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Summary of course contents

The English language from the 8th century to the 11th century

In the development of English, the West Saxon dialect from Wessex gave us the
term 'England,' meaning 'the land of the Angles.' York's significance as a
communication hub facilitated the influence of Northern varieties on Southern
dialects. The impact of Old Norse on English extended across various linguistic
aspects. Vocabulary additions from Old Norse and Old Danish included words like
"law," "husband," "fellow," "husting," and "call," expanding further with words like
"die," "take," "kin," and "knife" by the 12th century. Some words like "bairn" for
"child" still persist in Northern dialects today. Notably, the Old English word
'niman' (to take) was replaced by 'tacan,' giving rise to the modern-day "take."
Pronunciation differences between Old Norse/Danish and other regions favored
[k, g] sounds versus palatal sounds like 'kirk' for 'church' in contrast to
'Manchester' versus 'Lancaster.' Moreover, grammatical changes occurred earlier
in the North, with the disappearance of case endings showing syntactic
functions. The pronouns 'hi, hem, hiora' in Old English gradually gave way to the
Norse variants 'they, them, their.' These influences shaped the diverse linguistic
landscape of English over time.

1066-1500

The Norman Conquest

The Norman Conquest transformed England in various ways, reshaping its

organization, governance, language, and customs. This pivotal event introduced
feudalism, a hierarchical societal structure with the king at its apex. It
reorganized society, establishing a centralized administrative system that
altered how laws were enforced and justice was administered. Additionally, it
infused Anglo-Saxon English with Norman French, shaping the basis of Middle
English and influencing linguistic evolution. Norman customs blended with
existing Anglo-Saxon practices, shaping societal norms and behaviors.

Feudalism

Feudalism brought significant changes to land distribution. William the

Conqueror redistributed land among his Norman supporters, consolidating his
power base. The king retained ultimate ownership, granting land to loyal nobles
in exchange for military service and allegiance. This system established a
hierarchical structure with the king at the top, followed by nobles, knights, and
peasants, each with their distinct obligations and responsibilities. Nobles

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received land (fiefs) in return for pledging loyalty and military support, creating a
network of obligations known as vassalage.

Centralized Authority and Impact on Society

Feudalism allowed for a centralized authority under the king's control, enabling
significant power wielded by the monarch and the ability to call upon vassals for
support and resources. This significantly impacted society, fostering a
structured social order and influencing cultural practices, architecture, and
language. The fusion of Norman and Anglo-Saxon customs played a crucial role
in shaping England's identity.

Architectural Influence

The Norman Conquest notably influenced England's architecture, particularly in

the construction of castles and churches. The Normans introduced a distinctive
architectural style characterized by sturdy, massive structures with
Romanesque elements. Castles such as the Tower of London and Dover Castle
symbolized Norman power and military might. Their influence extended to
churches and cathedrals, seen in structures like Durham Cathedral and
Canterbury Cathedral, showcasing rounded arches, vaulted ceilings, and
decorative details.

Key Events and Figures

Key figures such as William the Conqueror and his successors played vital roles.
William's meticulous survey of England led to the creation of the Domesday
Book, offering a comprehensive record of feudal ties within the land. Various
events, like baronial revolts and subsequent reigns, including Henry I's period of
peace and Henry II's expansive rule, marked significant shifts in governance and
conflicts within the kingdom.

Magna Carta

Magna Carta, signed by King John in 1215 to limit royal powers, caused tension
with the barons when not followed. This led to Prince Louis of France's invasion
in 1216 after John's death. Although initially gaining control, Louis was
eventually defeated in battles in 1217, leading to the restoration of control within
England.

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KINGS, BARONS, AND WARS

The period post-Norman Conquest was marked by the reigns of several

significant monarchs. Henry III faced baronial unrest led by Simon de Montfort,
while Edward I made strides in castle building and conquests in Wales and
Scotland. Edward II's defeat at Bannockburn was followed by his eventual
downfall due to political turbulence involving his wife and her allies. Edward III, a
formidable warrior, achieved victories in France during the Hundred Years War,
revolutionizing warfare with longbow-wielding archers.

CHURCH, SOCIETY, AND CHANGE

Religious growth saw the thriving of monasteries and the emergence of

institutions aiding the poor and sick. Society underwent shifts as towns
expanded, blurring divisions between Norman and English, while the English
language gradually replaced Norman French. Commerce prospered, challenging
traditional feudal systems, and the Black Death brought about severe population
losses, labor shortages, and resistance to feudal obligations.

THE BLACK DEATH AND SOCIAL UPHEAVAL

The devastating Black Death caused immense casualties and labor shortages,
leading to demands for higher wages and resistance against feudal obligations.
The Peasants’ Revolt erupted due to grievances against oppressive measures.
Amid religious shifts critiquing church doctrines, figures like John Wycliffe and
the Lollards emerged, expressing piety through alternative means like prayers in
chapels.

