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11th Computer New Book 2025 Punjab Text Book Board

The document is a textbook on computer science, specifically focusing on software development, programming, algorithms, and emerging technologies, approved by the Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board. It outlines key concepts such as the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC), methodologies like Waterfall and Agile, and essential practices for project planning, quality assurance, and design. The content is structured to guide students through the fundamental aspects of software development, including practical applications and ethical considerations.

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Imran Hussain Khan
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191K views160 pages

11th Computer New Book 2025 Punjab Text Book Board

The document is a textbook on computer science, specifically focusing on software development, programming, algorithms, and emerging technologies, approved by the Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board. It outlines key concepts such as the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC), methodologies like Waterfall and Agile, and essential practices for project planning, quality assurance, and design. The content is structured to guide students through the fundamental aspects of software development, including practical applications and ethical considerations.

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Imran Hussain Khan
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ple thd Slaps (In the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Mercifull) COMPUTER SCIENCE PUNJAB CURRICULUM AND TEXTBOOK BOARD, LAHORE 1 ort Single National Curriculus ¢™ pproved by the Board. Al rights are reserved with the Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board; Lahore: No part of this textbook can be copied, translated, reproduced or used for preparation of } test papers, guidebooks, keynotes and helping books Contents 4 Introduction to Software Development 01 2 Pyttion Programming 30. 3 Algorithms and Problem Solving 65 4 Computational Structures 87 5 Data Analytics 123 6 Emerging Technologies | 150 7 Legal and Ethical Aspects of Computing System | 172 8 Online Research and Digital Literacy 191 9 Entrepreneurship in Digital Age 204 Answers 223, Authors ¢ Prof. Dr. Muhammad Atif (PhO Computer Science) Professor of Computer Stience, Lahore Garrison University © Prof. Dr. Syed Wagar ul Qounain Jaffry (PhD Computer Science) Chairman Dept. of IT, University of The Punjab, Allama Iqbal Campus (Old Campus) Shahrah-e-Quaid-e-Azam, Lahore: External Review Committee © Dr. Arshad Ali © Dr. Mudasser Naseer (PhD Computer Science and Telecommunication) (PhD Computer Science) ‘Associate Professor, Department Associate Professor(CS), Head (Cyber Security), Department of CS & IT, FAST Schoo! of Computing, National University University of Lahore Defense Road, Lahore ‘of Computer and Emerging Sciences, Lahore Mrs. Tabinda Mugaddas ° Mr. Fahad Asif Assistant Professor, Head of Department (CS), EST (CS), Govt. Associate College for Women, Govt. Lab Higher Secondary School, Gulshan Ravi, Lahore QAED Kasur. Dir Curriculum and Compliance Dy, Direct (Graphics) Dy. Director (Science/Humanities) Mr. Amir Riaz Ms. Aisha Sadiq Mr. Imtiaz Hussain Supervision Design & Layout illustration Mi. Jahanzaib Khan Mr Aleem UrRehman Mr, Ayat Ullah 5 Compute Sience) Introduction to Software Development Biro c ees By the endof this chapter, students will be able to: + Define software development and explain its importance. * Understand and describe key software development terminology, including Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC), debugging, testicang, and design patterns. + Explain the stages of the SDLC and the objectives and activities involved in each stage. * Differentiate between various software’ development methodologies such as the Waterfall model and Agile methodology. + Planasoftware project by setting timelines, estimating costs, and managing risks. * Recognize and apply quality assurance techniques to ensure software standards. * Utilize Unified Modeling Language (UML) diagrams to represent software systems * Identify and apply common software design patterns in software design: + Employ debugging techniques and testing strategies to ensure software reliability, * Understand and utilize various software development tools, including Integrated Development Environment (IDES), compilers, and source code repositories. Introduction Software development is a systematic process that transforms user néeds into software products: It involves a Differentiating Functional and Non Functional Requirements: Functional Requirements Non-Functional Requirements ‘Define specific behaviors or functions of Define the quality attributes and constraints, the system —ofthesystem ‘What the system should do How the system should: perform Example: User can borrow books Example: System should handle 1000 users simultaneously rectly related to user interactions and —_ Related to. system performance, usability, _system tasks reliability, etc. Table 1.1; Comparison between Functional and Non-Functional Requirements, 1.1.4.4 Design Inthe design phase, we plan out how the software will look and work. This is like drawing a blueprint before building a house. During this phase, we: * Create Diagrams: To show how different parts of the software will connect and work together. For example, we draw a flowchart to map out the steps the pragram will take to complete a task. * Develop Models: To represent the software's structure, This could include creating mockups of the user interface, showing what the program will look like and how users will interact with it. * Plan the Architecture: To decide the overall structure of the software, including how different components will interact. This helps ensure that the program is organized and functions smoothly. * Specify Requirements: To define clearly what each part of the software needs to do, ensuring that all features are planned out and nothing is overlooked. These steps help to ensure that the final software is well-organized, user-friendly, and meets the needs of its users. 1.1.1.1 Development In the development phase, the actual creation of the software begins. This is where programmers weite the code, which is a set of instructions that the computer follows to perform specific tasks. Based on the design specifications, which outline what the software should do and how it should look, programmers translate these specifications intoa pragramming language, s Think of it like following a recipe: the design specifications are the recipe, and coding is the process of mixing and baking the ingredients to make'a cake. Each line of code is like a step:in the recipe, ensuring the software works conectly and meets the requirements set out in the design. During this phase, programmers also test their code to find and fix any errors or bugs. This testing helps ensure that the software performs as expected and is {ree from mistakes. If any issues are found, programmers revise the code, correct the problems, and test again until the software is ready for the next stage. 1.1.1.2 Testing Once the software has been developed, it undergoes a crucial phase called testing. Testing is the process of checking the software to identify any bugs, errors, or issues. Think of it as'a quality check to make sure everything works as expected). During testing, the softwares run under various conditions to see if it behaves correctly. This includes: «Functionality Testing: Enstiring all features of the software work according to the specifications. *. Performance Testing: Checking if the software performs well under different conditions; suchas high traffic or heavy data. + Compatibility Testing: Making sure the software works well on various devices and operating systems. Testing helps in identifying any hidden issues that were not apparent during development. By fixing these issues, developers ensure that the software runs smoothly and meets the user'sneeds, providing a better and more reliable experience. 