CONSTRUCTION OF I.C.

ENGINES
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Any machine which derives heat energy from the combustion of fuel and
coverts part of this energy into mechanical work is known as a heat engine.
Heat engines are mainly divided into two groups, viz., external combustion
engine and internal combustion engine.

In the case of external combustion engines, the combustion of fuel takes

place outside the cylinder as in the case of steam engines. The other
examples of external combustion engines are hot air engine, steam turbines
and closed cycle gas turbines. In external combustion engines, first the heat
of combustion is transferred to the working fluid outside the cylinder and
then the fluid is expanded to develop the power.

The other types of engines, which are extensively used in practice, are
internal combustion engines. In internal combustion engines, the
combustion of fuel in the presence of air takes place inside the cylinder and
products of combustion directly act on piston to develop the power. The
internal combustion engines are further classified as petrol engines, diesel
engines and gas engines according to the type of fuel used. These are
commonly used for road vehicles, locomotives and several industrial
applications. The maximum capacity of these engines is limited.

Compared to steam engines (external combustion engines), the I.C. engines

are noted for:
• High overall efficiency. The efficiency of I.C. engines ranges from 30
to 35% whereas efficiency of steam engines lies between 15- 20%.
• compact and small size.
 • low weight to power ratio.
• easy and quick starting. In steam engines, firing of the boiler and
generation of steam takes sufficient time.
• less maintenance and operating cost.

The important applications of IC engines are: -

• Road vehicles, locomotives, ships and aircraft. As such LC. engines
enable passengers and cargos to cross lands, oceans and skies
• Portable stand by units for power generation in case of scarcity of
electric power.
• Extensively used in farm tractors, lawn movers, concrete mixing
devices and motor boats.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES

The internal combustion engines are classified according to:

1. Number of strokes. They are divided into the following groups.
(a) Two-stroke engines. In two-stroke engines, there is one
power stroke in every two strokes or one rotation of the
crankshaft.
(b) Four-stroke engines. In four-stroke engines, there is one
power stroke in every four strokes or one during two rotations
of the crankshaft.
2. Cycle of operation. They are divided into the following groups:
(a) Otto-cycle. (b) Diesel cycle. (c) Dual cycle.
3. The fuel used. On this basis they are classified as:
(a) Petrol engines. (b) Diesel engines or heavy oil engines. (c)
Gas engines.
4. The method of ignition. On this basis, they are divided into the two
following classes,
(a) Spark ignition engines. (S.I. engines) (b) Compression
ignition engines. (C.I. engines).
5. The method of cooling. On this basis they are classified into two
groups.
(a) Air-cooled engines. (b) Water-cooled engines.
6. The method of governing
(a) Quantity governing. (b) Quality governing. (c) Hit and Miss-
governing.
7. The use of engines. The following is the classification on this basis:
(a) Stationary engines. (b) Automobile engines or engines for
road vehicles. (c) Marine engines. (d) Aero-engines. (e)
Locomotive engines.
8. The arrangement of the cylinders. They can be classified as given
below:
(a) Inline engine. All the cylinders are arranged in a line and
the power is taken from a single crankshaft., This arrangement
is used in automobiles.
(b) V-type. It is a combination' of two inline engines set at an
angle. The angle of V may vary from 30° to 75°. The length of
the crankshaft of V-type engine is half of the crankshaft used
for inline engine. This type is also used in automobiles.
(c) Opposed piston engine. The pistons reciprocate in a
common cylinder having common combustion chamber at the
centre. Opposed piston type is used in small air crafts and in
some diesel installations.
(d) Radial engines. All the cylinders are set along the radius of a
circle. The connecting rods point towards the centre of the
circle. The connecting rods of all the pistons work on a single
crank pin which rotates around the centre of the circle. The
radial engine occupies little floor space and simplifies the
balancing problems. This type was popular in aircrafts.
(e) Rotary engine. The engine consists of three-sided convex-
type piston rotating in a cylinder. This type of engine is known
as 'Wankel' engine. It is of high speed-type, light in weight and
works on spark ignition system.
1.3 PARTS OF IC ENGINE

The arrangements of different IC engine parts are shown in Fig. 1.1. The
purpose of each part is described in short as follows:

(a) Cylinder. The cylinder

of an I.C. engine is
considered as the main
body of the engine in
which piston reciprocates
to develop power. It has
to withstand very high
pressures (about 70 bar)
and temperatures (about
2200°C) because there is
direct combustion inside
the cylinder. Therefore, its
material should be such
that it can retain strength
at high temperatures,
should be good conductor
of heat and should resist
to rapid wear and tear Fig.1.1 Different IC engine parts
due to reciprocating parts.
Generally ordinary cast iron is used, but in case of heavy-duty engines, alloy
steels are used. Sometimes, when engine blocks are heavy and for easy
maintenance, sleeves or liners are inserted into the cylinders which can be
replaced when worn out. Liners are generally made of Nickel chrome iron.

(b) Cylinder head. The cylinder head closes one end of the cylinder. It
houses the inlet and exhaust valves through which the charge is taken
inside the cylinder and burned gases are exhausted to the atmosphere from
the cylinder. Cylinder head is usually cast as one piece and bolted to the top
of the cylinder. A copper and asbestos gasket are provided between the
cylinder and cylinder-head to obtain a gas-tight joint. The material used for
the cylinder-head is also cast iron.

(c) Combustion Chamber. It is the space between the cylinder head and the
piston top where combustion takes place.

