MEN515- HVAC Systems N.

Zakhia – NDU – SOE – ME Department

Chapter 6. Duct Design - Building air distribution

I. Introduction
Building air distribution includes mainly Duct design, Fan and Outlets selections. This chapter covers the
duct design which consists of trunks, branches and their appropriate connections.
Duct system delivers air to each diffuser at a specified total pressure,𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 . This is done by
selecting the proper fan to overcome the total pressure losses in the whole system.
Figure 6.1 shows a central heating furnace connected
to supply and return air ductwork. The furnace is
connected to the air plenum.
Furnace fan draws air in through grilles
and forces air through the plenum
and into the conditioned space
through supply registers.
Duct design considers: (1) space availability,
(2) space air diffusion, (3) noise levels,
(4) duct leakage, (5) duct heat gains and
losses, (6) balancing, (7) fire and smoke control, Figure 6.1 Duct components
(8) initial and operating cost.
Deficiencies in duct design results in malfunction, expensive system operation and unbalanced systems. For
instance, poor air distribution causes discomfort and even adverse health effects. Lack of sound
attenuators may cause horrible noise levels. Faulty duct construction or lack of duct sealing produces
inadequate airflow rates at the terminals. Proper duct insulation eliminates excessive heat gain or loss.
• Plenum = combine the supply and return air.
• Trunk = it is the main part of the duct system where all the air from the plenum travels to "take off"
then to the "diffusers" or grilles.
• Take Off = fitting off the trunk to branches
• Grille, diffuser or register = Diffuser is an outlet that discharges supply air radially to the axis of entry.
Register is a grille equipped with a damper.

II. PRESSURES DISTRIBUTION

1
From Bernoulli’s equation: 𝑃𝑃 + 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 2 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
2

• P = static pressure (𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆). It is the air pressure in the duct which is

exerted equally in all directions. It is used for fan selection.
1
• 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 2 ≡ Velocity pressure (𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉). It measures the flow (cfm) in the duct.
2

• 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 ≡ elevation pressure (usually ignored)

•
1
𝑃𝑃 + 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 2 ≡ Total pressure (𝑇𝑇𝑃𝑃), used to find velocity pressure 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
2
 For air at STP, 𝜌𝜌 ≈ 1.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚3 = 0.075 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 3 . Thus, 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 & 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 become:
�
𝑉𝑉 2 �
𝑉𝑉 2
𝜌𝜌 � � =� � ← (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤)
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = � 1097 2 4005
�
𝑉𝑉 � 2
𝑉𝑉
𝜌𝜌 � � = � � ← (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)
1.414 1.29
�
𝑉𝑉 2
𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 + � � ← 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
4005
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = �
� 2
𝑉𝑉
𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 + � � ← (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)
1.29
• 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 always decreases in the flow direction due to friction. Note
that when 𝐷𝐷𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ↘, 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 ↗ and 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ↘; and vice versa.
• The 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 at the fan exit must overcome the resistance of the duct
system.
Figure 6.2 Pressure changes during flow in duct
Steps in Duct Sizing
𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑄𝑄̇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵ℎ)
• Determine the 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 for the space from Carrier formula: 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
1.08×(𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 −𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ),𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 °𝐹𝐹
𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
• The cfm for each room is 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = � � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
• Draw the plan layout showing the location of all the supply and return outlets.
• Size the main duct and all branches. This is the main topic of this chapter.
Table 6.1
Friction Factors For
III. CALCULATION: Galvanized Steel Ducts

1. Minor losses (Dynamic Losses in Fittings) such as elbows, connectors, dividers, …. Diameter
𝒇𝒇
inch mm
Whenever a change in area or direction occurs in a duct or when the flow is 4 10 0.035
divided or diverted into a branch, substantial losses in total pressure will occur. 6 15 0.028
8 20 0.023
These losses are usually of greater magnitude than the losses in the straight pipe 10 25 0.022
and are referred to as dynamic losses defined as: 12 30 0.019
𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 14 36 0.017
�
𝑉𝑉 2 𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜 = 𝑓𝑓 ≡ Loss coefficient where
𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜 � � ← (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤) 𝐷𝐷 16 40 0.016
4005
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 ≡ 𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 ≡ Equivalent length (table 6.2) 20 50 0.015
� 2
𝑉𝑉
𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜 � � ← (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) 𝑓𝑓 ≡ The friction factor (table 6.1) 24 60 0.014
1.29

ASHRAE classified the fittings as either constant-flow (i.e. elbows or transitions) or as divided flow
(i.e. wye or tee). Tables 6.5 through 6.10 give "𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜 " for different types of constant-flow fittings (see
bb). You may also consult ASHRAE codes for "𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜 " for different fittings.
2. Major losses (pressure drop due to friction in duct, ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 ):
This pressure loss can be found from Moody chart, however, ASHRAE prepared friction charts for
fully developed air flow in galvanized steel (Figures 6.3 and 6.4). These charts provide frictional
pressure drop per unit length of the duct.
Known specs:
• The fan specs are usually known before duct sizing. Meaning, 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 is available from the catalogue.
• 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 can be found from the cooling or heating loads.
• ∆𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 of all components of the system (coils, dampers, filters, …) are also known from manufacturers.

2
 Thus, ∆𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 for the supply and return ducts can then be calculated:
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ≥ �∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + ∑ ∆𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � = ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + ∑ 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 + ∑ 𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 where
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓
 ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � � 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 where 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≡ Effective length = 𝐿𝐿𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒
𝐿𝐿

𝐿𝐿𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ≡ Actual duct length 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 = equivalent length of fittings (table 6.2)
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = Frictional pressure drop due to friction in the duct (see tables 6-5 to 6-10).

 ∑ 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ≡ Dynamic pressure drop due to fittings.

 ∑ 𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≡ Total dynamic loss for all other equipment (i.e. Fan, dampers, grills, coils …)
 ∆𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = Pressure drop in the Return Duct, Pa.
Duct Shapes:
Circular, Rectangular, and Oval. All duct sizing methods predict the diameter of a
circular duct, which can be converted, if needed, to rectangular or oval shape.
H
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ 𝑊𝑊
For rectangular shape, the aspect ratio, 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = = < 4 to avoid noise and W
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 𝐻𝐻

vibration, in addition to avoid expensive fabrication and high friction.

