EXERCISE 1.

4:
Q 9-10, Q21-29, Q32-34, Q37, Q40-42, Q46-49, Q54-62 are not included
Problem 1.
1. Let P(x) denote the statement “x ≤ 4.” What are these truth values?
P(0) True b) P(4) True c) P(6) False
Problem 2.
Let P(x) be the statement “the word x contains the letter a.” What are these truth
values?
a) Since the word "orange" contains the letter "a", we conclude that the statement
P(orange) is true.
b) Since the word "lemon" does not contain the letter "a", we conclude that the
statement P(lemon) is false.
c) Since the word "true" does not contain the letter "a", we conclude that the
statement P(true) is false.
d) Since the word "false" contains the letter "a", we conclude that the statement P(
false) is true.
Problem 3.
Let Q(x, y) denote the statement “x is the capital of y.” What are these truth values?
a) Q(Denver, Colorado)
b) Q(Detroit, Michigan)
c) Q(Massachusetts, Boston)
d) Q(NewYork, NewYork)
a) Q(Denver, Colorado) = "Denver is the capital of Colorado". Therefore, the truth
value is true.
b) Q(Detroit, Michigan) = "Detroit is the capital of Michigan". Therefore, the truth
value is false (Lansing is the capital of Michigan) .
c) Q(Massachusetts, Boston) = "Massachusetts is the capital of Boston" . Therefore,
the truth value is false (vice versa, Boston is the capital of Massachusetts) .
d) Q(New York, New York) ="New York is the capital of New York ". Therefore,
the truth value is false (Albany is the capital of New York) .
Problem 4.
State the value of x after the statement ifP(x) then x := 1 is executed, where P(x) is
the statement “x > 1,” if the value of x when this statement is reached is
a) x = 0. b) x = 1. c) x = 2.

F , x=0
F, x=1
T, x=1
Problem 5. Let P(x) be the statement “x spends more than five hours every weekday
in class,” where the domain for x consists of all students. Express each of these
quantifications in English.

a) ∃xP(x) b) ∀xP(x) c) ∃x ￢P(x) d) ∀x ￢P(x)

Solution:
(a) There exists a student who spends more than five
hours every weekday in class.
(b) Every student spends more than five hours every weekday in
class.
(c) There exists a student who does not spend more than five hours
every weekday in class.
(d) Every student does not spend more than five hours every weekday
in class.
Problem 6.
Let N(x) be the statement “x has visited North Dakota,” where the domain consists
of the students in your school. Express each of these quantifications in English.
a) ∃xN(x) b) ∀xN(x) c) ￢∃xN(x) d) ∃x￢N(x) e) ￢∀xN(x) f ) ∀x￢N(x)

a) ∃x N(x) -There is a student who has visited North Dakota.

b) ∀x N(x) -All students has visited North Dakota.
c) ˺∃x N(x) -There is somebody who has visited North Dakota.
d) ∃x ˺N(x) -There is a student who does not visited North Dakota.
e) ˺∀x N(x) -No students has visited North Dakota.
f ) ∀x ˺N(x) -All students don’t visit North Dakota.
a) ∃x N(x) -There is a student who has visited North Dakota.
b) ∀x N(x) -All students has visited North Dakota.
c) ˺∃x N(x) -There is somebody who has visited North Dakota.
d) ∃x ˺N(x) -There is a student who does not visited North Dakota.
e) ˺∀x N(x) -No students has visited North Dakota.
f ) ∀x ˺N(x) -All students don’t visit North Dakota.
∃x N(x) Solution: “There is a student in my school who has been to North Dakota.”
b)
∀x N(x) Solution: “All students in my school have been to North Dakota.” c)
¬∃x N(x)
Solution: “No one in my school has been to North Dakota.”
d) ∃x ¬N(x)
Solution: “There is a student in my school who has never been to North Dakota.”
Problem 7.
. Translate these statements into English, where C(x) is “x is a comedian” and F(x)
is “x is funny” and the domain consists of all people.
a) ∀x(C(x) → F(x)) b) ∀x(C(x) ∧ F(x))
c) ∃x(C(x) → F(x)) d) ∃x(C(x) ∧ F(x)).
For a): For every person, if they are a comedian, then they are funny.
For b): For every person, they are both a comedian and funny.
For c): There exists a person who, if he is funny, is a comedian
For d): There exists a person who is funny and is a comedian.
OR
a)Every comedian is funny.
b)Every person is a funny comedian.
c)There exists a person such that if she or he is a comedian, then she or he is funny.
d)Some comedians are funny.
8. Translate these statements into English, where R(x) is “x is a rabbit” and H(x) is
“x hops” and the domain consists of all animals.
a) ∀x(R(x) → H(x)) b) ∀x(R(x) ∧ H(x))
c) ∃x(R(x) → H(x)) d) ∃x(R(x) ∧ H(x))
(a) Every rabbit hops.
(b) All animals are rabbits and they all hop.
(c) There is an animal such that if it is a rabbit then it hops.
(d) There is a hopping rabbit.
OR
(a) For all x, if x is a rabbit, then x hops
(b) For all x, x is a rabbit and x hops
(c) There exists an x, if x is a rabbit then it hops
(d) There exists an x, where x is a rabbit and it hops
Edit: if they aren't correct, why not?