(d) Piston and Piston Rings. The functions of the piston are to compress the
charge during compression stroke and to transmit the gas force to the
connecting rod and then to the crank during power stroke. The pistons of
I.C. engines are usually made of cast iron, cast steel and aluminium alloy.
The aluminium alloy has the advantage of higher thermal conductivity and
lower specific gravity. Piston is the heart of the engine.

The piston rings are housed in the circumferential grooves provided on the
outer surface of the piston. It gives gastight fitting between the piston and
the cylinder and prevents the leakage of high-pressure gases. These are
made of special grade cast iron. This material retains its elastic property at
very high temperature. The upper piston rings are called the compression
rings and the lower piston rings are called the oil control rings.

(e) Connecting Rod. It is usually a steel forging of circular, rectangular, I, T,

or H section and is highly polished for increased endurance strength. Its
small end forms a hinge and pin joint with the piston and its big end is
connected to the crank by crank pin. It has a passage for the transfer of
lubricating oil from the big end bearing to small end bearing (gudgeon pin).

(f) Crank and Crankshaft. Both crank and crankshaft are steel forgings
machined to a smooth finish. The two are held together by means of a key.
Crankshaft is supported in main bearings and has a heavy wheel, called
flywheel, to even out the fluctuations of torque. The power required for any
useful purpose is taken from crankshaft only. The crankshaft is the
backbone of the engine.
(g) Piston Pin or Wrist Pin. The piston pin provides the bearing for the
oscillating small end of the connecting rod.

(h) Inlet Manifold. It is the passage which carries the charge to combustion
chamber.

(i) Exhaust Manifold. It is the passage which carries the exhaust gases from
combustion chamber to the atmosphere.

(j) Crank case. It is the base which holds the cylinder and crankshaft. It also
serves as the sump for the lubricating oil.

(k) Cooling Fins. The fins are provided as shown in Fig. 1.1 and are used for
cooling the engine.

(l) Flywheel. It is a wheel mounted on the crankshaft (not shown in Fig 1.1.)
which stores excess energy during the power stroke and returns that
energy during the other strokes and maintains a fairly constant output
torque on the crankshaft (reduces cyclic variation of speed).

(m) Governor. It is run by a drive from the crankshaft. The function of the
governor is to regulate the charge in case of petrol engine and amount of
fuel in case of Diesel engine to maintain the speed of the engine constant,
when the load requirement varies.

(n) Carburetor. The function of the carburetor is to supply the uniform air-
fuel to the cylinder of a petrol engine through the intake manifold. The
mass of the mixture entering the cylinder is controlled by a throttle valve.

(o) Spark Plug. The function of the spark plug is to initiate the mixture after
completing the compression in the petrol engine, it is generally mounted in
the cylinder head. This is only used in petrol engine.
(p) Fuel Pump. It forces the fuel oil at high pressure through fuel nozzle into
the cylinder at the end of compression stroke in diesel engine.

(q) Fuel Injector/Nozzle. The function of fuel nozzle is to break-up the oil
into a fine spray as it enters the cylinder of diesel engine.

(r) Valves:
(i) Inlet Valve. This valve controls the admission of the charge into-the
petrol engine or air into diesel engine during suction stroke of the engine.

(ii) Exhaust Valve. The removal of exhaust gases after doing work on the
piston, is controlled by this valve. Both valves are kept enclosed by the
valve springs.

(s) Cam-shaft. The function of the cam shaft is to operate the intake and
exhaust valves. through the cams, cam followers, push rods and rocker
arms. The cam shaft is driven positively from the crankshaft at half the
speed of the crankshaft.

(t) Cam and Cam-follower. It is made of a required profile to give desired

motion to the valve through the follower.

(u) Push-rod and Rocker Arm. The motion of the cam is transmitted to the
valve through the push rod and rocker arm. These links together are also
known as valve gear.

(v) Ports:
(i) Suction/Inlet & Exhaust port: In two stroke engine the ports are
provided for charge inlet and exhaust outlet. Both ports are uncovered and
closed by the moving piston.

(ii) Transfer port: In two stroke engine the transfer port is used for transfer
of charge from crankcase to cylinder.
1.4 IC ENGINES TERMINOLOGY

The following terminology is commonly used in I.C. engines (Fig. 1.2 and
1.3).
1. Bore. The inside diameter of the cylinder is known as bore.

Fig. 1.2 Nomenclature for IC engines

2. Stroke. The maximum distance travelled by the piston in the cylinder in

one direction is known as stroke and it is equal to twice the radius of the
crank. The distance between TDC to BDC is known as "stroke/stroke
length".

3. Top Dead Centre (TDC). The extreme position of the piston at the top of
the cylinder (head end side) is called "top dead entre" (TDC) position. In the
case of horizontal engines this is known as "inner dead centre" (IDC)
position.
 Fig. 1.3 Nomenclature for IC engines

4. Bottom Dead Centre (BDC). The extreme position of the piston at the
bottom of the cylinder is called "bottom dead centre" (BDC) position. In
case of horizontal engine this is known as "outer dead centre" (ODC)
position.

5. Clearance Volume. The volume contained in the cylinder above the top of
the piston when the piston is at TDC, is called the clearance volume and is
denoted by Vc·

6. Piston Displacement or Swept Volume. The volume swept through by the

piston in moving between TDC and BDC is defined as the piston
displacement or swept volume and it is denoted by Vs. Therefore, cylinder
volume = (Vc+Vs).