1.1.1.3 Deployment Once the software has been thoroughly tested and any issues have been fixed, it maves to the deployment phase. Deployment is the process of making the software available forusers to access and use. This often involves several steps: * Installation: The software is installed on the user's systém of sérver. This may involve running an installation program that copies files and sets up necessary configurations. * Configuration: The software is adjusted to fit the specific needs of the user or organization. This can include setting up user preferences, network settings, and database connections. * Testing in the Real World: After installation, the software is tested in its real- world environment to ensure it works correctly with other systems and meets user needs. Deploying software is fike opening a new store? Once everythin: set up, youwelcame customers (users) tostart using your product. 1.4.4.1 Maintenance The final phase involves ongoing maintenance and updates. This ensures the software continues to function correctly and adapts to any changes in user needs or technology. 1.1 Software Development Methodologies Software development methodologies are structured approaches: to software development that guide the planning, creation, and management of software projects. They help ensure that the development process is systematic, efficient, and produces high-quality software. 1.1.1 Introduction te Software Process Models Software process models are abstract representations of the processes involved in the software development lifecycle. They provide a framework for planning, structuring, and controlling the devélopment of software systems. The importance of software process models liesintheirability to provide: «Predictability: By following a defined process, teams can predict outcomes and manage tisks more effectively. * Efficiency: Structured methodologies streamline the development process, reducing wasted effort. * Quality: Adhering to a process mode) ensures that quality assurance practices are integrated throughout the development lifecycle. 1.1.1.1 Waterfall Model The Waterfall Model is a straightforward approach to software development where each phase of the project must be completed before the next one begins, Think of it like a waterfall flowing from one stage to the next. This model is linear and sequential, meaning that you move through each phase in order, without going back to previous phases once they are completed as hown in Figure 1.2. The main phases af the Waterfall Model are: * Requirements: Gather and document what the software needs to do. Design: Plan how the software will be built and how it will look: Implementation: Write the actual code to create the software, Testing: Check for and fix any problems or bugs in the softwaie. Deployment: Release the software for users to use. eens 7 * Maintenance: Make updates and fix any issues that come up after the software is in use. Benefits and Limitations . Benefits: 1. Simple and Easy to Understand: The Waterfall Model is easy to follow because it has clear, distinct phases 2. Sequential Process: Each phase is completed one at a time, which makes it easier to manage and track progress. 3. Suitable for Small Projects: Works well for projects with clear, fixed requirements where changes are unlikely. . Limitations: 1. Inflexibility: Once a phase is completed, going back to make changes is difficult and costly. 2. Not Ideal for Complex Projects: For projects with evolving requirements or complex designs, this model can be challenging to use effectively. 4, Risk and Uncertainty: The model assumes that all requirements are known from the start, which can be risky if new needs or issues arise later in the process. Waterfall (Plan Briven) Project Timeline Figure 1,2: Waterfall Model 1.1.1.1 Agile Methodology Agile Methodology is flexible and adaptive approach to software development. Unlike the Waterfall Model, which follows a strict sequence of steps. Agile focuses on delivering small, functional parts of the software quickly and adapting to changes as the project progresses, The main idea is to work in short cycles, called iterations or sprints, which < help teams deliver parts of the software rapidly and gather feedback early as shown in Figure 1.3, Agile methods include practices such as: Continuous Integration: Regularly merging code changes into a central repository to detect and fixissues early. Test-Driven Development: Writing tests before writing the code to ensure the software works as expected Pair Programming: Two developers work together at one workstation, with one writing code and the other reviewing tin real-time. o S, Figure 1.3: Agile Methodology Benefits and Limitations Benefits: 1. High Flexibility: Agile allows for changes in requirements even after development has started, making it easier to adapt to new needs or feedback. 2. Improved Customer Satisfaction: Regular updates and frequent delivery of working software mean that customers can see progress and provide feedback more often. Limitations: 1. Scaling Challenges: Managing large projects with many teams can be difficult, asit requires careful coordination and communication. 2. Stakeholder Involvement: Agile. requires active participation from all stakeholders, which can be challenging if some are unavailable or not fully engaged. 3. Less Predictable: Since Agile projects evolve through feedback and changes, it can be harder to predict the exact timeline and scope of the final product. 9 1.1.4.1 Other Methodologies: |, Scrum Scrum is an agile framework widely used for managing and completing complex software projects. It promotes iterative progress, collaboration, and flexibility, making it well-suited for dynamic environments where requirements can change frequently, The framework is built around a set of roles, events, and artifacts designed to create a structured yet adaptable approach to project management. Key Components of Scrum: © Roles: The primary roles in Scrum are the Praduct Owner, Scrum Master, and Development Team. The Product Owner defines the product backlog and ensures that the team is working on the highest-priority items. The Serum Master facilitatés the process, removes obstacles, and ensures that the team follows Scrum practices, The Development Team, consisting of cross-functional members, is. responsible for delivering the product increments. + Events: Scrum employs a series of events to ensure regular progress and review. These include Sprints (time-boxed iterations), Sprint Planning, Daily Standups, Sprint Reviews, and Sprint Retrospectives. * Artifacts: Key artifacts in Scrum are the Product Backlog (a prioritized list of features and requirements), Sprint Backlog (a list of tasks to be completed ina Sprint), and Increment (the working praduct that is the result of the current Sprint). Suitable for Scrum: Scrum is particularly suitable for software projects that require frequent updates and have evolving requirements, such as: * Mobile Applications: Mobile app development often invalves continuous feedback and rapid iterations to meet user needs and stay competitive. Scrum’s iterative nature allows for quick adjustments based on user feedback and market changes. * Web Development: For web applications that require regular feature updates. and improvements. Scrum facilitates a responsive development process that can quickly adapt to new requirements and user feedback. Not Suitable for Scrum: Scrum may not be ideal for projects with well-defined requirements and little expected change, such as: *. Embedded Systems: Development of embedded systems, which often involves hardware integration and stringent requiatory requirements, may benefit froma more traditional, linear approach rather than the iterative nature of Scrum, * Safety-Critical Software: Projects such as medical software or aerospace systems, where thorough documentation and extensive: validation are crucial, might notalign well with the flexible and iterative nature of Scrum. Ks oa the Serum process flow, highlighting the key components and their interactions SCRUM LIFECYCLE ‘ Figure 1.4; Scrum Lifecycle ii, Lean Lean Software Development is an iterative approach to software development that emphasizes efficiency, eliminating waste, and delivering high-quality products quickly. Derived from Lean manufacturing principles. Lean Software Development focuses on delivering value to the customer by optimizing the flow of work and minimizing unnecessary activities. inciples of Lean Software Development: Eliminate Waste: Identify and remove activities that do not add value to the customer. 