• Conversion from circular to rectangular shape:
(𝑊𝑊 x 𝐻𝐻)0.625
𝐷𝐷𝑒𝑒 = 1.3 � (𝑊𝑊+ � or use table 6.3.
𝐻𝐻)0.25

• Conversion from circular to oval duct

𝐴𝐴0.625 𝜋𝜋𝑏𝑏2
𝐷𝐷𝑒𝑒 = 1.55 � �, where 𝐴𝐴 = + 𝑏𝑏(𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏) and 𝑃𝑃 = 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 2(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏), or use table 6.4
𝑃𝑃0.25 4

IV. CLASSIFICATION OF DUCT SYSTEMS

• The duct system should result in a reasonably quiet system and must not require unusual
adjustments to achieve the proper distribution of air to each space. A low noise level is achieved by:
(1) limiting the air velocity, (2) using sound-absorbing duct materials (acoustic lining, i.e. foam,
fiberglass,..), and (3) avoiding drastic restrictions in the duct such as near closed dampers.
• In large high-pressure systems a sound absorber may be installed just downstream of the fan.
Further, because air cannot be introduced into the space at a high velocity, terminal units
(diffusers) are used to throttle the air to a low velocity and attenuate the noise.
• A duct system will generally have a ∆𝑃𝑃 from about 0.08 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤⁄100 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 to 0.6 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤⁄100 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 (0.65
Pa/m to 5 Pa/m), depending on cfm.
• Metal ducts are usually lined with fibrous glass material in the vicinity of the air-distribution
equipment and for some distance away from the equipment. The remainder of the metal duct is
then wrapped or covered with insulation and a vapor barrier.
ASHRAE classified ducts based on Velocity or Fan static pressure (𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ) as:
Low pressure systems 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ≤ 1500 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 or 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≤ 3 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
Medium pressure systems 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ≤ 2500 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 or 3 < 𝐹𝐹𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≤ 6 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 1𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 27.7 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 6.895 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
High pressure systems 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ≈ 4000 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 or 6 < 𝐹𝐹𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≤ 10 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
3
 High velocities in the ducts results in:
a) Smaller ducts → low initial cost and low space requirement
b) Higher pressure drop → larger fan power consumption
c) Increased noise → need for noise attenuation (silencer)
Experience recommends the following empirical values considering the noise criteria:

1. Air velocities: Residences: 3 m/s to 5 m/s

Theatres: 4 to 6.5 m/s
Restaurants: 7.5 m/s to 10 m/s
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓
2. The frictional pressure drop in the duct, :
𝐿𝐿

For the supply side of the Fan:

∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
 Low velocity duct: = 0.1 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 0.15 �0.8 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 1.23 �
𝐿𝐿 100 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑚𝑚
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
 Medium velocity duct: = 0.2 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 0.5 �1.6 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 4.1 �
𝐿𝐿 100 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑚𝑚
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
 High Velocity Duct: � = 0.7 �5.7 �
𝐿𝐿 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 100 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑚𝑚

∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

For the suction side of the Fan: = 0.08 �0.65 �
𝐿𝐿 100 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑚𝑚

Table 6.5. Maximum duct velocity - TRANE Applications Velocity, m/s

Low-velocity systems Residences 3.0
Schools, theatres, Theaters, churches, auditoriums 4.0
Designation Private residences Industrial buildings
Public buildings Apartments, hotels rooms 5.0
Maximum velocities (m/sec)
Offices, libraries 6.0
Main ducts 4.0 – 6.0 5.6 – 8.0 9.0 – 11.0
Stores, restaurants, banks 7.6
Branch ducts 3.5 – 5.0 4.0 – 9.0 5.0 – 9.0
Branch risers 3.30 – 4.0 4.0 – 6.0 5.0 – 8.0 Cafeterias 9.0

V. DUCT SIZING METHODS

The sizing procedures are relatively independent of the type of air distribution. As an illustration, Fig. A
shows a typical supply air duct layout. The supply air from the fan is distributed to four outlets (1 to 4). The
duct run with the highest frictional pressure drop is called “the index run” or simply “a trunk”. The supply
cfm to each space can be found from the load calculations or Carrier equation. The length of each duct run
is known from the building layout and the location of the supply fan. The most commonly used methods
are stated in the table below.

Applications Methods 4
Equal Friction loss method.
Low and medium Velocity-reduction method
Pressure systems Balanced Capacity method AHU
Fan
(Equal pressure drop method)
large pressure system Static regain method

Figure A

4
 ∆𝑷𝑷𝒇𝒇
1. Equal Friction Loss Method, .
𝑳𝑳
It can be used for all types of systems including small, light commercial, as well as large VAV systems. It is
straightforward method and easy to use. It gives an automatic reduction of the air velocity throughout the
system, which remains in general within the noise limits of the application.
This method makes the frictional pressure loss per foot of duct length the same for the entire system. If the
layout is symmetrical (all runs from fan to diffuser are approximately the same length), this method will
produce a good balanced design. However, most duct systems have a variety of duct runs ranging from
long to short. The short runs will have to be dampered in order to balance the flow rate to avoid noise.

Advantages and disadvantages of the “equal friction loss method”

• It is simple and can be used over a wide range of pressures especially for small systems. Calculation
is made by using simple tables or ductulators.
• It requires partial closure of dampers in all but the index run, which may generate noise.
• If the ducts are too long, the total pressure drop will be high and consequently, ducts near the fan
become over-pressurized due to dampering.
Procedure steps:
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 4
This method requires that in the main and branch ducts are kept equal. Hence:
𝐿𝐿
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓
� � =� � =� � =� � =⋯
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶 𝐷𝐷 AHU
After sizing the system, the designer computes the total Fan

pressure loss in the longest run including all fittings and transitions.

Steps:
• Compute the flow rate in the main duct, 𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴 : 𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴 = ∑𝑁𝑁
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖 = 𝑄𝑄1 + 𝑄𝑄2 + 𝑄𝑄3 + 𝑄𝑄4 + ⋯

• Determine ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 ⁄𝐿𝐿 of the main duct from the chart. This pressure drop is equal for all ducts.
• Find the diameter of the trunk (duct A), 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴 , using one of the following options:
 The friction chart
4 𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴
 𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴 = 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 → 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴 = �
𝜋𝜋 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴
1.852 1⁄4.973
0.022243𝑄𝑄̇
 The empirical Hazen-William equation: 𝐷𝐷𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝐴𝐴 = � �∆𝑃𝑃 ⁄𝐿𝐿𝐴𝐴� �
𝑓𝑓 𝐴𝐴
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓
• Find 𝐷𝐷𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 for all other ducts where = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 for all ducts using the friction charts (fig. 6.3 or 6.4)
𝐿𝐿
Q̇1.852 Q̇1.852 Q̇1.852
or the empirical equation: � 4.973� = � 4.973� = � 4.973 � = ⋯
D D D eq eq eq
A B C

• Calculate the pressure drops for the longest and each run as:
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐴𝐴 = � � . 𝐿𝐿 ; ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐵𝐵 = � � . 𝐿𝐿 ; …
𝐿𝐿 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝐿𝐿 𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵
• Estimate the minor losses (velocity pressure losses, 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉) in each duct run based on either:
– Fitting loss factor, Co, or
– Effective length method, 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

5
 • Determine the static head of the fan based on the highest pressure drop.
• Select a suitable fan for the index run (trunk) with the highest-pressure loss.
• Balance the total pressure loss of the ductwork by introducing Dampers to short runs

Note: Ductulator is a computer software that can be used for sizing Table A
∆𝑷𝑷𝒇𝒇 per 100 Feet of Duct
ducts if you know cfm & ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 or 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 in the trunk. Table A shows the System Type
(inch H2O column)
Supply run-outs 0.08 (19.93 Pa)
friction loss for sizing ducts in Ductulator. Supply plenum 0.05 (12.45 Pa)
Return ducts 0.02 (5.0 Pa)
Example:
The following figure shows a typical duct layout. Design the duct system using Equal friction loss method.
The air velocity in the main duct (A) is 8 m/s. Assume 𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜 = 1.0 for the outlets (diffusers). Find the required
FTP and the amount of dampening in each duct.
Important note: it is assumed 𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜 = 1.0 for the outlets, however, the correct values are found in chapter 8.