7. Compression Ratio. The ratio of the volume when the piston is at BDC to
the volume when the piston is at TDC is called the compression ratio and it
is denoted by Rc.
𝑉1 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑐
𝑅 = / =
𝑐 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐
 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION
Q.1. What is IC Engine?
Ans. See Section 1.1.

Q.2. Write down classification of IC Engine.

Ans. See Section 1.2.

Q.3. State various terminology in I.C. engines.

Ans. See Section 1.4.

Q.4. Write down the principle parts/Components/Constructional detail of an

IC Engine.
Ans. Write all parts mentioned in section 1.3.

Q.5. Write down the principle parts/Components/Constructional detail of 4-

Stroke S.I./Petrol Engine.
Ans. Write all parts mentioned in section 1.3 except (a) Fuel Pump, (b) Fuel
Injector/Nozzle, (c) Ports. (Fig. 1.4)

Q.6. Write down the principle parts/Components/Constructional detail of 4-

Stroke C.I./Diesel Engine.
Ans. Write all parts mentioned in section 1.3 except (a) Spark Plug (b) carburettor
(c) Ports. (Fig. 1.5)

Q.7. Write down the principle parts/Components/Constructional detail of 2-

Stroke S.I./Petrol Engine.
Ans. Write all parts mentioned in section 1.3 except (a) Fuel Pump (b) Fuel
Injector/Nozzle, (c) Valves (d) Cam-shaft, (e) Cam and Cam-follower (f) Push-rod
and Rocker Arm. (Fig. 1.6)

Q.8. Write down the principle parts/Components/Constructional detail of 2-

Stroke C.I./Diesel Engine.
Ans. Write all parts mentioned in section 1.3 except (a) Spark Plug (b) carburettor
(c) Valves (d) Cam-shaft, (e) Cam and Cam-follower (f) Push-rod and Rocker Arm.
(Fig. 1.7)
Fig. 1.4 Four-Stroke S.I./Petrol Engine.

Fig. 1.5 Four Stroke C.I./Diesel Engine.

Fig. 1.6 Two-Stroke S.I./Petrol Engine.

Fig. 1.7 Two-Stroke C.I./Diesel Engine.

 Working of 4 Stroke Petrol Engines
2.1 INTRODUCTION

All operations are carried out in four strokes of the piston, i.e., two
revolutions of the crank shaft. Therefore, the engine is called a four-stroke
engine. A large number of internal combustion engines, both petrol and
diesel, operate on a four-stroke cycle.

2.2 CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS

Petrol engine (spark ignition engine) consist of a cylinder, cylinder head

attached with spark plug, piston attached with piston ring, connecting rod,
crank, crank shaft, etc., as shown in Fig. 2.1. In a four-stroke engine, valves
are used instead of ports. There are inlet and exhaust valves. These valves
are operated by cams attached on a separate shaft, called a cam shaft. It is
rotated at half the speed of a crank shaft.

Figure 2.1 Four Stroke Petrol Engine

2.3 OPERATIONS

The travel of the piston from one dead centre to another is called piston
stroke and a four-stroke cycle consists of four strokes as suction,
compression, expansion and exhaust strokes. The sequence of four strokes
is as follows: -
1. Intake or suction stroke,
2. Compression stroke,
3. Working or expansion or power stroke and,
4. Exhaust stroke.

1. Suction Stroke Suppose that the piston is very near to the top dead
centre position (T.D.C.) [Fig 2.2 (a)]. During suction stroke the inlet valve is
opened and the discharge valve is closed and the piston moves down (i.e.
outward) due to rotation of the crankshaft either getting energy from the
flywheel or a motor starter. As the piston move, vacuum is created between
the piston and cylinder and the pressure in the cylinder drops below
atmospheric pressure. The piston moves from the top dead centre to the
bottom dead centre, the charge (mixture of fuel and air prepared in the
carburettor) rushes inside the cylinder through inlet manifold and valve
which is cam operated. The suction process continues till the piston
reaches the bottom dead centre position (B.D.C.).

Figure 2.2 Operations of a Four Stroke Petrol Engine

2. Compression Stroke During a compression stroke [Fig 2.2 (b)], both the
valves are closed and the piston moves from bottom to top dead centre
position. The charge or air is compressed up to a compression ratio which
depends upon the type and need of the engine. Since both the valves are
closed and the piston moves inwards, there is a reduction in volume of the
charge which results in an increase of pressure and temperate of the
cylinder contents. In petrol engines, the compression ratio varies from 6 to
12 and pressure and temperature at the end of compression are 7 to 14 bar
and 250°C to 300°C respectively.

3. Expansion Stroke During power stroke [Fig 2.2 (c)], both the valves are
closed. The power stroke includes combustion of fuel and expansion of the
products of combustion. The combustion starts at the end of the
compression stroke when the piston is approaching the T.D.C. position. In
S.I. Engine a spark plug initiates the combustion. During combustion the
chemical energy of the fuel is released and there is a rise in temperature
and pressure of the gas. The temperature of the gases is increased to
between 1800-2300°C and the pressure to 30–40 bar. The volume of the
gas however remains constant during combustion. The high pressure and
the high temperature of the products of combustion, thus obtained, pushes
the piston outward from T.D.C. to B.D.C. position for expansion stroke. This
reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into rotary motion by the
crankshaft, connecting rod and crank mechanism.