2. Amplify Learning: Foster an environment of continuous improvement and learning. 3. Decide as Late as Possible: Make decisions based on the latest possible information to reduce uncertainty. 4. Deliver as Fast as Possible: Prioritize rapid delivery of small, incremental feat 5. Empower the Team: Give teams the authority and responsibility to make decisionsand solve problems. 6. Build Integrity In: Ensure quality is maintained throughout the development process. 7. See the Whole: Consider the entire system and its context to optimize the overall flow of work. 1 OOOR we Biminato Amplify“ Dacideos Delivers Empower ‘Bui ‘Optimize: teaming Leite-05 Fomas the Team =—integrisyin) the whole Possible Possible Figure 1.5: Lean Software Development Model Suitable for Lean: Lean Software Development is particularly suitable for projects that require rapid delivery and frequent iterations, such as startup software, mobile applications, and web-based services. For instance, a startup developing anew mobile app would benefit fram Lean principles by quickly iterating on user feedback and delivering updates that add value Not Suitable for Lean: Lean Software Development might not be ideal for projects that require extensive upfront planning and are highly complex or regulated, such as large- scale enterprise systems, embedded systems, or safety-critical applications. For example, developing software for an aviation control system would demand rigorous documentation, extensive testing, and regulatory compliance, which may not align welll with the iterative nature of Lean. 1.1.1.1 DevOps DevOps is a set of practices that combines software development (Dev) and IT ‘operations (Ops) to enhance collaboration, efficiency, and agility in delivering software products and services as shown in Figure 1.6. The primary goal af DevOps is to shorten the development lifecycle, improve software quality, and provide continuous delivery with high reliability. Why DevOps Should Be Practiced: DevOps should be practiced because it brings numerous benefits to the software develapment and delivery process: 1. Improved Collaboration: DevOps fosters a culture of collaboration between development and operations teams, breaking down silosand ensuring thatboth teams work towards common goals. 2. Faster Time-to-Market: By automating processes and enabling continuous = integration and continuous delivery (CI/CD), DevOps allows teams to deliver software updates and new features more rapidly, Enhanced Quality: Continuous testing and monitoring in DevOps help identify and address issues early in the development cycle, resulting in higher quality software. 4. Increased Efficiency: Automation of repetitive tasks reduces manual effort and the risk of human error, leading to more efficient workflows. ae fo Sher ) Figure 1.6: DevOps Methodology Suitable for DevOps: DevOps is ideal for web and mobile apps, and cloud services Where fast development and scaling are crucial. For example, Amazon's e-commerce platform uses DevOps to continuously release new features and updates. Not Suitable for DevOps: DevOps may be less suitable for highly regulated or hardware-dependent projects. For instance, software for medical devices needs rigorous testing and compliance, which may not fit with DevOps's rapid pace. The term Waterfall was first introduced by Dr. Winston W. Royce in 1970, but he did not advocate for its use without iteration. 1.5 Project Planning and Management Planning a software projectis like planning a trip. You need to know where you're going, how long itwill take, and how much it will cost. The 5 Phases of a Project Management Plan o__e___e—_o—— slmlelale 13 » 1.4.1 Comprehensive Project Planning Comprehensive project planning involves thinking about all the details of your project before you start. includes understanding what needs to be done, who will do it, and how itwill be done, Some of the largest software development companies in the world OID YOUN... ereworth bitfigns of doltarst Forexample, as 0f2023, Microsoft, one of (aa the leading softwere giants, has a market capitalization exceeding $2. & trillion. This immense value highlights the significant impact and economicimportance of software development in today's digital age, 1.4.2 Setting Project Timelines Setting project timelines means deciding howlong each partof the project will take. This helps keep the project on track and ensuresitgets done on time. Example: If you're building a website, you might set a timeline for designing the site, another for writing the content, and another for testing everything. 1.4.3 Estimating Costs Estimating the cost of a software project is a critical step in project planning and management. Itinvolves predicting the total expenses required to complete the project successfully. Accurate cost estimation helps in budgeting, resource allocation, and setting realistic expectations. Here, we will explore the key factors involved in estimating software project costs and provide an example to illustrate the process. Key Factors in Cost Estimation: *® Development Team: The cost depends on the number of developers, their expertise, and their hourly rates, Teams with specialized skills may charge higher rates. * Technology Stack: The choice of technology, programming languages, and tools can affect the cost. Some technalogies require more resources or specialized knowledge: + Project Duration: Longer projects generally incur higher costs due to prolonged resource engagement and potential changes in scope, * Risk Management: Identifying potential risks and their mitigation strategies can add to the overall cost. Cantingency funds are often included to address unforeseen issues. * Quality Assurance: Costs associated with testing, bug fixing, and ensuring the software meets quality standards are also part of the estimation. Example: Let's consider a scenario where a company in Pakistan wants to develap a mobile application for online shopping. © Scope: The app will include user registration, product listings, shopping cart, paymentintegration, and order tracking, 14 Development Team: The project requires a team of 1 project manager, 2 frontend developers, 2 backend developers, 1 UI/UX designer, and 2 QA testers. Technology Stack: The app will be developed using React Native for cross- platform compatibility, Nodejs for the backend, and MongoD8 for the database. Project Duration: The estimated duration is 6 months. Operational Costs: Costs include cloud hosting, development tools, and software licenses. Risk Management: Potential risks include scope changes and technology integration issues, with a contingency fund of 10% of total cost. Quality Assurance: Includes comprehensive testing phases to ensure functionality and performance. Cost Breakdown: Project Manager: PKR 5,000/hour x 20hours/week x 24 weeks = PKR 2,400,000 Frontend Developers: 2developers x PKR 3,500/hour x 30hours/week x 24weeks = PKR 5,040,000 Backend Developers: 2developers x PKR 4,000/hour x 30hours/week x 24weeks = PKR 5,760,000 UI/UX Designer: PKR 3,000/hour x 20hours/week x 24 weeks = PKR 1,440,000 QA Testers: testers x PKR 2,500/hour x 20hours/week x 24 weeks = PKR 2,400,000 Operational Costs: Cloud services and tools = PKR 1,000,000 Contingency Fund: 10% of the total estimated cost = PKR 1,604,000 Total Estimated Cost: PKR 19,644,000 Explanation: The total estimated cost of PKR 19,644,000 includes all aspects of development, from planning and design to implementation and testing. This example illustrates how different factors contribute to the overall cost and the importance of detailed planning in cost estimation. —o———~—~_~S EEE 1.1.1 Risk Assessment and Management Risk assessment and management are crucial aspects of any software project. They involve identifying potential risks that could impact the project's success, analysing the likelihood and impact of these risks, and developing strategies to manage them. Effective risk management helps ensure that projects stay on track, within budget, and meet qualitystandards. Steps in Risk Assessment and Management: 1, Identify Risks: List all potential risks that could affect the project. These could be technical risks, such as technology changes; operational risks, like resource shortages; or external risks, such as market fluctuations. 