2 m3/s 2 1 m3/s 3
Return
D F
15 m
15 m 12 m 18 m
18 m 66mm

A C E
Fresh air

AHU
Outdoor

&
FAN

B 66mm
WYE 45° WYE 45° 90° Elbow

1 m3/s 1
Solution:
1. Compute 𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 of the main duct: 𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴 = 𝑄𝑄1 + 𝑄𝑄2 + 𝑄𝑄3 = 1 + 2 + 1 = 4 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠 and V = 8 m/sec
𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐴𝐴
2. in the main duct is found from the friction chart as:
𝐿𝐿
𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐴𝐴 𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐴𝐴
@ 𝑄𝑄 = 4 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑠𝑠 = 4000 𝐿𝐿⁄𝑠𝑠 & 𝑉𝑉 = 8 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 → = 0.73 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃⁄𝑚𝑚 where is equal for all branches
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿

3. Compute 𝐷𝐷′ 𝑠𝑠 =?
• 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴 =? can be calculated or read from the same figure:
𝑄𝑄 4
𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴 = 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 . 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 → 𝐴𝐴 = = = 0.5 𝑚𝑚2 → 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴 = 0.798 𝑚𝑚 (or from chart, 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴 = 0.80 m)
𝑉𝑉 8

All other D’s are found, similarly, from the chart:

∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐴𝐴
• 𝐷𝐷𝐵𝐵 =? @ 𝑄𝑄𝐵𝐵 = 1 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠 & = 0.73 → 𝐷𝐷𝐵𝐵 = 0.475 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 ≈ 5.8 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝐿𝐿
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐴𝐴
• 𝐷𝐷𝐶𝐶 =? @ 𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶 = 3 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠 & = 0.73 → 𝐷𝐷𝐶𝐶 = 0.72 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 ≈ 7.6 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝐿𝐿
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐴𝐴
• 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 =? @ 𝑄𝑄𝐷𝐷 = 2 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠 & = 0.73 → 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 0.62 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 ≈ 5.8 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝐿𝐿
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐴𝐴
• 𝐷𝐷𝐹𝐹 =? @ 𝑄𝑄𝐹𝐹 = 3 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠 & = 0.73 → 𝐷𝐷𝐹𝐹 = 0.575 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹 ≈ 8.0 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝐿𝐿

6
 Friction loss, Pa/m
≈ 𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷⁄𝒎𝒎
∆𝑷𝑷𝒇𝒇,𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
𝑳𝑳

Air Quantity, L/s

Calculation of total pressure drop:
a) From fan to 1: ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴→𝐵𝐵 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐴𝐴 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐵𝐵 + ∆𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 1
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐴𝐴 & ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐵𝐵 ≡ Frictional pressure drops in sections A and B (major losses)
∆𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 ≡ Upstream velocity pressure loss of the WYE to branch (minor loss)
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜,𝐵𝐵 ≡ ∆𝑃𝑃𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = Velocity pressure loss of the outlet B 𝑽𝑽𝒄𝒄 𝑽𝑽𝒔𝒔
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓
• ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐴𝐴 = � � . 𝐿𝐿𝐴𝐴 = (0.73)(15𝑚𝑚) = 11.7 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝐿𝐿 𝐴𝐴
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓
• ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐵𝐵 = � � . 𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 = (0.73)(6𝑚𝑚) = 5.1 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 1.5 Db
𝐿𝐿 𝐴𝐴 Db
𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵2
• ∆𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏ℎ � �
2 𝑽𝑽𝒃𝒃
𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏ℎ & 𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 :
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 5.8
𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏ℎ = 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐,𝑏𝑏 =? = = 0.725 → 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐,𝑏𝑏 ≈ 0.505
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 8
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 7.6
𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐,𝑠𝑠 =? = = 0.95 → 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐,𝑠𝑠 ≈ 0.135
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 8
𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵2 1.2×5.82
Hence, 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐,𝑏𝑏 � � = 0.505 � � = 10.4 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
2 2
𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵2 1.2×5.82
∆𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜1 = 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 � � = 1.0 � � = 20.18 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
2 2
Therefore, ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴−𝐵𝐵 = 11.7 + 5.1 + 10.4 + 20.18 = 47.375 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
b) From fan to 2:
∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴−𝐶𝐶−𝐷𝐷 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶,𝑓𝑓 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷,𝑓𝑓 + 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠,𝑐𝑐 + 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏,𝐷𝐷 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(2) ≈ 71.0 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
c) From fan to exit 3
∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴−𝐶𝐶−𝐸𝐸−𝐹𝐹 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶,𝑓𝑓 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐸𝐸,𝑓𝑓 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐹𝐹,𝑓𝑓 + 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢−𝐷𝐷,𝐶𝐶 + 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢−𝐷𝐷,𝐸𝐸 + 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≈ 94.0 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
This is the “index run” since it has the highest ∆P. Therefore, the Fan Total Pressure is FTP = 94.0 Pa
d) Balancing the system: Installing dampers for each outlet excluding the index run.
Amount of dampering required at outlet 1 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴−𝐵𝐵 = 46.5 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
Amount of dampering required at outlet 2 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴−𝐶𝐶−𝐷𝐷 = 23.0 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
7
 2 m3/s 2 1 m3/s 3
Damper (23.0 Pa)
D F
15 m 12 m 18 m 66m
m

A C E

FAN B 66 m
m

Damper (46.50 Pa)

1 m3/s 1
2. Velocity Reduction Method:
• This method is recommended for circular duct where ∆P is lower than in rectangular duct. Control
dampers are needed to balance the duct. The dampers are more important for this method than
equal friction loss due to less symmetry of the branches so dampers will have to do more adjusting.
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓
• Once 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 in the main duct & branches are selected, then "𝐷𝐷" & can be easily found.
𝐿𝐿

• For supply ducts, an initial guess for the velocity is needed (taken from the table below). This
velocity should be fairly high because it will get progressively Recommended Velocity (m/s)
For supply and return - ASHRAE
smaller at the branch takeoffs. This is the reason it is called Residences Hotels Schools
Main supply 5 6 7.5
“velocity-reduction method”.
Main return 4 5 6
Steps of calculation: Branch supply 3 4 6
Branch return 3 4 5
1. Select velocities in the main and branch ducts from the table.
2. Find "𝐷𝐷" of the main and branches from 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 or figures 6.3 or figure 6.4.
3. From "𝑉𝑉" & "𝐷𝐷" obtained, find ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 ⁄𝐿𝐿 for the main and branch ducts from figures 6.3 or figure 6.4.
4. Find ∆𝑃𝑃 due to minor losses using ∑ 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 for all fittings.
5. Select a fan that can provide sufficient 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 for the index run.
6. Balancing dampers have to be installed in each run. The damper in the index run is left completely
open, while the other dampers are throttled to reduce 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 of each room to the required value.
Advantages and disadvantages of the velocity-reduction method:
It can be used for both supply and return air-ducts. However, selection of suitable velocities in different
duct runs requires experience. Wrong selection of velocities can lead to very large ducts, which leads to
occupying large space in the building and increases the cost. If your selection of velocities led to very small
ducts, it will result in large pressure drop and hence necessitates the selection of a large fan leading to
higher fan cost and running cost.