Problem 16.
Determine the truth value of each of these statements if the domain of each variable
consists of all real numbers.
a) ∃x(x2 = 2) b) ∃x(x2 = −1)
c) ∀x(x2 + 2 ≥ 1) d) ∀x(x2 _= x)
Explanation:
a) The statement ∃x(x² = 2) is true.
This means that there exists at least one real number x that when squared equals 2.
The solution to this equation is x = ±√2.
b) The statement ∃x(x² = -1) is false.
There is no real number whose square is -1.
The square of any real number is always positive or zero.
c) The statement ∀x(x² ≥ 1) is true.
This means that for all real numbers x, the square of x is greater than or equal to 1.
This statement holds true for all real numbers.
d) The statement ∀x(x² ≠ x) is false.
This means that for all real numbers x, the square of x is not equal to x.
However, this statement is not true because there are real numbers, such as 0 and 1,
for which the square is equal to the number itself.
18. Suppose that the domain of the propositional function P(x) consists of the
integers −2, −1, 0, 1, and 2. Write out each of these propositions using disjunctions,
conjunctions, and negations. a) ∃xP(x) b) ∀xP(x) c) ∃x￢P(x)

d) ∀x￢P(x) e) ￢∃xP(x) f ) ￢∀xP(x)

a**)Disjunction**: P(-2) ∨ P(-1) ∨ P(0) ∨ P(1) ∨ P(2),

b) conjunction:P(-2) ∧ P(-1) ∧ P(0) ∧ P(1) ∧ P(2) ,
c)disjunction of negations: ¬P(-2) ∨ ¬P(-1) ∨ ¬P(0) ∨ ¬P(1) ∨ ¬P(2),
d) negation of a disjunction:¬(P(-2) ∨ P(-1) ∨ P(0) ∨ P(1) ∨ P(2))
Problem 20.
Suppose that the domain of the propositional function P(x) consists of −5, −3, −1, 1,
3, and 5. Express these statements without using quantifiers, instead using only
negations, disjunctions, and conjunctions.
a) ∃xP(x)
b) ∀xP(x)
c) ∀x((x _= 1) → P(x))
d) ∃x((x ≥ 0) ∧ P(x))

e) ∃x(￢P(x)) ∧ ∀x((x < 0) → P(x))

Answer:
a) ∃xP (x)
P(-5) v P(-3) v P(-1) v P(1) v P(3) v P(5)
(at least one of them is true)
b) ∀xP (x)
P(-5) ^ P(-3) ^ P(-1) ^ P(1) ^ P(3) ^ P(5)
(all of them are true)
c) ∀x((x ≠ 1) → P (x))
P(-5) ^ P(-3) ^ P(-1) ^ P(3) ^ P(5)
d) ∃x((x ≥ 0) ∧ P (x))
P(1) v P(3) v P(5)
e) ∃x(¬P (x)) ∧ ∀x((x < 0) → P (x))
[¬P(-5) v ¬P(-3) v ¬P(-1) v ¬P(1) v ¬P(3) v ¬P(5)] ^ [P(-5) ^ P(-3) ^ P(-1)]
[¬P(1) v ¬P(3) v ¬P(5)] ^ [P(-5) ^ P(-3) ^ P(-1)]
Problem 30. Suppose the domain of the propositional function P(x, y) consists of
pairs x and y, where x is 1, 2, or 3 and y is
1, 2, or 3. Write out these propositions using disjunctions and conjunctions.
a) ∃x P(x, 3) b) ∀y P(1, y)