2. Analyze Risks: Evaluate the likelihood of each risk occurring and its potential impact on the project. This helps in prioritizing which risks need moreattention, Develop Mitigation Strategies: For each significant risk. develop a plan to reduce its likelihood or minimize its impact. This could involve adding buffers to the schedule, securing backup resources, or conducting additional testing. 4, Monitor and Review: Continuously monitor the project for new risks and review existing risks toadjuststravegies as necessary. Example: A project is using a new, untested technology. The risk is that the technology may notworkas expected, causing delays and additional costs, Mitigation Strategy: Conducta small-scale pilot project to test the technology before fully integrating it into the main project. This can help identify potential issues early and provide a chance to address them without impacting the larger project. Discussion: Figure 1,8 illustrates the risk management process, showing the steps from identifying risks to monitoring and reviewing them. By following these steps, project managers can systematically address risks, ensuring asmoother project execution. 1.1.2. Quality Assurance Quality assurance ensuires that a project meets’ set standards and works correctly: It involves methods such as testing, reviewing code, getting feedback fronv stakeholders, and regularly checking the project's progress. Example: In a software project, this involves ensuring that the code is both accurately written and functions as expected. 1.2 Graphical Representation of Software Systems Graphical representation of software systems involves using visual diagrams to depict various aspects of a software system's structure and behavior. This approach helps in simplifying complex systems, making it easier for developers and stakeholders to understand, communicate, and mariage the system. Diagrams, like Unified Modeting Language (UML) diagrams, are widely used to illustrate various components, their 16 3. relationships, and interactions within software. 1.2.1 Introduction to UML Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a standardized way to visualize the design of a software system. It helps developers understand how a system works and communicates. UML is important because it makes complex systems easier to understand and manage. DID YOU!) UML was created by three software engineers: Grady Booch, James Rumbaugh, and Ivar Jacobson. They are often called the “Three Amigos" of UML, 1.1.1 Types of UML Diagrams In this section, we will discuss four types of the UML diagrams that are give below. 1.1.1.1 Use Case Diagrams Use Case Diagrams are a fundamental component in the Unified Modeling Language (UML) used to depict the various ways in which users, referred to as actors, interact with a system. These diagrams provide a visual representation of the system's functionality from the user's perspective, helping to identify the requirements and the interactions between the users and the system. Definition and Purpose: Ause case is a description of a set of interactions between a user (actor) and a system to achieve a specific goal. Use cases are identified based on the functionalities that the system must support to meet the user's needs. Each use case represents a complete workflow from the user's perspective, detailing the steps involved in accomplishing a particulartask. Use Case Diagrams are used for several purposes: 1. Capturing Functional Requirements: They help in identifying and documenting the functional requirements of the system. 2. Understanding User Interactions: They illustrate how different users will interact with the system 3. Planning and Testing: They aid in planning the development process and in designing test cases for validating system functionalities. Identifying Use Cases: The process of identifying use cases involves several steps: 1, Identify Actors: Determine the different types of users who will interact with the system. Actors can be human users or other systems. 2. Define Goals: For each actor, identify their goals or what they need to accomplish using the system. 17 3. Outline Interactions: Describe the interactions between the actors and the system to achieve these goals. Each interaction that results in a significant outcome isa potential use case. 4. Validate Use Cases: Review the identified use cases with stakeholders to ensure they accurately capture the required functionalities and interactions Simple Use case diagram Figure 1.9: Exa 3. Outline Interactions: Describe the interactions between the actors and the system to achieve these goals. Each interaction that results in a significant outcome is a potential use case. 4. Validate Use Cases: Review the identified use cases with stakeholders to ensure they accurately capture the required functionalities and interactions. iagram for a'Library Syster Class Activity Objective: Learn to identify actors and use cases from a given statement describing asystem. Instructions: 1. Read the following statement carefully. 2. Identify the actors involved in the system. 3. Identify the use cases that describe the interactions between the actors and the system 4. Write down your findings and be prepared to discuss them with the class. 18 —_—_———————.4 Class Activity Statement: Imagine you are designing an’ online shopping platform. The Platform allows customers to browse products, add items to their cart, and make purchases. Additionally, the platform includes features for administrators to manage product listings, process orders, and handle customer inquiries. There is also a feature for delivery personnel to update the status of deliveries, In the above class activity, you can compare your findings with the following: * Actors: o Customer © Administrator o Delivery Personnel =» Use Cases: Browse Products Add Items ta Cart Make Purchase Manage Product Listings Process Orders Handle Customer Inquiries Update Delivery Status. 1.1.4\1 What isa Class Diagram? ‘A class diagram is like a map that shows how things aré organized in a system, just like how you organize your room. It helps us see what's in each box (like your toys, books, or clothes) and how these boxes aré related. Example: Inthe example of s organizing yourroom: . Room: Represents the overall space encompassing all other elements, analogous to the main structure in a class diagram. . Box: Serves as a container within the room, akin to a class ina diagram. . Attributes: Each box contains specific items, such as a ToyBox' holding toys. or a 'BookBox' containing books. * Methods: Boxes can perform actions like ‘open’ or ‘close,’ similar to methods in a class diagram that define what the box can do. . Specific Boxes: Examples of specialized boxes include @TayBox’ for toys, a ‘BookBox' for books, and.a ‘ClothesBox' for clothes, representing distinct instances of the general ‘Box’ class. So, aclass diagram is simply away to organize and show how different parts of a system. (like your roam) work together, making it easier to understand everything ata glance as show in Figure 1.10. +0 860600000 Room -name: String -sice: String Z_ Box slabel: String scomtents: Siring BookBox ClothesBox N books: List clothes: List Figure 1.10: Class Diagram for Organizing Your Roorn 1.1.1.1 Sequence Diagrams Sequence Diagrams show how objects ina system interact with each other ina particular sequence. They help in understanding the flow of messages between objects over time. Interactions: * open(): User opens each box. * put toys/books/clothes insi boxes. © close(): User closes each box. : User puts the respective items into the Books Box cloxeO Figure 1.11: Sequence diagram of the user organizing items into labeled boxes 1.1.1.1 Activity Diagrams. Activity Diagrams illustrate the flow of activities or steps in a process. They are useful for modeling the logic of complex operations. Example: In a restaurant management system, an activity diagram can represent the process from ‘Order Placement’ to 'Food Preparation’ and finally to ‘Order Delivery’. Figure 1.12: Activity Diagram with Decision and Connector Symbol Above activity diagram shows haw a process flows from start to finish. In the restaurant management system example, the process begins with _Start’ moves to _Order Placement,’ then to Food Preparation,’ and finally to _Order Delivery.’ The End’ node concludes the process. Arrows indicate the sequence of these steps, making it easy to follow how an order progresses. 