8
Example: Apply the “velocity-reduction” method to the previous example.
2 m3/s 2 1 m3/s 3
Return
D F
Outside Fresh air 15 m 12 m 18 m 66m
m
AHU A C E
+
FAN

B 66 m
m
90° Elbow
WYE 45° WYE 45°

Solution: 1 m3/s 1

1. Select the velocities: 𝑉𝑉 = 5 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 for the downstream branches while 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 remains 8 m/sec.
2. Find the diameters:
Segment A: 𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴 = 4 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠 & 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 = 8𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 → 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴 ⁄𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 = 0.5 𝑚𝑚2 → 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴 = 0.798 𝑚𝑚
Segment B: 𝑄𝑄𝐵𝐵 = 1 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠 & 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 5𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 → 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵 = 𝑄𝑄𝐵𝐵 ⁄𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 0.2 𝑚𝑚2 → 𝐷𝐷𝐵𝐵 = 0.505 𝑚𝑚
Segment C: 𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶 = 3 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠 & 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 5𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 → 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 = 𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶 ⁄𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 0.6 𝑚𝑚2 → 𝐷𝐷𝐶𝐶 = 0.874 𝑚𝑚
Segment D: 𝑄𝑄𝐷𝐷 = 2 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠 & 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 5𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 → 𝐴𝐴𝐷𝐷 = 𝑄𝑄𝐷𝐷 ⁄𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 0.4 𝑚𝑚2 → 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 0.714 𝑚𝑚
Segments E&F: 𝑄𝑄𝐸𝐸&𝐹𝐹 = 1 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠 & 𝑉𝑉𝐸𝐸&𝐹𝐹 = 5𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 → 𝐴𝐴𝐸𝐸&𝐹𝐹 = 𝑄𝑄𝐸𝐸&𝐹𝐹 ⁄𝑉𝑉𝐸𝐸&𝐹𝐹 = 0.2 𝑚𝑚2 → 𝐷𝐷𝐸𝐸&𝐹𝐹 = 0.505 𝑚𝑚

3. Calculation of pressure drops (balancing)

Section A-B: ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴→𝐵𝐵 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐴𝐴 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐵𝐵 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜1
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 can be found from the chart or using the empirical equation:
1.852
0.22243 × 𝑄𝑄̇𝐴𝐴 0.22243 × 41.852
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐴𝐴 = � 4.973 � 𝐿𝐿𝐴𝐴 = � � 15𝑚𝑚 = 13.35 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴 0.7984.973
1.852
0.22243 × 𝑄𝑄̇𝐵𝐵 0.22243 × 11.852
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,𝐵𝐵 = � � 𝐿𝐿𝐴𝐴 = � � 6𝑚𝑚 = 3.99 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝐷𝐷𝐵𝐵 4.973 0.5054.973

𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷2 1.2×52
The velocity pressure drop from upstream to branch: 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 � � = 0.515 � � = 7.73 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
2 2

𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷2 1.2×52
The velocity pressure loss at the outlet 1: ∆𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(1) = 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 � � = 1.0 � � = 15.0 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
2 2

Therefore, ∆𝑷𝑷𝑨𝑨−𝑩𝑩 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 + 𝟑𝟑. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 + 𝟕𝟕. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷
Section A-C-D:
∆𝑷𝑷𝑨𝑨−𝑪𝑪−𝑫𝑫 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶,𝑓𝑓 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷,𝑓𝑓 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑢𝑢−𝐵𝐵 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑢𝑢−𝐷𝐷 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(2) ≈ 51.41 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
Section A-C-E-F:
∆𝑷𝑷𝑨𝑨−𝑪𝑪−𝑬𝑬−𝑭𝑭 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴,𝑓𝑓 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶,𝑓𝑓 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐸𝐸,𝑓𝑓 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐹𝐹,𝑓𝑓 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑢𝑢−𝐷𝐷,𝐶𝐶 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑢𝑢−𝐷𝐷,𝐸𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≈ 69.3 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃.
This is the “index run” where the total pressure 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟑𝟑 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊. 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘
4. Dampering (balancing):
Amount of dampering required at 1 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴−𝐵𝐵 = 32.24 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0.13 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
Amount of dampering required at 2 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴−𝐶𝐶−𝐷𝐷 = 18.0 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0.072 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
Notes: A damper is selected (purchased) based on its ∆𝑃𝑃 & 𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 . It can be manual or motorized.
9
Conclusion and caution:
a) The Velocity method results in larger “D” due to the velocities selected in branches & downstream.
This leads to lower FTP (small fan).
b) The Equal Friction method results in smaller “D” but larger FTP (large fan).
c) The velocity reduction method requires less dampering at outlet 1 but more at outlet 2.

3. Balanced-Capacity method (Equal pressure drop method)

2
4
AHU 1 3
+
FAN
5
The main idea:
This method requires that the flow rate to each room be balanced. As a result, the loss in total pressure
automatically balances, regardless of the duct sizes. Hence, the loss in total pressure is required to be equal
for all duct runs starting from the fan to each outlet knowing cfm to each run. In general, each run has a
different 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 resulting in different pressure loss per unit length for each run.
𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 ) = 𝑓𝑓 𝑃𝑃𝑉𝑉 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇2
𝐷𝐷

This equation states that for a given 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 , "𝐷𝐷" can always be adjusted to obtain the necessary cfm (velocity)
that will produce the required loss in total pressure. Thus, the use of equivalent lengths for the fittings is the
only limitation of this method.

Steps of calculation: (similar to the “equal friction loss” method)

The loss in total pressure is EQUAL to the loss for all parallel duct runs from the fan to each outlet. Hence,
∆𝑃𝑃12 = ∆𝑃𝑃135 = ∆𝑃𝑃134
For instance, duct 1-3-4 is the longest run (index) and duct 3-5 is a branch. Then we have to modify the
duct size in the branch 3-5 so that ∆𝑃𝑃134 = ∆𝑃𝑃35 . This condition may force the designer to locate the
diffuser at a specific distance from the fan to ensure equal pressure drop.
1. Compute the pressure loss per unit length of the longest run (similar to Equal Friction Loss method).
2. Adjust the duct sizes (lengths or diameters) in the branches so the total pressure loss in each
branch is equal to its parallel section of the longest run.
Example: 0.60 m3/s E
Size the ducting system shown
6m
below using the “equal pressure
drop” method. Identify the dampers AHU A 5m B 6m C 4m D
+
required in order to balance the FAN 1.10 m3/s
Wye, 45 degree 4m
system. Assume max velocity 5 m/s.
F 0.20 m3/s

10
Solution:
1. Flow rates: 𝑄𝑄̇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 0.2 + 1.1 = 1.3 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 and 𝑄𝑄̇𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 0.6 + 1.3 = 1.9 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
4𝑄𝑄 4 𝑥𝑥 1.9
Given 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 5 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 → 𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 × 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 → 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = � 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = � = 0.696 𝑚𝑚
𝜋𝜋 𝑉𝑉 𝜋𝜋 𝑥𝑥 5 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

∆𝑷𝑷𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
2. Calculate and diameters:
𝑳𝑳
∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
From chart @ 𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1.9 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠 & 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 5 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 → from chart: = 0.36 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃/𝑚𝑚 & 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 0.70 𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝐿
∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
This method requires balancing = 0.36 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃/𝑚𝑚 for all other ducts:
𝐿𝐿
∆𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
Duct BC: @ 𝑄𝑄 = 1.3 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠 & = 0.36 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃/𝑚𝑚 → 𝐷𝐷𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 0.61 𝑚𝑚 & 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 4.6 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝐿𝐿
∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
Duct CD: @ 𝑄𝑄 = 1.1 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠 & = 0.36 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃/𝑚𝑚 → 𝐷𝐷𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 0.56 𝑚𝑚 & 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 4.4 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝐿𝐿
∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
Duct CF: @ 𝑄𝑄 = 0.2 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠 & = 0.36 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃/𝑚𝑚 → 𝐷𝐷𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 0.29 𝑚𝑚 & 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 2.9 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝐿𝐿
∆𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
Duct BE: @ 𝑄𝑄 = 0.6 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠 & = 0.36 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃/𝑚𝑚 → 𝐷𝐷𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 0.45 𝑚𝑚 & 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 3.8 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝐿𝐿
∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
Note: This method forces the main pressure drop � = 0.36 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃/𝑚𝑚� equals for each duct run which
𝐿𝐿

causes an unbalanced system. Thus, it is very important and vital to balance the ductwork. This is done
by considering all losses in the system as well as using dampers in branches to balance 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐. This is
carried out by first calculating the pressure drops for each duct in the system.

