2014, 2017; Dubey and Tiwari, 2016). To derive further information selected profile (AB) is extended up to 30,000 km along the profile at
about the sources of CBA in the present study area, we analyzed three each extremity to avoid edge effects. The forward modeling method
major vertical gravity gradients (Tzx, Tzy, and Tzz), providing density entails adjusting the geometry or physical parameters (density and
contrast information for defining edges of geological structures at both susceptibility) of the model until a satisfactory match between the

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M. Prasad and C.P. Dubey Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 256 (2023) 105823

observed and calculated anomaly response. We made an effort to apply 2011). The central part of SGT demonstrates paired gravity anomalies,
constraints to the model’s physical parameters and geometries from the especially in the NW-SE trending MBCS marking the Paleoproterozoic
various geophysical studies that were available (Reddy et al., 2003; Rao suture zone between DC to the north and SGT to the south (Brandt et al.,
et al., 2006; Mishra and Kumar, 2005; Sunil et al., 2010; Singh et al., 2014). Another important feature noticed over the Palghat gap, where
2011). Additionally, seismic studies (Singh et al., 2015; Das et al., 2015) the region is characterized by a long-wavelength E-W trending distinct
have been used to determine Moho depth in addition to the outcomes of gravity high anomaly. The low gravity zone in this region is reflected
radially averaged power spectral analysis. The final resulting model of between the MBCS and PCSZ possibly representing the presence of
gravity and magnetic response is taken until a satisfactory fit with a massif charnockite hills on either side with considerably high crustal
RMSE between computed and observed data are 2.05 mGal and 7.54 nT thickness due to the emplacement of basement granites (Subrahmanyam
for gravity and magnetic anomalies respectively (Fig. 10). and Verma, 1986; Singh et al., 2003). Some of the major and minor shear
zone trends are not prominent in the CBA map, however, the regions
5. Results with higher elevations are in accordance with the study area.