1.5.3 Using UML to Represent Software Systems UML can be used in various stages of software development to improve understanding and communication, Here are some practical applications: + Planning: Use UML diagrams to map out the system's requirements and design before writing any code. + Development: Developers refer to UML diagrams to understand the structure and relationships within the system. + Communication: UML diagrams help team members, including non-technical stakeholders, to understand how the system works, —$<$—$———————— | 1.6 Introduction to Design Patterns Design patterns are a fundamental concept in software development. providing proven solutions te common problems that arise during software development. They serve as blueprints ar templates that can be adapted to solve various design challenges, making the development pracess more efficient and consistent. The cancept of design patterns was popularized by the book ‘Design ~ Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software’ by Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, and John Vlissides; also known as the “Gang of Four". 1.6.1 Commonly Used Design Patterns ‘There are numerous design patterns, but some are more commonly used due to their Versatility and effectiveness in solving awide range of problems. Below are some of the most widely recognized design patterns: 1.6.1.1 Singleton Pattern The Singleton Design Pattern isa way to'make sure that a specific object of resource is created only once ina program and reused whenever needed. Think of it like having just ‘one key to a special room, and no matter whe needs to getinta the room, theyall haveto use thatsamekey. Nomew keys are made, and everyone shares that one key. 1.6.1.2 Factory Pattern The Factory Design Pattern is like having a special workshop that knows how to create different products, but you don't need to worry about the details of how those products are made. Instead, you just tell the factory what you need, and it gives you the finished product. 1.6.1.3 Observer Pattern The Observer Design Pattern is like having 2 group of people who are interested in getting updates from one particular source. Whenever something important happens, the source automatically notifies all the interested people. It's a way to keep things in sync withauteveryone constantly checking for updates. 1.6.1.4 Strategy Pattern The Strategy Design Pattern is like having a toalbox full of different tools, each designed for aspecificjob. When you face a problem, you can pick the fight tool from the box based on the task at hand, In other words, you have “multiple ways” to. solve a problem, and you can switch between them easily without changing much else, 1,6.2 Applications of Design Patterns in Software Design Design patterns are widely used in software develapment to solve common problems and create robust and maintainable code. They help in: * Reducing code complexity by providing a clear structure. +. Enhancing code reusability by using proven solutions. + Improving communication among developers by providing a common vocabulary. Design patterns help create systems that are flexible, maintainable, and easy to understand. Many popular software frameworks and libraries are built using O10 a. design patterns, For example,. the Model-View-Controller: (MVC) ea. pattern is used in web development frameworks like Ruby on Rails and Angular. 1.7 Software Debugging and Testing Software debugging and testing are critical stages in the software development process that ensure the quality and reliability of a software product. Effective debugging and testing help developers to confifm that the software meets the required specifications, functions as intended, andis free of critical errors, 1.7.1 Debugging Debugging is the process of finding and fixing bugs or errors in a software. Software debugging and testing are essential parts of software development. They ensure that the software works correctly and meets the user's requirements, Bugs are errors or mistakes in the software that cause it to behave unexpectedly. Identifying bugs involves observing the software's behavior and finding the source of the problem. Once identified, solving bugs requires making changes to the code to correctthe error. o1D YO Debugging was named after am incident in 1947 when a real bug (a moth) was foundin a computer! Tools and Best Practices There are various tools and best practices for debugging, including: + Debuggers: Software tools that help programmers find bugs by allowing them to step through code, inspect variables, and monitor program execution, * Print Statements: Adding print statements in the code to display the values of variables at different paints in the program: * Code Reviews: Having other developers review your cade to spot potential errors. L741 Testing Testing is the process of evaluating the software to ensure it meets the requitements and. works as expected. The testing process typically follows a hierarchy that begins with smaller components and gradually progresses to. the entire system, including user acceptance. The main types of testing in this hierarchy are given below. 1.7.2.1 Unit Testing Unit Testing is the first level of testing, where individual components or modules of the software are tested in isolation, Each "Unit" is a'small, testable part of the software, such as a function or methad. The primary goal of unit testing is to verify that each component works correctly according to its design and performs as expected. 4.7.2.2 Integration Testing After unit testing, Integration Testing is performed to evaluate the interaction between different components. or modules. While unit testing focuses on isolated units, integration testing ensures that these units work together correctly when combined. This type of testing checks for interface errors, data flow between modules, and other integration-related issues. It helps identify problems that may not arise during unit testing, such as mismatches in module communication or data handling. 1.7.2.3 System System Testing is a higher level of testing where the entire software system is tested asa whole. At this stage, the software is treated as a complete entity, and testers evaluate its overall functionality, performance, security, and compliance with specified requirements, System testing involves testing the software in an environment that closely resembles the production environment to ensure that it functions correctly under real-world conditions. This level of testing helps identify defects that may arise from the interaction of various system components and verifies that the software meets its intended purpose, 1.7.2.4 Acceptance Testing Acceptance Testing is the final level of testing conducted to determine whether the software is ready for rélease. Itis often performed by the end-users or clients to ensure that the software meets their expectations and requirements. Acceptance testing can be: formal or informal and typically includes scenarios that mimic real-world usage to validate the software's usability, reliability, and performance. a Requirement gathefing is. similar to planning a big event, like a OID YOU. wedding? Justias you need to know the preferences of the brideand (ANCA) 1S groom, developers: need to know what the Users want from the software. 4.7.2.2 Integration Testing After unit testing, Integration Testing is performed to evaluate the interaction between different components or modules. While unit testing focuses on isolated units, integration testing ensures: that these units work together correctly when combined. This type of testing checks for interface errors, data flow between madules, and other integration-related issues. It helps identify problems that may not arise during unit testing, suchas mismnatches in module communication or data handling, 1.7.2.3 System Testing System Testing is a higher level of testing where the entire software system is tested asa wholes At this stage, the software is treated asa complete entity, and testers evaluate its overall functionality, performance, security, and compliance with specified requirements. System testing involves testing the software in an environment that closely resembles the production environment to ensure that it functions correctly under real-world conditions. This level of testing helps identify defects that may atise from the interaction of various system components and verifies that the software meets its intended purpose, 1.7.2,4 Acceptance Testing Acceptance Testing is the final level of testing conducted to determine whether the software is ready for release: It is often performed by the end-users or clients to ensure that the software meets their expectations and requirements. Acceptance testing can be formal or informal and typically includes scenarios that mimic real-world usage to validate the software's usabillty, reliability, and performance. DID YOU.” acceptance testing is sometimes called User Acceptance Testing KNOW? (UAT) because it is often done by the end-users of the software. 