DYNASTIC STRUGGLES AND THE WARS OF THE ROSES

The Lancastrian and Yorkist dynasties contended for power, marked by Henry
IV's challenges, Henry V's victory at Agincourt, and Henry VI's incompetent rule
leading to aristocratic factions fighting for control. Edward IV's victory for the
Yorkists led to further conflict and ultimately concluded with Henry Tudor's
defeat of Richard III, marking the end of the Wars of the Roses.

LINGUISTIC EVOLUTION POST-NORMAN CONQUEST

Following the Norman Conquest, French became the language of the elite and
administration, leading to the evolution of Middle English through the fusion of
Norman French and Old English. Despite the persistence of French influence in
certain domains, English gradually reasserted itself due to social integration and
political changes, ultimately becoming the dominant language in England by the

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late Middle Ages. Latin is also used as the language of administration, religion,
and scientific writing during this period.

Dialectal situation (medieval England)

OLD ENGLISH

During the era of Old English, the language spoken in ancient England, there
existed the following dialects:
West Saxon: This was a prevalent dialect, notably found in renowned
literary works and significant texts.
Mercian: Used for official purposes such as legal documents, it was
prevalent in the central regions of England.
Northumbrian: Spoken in the northern territories, this dialect was
influenced by Old Norse and Old Danish presence, evident in its unique
vocabulary.
Kentish: Used in the southeastern parts, though less recorded, it had its
distinctive traits.
These dialects differed in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar. While
speakers from different regions could often understand each other, these
differences occasionally posed challenges.

MIDDLE ENGLISH
In the period of Middle English, which followed Old English, various dialects
continued to exist. These dialects showcased diversity across different parts of
England. They can be categorized, as follows.

Southern Dialects: These dialects, including the London dialect, were

influential due to their connection with political and economic centers.
Midland Dialects: Found in the Midlands region, these dialects had their
distinct features, contributing to the evolving language.
Northern Dialects: Spoken in the northern areas, these dialects displayed
their unique vocabulary and grammar influenced by Norse languages.

Middle English Pronunciation

Middle English, spoken from around the 12th to the late 15th century, had
distinctive pronunciation compared to modern English. It featured various vowel
sounds, both short and long, along with specific consonant pronunciations.
Additionally, unique characters like the thorn (Þ/þ) and yogh (Ȝ/ȝ) represented
particular sounds in the language.

Vowel Sounds:

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Short Vowels: Pronounced briefly

"a" as in "cat," "hat"
"e" as in "met," "pen"
"i" as in "bit," "win"
"o" as in "hot," "rock"
"u" as in "cut," "bus"
Long Vowels: Pronounced for a longer duration
"a" as in "father," "bake" (also written "baak" and "baake")
"e" as in "mete," (also written "meet" and "meete")
"i" as in "time," (also written "tiim" and "tiime")
"o" as in "bone," (also written "boon" and "boone")
"u" as in "rule," (also written "ruul" and "ruule")

Consonant Sounds:

The "k" sound was similar to the modern "k" but slightly stronger.
The "th" sound, represented by the thorn (Þ/þ), resembled the "th" in "thin" or
"this" in modern English.
The yogh (Ȝ/ȝ) symbol denoted various sounds, including /g/ as in "goat" ("ȝoat")
or /j/ as in "young" ("ȝoung").

Double Vowels in Spelling:

Middle English spelling used double vowels to indicate elongated sounds:

"ee" for the long "e" sound in "meet"

"oo" for the long "o" sound in "moon"

It is important to note that present-Day English spelling reflects Middle English

pronunciation.

Middle English Grammar

In Middle English, there was a noticeable change in the way words were
structured. The language experienced a reduction in word endings (declensions)
that once indicated grammar aspects like tense, number, and case for nouns,
adjectives, and verbs.

This simplification meant fewer distinct forms for words, making the language
less complex compared to its earlier stage.

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Nouns lost some of their varied endings showing different roles in sentences. The
-s for the plural ("dogs"), and sometimes the -en ("oxen"), and the 's for the
genitive saxon ("the man's hat") were preserved

Adjectives showcase a unique behavior based on their position in a sentence.

When an adjective follows a determiner like a definite article (such as 'the'), a
genitive pronoun (like 'his' or 'her'), or a noun, it is considered 'weak.' For instance,
in phrases like 'the tall tree' or 'his strong horse,' the adjectives 'tall' and 'strong'
are considered weak because they are positioned after a determiner or a noun.
Similarly, when an adjective is used in direct address, it's also considered weak,
like 'O brave knight!'

However, when an adjective stands without a determiner or appears in the

predicate adjective position—where it describes the subject directly, like in 'the
man is old'—it is deemed 'strong.' In sentences where the adjective directly
describes the subject without a determiner, such as 'the cat is black' or 'the sky
appears blue,' the adjectives 'black' and 'blue' are in the strong form.