4. Exhaust Stroke During this stroke, the piston moves from the bottom
dead centre to the top dead centre, exhaust valve opens and the inlet valve
remains closed [Fig 2.2 (d)]. Burnt gases of the previous stroke are expelled
out from the cylinder by upward movement of the piston. At the end of the
power stroke the pressure of the gas is about 4-5 bar which is higher than
the exhaust manifold pressure.
At the end of the exhaust stroke the inlet valve opens, and the cylinder is
ready to receive the fresh charge to begin a new cycle.
It is obvious from the above discussions that the crankshaft makes two
revolutions during the four strokes, and in these four strokes, there is only
one power stroke. This means, that for every two revelations of the
crankshaft, there is only one power strike.

2.4 THEORETICAL INDICATOR DIAGRAM (P-V DIAGRAM)

In the above operation, the following assumption were made-

(i) Suction and exhaust take place at atmospheric pressure.
(ii) Suction and exhaust take place at 180o rotation of crank.
(iii) Compression and expansion also take place at 180o rotation of crank.
(iv) Compression and expansion are isentropic.
(v) The combustion takes place instantaneously at constant volume at
the end of compression stroke.
(vi) Pressure suddenly falls to the atmospheric pressure at end of
expansion stroke.

Figure 2.3 Theoretical indicator diagram (P-V Diagram) of a Four

Stroke Petrol Engine
With these assumptions the working of 4-Stroke Otto cycle engine on p-V
diagram as shown in Fig. 2.3.
Process 0-1 (Suction Stroke): In this process fresh air and fuel mixture i.e.,
charge is passed inside the cylinder. The piston moves from top dead
centre to bottom dead centre. This comprises the first stroke of the engine.
Process 1-2 (Compression Stroke): In this process the charge is
compressed and piston is moved to top dead centre. This comprises the
second stroke of the engine.
Process 2-3 (Instantaneous-Combustion): In this process spark plug ignites
the spark and the fuel is burnt. This process is of constant volume and
increase in pressure.
Process 3-4 (Expansion Stroke): In this process the burnt fuel expands
itself and exerts pressure on the piston. The piston moves from top dead
centre to bottom dead centre. This comprises the third stroke of the engine
and the power stroke.
Process 4-1(Sudden Fall in Pressure): In this process the burnt gas is
exhausted out and the pressure decreases with constant volume.
Process 1-0 (Exhaust Stroke): In this process the burnt gas is completely
moved out of the cylinder by the action of piston. Piston moves from
bottom dead centre to top dead centre. This comprises the fourth stroke of
the engine.

2.5 ACTUAL INDICATOR DIAGRAM

In the theoretical indicator diagram, all the ideal conditions are assumed
but in practice, the actual conditions differ from the ideal as described
below (Fig. 2.4.).
(i) The suction of mixture in the cylinder is possible only if the pressure
inside the cylinder is below atmospheric pressure.
(ii) The burnt gases can be pushed out into the atmosphere only if the
pressure of the exhaust gases is above atmospheric pressure.
(iii) The combustion and expansion do not follow the isentropic law, as
there will be heat exchange during process.
(iv) Sudden pressure rise is not possible after ignition as combustion take
sometimes for completion and actual pressure rise is less than theoretical
considered. The pressure increase takes place through some crank
rotation, or increase in volume.
(v) Sudden pressure release after the opening of expansion valve is not
possible and also takes place through some crank rotation.

Figure 2.4 Actual indicator diagram (P-V Diagram) of a Four Stroke

Petrol Engine

The suction stroke by the line 0-1, which lies below the atmospheric
pressure line. It is this pressure difference, which makes the fuel air
mixture to flow into the engine cylinder. The inlet valve offers some
resistance to the incoming charge. That is why, the charge cannot enter
suddenly into the engine cylinder. As a result of this, pressure inside the
cylinder remains somewhat below the atmospheric pressure during the
suction stroke. The compression stroke is shown by the line 1-2, which
shows that the inlet valve close (I.V.C) a little beyond 1 (i.e. BDC). At the
end of this stroke, there is an increase in the pressure inside the engine
cylinder. Shortly before the end of compression stroke (i.e. TDC). the
charge is ignited (IGN) with the help of spark plug as shown in the figure.
The sparking suddenly increases pressure and temperature of the products
of combustion. But the valve practically, remains constant as shown by the
line 2-3. The expansion stroke is shown by the line 3-4, in which the exit
valve opens (EVO) a little before 4 (i.e. B.D.C). Now the burnt gases are
exhausted into the atmosphere through the exit valve. The exhaust stroke
is shown by the line 4-0, which lies above the atmospheric pressure line. It
is this pressure difference, which makes the burnt gases to flow out of the
engine cylinder. As a result of this. pressure inside the cylinder remains
somewhat above the atmospheric pressure line during the exhaust stroke.

2.6 VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM

Theoretically, in a four-stroke cycle engine, the inlet and exhaust valves

open and close at dead centres as shown in Fig. 2.5.

Figure 2.5 Theoretical Valve-Timing Diagram for Four-stroke cycle

engine
A typical actual valve-timing diagram for a four-stroke petrol engine is
shown in Fig. 2.6. The angular positions in terms of crank angle with
respect to TDC and BDC position of piston are quoted on the diagram.
When the inlet valve and exhaust valve remain open simultaneously, it is
called a valve overlap.