1.8 Software Development Tools Software. development tools are essential for creating, testing, and maintaining software applications. These tools help developers writé code, find and fix errors, and manage software projects effectively. 1.8.1 Definitions and Usage Software development taols are programs orapplications that assist in various stages of software creation. They are used to write, edit, test, debug, and manage code, ensuring 2 re = that software functions correctly and efficiently. 1.8.2 Language Editors Language editors, also known as code editors, are tools that help developers write and edit code in different programming languages. The purpose of language editors is to provide a user-friendly interface for writing code. Examples include: * Notepad++: A simple yet powerful code editor, * Sublime Text: Known for its speed and ease of use. * VS Code: A popular editor with many extensions. 1.8.3 Translators Translators are tools that convert code written in one programming language into another language that the computer can understand. Translators convert high-level programming languages (like Python) into machine language (binary code) that computers can execute. * Interpreters: Translate code line-by-line (e.g., Python interpreter). «Compilers: Translate the entire code at once (e.g., GCC for C/C++). 1,8.4 Compilers Compilers are a type of translator that converts entire programs from high-level languages into machine code before execution. The purpose of compilers is to optimize and convert code into efficient machine code. Examples include: GCC: GNU Compiler Collection for C and C++. Javae: Compiler for Java programs. 1.8.5 Debuggers Debuggers are tools that help developers find and fix errors (bugs) in their code, The purpose of debuggers is to allow developers to test their code and identify where emors occur. Examples include: GDB: GNU Debugger for C/C++ Visual Studio Debugger: Integrated with Visual Studio IDE. 1.8.6 Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) IDEs are comprehensive software suites that provide all the tools needed for software development in one place. IDE integrate various development tools like editors, compilers, debuggers, and version control systems to streamline the development process. An IDE offers a unified interface where developers can write, test, and debug their code efficiently. ‘Common IDEs a Eclipse: Widely used for Java development. . Visual Studio: Popular for.NET and C++ development. . PyCharm: Preferred for Python development. 26 1.8.7 Online and Offline Computing Platforms These platforms provide environments where developers can write, run, and test their code. * Online Platforms: Cloud-based platforms accessible via the internet (e.g., Repl.it, Gitpod). * Offline Platforms: Local development environments on a computer (€.9,, local installations of IDEs). 1.8.8 Source Code Repositaries Source code repositories are platforms where developers can store, manage, and track changes to their code. Repositories help in version contral, allowing multiple developers to work on the same project without conflicts. Repositories keep track of code changes and maintain a history of all modifications. © GitHub: Popular platform for open-source projects. *«__Bitbucket: Used for both private and public repositories. Summary in this chapter, you were introduced to the essential aspects of software development, rom the fundamental concepts and key terminology to the detailed stages of th oftware Development Life Cycle (SDLC). You explored different software development thodologies, including the Waterfall model and Agile methodology, and learn ‘to plan and manage a software project effectively. The chapter also covered qualit ssurance techniques, the use of UML for graphical representation, and the importancs design patterns in software design. Finally, you were introduced to debuggin hniques, testing strategies, and various software development tools that aid in th ficient development of high-quality software products. Q.1: Multiple Choice Questions 1. Whats the primary purpose of the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)? a) To design websites b) To deliver high-quality software within time and cost estimates ©) To manage database systems d) —Tocreate hardware components 2. Which type of requirement specifies how the system should perform? a) Functional Requirements b) — Non-Functional Requirements ©) Technical Requirements d) Operational Requirements 3. Inthe context of SDLC, what is the role ofa framework? a) To write code from scratch b) To provide a structured foundation with predefined companents and architectures oO To manage hardware d) To perform manual testing Which software development model Involves working in short cycles or spirits? a) Waterfall Model b). Agile Methodology Q Lean Software Development d) Scrum Which role is responsible for removing obstacles and facilitating Scrum practices? a) Product Owner b) Scrum Master oO Development Team d) Project Manager ». Whichof the following is nota benefit of DevOps? ab Improved collaboration b) Enhanced quality Q Increased project scope creep d) Faster time-to-market 7. What isa crucial aspect of comprehensive project planning? a) _ Understanding the project’ scope and tasks b) Deciding the project's colour scheme o Hiring alargedevelopmentteam d) Ignoring potential risks |. Which factor does NOT influence thecost estimation ofa software project? a) Scope of the project by Technology stack oO Numberofmeetings held d) Operational costs ).'Whatis the purpose ofa contingency fund in cost estimation? a) Tocoverunexpected costs b) To pay for marketing expenses ¢ To hire additional developers d)— Topurchase new hardware 10. Which of the following isa purpose of Use Case Diagrams? a) —_ Todocumentthe system's architecture. 28 - w 2 2 o b) Toidentify and document the system's functional requirements. ©) —_Tajllustrate the databaseschema. gd) Todefine the system'suser interface design. Questions Differentiate between functional and non-functional requirements. 2. Explain why the testing phase is important in the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC), and provide two reasons for its significance. 3. Illustrate the concept of continuous integration in Agile Methodology and discuss its importance in software development, 4. Identify the key components of the Scrum framework and analyze how each contributes to effective project management. 5. Evaluate the main steps involved in risk assessment and management, and assess their importancein a software project. 6. Explain the purpose of a Use Case Diagram in software develapment. 7. Compare and contrast a Sequence Diagram with an Activity Diagram, highlighting the key differences. 8. Describe the Factory Pattern and explain how it differs from directly. creating objects, with anexample. ‘Long Questions 1. Design a flowchart fora user registration process in a software application, Outline its key steps, 2, Imagine you are managing a project to develop a-simple mobile application: Describe how you would use the Agile Methadolagy to handle this project. 3. You are working oma project that requires extensive documentation and has very specific regulatory requirements. Discuss why the Scrum methodology might not be suitable forthis project and suggest an alternative methodology. 4. Consider an online banking system. Create a Use Case Diagram to show the interactions between customers, bank staff, and the system. 5. You are developing a food delivery application, Create a Sequence Diagram to show the process of placing an order, from the customer selecting items to the delivery of the order. 