5.1. Topography data 5.3. Magnetic anomaly

The major shear zones that separate the major crustal block in the The magnetic anomaly map shows (Fig. 8a) the highest positive
study region, such as MBCS, SSZ, and AKSZ, can be easily seen from the values of approximately 85–390 nT are found over the MBCS, and SH,
topography map (Fig. 1b). The 24–30 km wide Palghat Gap, passing TB, and the lowest negative anomalies (− 327 nT) are observed along the
between the Nilgiri Hills to the north and the Anaimalai Hills to the PCSZ demarcating its E-W trend. The NE-SW trend anomalies in the
south, is a significant distinctive geomorphological feature. It has an eastern portion of the Dharwar craton and the NW-SE oriented anoma­
average elevation of 140 m. The origin of the Palghat gap has been lies in the western portion of the craton are divided by the E-W trending
contested by different workers suggesting its formation either by fluvi­ anomalies in SGT. These variations in trends and anomaly amplitude can
atile erosion consequent to crustal upwarp (Arogyaswami, 1962; be attributed to changes in subsurface geological and magnetic sources
Nageswara Rao and Srinivasan, 1980), or due to tectonic origin (Singh that resulted from contrasts in the susceptibility of the underlying rocks
et al., 2011 and references therein). Lasitha et al. (2019) proposed that and their alignment (Rajaram and Anand, 2003). The Trivandrum and
the gap might have formed as part of the Archean juvenile terrane Nagercoil block, which is located in the southernmost part of SGT, has
whereas, Singh et al. (2011) suggested its formation due to the sudden strong positive magnetic anomaly signatures of 150nT, which are rep­
fall in surface elevation or the erosion coupled isostatic forces of stalled resented by the AKSZ.
orogeny simply controlled the deep crustal configuration. Another The Differential RTP map (Fig. 8b) shows most of the positive
model is that the terrane might have bifurcated into many small hill anomalies in the SGT and negative anomalies in the Dharwar Craton and
ranges with shear zones surrounding them due to subsequent tectonic values are ranging between − 576 nT and +414 nT. The eastern portion
activity (D’cruz et al., 2000). of the Dharwar Craton has a NE-SW trending magnetic anomaly that
The Great Escarpment, which has its highest peak at about 2600 m, is separates the N-S low magnetic anomaly known as the Chitradurga shear
the most noticeable topographic feature in the Western Ghats, also zone, while the western portion of the craton has a higher concentration
known as the Sahyadri (Gunnell and Radhakrishna, 2001). It is one of of magnetic sources that are primarily oriented NW-SE. A clear change
the most prominent features of the Indian subcontinent in ancient Indian in the amplitude of anomalies is visible in the central region, showing a
literature. The Western Ghats is a coast-parallel uplift along the passive low linear magnetic belt of ~400 km long and 80 km wide. Other strong
continental margin of western India associated with a complex tectonic magnetic signatures (~100–400 nT) shows in NE-SW trending anoma­
history (Sribin et al., 2021 and references therein). The origin and lies of Mettur Shear zone (MTSZ). Similarly, the major crustal blocks like
evolution of this highly elevated sharp escarpment have been a matter of NH, BRH, NB, WMB, EMB, and SH depict positive anomalies associated
debate for a long time (e.g., Gunnell and Fleitout, 2000; Gunnell and with strong magnetic sources. On the other hand, low anomalies (− 97 to
Radhakrishna, 2001; Campanile et al., 2008; Sribin et al., 2021; Rao and − 140 nT) are present in the southernmost part of the TB, indicating a
Kumar, 2022). Many geologists consider it a relict mountain range, change in the characteristics of the magnetic sources. The PCSZ shows
while others suggest that tectonic uplift is responsible for its lofty strong positive anomalies in the western and central regions but strong
heights and youthful stage. In addition to these, other hillocks such as negative anomalies in the eastern region (sediment cover area).
Nilgiri (2640 m), Biligiriragan (1816 m), Shevroy (1600 m), and Anai­
mali (2695 m) are also highlighted on the map. Along the west, the 5.4. Interpretation of CBA
coastal plain scarcely rises to >20 m and subsequently follows a flat
path. Several bulges that point east along the coastal plain are thought to 5.4.1. Low pass filtering
be the locations of prograding deltas (Radhakrishna and Vaidyanadhan, The most significant negative anomalies, ~− 75 mGal, were observed
1997). in the central region, indicating that circular patterns may be a mani­
festation of deeper anomalies than those present in the surrounding
5.2. Complete Bouguer anomaly regions. All of the major crustal blocks and shear zones are devoid of any
paired signatures in Fig. 3c and 3d. It is noteworthy that the stronger
The complete bouguer anomaly map (Fig. 2a) of the study area peaks of isolated positive Bouguer anomalies (10–30 mGal) have been
shows several positive and negative anomalies based on mass hetero­ observed in CB. Nonetheless, the negative Bouguer anomalies of
geneities, their causative sources, and regional geological structures. approximately − 50, − 20, and − 40 mGal are observed below the BRH,
The western coastal region, which shows the strongest gravity high, is NH, and mid of PCSZ, respectively (Fig. 3a and 3b). Additionally,
attributed to the emplacement of high-density ultrabasic rock at elongated NW-SE negative anomalies of long wavelength are observed
comparatively shallow depths. The eastern coastal region, which has a in the western Dharwar craton compared to the eastern Dharwar Craton
NE-SW trend and the strongest positive anomalies, may have a thinner (Fig. 3c and 3d).
crust and an overlying Mesozoic and Tertiary sedimentary sequence
because of its lower crustal thickness. Over the Nilgiri and Biligirirangan 5.4.2. Analytical signal
hills, there are comparatively high signatures of the anomaly with 50 We observed strong positive signatures from the analytic signal map
mGal. The Coorg block has positive gravity, highly representing the (Fig. 4a) trending along the NS of CB. The east–west corridor of MBSZ
western part of the transition zone separating WDC and SGT (Mishra, and SASZ, and the northern portion of the Eastern coast, show a

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M. Prasad and C.P. Dubey Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 256 (2023) 105823

Fig. 4. (a) Analytical signal map of the study area (b) Low pass filtered Analytical signal map with cut-off wavelengths at 50 km (c) At 100 km (d) At 200 km (e) At
300 km (f) At 500 km. All maps are superimposed by topography shaded relief and tectonic features.