Figure 2.6 Actual Valve-Timing Diagram for Four-Stroke Petrol Engine

2.7 APPLICATIONS

These engines are mostly used on automobiles, motor cycles, cars, buses,
trucks, aeroplanes, small pumping sets, mobile electric generators, etc.
Nowadays, the four-stroke petrol engines have been replaced by four-
stroke Diesel engines for most applications.
 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

Q.1. Explain working of 4-Stroke Petrol/SI engines.

Ans. See Section 2.3.

Q.2. Draw and explain theoretical indicator diagram for 4-Stroke

Petrol/SI engines.
Ans. See Section 2.4.

Q.3. Draw and explain actual indicator diagram for 4-Stroke Petrol/SI
engines.
Ans. See Section 2.5.

Q.4. Draw theoretical valve timing diagram for 4-Stroke Petrol/SI

engines.
Ans. See Section 2.6.

Q.5. Draw actual valve timing diagram for 4-Stroke Petrol/SI engines.
Ans. See Section 2.6.

Q.6. State various applications of 4-Stroke S.I./Petrol engine.

Ans. See section 2.7
 Working of 4 Stroke Diesel Engines

3.1 INTRODUCTION

All operations are carried out in four strokes of the piston, i.e., two
revolutions of the crank shaft. Therefore, the engine is called a four-stroke
engine. A large number of internal combustion engines, both petrol and
diesel, operate on a four-stroke cycle.

3.2 CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS

A four-stroke Diesel engine (compression ignition engine) contains a fuel

injector, fuel pump, cylinder, cylinder head, inlet and exhaust valves, piston
attached with piston rings, connecting rod, crank shaft, cams, camshaft, etc.,
as shown in Fig. 3.1. In a four-stroke engine, valves are used instead of
ports. There are inlet and exhaust valves. These valves are operated by
cams attached on a separate shaft, called a cam shaft. It is rotated at half the
speed of a crank shaft.

3.3 OPERATIONS

The travel of the piston from one dead centre to another is called piston
stroke and a four-stroke cycle consists of four strokes as suction,
compression, expansion and exhaust strokes. The sequence of four strokes
is as follows:
1. Intake or suction stroke,
2. Compression stroke,
3. Working or expansion or power stroke and,
4. Exhaust stroke.
 Figure 3.1 Four Stroke Diesel Engine

1. Suction Stroke Suppose that the piston is very near to the top dead
centre position (T.D.C.) [Fig 3.2 (a)]. During suction stroke the inlet valve is
opened and the discharge valve is closed and the piston moves down (i.e.
outward) due to rotation of the crankshaft either getting energy from the
flywheel or a motor starter. As the piston move, vacuum is created between
the piston and cylinder and the pressure in the cylinder drops below
atmospheric pressure. The piston moves from the top dead centre to the
bottom dead centre, only air rushes inside the cylinder through inlet
manifold and valve which is cam operated. The suction process continues
till the piston reaches the bottom dead centre position (B.D.C.).
2. Compression Stroke During a compression stroke [Fig 3.2 (b)], both the
valves are closed and the piston moves from bottom to top dead centre
position. The air is compressed up to a compression ratio which depends
upon the type and need of the engine. Since both the valves are closed and
the piston moves inwards, there is a reduction in volume of the air which
results in an increase of pressure and temperate of the cylinder contents.
For Diesel engine the compression ratio is 16 to 22 and the pressure and
temperature at the end of compression are 28 to 59 bar, and 600°C to
700°C respectively.

Figure 3.2 Operations of a Four Stroke Diesel Engine

3. Expansion Stroke During power stroke [Fig 3.2 (c)], both the valves are
closed. The power stroke includes combustion of fuel and expansion of the
products of combustion. The combustion starts at the end of the
compression stroke when the piston is approaching the T.D.C. position. In
C.I engine, one or more jets of fuel, compressed to a pressure of 105-210
bar by an injector pump are injected into the combustion chamber by a fuel
nozzle at the end of the compression stroke. The injected fuel is vaporized
in the combustion chamber, when the fuel vapor is raised to self-ignition
temperature, the combustion then starts automatically and the pressure of
the gas however remains constant during combustion.
In modern diesel engine (dual cycle), the injected fuel is vaporized in the
combustion chamber, when the fuel vapor is raised to self-ignition
temperature, the combustion then starts automatically and there is a
sudden rise of pressure at approximately constant volume. However, the
latter part of combustion occurs at almost constant pressure.

The high pressure and the high temperature of the products of combustion,
thus obtained, pushes the piston outward from T.D.C. to B.D.C. position for
expansion stroke. This reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into
rotary motion by the crankshaft, connecting rod and crank mechanism.

4. Exhaust Stroke During this stroke, the piston moves from the bottom
dead centre to the top dead centre, exhaust valve opens and the inlet valve
remains closed [Fig 3.2 (d)]. Burnt gases of the previous stroke are expelled
out from the cylinder by upward movement of the piston. At the end of the
power stroke the pressure of the gas is about 4-5 bar which is higher than
the exhaust manifold pressure.

At the end of the exhaust stroke the inlet valve opens, and the cylinder is
ready to receive the fresh air to begin a new cycle.
It is obvious from the above discussions that the crankshaft makes two
revolutions during the four strokes, and in these four strokes, there is only
one power stroke. This means, that for every two revelations of the
crankshaft, there is only one power strike.