6. Discuss the importance of software development tools in the software development process. Explain the role of language editots, translators, and debuggers in creating and maintaining software. Provide examples of each taol and describe haw they contribute to the efficiency and accuracy of software development. a) b) 2 Python Programming Biron c ees By the endof this chapter, students will be able to: '* Understand basic programming cancepts and set up a Python development environment. « Write and interpret basic Python syntax and structure, including variables, data types, and input/output operations. © Use various operators and expressions in Python, including arithmetic, comparison, and logical operators. Implement contro! structures such as decision-making statements and loops in Python. © Work with Python modules, functions, and built-in data’ structures like lists. * Apply modular programming techniques and object-oriented programming concepts in Python. * Handle exceptions, perform file operations, and apply testing and debugging ‘techniques in Python. Intreduction Welcome ta the world of Python programming! Python is a popular, versatile language known for its simplicity and readability, making it ideal for both beginners and professionals. In this chapter, we will start with the basics, including setting up your development environment and learning fundamental programming concepts. As we move forward, we'll cover advanced topics like modular programming, file handling, debugging, and data structures, By the end of this chapter, you will have a comprehensive understanding of Python, enabling you to write, test, and debug your own programs and Command Line interface(CL!) applications. 2.1 Introduction to Python Programmi Python is a widely-used high-tevel programming language celelsrated for its simplicity and readability. It is versatile and applicable to various fields, including web development, data analysis, artificial intelligence, and more. Python's straightforward syntax and clear structure make it an excellent choice for beginners, allowing them to focus on learning programming concepts rather than dealing with complex syntax rules, Whether you're creating a simple script ar developing sophisticated software, Python's user-friendly nature helps you getstarted quickly and efficiently. (| Ol 2.1.1 Understanding Basic Programming Concepts Computer programming is the process of creating a set of instructions that tell a computer how to perform a task. These instructions are written in. a programming, language that the computer can understand and execute. Think of computer programming like giving directions to a friend on how to reach your house. You need to be clear and precise so your friend doesn't get last. Similarly, when we write programs, we give clear and precise instructions to the computer to complete specific tasks, 2.1.1.1 Programming Basics Computerprogramming involves the following basic steps to writea program. 1. Write Code: Create a set of instructions in.a programming language. 2. Compile/Interpret: Translate the code into a form that the computer can understand. 3. Execute: Run the code to perform the task. 4. Output: Display the results or perform actions based an the code. 2.1.1.2 Setting Up Python Development Environment The development environment refers to the process of preparing a computer to write, run, and debug Python code effectively. This involves installing and configuring the necessary software; tools, and libraries that make development smoother and more 4 ID YOUN. Python is named after the British comedy series "Monty Python's Flying Circus.” notthe snake! > | efficient. We'can download and install Python from https: //www. pythan, org/, When starting with Python programming, choosing a good Integrated Development Environment (IDE) can help make'coding easier, 2.2 Basic Python Syntax and Structure The following Python program demonstrates the simplicity and readability of the language: print(“As ~ Salaam-Alaikum, College Students!") linthis example, the’ print function is utilized to output the message enclosed in double quotation marks. This illustrates Python's straightforward syntax, where functions like prititare used to petform actions such as displaying text. Python Comments Lines that are not executed by the Python interpreten They are used to provide explanations or notes for the code. Single-line comments start with the # symbol while multi-line comments can be created using triple quotes ("") at the beginning and the end as shown below, # This is a single - Line comment print( "K2is the second-highest mauntain in the world") This ts amu t can span mu print ("Edhi Foundation operates the world’s largest volunteer ambulance network." ) ine comment, itiple lines. 2.2.1 Variables, Data Types and 1/0 2.2.1.1 Variable A variable in programming functions as a storage container within a computer's memory, allowing for the storage of data that can be retrieved and manipulated laterin the code. In the example below, the variable age is utilized to hold numerical data. The value ofa variable can change throughout the execution of a program, whichis why itis referred toasa “variable”: print (age ="As - Suluam-Alnikum , dear students {) age=71 print "Quaid-+Azam lived for", age, "Yemes") age =60 print (-"Alkmaitgbal tived for", age, "years") This example illustrates haw the variable “age” is assigned different values to represent the ages of Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Allama Iqbal, which are then printed as part of the output. 2.2.4.2 Variable Naming Rules in Python Variable names in Python must adhere to the following rules: * The name must begin with a letter (a-z, A-Z) or an underscore (_). * Subsequent characters can include letters, digits (0-9), or underscores (_). * Variable names-are case-sensitive; meaning age and Age are considered two different variables. * Python's reserved keywords, such as for, while, if, etc., cannot be used as variable names. 2.2.1.3 Creating Different Types of Variables In Python, you can create variables of different types ta store various kinds of data, Here aresome commen types of variables; * Integer (int): Stores whole numbers. Example: age = 17 * Floating-point (float): Stores decimal numbers. Example: price = 19.99 * String (str): Stores text. Example: name = “All” * Boolean (bool): Stores True or False. Examp 2.2.4.4 Input and Output Operations Input and output operations allow you to interact with the user. You can ask the user to enterdata (input) and display information to theuser (output). * Input: Use the input () function to get user input. The input (} function displays a 33 messageon the screen and waits for the user ta type something and press Enter. The text entered by the userjs then stored ina variable. Forexample: name = input(“Enter your name: *) This line of code asks the user to enter their name and stores it in the variable name. * Output: Use the print 0 function to display information on the screen. The print () function takes one or more arguments and displays them. For example: print” As- Salaam - Alaikum, "+ name +"!") This line of codedisplays'a greeting message that includes the user's name. 2.2.1.8 Handling Integer and Float Inputs To handle numeric inputs, you typically use the int( or float() functions to convert input strings to integers or floating-point numbers, respectively. Integer Inputs # Bxamp: Randling sriteger user_oge=ini(imput(“Enteryourage:")) Brint("Yourage is:".tiser_ age) Float Inputs # xample: Handling float: input user_height = float(input("Enter your height in meters: ")) print("Your heightis”, user_height,"meter") 2.3 Operators and Expressions Operators aresymbols that perform operations on variables and values. An expressianis a combination of variables, operators, and values that produces a result. Let's explore different types of operators in Python. 1.2.1 Arithmetic Operators Arithmetic operators are Used to perform. basic mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, modulus, exponentiation, and floor division as shown in the following code. The code shows how to use basic arithmetic operationsin Python. 4 Define variables a=10b=3 & Perform all arith and print results printla,"+",b,"=“a+bi # Outps printa."