consistent discontinuity in anomalies. NS-WE-NS anomalies are dis­ behaviour in both the east and west continental margins. A positive
continued at crustal depth, but regain their continuity at a greater depth gradient anomaly with a NS trend in the eastern continental margin of
of the upper mantle (~50 km) just below the Moho, as shown in Fig. 4 India (ECMI) compared to a strong negative NS gradient anomaly in the
(a–d). The PCSZ is partially characterized by a low anomaly, which western continental margin of India (WCMI). The opposite behavior of
clearly denotes the SGT, separating two blocks (northern and southern) these two margins is observed at a depth of between 40 and 50 km,
from each other. The AKSZ separating the MB and TB lacks a significant whereas the negative anomaly of WCMI persists at greater depth in the
signature, indicating a uniformly distributed region devoid of contrast in upper mantle, revealing the western coastal fault whereas the ECMI
density. Applied low-pass filter maps from 50 to 100 km clearly show anomaly disappears completely. Another important result of this
various crustal blocks, shear zones, and supressed very shallow anom­ approach is that the N-S trend exhibits a negative anomaly when
alies. It is also interesting to observe the low anomalies of the East compared to the terrane boundary separating the Dharwar craton into
Madurai Block, separated by a positive anomaly of the West Madurai two regions like WDC and EDC (Fig. 5a, b, c, and d). They are further
block in the southernmost part of SGT as shown in Fig. 4(a–c). analyzed with regional anomalies by applying a low-pass filter from 50
to 500 km (Fig. 5a, b, c, d, and e), which shows similar oriented sig­
5.4.3. Gravity gradients natures. The highest positive and negative anomalies shown on the
The Tzx map from Fig. 5a provides a clear indication of a contrast study area map indicate that the crustal and lithospheric thickness is less

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M. Prasad and C.P. Dubey Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 256 (2023) 105823

Fig. 5. (a) Computed Tzx gradient map (b) (b) Low pass filtered Tzx map with cut-off wavelengths at 50 km (c) At 100 km (d) At 200 km (e) At 300 km (f) At 500 km.
All maps are superimposed by topography shaded relief and tectonic features.

in the eastern region and more in the western region. Apart from this, 6. Discussions
there is also a distinct NS low gradient anomaly that marks the bound­
aries between WDC and EDC, and it continues until the depth of Moho or 6.1. Crustal domains and characterization of shear zones
even deeper (Fig. 5a, b, c, and d). However, other small-scale shear
zones are consistent with the positive trend of gradient anomalies in the The terrestrial gravity anomaly map (Fig. 2a) shows strong positive
region of WDC, but they disappear within the crustal depth (Fig. 5a and gravity anomalies that are oriented in NE-SW along the eastern part of
5b). the area, suggesting mantle upwarping and contact between the coastal
The computed Tzy maps (Fig. 6(a–e) are well defined in E-W oriented basins in the east and the crystalline basement in the west (Sub­
structures showing the strongest positive anomalies over the major shear rahmanyam and Verma, 1986). The West Coast is characterized by
zones MBSZ, SASZ, PCSZ, and AKSZ. The signatures associated with positive anomalies that indicate a short wavelength, which may be
shear zones persist until the depth of ~20 to 45 km, after which they attributed to the presence of high-density ultrabasic rocks in shallower
disappear beneath further depths. A strong positive gradient anomaly is depths (Subrahmanyam and Verma, 1986; Mishra and Rao, 1993). The
observed in the entire region of Dharwar Craton compared to SGT, important feature observed over the Coorg and Nilgiri blocks pertains to
which indicates the distinguished character of these two blocks. It also their distinctive high anomalies, which are distinguished from each
continues until the further depth below the mantle scale. The paired other by the gravity low of MBCS. This indicates the possibility of the
gravity signatures encompass both positive and negative signals, high­ presence of high-density material (2.98 gm/cc) beneath these two
lighting distinct crustal domains such as NH, BRH, CB, and SH are crustal blocks that extend from the upper mantle into the crust (Rad­
highlighted. The Tzz map (Fig. 7a) reveals mass disparities when the hakrishna et al., 2003; Sunil et al., 2010). The idea is supported by
density contrast is relatively low, and the geological structures are deep. studies of rocks that are abundant in the Nilgiri and Coorg blocks
The anomalous pattern of Tzz is closely related to Tzy, the topography (Samuel et al., 2014, 2018; Amaldev et al., 2016; Anoop et al., 2022).
map, and the marking of shear zones and crustal blocks in terms of The low pass (LP) filter at <100 km (Fig. 3a and 3b), may give the
Dharwar Craton and SGT. Interestingly, the Tzz map (Fig. 7a) shows gravity signatures of major shear zones and crustal blocks up to 30 km
several short wavelength anomalies that disappear > 100 km of low pass deep. Further, the BRH block in the central region with a cut-off
filter (Fig. 7 (a–c)). The long wavelength low gradient anomalies wavelength above 100 km shows the strongest negative anomalies.
trending in NW-SE and NE-SW along with NS in the southern part get This makes it different from the WDC and EDC, which may have a
more prominent when they reach a deeper level of 100 km in the upper thicker crustal thickness below the western region and thinner crustal
mantle (Fig. 7 (d–f). thickness below the eastern region. These results reveal that BRH and
NH are attributed to a more competently thickened crust resulting from
the subduction collision between DC and SGT along the MBCS during the
Paleoproterozoic (Brandt et al., 2014). This is in agreement with the