3.4 THEORETICAL INDICATOR DIAGRAM (P-V DIAGRAM)

The working of 4-Stroke Diesel cycle engine on p-V diagram as shown in

Fig. 3.3.
Process 0-1: In this process fresh air is passed inside the cylinder. The
piston moves from top dead centre to bottom dead centre. This comprises
the first stroke of the engine.
Process 1-2: In this process the air is compressed and piston is moved to
top dead center. This comprises the second stroke of the engine.
Process 2-3: In this process diesel is pumped into the cylinder through fuel
pump and the fuel is burnt. This process is of constant volume and increase
in pressure.
Process 3-4: In this process the burnt fuel expands itself and exerts
pressure on the piston. The piston moves from top dead centre to bottom
dead centre. This comprises the third stroke of the engine and the power
stroke.
Process 4-1: In this process the burnt gas is exhausted out and the
pressure decreases with constant volume.
Process 1-0: In this process the burnt gas is completely moved out of the
cylinder by the action of piston. Piston moves from bottom dead centre to
top dead centre. This comprises the fourth stroke of the engine.

Figure 3.3 P-V Diagram of a Four Stroke Diesel Engine

3.5 ACTUAL INDICATOR DIAGRAM

In the theoretical indicator diagram, all the ideal conditions are assumed
but in practice, the actual conditions differ from the ideal as described
below (Fig. 3.4.).
The suction stroke is shown by the line 0-1 which lies below the
atmospheric pressure line. It is this pressure difference, which makes the
fresh air to flow into the engine cylinder.

Figure 3.4 Actual indicator diagram (P-V Diagram) of a Four Stroke

Diesel Engine

The inlet valve offers some resistance to the incoming air. That is why, the
air cannot enter suddenly into the engine cylinder. As a result of this
pressure inside the cylinder remains somewhat below the atmospheric
pressure during the suction stroke. The compression stroke is shown by
the line 1-2 which shows that the inlet valve close (IVC) a little beyond 3
(i.e. BDS). At the end of this stroke, there is an increase of pressure inside
the engine cylinder shortly before the end of compression stroke (i.e. TDC)
the fuel valve opens (FVO) and the fuel is injected into engine cylinder. The
fuel is ignited by high temperature of the compressed air. The ignition
suddenly increases volume and temperature of the products of combustion.
But the pressure practically remains constant as shown by the line 2-3. The
expansion stroke is shown by the line 3-4 in which the exist valve opens a
little before 4 (i.e. BDC). Now the burnt gases are exhausted into the
atmosphere through the exit valve. The exhaust stroke is shown by the line
4-0, which lies above the atmospheric pressure line. It is this pressure
difference which makes the burnt gases to flow out of the engine cylinder.
The exist valve offers some resistance to the outgoing burnt gases. That is
why the burnt gases cannot escape suddenly from the engine cylinder. As a
result of this pressure inside the cylinder remains somewhat above the
atmospheric pressure line during the exhaust stroke.

3.6 VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM

Theoretically, in a four-stroke cycle engine, the inlet and exhaust valves

open and close at dead centres as shown in Fig. 3.5.
A typical actual valve-timing diagram for a four-stroke diesel engine is
shown in Fig. 3.6. The angular positions in terms of crank angle with
respect to TDC and BDC position of piston are quoted on the diagram.
When the inlet valve and exhaust valve remain open simultaneously, it is
called a valve overlap.

Figure 3.5 Theoretical Valve-Timing Diagram for Four-stroke Diesel

Engine
Figure 3.6 Actual Valve-Timing Diagram for Four-Stroke Diesel Engine

3.7 APPLICATIONS

These engines are mostly used in automobiles, small pumping sets for
agriculture, construction machinery, air compressor and drilling jigs,
tractors, jeeps, cars, taxies, buses, trucks, diesel-electric locomotives, small
power plants, mobile electric generating plants, boats and ships, power
saws, bulldozers, tanks, etc.
 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

Q.1. Explain working of 4-Stroke Diesel/CI engines.

Ans. See Section 3.3.

Q.2. Draw and explain theoretical indicator diagram for 4-Stroke

Diesel/CI engines.
Ans. See Section 3.4.

Q.3. Draw and explain actual indicator diagram for 4-Stroke Diesel/CI
engines.
Ans. See Section 3.5.

Q.4. Draw theoretical valve timing diagram for 4-Stroke Diesel/CI

engines.
Ans. See Section 3.6.

Q.5. Draw actual valve timing diagram for 4-Stroke Diesel/CI engines.
Ans. See Section 3.6.

Q.6. State various applications of 4-Stroke Diesel/CI engine.

Ans. See section 3.7
 Deviation of Real Gases from Ideal Gas Behaviour

Ideal and Real Gas

An ideal gas is composed of randomly moving minute particles, which undergo elastic collisions.
Although there is no such thing as an ideal gas, genuine gases are known to behave in ideal ways under
certain circumstances. An ideal gas obeys the ideal gas equation PV=nRT at all pressures and
temperatures. The molecules of ideal gases are assumed to be volume less points with no attractive forces
between one another.