3. Pressure drops calculation (Balancing ∆𝑷𝑷)

This is done by balancing ∆P from the fan to each outlet. Meaning: ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴→𝐸𝐸 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴→𝐹𝐹 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴→𝐷𝐷
Let us first make ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴→𝐹𝐹 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴→𝐷𝐷 where:

∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴→𝐹𝐹 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴→𝐵𝐵 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵→𝐶𝐶 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶→𝐹𝐹

This requires ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶→𝐷𝐷 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶→𝐹𝐹
∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴→𝐷𝐷 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴→𝐵𝐵 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵→𝐶𝐶 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶→𝐷𝐷
∆𝑃𝑃
 ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶→𝐷𝐷 =? Using the effective length method → ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶→𝐷𝐷 = � � . 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 , 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝐿𝐿𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒,𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟ℎ
𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒
𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒
where 𝐿𝐿𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 4 𝑚𝑚 and � = 10 (from Table 2)
𝐷𝐷 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟ℎ
𝐿𝐿
𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒,𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟ℎ = � 𝑒𝑒� � 𝐷𝐷𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 10 × 0.56 = 5.6 𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝐷 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟ℎ
∆𝑃𝑃
So 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 4 + 5.6 = 9.6 m → ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶→𝐷𝐷 = � � . 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0.36 × 9.6 = 3.456 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒

• ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶→𝐹𝐹 =? 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝐿𝐿𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒,𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏ℎ where:

𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿
∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 ≠ ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
� = 20 → 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒,𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏ℎ = � 𝑒𝑒� � 𝐷𝐷𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 20 x 0.29 = 5.8 m
𝐷𝐷 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏ℎ 𝐷𝐷 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏ℎ

∆𝑃𝑃
So 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 4 + 5.8 = 9.8 m → ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = � � 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0.36 × 9.8 = 3.53 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒

Since ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 ≠ ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 → they must be balanced by:

 Changing the length or diameter of the duct CD since ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 < ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 or
 Introducing a damper to duct CD.

The easiest way is to introduce a damper → (∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 )𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 3.53 − 3.456 = 0.078 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
11
Ducts B-C and B-E: similarly, (∆𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 )𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − ∆𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 9.54 − 7.56 = 1.98 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

Therefore, the system requires 2 dampers, one in duct CD and another in duct BE. Further, duct CF is the
index run (the highest losses before the addition of dampers). Thus, the FTP may be found as:
∆𝑃𝑃
∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 where ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = � � . 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 = 0.36 × 5 = 1.8 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒

∴ ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 1.8 + 9.54 = 11.34 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

Or ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 1.8 + 2.7 + 6.84 = 11.34 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
Or ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 1.8 + 2.7 + 6.84 = 11.34 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
Now the system is BALANCED.
0.60 m3/s E Damper BE
6m

AHU 5m 6m C 4m D
A
+ 1.10 m3/s
FAN B
4m
Damper CD
0.20 m3/s F

4. Static Regain method (high/large pressure systems) – read on your own

This method is commonly used for high velocity systems with long duct runs with many take-offs or
terminal units, especially in large systems → large ducts → large ∆P → low velocity at the end of the duct
run. This method requires that the static pressure is maintained almost the same before each terminal or
branch. The ducts are sized so that the increase in static pressure (static regain) at each take-off offsets the
pressure loss of the succeeding section of ductwork.
Advantages:
1. All duct sections have uniform static pressure at all branches and outlets, thereby simplifying outlet
selection and correct air quantity at each outlet.
2. The duct system will stay in balance because the losses and gains are proportional to a function of the
velocities. Therefore, it is an excellent method for designing variable air volume (VAV) systems.
3. The Static Regain method uses less pounds of sheet metal and is less noisy.
Disadvantages:
1. This method produces large ∆P in a section near the fan outlet. The velocity could be reduced to the
minimum within a few sections in such a way that all the ductwork downstream would be sized using
minimum velocity.
2. If very low velocity is selected, ducts would then tend to be very large at the end of long branch runs.
The sizing method does not account for the total mechanical energy supplied to the air by the fan.
Oversized ducts can occur at the ends of long branches.
3. This method usually adopts flow velocity of 23 m/s and pressure loss per meter up to 5.7 Pa/m.
However, this introduces some new problems: Noise, high Fan power, and leakage problem → This
12
 requires special duct material, fittings are specially machined, and special attenuators to reduce the
noise.
Procedure Steps: (requires iterations/computer software)
Step 1: Select the velocity of the main duct leaving the fan. Ps,1 = Ps,2
Step 2: Velocities in each successive runs are reduced such
that the gain in static pressure, ∆Pst, due to reduction in
velocity pressure equals the frictional pressure drop, ∆Pf, in
the next duct section. Thus, the static pressure before each
terminal or branch is maintained constant. For example, the figure below shows a part of the duct run with
two sections 1 and 2 before two branch take-offs. The velocity at 1 is greater than that at 2, such that the
static pressure is same at 1 and 2.
Using the static regain factor, the losses are ∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,1−2 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑,1−2 = 𝑅𝑅�∆𝑃𝑃v,1 − ∆𝑃𝑃v,2 � where:
∆𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓,2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∆𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑,2 ≡ the frictional and dynamic losses from 1 → 2.
∆𝑃𝑃v,1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∆𝑃𝑃v,2 ≡ velocity pressures at 1 and 2, respectively.
Step 3: If section 1 is the outlet of the fan, then its dimensions are known from the flow rate and velocity
(initially selected). However, since both the dimensions and velocity at section 2 are unknown, a trial-and-
error method has to be followed to solve the above equation, which gives required dimensions of the
section at 2.
Step 4: The procedure is followed in the direction of airflow, and the dimensions of the downstream ducts
are obtained.
Step 5: As before, the total pressure drop is obtained from the pressure drop in the longest run and a fan is
selected.
Static Regain method yields a more balanced system and does not call for unnecessary dampering.
However, as velocity reduces in the direction of airflow, the duct size may increase in the airflow direction.
Also, the velocity at the exit of the longer duct runs may become too small for proper air distribution in the
conditioned space.
Conclusive points: so far, we know the following:
• Sizing the rectangular ductwork (Stainless steel).
• Preferably, the aspect ratios are small (AR < 4) to avoid noises
• Some sections were slightly oversized to maintain a low aspect ratio and to reduce slightly Pst required
from the fan.
• The air velocities in each section of the duct are less than 1200 fpm.
• The total available pressure from the fan, FTP, is known.
• ∆P through other branches of the system can be calculated to ensure that the total pressure would not
be exceeded.
• Dampers will probably be needed to balance the airflow in the system