*b,"=",a"h) # outpu printia,"/'\b,"=",a7b) on these numeric wariabjles: rina, 77", 6,” yutput tb Atutorial on Pythons available at g https: //does python.org/3/tutorial/ 2.3.2 Comparison Operators Comparison operators are used to compare two values or expressions, They determine the relational lagic between them, such as equality, inequality, greater than, less than, and soon, These operatars return a boolean value (True or False) based on the comparison result. Here's a Python program that demonstrates the usage of all comparison operators. # Define variables xy ys 18s & @ Greater than print, "9", y, "", 23 y) # Output: 19 > 5 + True # Less, than priat(k. "44. ys Met. x ey) # Mutper: 10 < S © Flee # Baual) co pring (x, =e", y, "en, emmy) 8 Ouepur! 10 = 6 © Paleo # Net equal to print(s, “He". ys * @ Groater than’ or prant(x, t8*, # Loss than or print (x, "<8", em ds y) @ Output: 10 4> 6 © True al! re x >" 9) # Outpur: 10 = 5 = True pox <2 y) # Output: 10 <= 5 = Faiae The above code demonstrates Python's comparison operators by defining two variables, xand y, and comparing them using various operators like >, <,==,!=,>=,and <=, “in programming, the hard part isn't solving problems, but-deciding what problems to solve.”: Paul Graham "Programming isn'tabout whatyou know; it’s about what you can figure out. hris Pine ————~EeeyErEF|A 1.1.2 Assignment Operators Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables, The most common assignment operator is the equal sign (=), which assigns the value on the right to the variable on the left. There are also compaund assignment operators like +=, and /=, which’ combine arithmetic operations with assignment. Define initial values a io bes © Aasignnent assignment © a; print(Ta ="; assignment) # Durpot: a = 10 Addition asniganont += b; print(*s efter addition «", a) Butput: a = 15 Subtraction ai nt tuperaction = agnzent obi pe ez multiplicatiak +", a) Output: a + $0 Division assignrent Cre after division +". a)e Output: a = 10.0 ygpsent Mie b; print("e after floor division =", a) Output: a 2.0 Modulus assigament X= b; prine(*a after sodsiue =", ade Gktpory a = 2/0 Exponentiation amet gnaent b: pEine("s after exponentiation =", aJwOurput: a 32.0 Above code illustrates the use of assignment operators in Python. The code comments show the output of each operation, 1.1.3, Legical Operators Logical operators are used to combine multiple conditions or expressions Ina program. The most common logical operators are and, of, and not. They are used to perform logical operations and return Boolean walues based on the evaluation of the expressions involved. “# Define variables x=True y= False # Logical AND lagical_and=xand y print(x, "and", y,"="" logical_and) # Output: Trucund False=False dLogical OR. lagical_or=xory print(x, "or" .y," =", logical_or) # Output: Trueand False = True 36 eee as Ousput: a= 10 Per ep ep =e =e wre # Logical NOT logical_nat_x = notx print(’not", x, , logical_not_x) # Oitputriot Truc=False logical_not_y=noty print(‘not”, y, "=", legical_not_y) #Output: not False= True The above code demonstrates the use of logical operators in Python, It defines two. Boolean variables, x and y, and performs logical operations such as AND, OR, and NOT onthem. The codealso includes comments with the output of each logical operation. 2.3.5 Expressions An expression is a combination of variables, operators, and values that producesa result. For example, 3 + 4 isan expression that results in 7. More complex expressions can use parentheses O to control the arder of operations. For exampie: result=(344)"2 #resultis 14 Class Activity Write a program te calculate Body Mass Index (BMI). Ask the user for their weight and height, then compute and display their BMI and classification, The Body Mass index (BMI) is calculated using the formula given below, weight BMi= = ———— height where: + weight is in kilograms (kg) * heightis in meters (m) 2.3.6 Operator Precedence in Python Operator precedence determines the order in which operations are performed in an expression. In Python as well as. in Mathematics, certain operators have higher precedence and are evaluated before others. Understanding this helps ensure that your calculations are done correctly. * Parentheses "()": Highest precedence. Operations inside parentheses are performed first. (3+ 2) *4 evaluates ta 20. + Exponentiation: Performs power operations next. + 2'evaluatesto8. * Multiplication ‘*’, Division '/', and Modulus '%': These operations come next. 4°3 evaluatesto 12, 10/2evaluates to 5.0 ant 1%3 evaluates 2. 2 2 + Addition '+' and Subtraction multiplication and division. * 5+ 2evaluates to7,and 10-4 evaluates to6. * — Exarnple: Consider the expression 3 + 2*S. The multiplication is performed before theaddition,so: 34+2*5 =3+10=13 “Glass Activity Compute the following expressions and compare results with your class fellows and class teacher. 1. 10+*3922-5/5 2, (104+3)*(@@" (2-1/5 Translate the fallowing in Python's syntax 1 5 43x4-72°41 2 10x (2+3)-48: 245 These have lower precedence compared to olD oe w- Using parentheses can help clarify complex expressions and ensure = the operations are performed in the desired arder. 2.4 Control Structures In programming, we often need to control the flow of our program based on different conditions or repeat certain actions multiple times. This is where contro! structures come into play. Thefe are two main types of control structures, Decision making and Looping: 2.4.1 Decision Making Decision making in programming allows the program to choose different actions based onconditions. This is similar to how we make decisions in real life. Python provide variety of conditional statements to implement decision making. Below find the detailed implementation of python conditional statements. 2.4.1.1 if Statement The if statement lets us make decisions based on conditions. If the condition is true, it runss block of code. # Syntax of if statement if condition: If condition: # code to run if the-candition is true Example: Ifthe temperature isabove 30 degrees, we printa message. temperature = 35 iftemperature > 30: print("It's ahor day") 2.4.1.2 if-else Statement The if-else statement allows us to execute one block of cade if a condition is true and another block ifthe condition is false. Syntax of if-else statement:if condition: IFcondition; # code to run if the condition is trueelse = else: # code torun if the condition is false Example: [temperamre = 15 ‘if temperature > 30; rina "It's a hot day") else: Prini("I’s nat a hor day") 2.4.1.3 Short Hand if-else Statement, Putten also allows a short-hand if-else statement that can be written ina single line. Syntax of short hand if-else statement action_if_true ifcondition elseaction_if_faise temperature = 15 print(“tt's-a hot day") if temperature'> 30 else print(’It’s nota hot day") Explanation: This is the same as the previous example but written in a more compact form. The output of the code depends on the value stored in the variable “temperature”, it prints “It's a hot day” if the value is greater than 30, otherwise it prints “It's nota hat 2.4.1.3 if-vii-else Statement The if-elif-else statement allows us to check multiple conditions and execute different blocks of code for each condition. # Syntax of if-elif-else statement if condition: # code to run if/condition! is true elif condition: # code to run if:condition2 is true else: #icode te tun if none of the conditions are true Example: s weather = “cloudy” # The output depends on the value stored in the variable” weather® if weather == "sunny": print(Wear siinglasses") elif weather == "rainy": print('Take an umbrella”) else: print(“Enjoy your day!") Explanation: In this example, the code checks multiple weather conditions. If the weather is “sunny’, the program prints "Wear sunglasses”. If the weather is “rainy”, the Program prints “Take an umbrella”. If the weather is neither “sunny” nor ‘rainy’, the program prints "Enjoy yourday!”. Sometimes, we need to check multiple conditions inside another condition. This is called nesting, # Syntax of nested if statement ifcondition1: ifcondition2: # code to run if both conditionl and condition2 are true else: # code to. run if condition] is true but condition? is false else: # code torn if condition] is false Example: If the weather is rainy and the temperature is below 15 degrees, we wear a raincoat, Ifitis only rainy, we take an umbrella, If the weather is not rainy, we just enjoy theday. weather = “rainy” temperature = 10 if weather == “rainy”: if temperature < 15: print("Wear a raincoat") else: print(’"Take an umbrella") print("Enjoy your day!") 49

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