Real gases are the ones which do not follow the ideal relations of gas law. The deviation of real gases
from ideal gas behaviour occurs due to the assumption that if pressure increases the volume decreases.
The volume will approach a smaller number but will not be zero because the molecules will occupy some
space that cannot be compressed further. Almost all gases vary in some manner from the ideal behavior.
Non-ideal or actual gases, such as H2, N2, and CO2, do not obey the ideal-gas equation. Deviations from
ideal behaviour are observed particularly at high pressures or low temperatures

Compressibility Factor

A new function called the Compressibility factor, denoted by Z, can be used to quantify the degree to
which real gas deviates from ideal behaviour. It’s described as

Z = PV/RT

• The plot of the compressibility factor, Z, vs. P, reveals the degree of departure from optimum
behaviour.
• For, ideal gases, Z= 1 at all temperature and pressures.
• Temperature and pressure have no effect on an ideal gas, which has a Z value of 1 at all temperatures
and pressures
• For non-ideal or real gases, Z>1 or Z< 1.
• Thus, the value of Z determines the difference between ideal and real gas behaviour.
• The degree of gas non-ideality is represented by the difference between unity and Z.
• Pressure and temperature cause deviations from optimal behaviour in a real gas.
• When Z < 1, it is a negative deviation. It shows that the gas is more compressible than expected from
ideal behaviour.
• When Z > 1, it is a positive deviation. It shows that the gas is less compressible than expected from
ideal behaviour.

Effect of Pressure Variation on Deviations

In the graph below, the compressibility factor, Z, for H2, N2, and CO2 at constant temperature is plotted
against pressure.
 • For all of these gases, Z is practically equal to one at very low pressure.
• Real gases behave almost perfectly at low pressures (up to 10 atm).
• As the pressure rises, H2 exhibits a steady increase in Z (from Z=1). As a result, the H2 curve is
higher than the ideal gas curve at all pressures.
• For N2 and CO2, Z decreases at first (Z<1), then reaches a minimum, and finally increases with
increasing pressure (Z>1).
• Because CO2 is the most easily liquefied gas, it has the greatest drop in the curve.

Effect of Temperature on Deviations

The graph below shows plots of Z or PV/RT against P for N2 at various temperatures.

• As the temperature rises, the deviations from ideal gas behaviour become smaller and smaller, as
shown by the shape of the graphs.
• At lower temperatures, the curve dips significantly, and the slope of the curve is negative. In this
situation, Z<1.
• As the temperature rises, the dip in the curve decreases. The curve’s minimum vanishes at a
certain temperature and remains horizontal for a wide range of pressures.
• At this temperature, PV/RT is nearly equal, thus Boyle’s law is satisfied. As a result, Boyle’s
temperature refers to the temperature of the gas.
• Each gas has its own Boyle temperature, such as 332K for N2.
Important facts:

▪ Real gases perform approximately ideal at low pressures and relatively high temperatures, and
the ideal-gas equation is obeyed.
▪ A real gas deviates greatly from ideality at low temperatures and sufficiently high pressures,
and the ideal-gas equation is no longer valid.
▪ As the gas approaches the liquefaction point, the departure from ideal behaviour grows.

Causes of Real Gas Behaviour

The causes of deviations from ideal behaviour may be due to the following two assumptions of kinetic
theory of gases-
• The volume occupied by gas molecules is negligibly small as compared to the volume occupied by
the gas.
• The forces of attraction between gas molecules are negligible.

• Volume of gas molecules: The first assumption is valid only at low pressures and high temperature,
when the volume occupied by the gas molecules is negligible as compared to the total volume of the
gas. But at low temperature or at high pressure, the molecules being in compressible the volumes of
molecules are no more negligible as compared to the total volume of the gas. This means that the
actual volume occupied by the gas is slightly less than the volume of the container.
• Intermolecular forces: The second assumption is not valid when the pressure is high and temperature
is low. But at high pressure or low temperature when the total volume of gas is small, the forces of
attraction become appreciable and cannot be ignored. Thus, in real gases, there are attractive and
repulsive forces between gas molecules, which affect the behavior of the gas. The attractive forces
between gas molecules cause the gas molecules to be attracted to each other, which reduces the
pressure of the gas. The repulsive forces between gas molecules cause the gas molecules to repel each
other, which increases the pressure of the gas.

Van der Waals Equation

The equation is named after Dutch physicist Johannes Diderik van der Waals, who proposed it in 1873.

The Van der Waals equation is an equation of state that describes the behavior of real gases, taking into
account the volume of the gas molecules and the attractive and repulsive forces between them. The Van
der Waals equation is based on the two above mentioned assumptions about real gases and it provides a
more accurate description of the behavior of real gases, particularly at high pressures and low
temperatures, where the ideal gas law breaks down.

The Van der Waals equation is:

Where, P is the pressure, V is the volume, n is the number of moles of gas, R is the gas constant, T is the
temperature, a is a measure of the attractive forces between gas molecules, and b is a measure of the
 2 2
volume of the gas molecules. The term n a/V is related to pressure correction term and nb is related to
volume correction term.

Volume Correction

The volume of a gas is the amount of free space in the container where molecules can move about. The
volume V of an ideal gas is equal to the volume of the container. Because ideal gas molecules have no
volume, they can freely move around inside the container.

In a real gas, the molecular volume cannot be ignored. Van der Waals thought of molecules in a
genuine gas as rigid spherical objects with a fixed volume. As a result, the volume of a real gas is ideal
volume minus gas molecule volume. If b is the effective volume of molecules per mole of gas, the volume
b will be excluded from total volume (out of the volume of container).

Therefore due to n moles of a gas the volume excluded would be nb. A real gas in a container of
volume V has only available volume of (V - nb) and this can be thought of as an ideal gas in
container of volume (V - nb).