13
 PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS & CONSIDERATIONS
The supply duct system
The two most common supply duct are the “extended plenum” and the “radial” systems. The other options
are spider and perimeter loop systems.
Trunk
a) Extended Plenum Systems
It consists of a large main supply trunk of equal
size connected directly to the AHU. Smaller
branch ducts are connected to the trunk. The
arrangement provides airflows that are easily
balanced and can be easily designed to be located
inside the conditioned space of the building.
The principal design limitation of the extended
(Single Extended Plenum System)
plenum is the maximum length of the main supply
trunk (of single size), which is usually limited 24 ft. maximum 24 ft. maximum

to about 24 feet. When this length is

exceeded, pressure tends to build up 18 in.
24 in.
minimum Takeoff
toward the end of the duct, resulting in too

End cap
End cap

Supply
much airflow near the ends and insufficient Plenum

airflow in branches closer to the air handler. 18 in.

minimum
This extended plenum system can be
modified to provide a double span, up to 48
feet long, when the equipment is centrally Perimeter outlets
Double Extended plenum duct system
located.

Rules for the extended plenum system:

• Single plenums should not exceed 24 ft. in length on each side.
• Double plenums should not exceed 48 ft. in total length.
• Keep branch run starting collars 24 in. from the end caps.
• Never locate a takeoff in the end cap.

b) Reducing Plenum System - (the 50% rule)

18 in.
minimum 600 cfm
The reducing plenum duct system can be used 450 fpm
when greater distance, on one side, is needed
Supply
(more than 24 ft). When the air velocity Plenum

4 ft
Reduces to approximately 50%, the plenum minimum
1200 cfm
size is reduced to regain the velocity in the 900 fpm

remaining portion of the plenum. This reduction

improves the airflow characteristics at the
15 to 20 ft 24 ft maximum
branch ducts that are closest to AHU.
Reducing plenum “50% rule”
14
 c) Reducing Trunk System
The reducing trunk duct system is very similar
to the reducing plenum system, but the trunk
run is reduced in size after each branch takeoff.
These multiple reductions make it possible to
maintain a constant velocity and uniform
pressure in the trunk even though the total cfm
is reduced at each branch. Reducing Extended Plenum System
Effective design of reducing
trunk systems requires 50 cfm 100 cfm
200 cfm 100 cfm
precise determination of
100 cfm
supply or extract air
quantities for each terminal
device (diffuser, register,
and grille) in the room.
Obviously, this type of Living room
9,000 BTU (cooling)
system generally takes more 18,000 BTU (heating)
sheet metal to build and 100 cfm
200 cfm
requires more labor to
fabricate.

d) Primary-secondary trunk system

This type of system has a primary trunk and two or more secondary trunks. The “tee” fitting located at the
end of the primary trunk in this system
Secondary trunk

performs the same function as the

reduction in the reducing trunk system.
Each secondary trunk has a cross-sectional
Supply
area that is smaller than that of the A Tee performs
AHU Primary trunk the same function
primary trunk. The secondary trunks are as a reducer
Secondary trunk

sized to deliver the proper cfm to each

branch at the proper velocity. This type of
system can be used very successfully in a
structure that spreads out in two or more
Return
directions.
Primary-secondary trunk system.

15
e) Radial System

In a radial system, there is no trunk or branches; rather individual supply outlets are essentially connected
directly to the AHU, usually using a small supply plenum. The short, direct duct runs maximize airflow. The
radial system commonly is applied in attics, crawl spaces, and in slab on grade installations (with the ducts
embedded in the slab). It can be used with up-flow, down-flow, or horizontal AHU and furnaces.
Traditionally, this system is associated with an AHU
that is centrally located where ducts are arranged
in a radial pattern. However, symmetry is not
mandatory, and designs using parallel run-outs can
be designed so that duct runs remain in the
conditioned space (e.g., installed above a dropped
ceiling).
The radial system is most economical and easiest
to install, but is not practical if the AHU cannot be Radial duct system

centrally located.

f) Perimeter Loop System

A perimeter loop system uses a perimeter duct fed from a central supply plenum using several feeder
ducts. This system is typically limited to facilities built on slab in cold climates.

Feeder ducts looped in slab

Supply
Concrete Plenum
Slab

Perimeter outlets

16
Rules of thumb based on ACCA (Air Conditioning Contractors of America) for Residential Ducts.
• Use one size trunk up to 24' (7.30 m) of trunk length
• More than 24', reduce trunk duct every 15' (4.5 m) to 20' (6.0 m).
• Use tapered reducer for trunk reduction on capped trunk.
• Use offset takeoff rather than straight takeoff. See figure
• Damper each run as close to the trunk as possible.
• No branch should be installed closer than 12" to the end of a trunk.
• No takeoffs 4' after a reduction, or 1.5 times the greater dimension of the duct.
• Never take-off a reduction or increase the mains any closer than the diameter of the branch duct.

Locations of Supply Duct System

The location of a supply duct is based on the winter design temperature. ASHRAE recommends:
• If 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 > 2℃ → perimeter floor or ceiling distribution systems are satisfactory
• If 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 < 2℃ → use floor distribution System.
One of the most important jobs of the designer is to select the type of installation that best suits the air
distribution requirements of the structure and the needs and desires of the customer. This must be
balanced with the cost of the installation and the comfort conditions within the structure.
The five basic locations for supply duct are:
• Attic installations. • Crawl space installations.
• Basement installations. • Embedded in concrete slab.
• Between floors of multistory structures.
a) Attic installations:
Suitable to all duct system types. All ducts must be insulated with a vapor barrier
insulation (i.e. fiberglass, Rockwool that also has soundproofing properties) to prevent
condensation on the exterior of the ductwork since the cooled air is below the
ambient temperature. Condensation may cause corrosion and rusting of the duct
and possible structural damage to the ceilings. All joints and side seams must be
sealed to prevent duct leakage.

• Types of duct in attic: include extended plenum, the reducing trunk, and the radial arrangements.

• Flexible ducts: wide variety can be used with attic installations. However, great care must be taken
when installing a flexible duct. Improper installation that allows sagging, sharp bends, and crimping
of flexible duct will increase the friction loss of the system and increase the total static pressure
that the indoor fan must overcome. This can result in service problems and possible equipment
failure. It is always necessary to follow the recommendations of the manufacturer when installing a
system utilizing flexible duct products.
b) Basement installations
Also suitable to all duct system. If the basement is unconditioned, then ducts must have a vapor barrier
installed to prevent condensation on the exterior of the ductwork. It is recommended that a duct liner
be installed for sound attenuation. All joints and side seams must be sealed to prevent duct leakage.
17
Location of AHU
In general, it can be installed in the attic, in the garage area, or in a closet inside the premise. AHU should
be located where the shortest duct runs possible are attained. The shorter the duct runs are, the lower the
resistance to airflow and the lower the heat gains and heat losses will be. The disadvantage to locating
AHU in the attic space is serviceability. Moreover, when AHU is installed in an attic, an auxiliary drain pan is
required, along with a condensate line and/or emergency float switch to shut down the system in case of a
condensate overflow. Locating the return grilles in the conditioned space is recommended with attic
installations. This allows the homeowner to change the filters without having to enter the attic.