c) ∃y￢P(2, y) d) ∀x ￢P(x, 2)A value out of the three must exist for the propositional
function, and x can be 1, 2, or 3.
a) P (1,3) ∨ P(2,3) ∨ P(3,3)
Y can be 1, 2, or 3, and all possible values must exist.
b) P(1,1) ∧ P(1,2) ∧ P(1,3)
y can be 1,2 or 3 and there has to exists 1 value out of the three for the propositional
function.
c) ¬ P(2,1) ∨ ¬ P(2,2) ¬ P(2,3)
X may be 1, 2, or 3, and all possible values must exist.
d) ¬ P(1,2) ∧ ¬ P(2,2) ∧ ¬ P(3,2)
Problem 35.
Find a counterexample, if possible, to these universally quantified statements, where
the domain for all variables consists of all integers.
a) ∀x(x2 ≥ x)
b) ∀x(x > 0 ∨x < 0)
c) ∀x(x = 1)
a) To find a counterexample for the statement ∀x (x^2 ≥ x), we need to find an
integer for which the statement is false. Let's consider x = -1. When x = -1, the
statement becomes (-1)^2 ≥ -1, which simplifies to 1 ≥ -1. Since this is true, x = -1
is not a counterexample.
b) For the statement ∀x (x > 0 ∨ x < 0), it is a tautology because for any integer x, it
will always be either greater than 0 or less than 0. Therefore, there is no
counterexample for this statement.
c) The statement ∀x (x = 1) asserts that every integer is equal to 1, which is not true.
Therefore, the counterexample for this statement is any integer other than 1, such as
x = 0 or x = -1.
In summary, the counterexamples are: a) No counterexample found. b) No
counterexample found. c) x = 0, x = -1
Problem 36.
Find a counterexample, if possible, to these universally quantified statements, where
the domain for all variables consists of all real numbers.
a) ∀x(x2 _= x)
b) ∀x(x2 _= 2)
c) ∀x(|x| > 0)
a) The statement ∀x(x^2 ≠ x) is true for all x in the domain of real numbers. This
is because for any real number x, x^2 will always be equal to x*x, which is equal
to x only when x = 0 or x = 1. However, neither of these values satisfies the condition
x^2 ≠ x, so the statement is true for all real numbers.
b) The statement ∀x(x^2 ≠ 2) is false for all x in the domain of real numbers. This
is because there are real numbers whose squares are equal to 2, such as √2 and -√2.
Therefore, there is at least one counterexample to the statement, and it is not
universally true.
c) The statement ∀x(|x| > 0) is true for all x in the domain of real numbers, except
for x = 0. This is because the absolute value of any non-zero real number is greater
than 0, and the statement is vacuously true for x = 0, since |0| = 0, which is not greater
than 0. Therefore, the statement is universally true for all real numbers except for
0.
Problem 38.
Translate these system specifications into English where the predicate S(x, y) is “x
is in state y” and where the domain for x and y consists of all systems and all possible
states, respectively.
a) ∃xS(x, open)
b) ∀x(S(x, malfunctioning) ∨ S(x, diagnostic))
c) ∃xS(x, open) ∨ ∃xS(x, diagnostic)

d) ∃x￢S(x, available)
e) ∀x￢S(x, working)