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M. Prasad and C.P. Dubey Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 256 (2023) 105823

Fig. 6. (a) Computed Tzy gradient map (b) (b) Low pass filtered Tzy map with cut-off wavelengths at 50 km (c) At 100 km (d) At 200 km (e) At 300 km (f) At 500 km.
All maps are superimposed by topography shaded relief and tectonic features.

recent geochronological studies that suggest the possibility of an field.

Archean crustal continuation south of PCSZ (Brandt et al., 2014; Raith The results of the analytical signal (Fig. 4a) demonstrate the presence
et al., 2016; Dev et al., 2021, 2022). The southward extension of this of major crustal blocks, namely, CB, NH, MB, SH, and major shear zones,
deeper crustal is restricted to the eastern part by the SSZ whereas to the including MBCS and SSZ, all of which exhibit positive anomaly values.
south it extends close to the base of AKSZ across the KKPTSZ. These Rather, BRH, EMB, AKSZ, and TB demonstrate considerably negative
inferences authenticate the possible preservation of deeper crust into the anomalies, possibly representing their extension to a deeper level as
western Madurai block that is in accordance with its Paleoproterozoic compared to others. The E-W trending alternate highs and lows gravity
ancestry model in association with the Salem block (Brandt et al., 2014). anomaly that separates the south Indian shield into the granulite blocks
In addition to these, shallow crustal thickness values are observed in the and cratonic units is another important observation. This alternate zone
eastern Madurai block, AKSZ, TB, and NB. Even though these have of high and low gravity overlaps with the location of MBCS, which
generally been treated as discrete crustal units (Kumar et al., 2017 and shows that it is the boundary of the Paleoproterozoic terrane in south
references therein), their crustal thickness values remain more or less India. Furthermore with the supported low-pass filter and the analytical
the same, possibly suggesting a common crustal continuum along these signal map (Fig. 4c and 4d) up to a cut-off wavelength of <100 km, it is
blocks. suggestive of the presence of MBCS and its extension into deeper levels.
The Tzx map (Fig. 5a) predominantly highlights N-S trending
6.2. Demarcating tectonics boundaries anomalies that well demarcate the boundary between WDC and EDC. A
negative gravity anomaly runs approximately in N-S parallel to the
To gain a better understanding of the structure of crustal blocks and linear supra crustal belt referred to as the Chitradurga shear zone (CSZ;
shear zones in SGT, we employed a variety of qualitative methods, such Chadwick et al., 2000). This argument of CSZ as the terrane boundary
as radially averaged power spectrum, analytical signal, gravity gradients separating WDC and EDC is in agreement with recent studies proposing
(Tzx, Tzy, and Tzz), and regional maps at different cut-off wavelengths. it as a paleo-suture (Santosh and Li, 2018; Gao and Santosh, 2020 and
The spectrum of terrestrial gravity data (Fig. 9a) shows linear segments references therein). Furthermore, the N-S trending anomalies also well
with slopes equivalent to 48 km, 22 km, and 5 km. The first segment is demarcate the boundary between WMD and EMD, which is in accor­
linked to the deepest layer (48 km), which represents the average depth dance with the argument of SSZ that the major tectonic boundary
of Moho, in line with the previously published results (Gupta et al., separating these blocks is the major tectonic boundary (Dev et al.,
2003a, b, 2018; Sunil et al., 2010; Naganjaneyulu and Santosh, 2010; 2022). Another interesting anomaly observed in the western part along
Dubey and Tiwari, 2018; Roy et al., 2023). The slope of the second the coastal region is a zone with the largest negative anomaly trending
segment layer depth (22 km) may be related to the Conrad discontinuity, linearly in the NW-SE direction. This zone roughly coincides with the
a similar curie depth (20 km) was found from the magnetic anomaly location of the Western Margin Fault proposed by Prasad et al. (2021).
spectrum (Fig. 9b). The relatively shallow depths (5 km) indicate that The E-W striking anomalies in the Tzy map (Fig. 6a) project shear zones
the uppermost signatures are caused by local wavelengths of the gravity such as MBCS and PCSS with characteristics of low gradient anomaly.