RETURN DUCT SYSTEMS

If the return flow is not free to exit the space, the pressure will build up in the room and the lost air must
be replaced. This causes increased quantities of outside air, which can bring additional heat and humidity.
The supply air must therefore be balanced to maintain neutral air pressure within the space. Return duct
are generally classified as either distributed or central return.

• Distributed Return
This means that each room has a return duct back to the AHU. The method avoids too much positive
pressurization, minimizes pressure imbalances, improves privacy, and is quiet. However, design and
installation costs are generally higher than for a central return system, and higher friction losses can
increase blower requirements.

• Central Return
In a central return duct system, return grilles are located in central locations on the plenum, usually close
to AHU. To ensure proper airflow from all rooms, especially when doors are closed, transfer grilles or
jumper ducts must be installed in each room.
Central return duct systems has the advantages of less ductwork and lower energy loss, since larger
plenum provides more direct path for airflow.

The size of the return grille is based on the following equation and divide the result by 0.65 to account for
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
about 65% free area, which is normal for stamped return grilles: 𝐴𝐴 = where A in (ft2) & V in (ft/min)
𝑉𝑉

PRESSURE BALANCING
The return openings will need to be 2 to 3 times the size of the supply duct depending on system design
velocities. This can take the form of transfer grille and jump ducts.
a. Transfer Grilles: They allow air to move from one space to another to alleviate
Transfer Grille
pressure differences. For example, a transfer grille installed above a bedroom door
enables air to move between the bedroom and the hallway, regardless of whether
the door is open or closed. A transfer grille and/or jump ducts are often required to
equalize pressure and prevent over pressurization of spaces.
“Rule of Thumb”: consider 1 in2 of wall opening per cfm delivered to the room.

18
b. Jump ducts: they allow air from the uncomfortable
room to flow out and into another room containing
a return (help balancing airflow between rooms in
cases there is one shared return grille serving the whole
floor). They are short ducts and have less than 6” diameter.

DAMPERS: Dampers are used to control airflow and balance duct pressure:
a) Volume Control Dampers
They regulate the airflow (cfm). Two main types are in use:
• Parallel blades where the blades rotate in one direction. They are best suited for
full-open/close requirements or for fine control between 80% to 100% full flow.
• Opposed blade dampers where the adjacent blades rotate in opposite directions.
They are best for systems where air volume is changed over a wide range. AMCA
(Air Movement and Control Association) recommends using an opposed-blade
damper when volume control is needed.
These dampers should be installed close to the main supply as far away as possible from the outlets.
b) Balancing dampers
Balancing dampers regulate air pressure in rooms connected to the duct work. Air
pressure imbalances can cause annoyances for occupants and may cause larger
problems for the entire system.
Balancing dampers are adjusted by technicians, who will measure the air pressure in a
room as they adjust the angle of the damper’s blades. Once the correct air pressure is
found, the balancing damper’s blades are locked to maintain the necessary air pressure.
c) Terminal dampers:
These dampers are simply registers and diffusers and should not be considered in branch balancing as they
are meant to be used for fine adjustment only and would normally be in an almost fully open position to
prevent unnecessary noise.
d) Fire and Smoke Dampers
A fire damper is installed in ducts and air transfer openings to interrupt the
passage of a flame in case of a fire. They are equipped with a fusible link
{rated for 74 °C to 141°C} that holds the blades open until the link melts then
the blades close and stop the flame from moving into an adjoining
compartment.
Location:
• Fire dampers shall be installed in or near the wall or floor. Should the ductwork fall away, the
damper needs to stay in the wall or floor to maintain the integrity of the wall or floor. One should

19
 actually think of the fire damper as part of the wall system itself. They must be installed no more
than 24 inches from the smoke barrier.
• Smoke dampers that are used to isolate AHU are not limited to this distance requirement. NFPA
90A states that smoke dampers are used to isolate AHU over 15,000 cfm.

DUCT CONSTRUCTION & REINFORCEMENT

SMACNA (the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association) defines the duct
construction standards for rectangular, round and oval ductwork for positive or negative pressure classes
up to 10" water column (2.5 kPa). Duct construction standards allow an estimator to specify what gauges,
connections, and reinforcing. Tie rods are to be used for rectangular, round and oval ducts.
Duct walls, transverse joints, longitudinal seams and reinforcements at or between joints make up the
basic elements of duct construction. Each size in a pressure class has a minimum duct wall thickness and
minimum specs for joints and reinforcements. See SMACNA 3rd edition 2005 guides.
Standard Duct Sizes: See table. Air Flow Duct Diameter Rectangular (1) Rectangular (2) Tonnage
100 cfm 6” round 5” x 6” 4” x 8” ¼ ton
Example: A 6-inch and an 8-inch ducts
200 cfm 8” round 6” x 8” 4” x 12” ½ ton
carry 100 cfm and 200 cfm of cool air, 300 cfm 9” round 10” x 7” 5” x 14” ¾ ton
400 cfm 10” round 8” x 10” 6” x 14” 1 ton
respectively. Here are some sizes for 600 cfm 12” round 10” x 12” 8” x 14” 1½ tons
the supply duct. Make sure that the 800 cfm 13” round 10” x 14” 8” x 18” 2 tons
1000 cfm 14” round 10” x 16” 12” x 14” 2½ tons
return ducts are larger than or at least 1200 cfm 16” round 10” x 20” 12” x 16” 3 tons
1400 cfm 16” round 12” x 18” 10” x 20” 3½ tons
the same size as the supply ducts.
1600 cfm 18” round 14” x 16” 12” x 20” 4 tons
2000 cfm 18” round 12” x 25” 16” x 17” 5 tons

ENGINEERING PRACTICES AND GUIDELINES

Here are some guidelines for designing ductwork to get the most out of your system:
1. Configuration: Ducts should be designed so that the length of each run (each section of ductwork) is
short enough to provide proper control of air flow and stability of construction. Radial or trunk-&-
branch configurations have shorter runs and generally work best. Wherever possible, ducts should be
located within the conditioned space. Long twisting sections of ductwork can lead to trouble, such as
ducts collapsing over time or becoming twisted and blocked.
2. Go straight: this is the most important rule of all. From an energy perspective, air wants to go straight
and will lose energy if you make it bend. From a cost perspective, straight duct costs less than fittings.
Fittings are expensive because they must be hand assembled even if the pieces are automatically cut by
plasma cutters. So, when laying out a system, try to reduce the number of bends and turns to an
absolute minimum.
3. Make sure ducts are the correct size: follow ASHRAE guidelines to size your ducts.
4. Make sure there are enough return ducts: Supply ducts carry conditioned air to your building, but the

20
 system also requires enough return ducts to bring expended air back to the HVAC unit to be
conditioned again. Each room that receives heating or cooling should have at least one return duct. As
a rule of thumb, use 2 cfm for each in2 of return air opening. For example, 20” x 20” grille equals 400
in2 gross area of grille, which means 800 cfm of recommended airflow.