In Middle English, when forming comparatives and superlatives, adjectives

commonly used '-er' for the comparative form and '-est' for the superlative form,
added to the adjective stem.

For example:

Comparative: If you had an adjective like 'tall,' to compare heights, you'd say
'taller' in Middle English.
Superlative: To express the highest degree, you'd use 'tallest' by adding '-est' to
the adjective stem 'tall.'
This pattern of using '-er' for comparative degrees (to compare two things) and '-
est' for superlative degrees (to indicate the highest degree among multiple
things) was prevalent in Middle English grammar for adjectives.

Forming adverbs in Middle English was a bit different compared to modern

English. Adverbs were often created by adding '-e' directly to an adjective. For
instance, 'faire' (fair) could become 'faire-e' to convey 'fairly,' 'faste' (fast) could
transform into 'faste-e' to signify 'fastly,' and similarly, 'hoote' (hot) might change
to 'hoote-e' for 'hotly,' and 'lowe' (low) to 'lowe-e' for 'lowly.'

Additionally, another common way to form adverbs was by appending '-ly,' '-li,' or
'-liche' to an adjective. For example, 'playnly' (plainly) and 'rudeliche' (rudely)
showcase this pattern of using suffixes to convert adjectives into adverbs in
Middle English.

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In Middle English, verbs underwent changes in their endings compared to Old

English. Verbs were marked differently based on the person and number. For
instance, the first person singular used '-e,' like 'I sende,' meaning 'I send.' The
second person singular had '-est,' as in 'thou sendest' for 'you send.' Verbs in the
third person singular had '-eth,' such as 'she sendeth' for 'she sends.' Plural forms
ended with '-en,' like 'we senden,' 'ye senden,' and 'they senden' for 'we send,' 'you
send,' and 'they send,' respectively. Additionally, '-eth' could indicate the singular
imperative, as in 'trusteth wel' for 'trust well.' Verbs could be weak, forming the
past with 't' or 'd,' like 'hoped,' or strong, changing the root vowel, for instance,
'rang' from 'ring.' These alterations in verb endings and forms characterized how
actions were described and narrated in Middle English, shaping the language's
grammar and expression.

This shift marked a transition toward a more straightforward grammar system in

Middle English, setting the stage for the gradual evolution into the structure we
recognize in Modern English today.

SYNTAX: the typical word order in a sentence in Middle English was SUBJECT +
VERB + OBJECT, as in 'The bischope readeth a booke' where the bishop reads a
book. However, inversions were also common for emphasis or stylistic reasons,
like 'wol I wake,' meaning 'I shall wake up,' or 'knokke they' for 'they knock.'

Additionally, double negatives were prevalent, inherited from Old English, and
used for emphasis in negation. For instance, 'noon of us ne speke nat a word'
conveyed 'none of us says a word.' These compound negatives strengthened the
negation in a sentence, a feature distinctive in Middle English.

The Printing Press in England

The introduction of the printing press in 1476 by William Caxton marked a turning
point in book production. Its impact revolutionized how books were made,
bringing significant advantages. This innovation enabled mass production,
drastically speeding up and increasing book output. Standardization became
possible, ensuring consistent copies and greatly supporting literacy and
education. Its societal impact was profound, fostering the widespread
dissemination of knowledge and ideas, contributing significantly to the growth of
literacy rates across England. Culturally, the printing press played a crucial role in
preserving historical and cultural texts while also aiding in the standardization
and development of the English language. Overall, its transformative influence
reshaped communication, education, and cultural advancement throughout
England.

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The Modern Period (The Tudors)

Between the 8th and 11th centuries, Catholicism was the dominant religion in
England until the Tudor era. The emergence of Protestant ideas challenged
Catholic doctrines during the Reformation.

Henry VIII initiated a significant break from Rome, establishing the Church of
England and dissolving monasteries, driven by motives of political power, the
need for a male heir, and conflicts with the Pope. His Act of Supremacy in 1534
declared him the Supreme Head of the Church of England, leading to the
confiscation of monastic wealth and land redistribution.

Edward VI's reign was marked by Protestant reforms, introducing the Book of
Common Prayer in English for church services and the destruction of religious
images (iconoclasm). Mary I's rule saw a restoration of Catholicism, marked by
persecutions earning her the moniker "Bloody Mary."

Elizabeth I's era brought about a religious settlement, establishing a moderate

Protestant Church of England, fostering religious tolerance, and initiating a
Golden Age of arts and culture. Her reign showcased resilience in navigating
complex politics, patronage of the arts, a historic victory over King Phillip II of
Spain, and advancements in trade and knowledge exchange, enriching England's
landscape both economically and intellectually. Elizabeth's rule solidified unity
amidst religious diversity and left an indelible mark on England's cultural and
political history.

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