9
M. Prasad and C.P. Dubey Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 256 (2023) 105823

Fig. 7. (a) Computed Tzz gradient map (b) (b) Low pass filtered Tzz map with cut-off wavelengths at 50 km (c) At 100 km (d) At 200 km (e) At 300 km (f) At 500 km.
All maps are superimposed by topography shaded relief and tectonic features.

These features are also well visible in the regional maps at wavelengths suggests the dominance of negative magnetic anomalies in the central
<100 km with paired gravity anomalies (Fig. 6b and 6c). The vertical region, displaying an E-W trending linear belt approximately 400 km
gravity gradient Tzz map (Fig. 7a) shows a similar pattern with terrestrial long and 80 km wide, and supported by the results of Tzy and Magne­
Bouguer anomaly, highlighting mass heterogeneities where density totelluric tests (Fig. 6a and Fig. 11). This is in good agreement with the
contrast is significantly more characterized by major subsurface struc­ location of MBCS, which is the major terrane boundary in south India
tures at a deeper level (up to 45 km depth). These results also agree with that separates the northern Dharwar Craton from the Southern granulite
previous observations, clearly illustrating that the different crustal blocks. The presence of high-density and high-susceptibility rocks in the
blocks and shear zones have strong positive and negative anomalies, upper crust at a depth of 6–8 km under the MBCS suggests that the
respectively. Moreover, the vertical mass distribution of shear zones like possible source might be the subsurface mafic rocks at shallow depths.
PCSZ, MSZ, and KKPTSZ is also in better agreement with results by Patro Further, peak metamorphism at ultrahigh-temperature conditions in
et al. (2014) (Fig. 11), where the anomalies are highlighted signatures MBCS (Gou et al., 2022 and references therein) is one of the significant
until the depth of 40 km and it diminishes at further depth. features that come from the collision of two blocks. Another important
observation noticed in the SGT is that most of the strongest and weakest
6.3. Analysis of magnetic anomalies and tectonic domains magnetic anomalies are present in the southern and northern part of the
region respectively. This clearly indicates the prograde metamorphism
The foregoing magnetic data (EMAG2v3) has been utilized for the that result in a increase in the magnetite content and susceptibility
tectonic and structural interpretation that can build the deformational (Ramachandran, 1990), which are highly correlated with the analytical
history of different crustal domains present in the study area. The signal map (Fig. 4a). The magnetic signatures are higher in WMB than in
magnetic map (Fig. 8a) shows several paired magnetic anomalies, which EMB. This is because the SSZ separates them and goes all the way to the
are significant in the context of Archean to Proterozoic collision tec­ southern part of the MBCS. Furthermore, the southernmost portion of
tonics. The results demonstrate distinct tectonic elements in the region the study area exhibits a NW-SE AKSZ measuring approximately 120 km
within WDC and EDC. Moreover, the anomalies show a NW-SE trend in length, separating the Madurai block and Trivandrum block. This
that subsequently changes to E-W proximal to the transition zone to AKSZ does not show any gravity anomalies as suggested by Kumar et al.,
SGT. The magnetic anomalies also clearly distinguish MBCS and its 2009. This suggests that it is solely a lithological/morphological
associated minor shear zones. This distinction between MBCS and the boundary rather than a terrane boundary. But the magnetic anomaly
south, from Dharwar Craton to SGT, suggests the potential existence of map plays a crucial role in determining the susceptibility contrast, as in
an arcuate-shaped collision zone (Mishra and Kumar, 2005). This the case of the Madurai block, which is predominant in granulites, and
striking contrast in the gradients across the MBCS is also indicative of a the Trivandrum block, which has Khondalites (Prasad et al., 2021).
change in the magnetic sources (Shinu and Dubey, 2022).
The applied Differential RTP filtered map (Fig. 8b) also strongly

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M. Prasad and C.P. Dubey Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 256 (2023) 105823

Fig. 8. (a) EMAG2v3: the Earth Magnetic Anomaly Grid (2 arc-minute resolution), is compiled from satellite, ship, and airborne magnetic data provided by the
National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) for understating the subsurface structure and composition of the earth crust. (b) Differential Reduction-to-
pole magnetic anomaly map. All maps are superimposed by topography shaded relief and tectonic features.