Given,
S(x,y)="x is in state y"S(x,y)="x is in state y"
Negation ¬p: not p¬p: not p
Disjunction p∨q:p or qp∨q:p or q
Existential quantification ∃xP(x):∃xP(x): There exists an element x in domain such
that P(x)
Universal quantification ∀ xP(x):P(x)∀ xP(x):P(x) for all values of x in the domain.
Using the above interpretations, we can translate the prepositions into English.
a) There exists a system that is in the state open.
b) All systems are in the state malfunction or in the state diagnostic.
c) There exists a system that is in the state open or there exists a system that is in the
state diagnostic.
d) There exists a system that is not in the state available.
e) All systems are not in the state working.
Problem 43.
Determine whether ∀x(P(x) → Q(x)) and ∀xP(x) →∀xQ(x) are logically equivalent.
Justify your answer.
Solution:
Let domain be set of all natural numbers.
Let p(x): x is prime and q(x): x is odd.
Here ∀x[p(x)⟹q(x)] is false because 2 is prime but not odd.
While ∀xp(x)⟹∀xq(x) is true vacously as hypothesis is not true.
Problem 44.
Determine whether ∀x(P(x) ↔ Q(x)) and ∀x P(x) ↔ ∀xQ(x) are logically
equivalent. Justify your answer.
Solution:
Let domain be set of all natural numbers.
Let p(x): x is prime and q(x): x is odd.
Here ∀x(P(x) ↔ Q(x)) is false because 2 is prime but not odd. While ∀x P(x) ↔
∀xQ(x) is true vacously as hypothesis is not true.
Counterexample
Consider a counterexample: Let the domain be \{1,
2\}\, P(1)=true,P(2)=false,Q(1)=true,Q(2)=true. Then, ∀x(P(x)↔Q(x)) is false
because P(2) is not equivalent to Q(2). But, ∀xP(x) is false and ∀xQ(x) is true,
thus ∀xP(x)↔∀xQ(x) is false.
45. Show that ∃x(P(x) ∨ Q(x)) and ∃xP(x) ∨ ∃xQ(x) are logically equivalent.
Let us show
that ∃xP(x)∧∃xQ(x)∃xP(x)∧∃xQ(x) and ∃x(P(x)∧Q(x))∃x(P(x)∧Q(x)) are not
logically equivalent.
Let P(x)=‘‘x>0"P(x)=‘‘x>0" and Q(x)=‘‘x<0"Q(x)=‘‘x<0", where the domain
of xx is the set of real numbers.
Then ∃xP(x)∃xP(x) is true and ∃xQ(x)∃xQ(x) is true, and
hence ∃xP(x)∧∃xQ(x)∃xP(x)∧∃xQ(x) is true.
On the other hand the
statement ∃x(P(x)∧Q(x))=∃x(x>0∧x<0)∃x(P(x)∧Q(x))=∃x(x>0∧x<0) is false.
Therefore, ∃xP(x)∧∃xQ(x)∃xP(x)∧∃xQ(x) and ∃x(P(x)∧Q(x))∃x(P(x)∧Q(x)) are
not logically equivalent.
Problem 52.
As mentioned in the text, the notation ∃!xP(x) denotes “There exists a unique x such
that P(x) is true.”
If the domain consists of all integers, what are the truth values of these statements?
a) ∃!x(x > 1) b) ∃!x(x2 = 1)
c) ∃!x(x + 3 = 2x) d) ∃!x(x = x + 1)
Answer:
The third statement is true here.
Step-by-step explanation:
a)
If we take some random values like 5 and 10, it is clear that both 5 and 10 is greater
than 1. Hence, there is no such unique x, for which P(x) > 1 is true. We can
find multiple values which will be greater than 1.
b)
For both the values of x, 1 and -1, the value of x2 is 1. In this case, we are getting
at least two values of x, for which P(x) is true.
Hence, this statement is not true.
c)
x+3=2x\x=3.
In this scenario, we are getting an unique value of x that is 3, for which P(x) is
true.
This statement is true.
d)
x=x+1\0=1.
The above one is not an equation.
There is no meaning of the above.
Hence, this statement can not be true.
Problem 53.
What are the truth values of these statements?
a) ∃!xP(x) → ∃xP(x)
b) ∀xP(x) → ∃!xP(x)

c) ∃!x￢P(x)→￢∀xP(x)

a) ∃!x P(x) → ∃x P(x)

The statement reads "There exists a unique x such that P(x) implies there exists an x
such that P(x)."
This statement is always true. If there exists a unique x such that P(x) is true, then it
implies that there exists at least one x such that P(x) is also true.
b) ∀x P(x) → ∃!xP(x)
The statement reads "For all x, P(x) implies there exists a unique x such that P(x)."
This statement is not always true. It is possible for all x to satisfy P(x) without there
being a unique x that satisfies P(x).
c) ∃!x ¬P(x) → ¬∀x P(x)
The statement reads "There exists a unique x such that not P(x) implies not for all x,
P(x)."
This statement is always true. If there exists a unique x such that not P(x) is true,
then it implies that it is not the case that all x satisfy P(x).
In summary:
Statement a) is always true.
Statement b) is not always true.
Statement c) is always true.