Hence, Ideal volume

Vi = V – nb …..........(i)
n = Number of moles of real gas
V = Volume of the gas
b = A constant whose value depends upon the nature of the gas.
[Note: The Van der Waals constant b (the excluded volume) is actually 4 times the volume of a
single molecule
b = 4 × volume of a single molecule = 4 × 6.023 × 10 23 ×(4/3) r 3, where r is the radius of a
molecule.]

Pressure Correction
A molecule in the interior of gas is attracted by molecules on all sides. The molecules that exert the
force on the container will get attracted by molecules of the immediate layer which are assumed
not to be exerting pressure. These appealing characteristics cancel each other out. A molecule poised to
impact the vessel’s wall, on the other hand, is drawn only by molecules on one side. It feels forced to go
inside as a result. As a result, it hits the wall with less force, and the real gas pressure, P, is less than the
ideal pressure.

If the actual pressure P is smaller than the ideal pressure Pideal by a factor p, we’ve got

P = Pideal – p

Pideal = P + p

This small pressure p would be directly proportional to the extent of attraction between the
molecules which are hitting the container wall and the molecules which are attracting these.
Therefore p ∝ n/V (concentration of molecules which are hitting the container's wall), and
p ∝ n/V (concentration of molecules which are attracting these molecues)
Thus, p ∝ n2/V2
Or, p = an2/V2
Where a is the constant of proportionality which depends on the nature of gas. A higher value of 'a'
reflects the increased attraction between gas molecules.
Hence ideal pressure
P i = (P + an 2/V2) …...........(ii)
Here, n = Number of moles of real gas, V = Volume of the gas and, a = A constant whose value
depends upon the nature of the gas.
Substituting the values of ideal volume and ideal pressure in ideal gas equation i.e. PV=nRT, the
modified equation (Van der waals equation) is obtained as

Some salient feature of a & b are:

• For a given gas Vander Waal’s constant of attraction ‘a’ is always greater than Vander Waals
constant of volume b.
• The gas having higher value of ‘a’ can be liquefied easily and therefore H2 & He are not liquefied
easily.
• The units of a = litre2 atm mole–2 & that of b = litre mole –1
• The numerical values of a & b are in the order of 10–1 to 10–2 & 10–2 to 10–4 respectively.
• Higher is the value of ‘a’ for a given gas, easier is the liquefaction.
•
Question 1: Define ideal gas and real gas.

Answer: An ideal gas obeys the ideal gas equation PV = nRT at all pressures and temperatures. No gas,
on the other hand, is excellent. Almost all gases vary in some manner from the ideal behaviour. Non-ideal
or actual gases, such as H2,N2, and CO2, do not obey the ideal-gas equation.

Question 2: What is the compressibility factor?

Answer: The degree to which real gas deviates from ideal behaviour can be expressed using a new
function called the Compressibility factor, indicated by Z.

Z=PV/RT

Question 3: What is the ideal behaviour of gases?

Answer: An ideal gas obeys the ideal gas equation PV=nRT at all pressures and temperatures. However,
no gas is ideal. Almost all gases vary in some manner from the ideal behaviour.

Question 4: What is the behaviour of real gases?

Answer: Gases that depart from ideal behaviour are known as real gases. The degree to which real gas
deviates from ideal behaviour can be expressed using a new function called the Compressibility factor,
indicated by Z.

Z=PV/RT

A plot of the compressibility factor, Z, vs P can reveal the degree of divergence from ideal behaviour. Z=1
for an ideal gas, and it is unaffected by temperature or pressure.

Question 5: What are the causes of real gas behaviour? Derive Van der Waals Equation.

Answer: According to Van der Waals (1873), the deviations of real gases from ideal behaviour are
attributable to two faulty kinetic theory postulates. The following are some of them:

1. In a gas, the molecules have no volume and have point masses.

2. There are no intermolecular attractions in a gas.

As a result, the ideal gas equation PV=nRT developed from kinetic theory could not be applied to real
gases. Van der Waals pointed out that both the pressure (P) and volume (V) elements of the ideal gas
equation needed to be modified to make it applicable to real gases.

Van der Waals changed the ideal gas equation to make it applicable to all gases. The Van der Waals
equation for n moles of gases,

(P + an2/V2)(V–nb) = nRT

Question 6: What is the Boyle temperature? Give an example.

Answer: The compressibility factor, Z, of a gas depends on the temperature also.

The compressibility factor is inversely proportional to temperature. So, an increase in temperature
decreases the deviation from ideal behaviour. Every real gas has a certain temperature, where the
compressibility factor shows little changes and comes close to one. Some gases obey ideal gas laws at
high pressures at a certain temperature.

The temperature at which a real gas behaves like an ideal gas over a long range of pressure is Boyle’s
temperature for the gas. For example, nitrogen has a Boyle temperature of 323 K.

Question 7: What is the significance of the Van der Waals constants?

Answer: The Van der Waal constant ‘a’ signifies the magnitude of attraction between the gas molecules,
and the constant ‘b’ signifies the effective volume occupied by the gas molecules.

Question 8: What are the conditions under which gasses deviate from ideality?

Answer: At high pressure and low temperature, gasses deviate from ideality.

2. Choose the correct option.

a) Increasing temperature increases the distribution of molecular velocities.

b) Larger the mass lesser the distribution of velocities.

c) Most probable velocity is the velocity that most of the molecules have at that temperature.

d) All the above

Answer: All the options are correct, and hence, ‘d’ is the correct option.