Fig. 9. (a) Radially averaged power spectrum calculated from the terrestrial Complete Bouguer anomaly map, showing the major sources at three levels with average
depths of about 48 km, 22 km, and 5 km, respectively. (b) The magnetic anomaly (EMAG2v3) map represents major sources at 20 km and 11 km, respectively.

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M. Prasad and C.P. Dubey Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 256 (2023) 105823

Fig. 10. The 2-D joint forward modelling across the SGT. The red dashed lines denote major shear zones. The white stars represent constrained seismic moho. AKSZ:
Achankovil Shear zone, PCSZ: Palghat Cauvery Shear zone, MBSZ: Moyar Bhavani Shear zone. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 11. The magneto telluric method results from Patro et al., 2014 show horizontal sections of a 3-D geoelectric model presented at different depths, from 10 to
100 km. Black triangles are the MT stations. Bold white lines are the suture/shear zones. The SGT crustal column divided into three highly conductor’s crustal blocks
(C1, C3, and C4), PCSZ: Palghat-Cauvery Shear Zone; KOKSZ: Karur-Oddanchatram-Kodaikanal Shear Zone; KKPTSZ: Karur-Kamban-Painavu-Trichur Shear Zone;
ACSZ: Achankovil shear zone.

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M. Prasad and C.P. Dubey Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 256 (2023) 105823

6.4. 2-D joint modeling of crustal architecture CRediT authorship contribution statement

A 500 km long profile AB is orientated in a ~NNW-SSE direction and Muthyala Prasad: Data curation, Visualization, Methodology,
covers the major Shear zones (AKSZ, PCSZ, and MBSZ) and the EDC. Investigation, Writing – original draft. Chandra Prakash Dubey:
There are several geophysical studies like, deep seismic sounding Conceptualization, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing.
(Reddy et al., 2003; Rao et al., 2006), magnetotelluric (Patro et al.,
2014), gravity (Sunil et al., 2010, Singh et al., 2011) and airborne Declaration of Competing Interest
magnetic and gravity studies (Mishra and Kumar, 2005). The majority of
these findings suggested a four-layer crustal configuration, and the The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­
Moho is positioned upwarped beneath the Palghat gap in contrast to the lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
adjacent regions, which is associated with a low-velocity layer at mid- Chandra Prakash Dubey reports a relationship with National Centre for
crustal depth (20–30 km). Here, we developed a joint modeling Earth Science Studies that includes: employment.
(Fig. 10) by integrating physical parameters (density and susceptibility),
geometries from above mentioned studies, and Moho from seismic Data availability
studies. The Moho has a range of 36–44 km, and a similar crustal
thickness has been confirmed by previous studies. The significant vari­ Data will be made available on request.
ations in density and susceptibility values are observed along the profile
crossing the various crustal blocks. The important feature is observed
Acknowledgements
below the Palghat gap, which shows a broad gravity high anomaly
(~130 km long wavelength) which may be due to the thickening of the
The authors would like to express their deepest gratitude to the Di­
high-density second layer of the crustal model and crustal thinning,
rector, NCESS, Thiruvananthapuram, for providing funds and urging
which also matches the observation from Mishra and Kumar (2005). The
them to undertake this task. The authors thank the International Centre
extension of the major shear zones, the AKSZ, is ~16 km, which is well
for Global Earth Models (ICGEM) for providing the EGM2008 global
matching with previously reported by Prasad et al. (2021). The PCSZ
gravity model and the National Centres for Environmental information
and MBSZ are extended up to a deeper level (~42 km) (Sunil et al., 2010;
provided EMAG2v3, a global Earth Magnetic Anomaly Grid available
Singh et al., 2011).
free of charge. We especially appreciate the constructive feedback and
suggestions provided by anonymous reviewers which greatly enhanced
7. Conclusions
the manuscript’s overall quality. We are also grateful to the Associate
Editor for his comments and invaluable suggestions.
The present endeavor aims to examine the terrestrial gravity data
and the most recent global magnetic field model (EMAG2v3) to
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