5. Be careful where you install ducts: Ducts placed in conditioned spaces are more efficient than those
placed in unconditioned spaces. If located within conditioned space, conductive and radiative losses,
leakage losses, and equipment cabinet losses are reduced or regained into the building space. If it is not
feasible to locate ductwork within conditioned spaces, the ducts should be properly sealed and
insulated. The trunk ducts are usually located above corridors in the cavity above the ceiling to
minimize noise transmission to the conditioned zones and allow easy access without disturbing the
building occupants.

6. Seal and insulate: Make sure all ductwork sections fit together tightly. Connections can be
mechanically sealed with sheet metal screws or other fasteners to improve connection strength. Seal
connections with mastic or metal tape. Cover the ductwork with insulation, such as rigid fiber board or
standard blanket-type insulation.

More Rules of Thumb:

• 10% Rule: For supply ducts longer than 10 feet (∼ 3.0 m), the air is reduced by 10% for every 5 feet
(1.5 m) over 10 feet. For example, a 30-foot run yields a reduction of 40% (30-10=20, 20÷5=4,
4×10%=40%). Minimize length and restrictions. Keep the supply duct length as close to 10 feet as
possible but never less than 6 feet. Use the fewest number of bends as possible.
• 24-inch Rule: Use at least 24 inches of straight plenum before any fitting, such as an elbow, tee, or
takeoff. Electric duct heaters require 48 inches. Avoid elbows directly off units. The maximum total
plenum length should be restricted to 150 ft. For the plenum, maximize length and minimize
restrictions.
• 60/40 Rule: When using a tee, split the flow as close to 50/50 as possible, no more than 60/40.
Always use a turning vane.
• 70/30 Rule: Turn the tee 90° to make a side branch with no more than 30 percent of the air. Do not
use a turning vane.
• Takeoffs: Maintain distance between takeoffs as evenly as possible. Space the takeoffs at least 6
inches apart and 12 inches from the end cap.
• Fittings: Use long radii duct fittings instead of short or mitered fittings wherever possible.
• Add acoustic silencers on the fan discharge. Caution: Check the static pressure of the fan to
overcome the resistance.
• Use flexible ducts only at the terminal ends of diffusers. The flexible ducts should be completely
stretched and restricted to a 6-foot length.

21
Balancing the System:
Balancing a system involves the following steps:
• Inspect the system by locating all ducts, openings, and dampers.
• Open all dampers in the ducts and at the grilles.
• Check the velocities at each outlet.
• Measure the "free" grille area.
• Determine the floor areas of each room then get total area.
𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
• Get the cfm for each room: 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = � � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

• Adjust duct dampers and grille dampers to obtain these values.

• Recheck all outlet grilles. In some cases, it may be necessary to overcome excess duct resistance by
installing an air duct booster. These are fans used to increase air flow when a duct is too small, too
long, or has too many elbows.

DUCT SUPPORTS AND JOINTS (see shared SMACNA file)

The support distance for duct work is typical based upon deflection, stress and cylinder buckling analysis.

Spacing
For sheet metal ductwork, the space between the hangers should not exceed the distances listed below:

Horizontal Duct Vertical duct

Ducts Size Max. Spacing Ducts Type Max. Spacing, ft (m)
Area, ft2 (m2) Diameter, inch (mm) ft (m) round 12 (3.6)
A < 4 (0.4) D < 5 (125) 8 (2.5) rectangular 10 (3)
4 (0.4) < A < 10 (1) 5 (125) < D < 38 (1000) 6 (2)
A > 10 (1) D > 38 (1000) 4 (1.2)

22
 Typical Duct Fabrication and Supporting

Typical 12mm diam Galvanized 24 Aluminum

duct hanger sheet metal cladding for
exposed duct only

25mm thick Fire retardant

Fiberglass duct insulation
with Aluminum foil vapor
barrier

Air duct End tabs or flaps for joints

formed by stripping from the
vapor barrier seal overlaps
with a quick tacking adhesive

Angle undercut with

Flame resistant quick neoprene packer
tacking adhesive to be
coated around duct Galvanized 18 Tie wire
surface area spaced @ 30 cm 50mm x 50mm x 102mm
Gauge #20 Galvanized
sheet metal corner beading 23
Typical Lower Hanger Attachment

24
Typical Upper Hanger Attachment

25
DUCT CLEANING
There is also the question of when duct cleaning should be done, and how the job could be validated.
Ducts must be cleaned when:
• There is substantial evidence of visible mold growth inside the hard surface of ducts or on other
components of the heating and cooling system.
• If the insulation gets wet or moldy, it cannot be effectively cleaned and should be removed and
replaced.
• Ducts are infested with vermin, e.g. (rodents or insects).
• Ducts are blocked with excessive amounts of dust or debris, and maybe released into the home
from the supply registers.
Duct Cleaning Methods
Methods of duct cleaning vary, although standards have been established by industry associations
concerned with air duct cleaning. Typically, a service provider will use specialized tools to dislodge dirt and
other debris in ducts, and then vacuum them out with a high-powered vacuum cleaner. Common duct
cleaning methods include: (1) Contact vacuuming, (2) Air sweeping and (3) Power brushing.
Contact Vacuum Method:
Contact vacuuming involves cleaning the interior duct surfaces by way of existing openings and outlets or,
when necessary, through openings cut into the ducts. The vacuum unit should only use HEPA (High
Efficiency Particle Air) collection equipment, which release extremely fine particles into the atmosphere,
instead of gathering them.
Starting at the return side of the system, the vacuum cleaner head is inserted into the section of the duct
to be cleaned at the opening furthest
upstream, and then the vacuum cleaner is
turned on. Vacuuming proceeds
downstream slowly enough to allow the
vacuum to pick up all dirt and dust
particles.
Contact vacuuming usually requires larger
access windows than other methods, in
order to allow the cleaning equipment to
reach into the last corner of the duct. The distance between access hatches depends on the hovering
equipment and the target distance from the opening. The head of the vacuum cleaner is introduced into
the duct using the nearest opening at the beginning of the duct network. Hovering then starts, following
the direction of air flow, and slowly enough to capture and gather up all the dirt.
26
Air Sweep Method:
In the air sweep or air washing method, a vacuum collection unit is connected to the downstream end of
the duct section. The vacuum unit should use HEPA filtering, if it is exhausting into an occupied space. The
isolated section of duct being cleaned should be subjected to a minimum of 1" negative air pressure to
draw loosened materials into the vacuum collection system. Take care not to collapse the duct.

Power (Mechanical) Brushing Method:

In this method, a vacuum collection unit is
connected to the duct in the same way as with
the air sweep method. Pneumatic or electric
rotary brushes are used to dislodge dirt and
dust particles, which become airborne and are
then drawn into the vacuum unit. Brushing
operations will usually require larger access
openings than the previous method. Nevertheless, fewer openings are needed. Certain types of
mechanical brushes can reach up to 24 ft. in both directions.

Inspection of each duct section and related components is performed to determine if the duct is clean.
When the section of duct is clean, the brush is removed from the duct and inserted through the next
opening, where the process continues.

27
28
29
30
ROUND DUCT FITTINGS & TRANSITIONS

31
RECTANGULAR DUCT FITTINGS & TRANSITION

32