NERVOUS SYSTEM

.
The nervous system is one of the smallest (3%of the total body weight)
but the most complex of the 11 body systems
• Nerve is bundle of hundreds to thousands of axons plus associated
connective tissue and blood vessels that lies outside the brain and spinal
cord (i.e.,cranial nerves emerge from the brain and spinal nerves
emerge from the spinal cord).
• 2.Ganglia are small masses of nervous tissue, that are located outside of
the brain and spinal cord.
• 3.Entericplexuses are extensive net works of neurons located in the walls
of organs of the gastrointestinal tract (regulating the digestive system).
• 4.Sensoryreceptor refers to a structure of the nervous system that
monitors changes in the external or internal environment
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Somatic nervous system (SNS)
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
• Enteric nervous system (ENS)
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (SNS) (CONSCIOUSLY
CONTROLLED)
• 1. Sensory neurons that convey information to CNS from autonomic
sensory receptors, located primarily in visceral organs such as the
stomach and lungs
• 2. Motor neurons that conduct nerve impulses from the CNS to
smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
• Note The motor part of the ANS consists of two branches, the
sympathetic division and the para sympathetic division
ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ENS) (THE BRAIN OF
THE GUT) (INVOLUNTARY)
• 1. Sensory neurons of the ENS monitor chemical changes within the
GI tract as well as the stretching of its walls
• 2. Motor neurons govern contractions of GI tract smooth muscle to
propel food through the GI tract, secretions of GI tract organs (such as
acid from the stomach and hormones from GI tract endocrine cells)
FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1-Sensory function (detecting internal stimuli or external stimuli through
cranial and spinal nerves)
2-Integrative function (analyzing sensory information and making decisions for
appropriate responses)
3-Motor function (eliciting an appropriate motor response by activating
effectors (muscles and glands) through cranial and spinal nerves .
The nervous system is divided into:
1. Central nervous system composed of brain and spinal cord
2. The PNS consists of all nervous tissue outside the CNS, which include nerves,
ganglia, enteric plexuses, and sensory receptors
• Neuron or nerve cell is the basic unit of the nervous system.
• Neurons operate by generating electrical signals that move from
one part of the cell to another part of the same cell or to
neighboring cells.
Neurons (provide most of the unique functions of the nervous
system, such as sensing as they connect all regions of the body to
the brain and spinal cord) No ability to undergo dividing
throughout an individual’s lifetime
Neuroglia(support and protect neurons, and maintain the interstitial
fluid that bathes them)them) (they outnumber neurons) It has a
continuous ability to divide throughout an individual’s lifetime
Structure of the neuron
• Cell body: contains the nucleus and free ribosomes and rough
endoplasmic reticulum for synthesizing new proteins. ..
• Dendrites (like little trees)
• are the: a series of highly branched outgrowths of the cell body, they
and the cell body receive most of the inputs from other neurons
because they contain numerous receptor sites for binding chemical
messengers from other cells.
• Axon: transfers the electrical signals away to the terminals.
(Propagates nerve impulses toward another neuron, a muscle fiber, or
a gland cell)

• Initial segment (axon hillock): the portion of the axon closest to the
cell body plus the part of the cell body where the axon is joined. In
most neurons, the electrical signals are generated in this portion.
• The axons of most neurons are covered by myelin, which speed up
conduction of the electrical signals along the axon to conserve energy.
• Axon terminals: control communication between a neuron and
another cell by releasing neurotransmitters (chemical messenger).
ELECTRICAL SIGNALS IN NEURONS
• Neurons communicate with one another using two types of electrical
signals
1. Graded potentials (for short distance communication only)
2. Action potentials (for communication over long distances within the
body)

• RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

• The membrane potential, an electrical potential difference ( voltage )
across the membrane This voltage is termed the resting membrane
potential
• The production of graded potentials and action potentials depends on
two basic features of the plasma membrane of excitable cells
• 1. The existence of a resting membrane potential
• 2. The presence of specific types of ion channels
• The types of ion channels
• 1. Leak channels
• 2. Ligand gated channel
• 3. Mechanically gated channel
• 4. Voltage gated channel
• Leak channels
• Randomly alternate between open and closed positions
• The plasma membranes have many more potassium ion leak channels than
sodium ion leak channels
• Leak channels are found in nearly all cells, including the dendrites, cell bodies,
and axons of all types of neurons
• Ligand gated channel
• Opens and closes in response to the binding of a ligand ( stimulus (a ligand can
be including neurotransmitters (i e acetylcholine), hormones, and particular
ions)
• Ligand gated channels are located in the dendrites of some sensory neurons,
such as pain receptors, and indendrites and cell bodies of interneurons and
motor neurons
• Mechanically gated channel
• It opens or closes in response to mechanical stimulation in the form
of vibration (such as sound waves), touch, pressure, or tissue
stretching
• They are found in auditory receptors in the ears, in receptors that
monitor stretching of internal organs, and in touch receptors and
pressure receptors in the skin
• Voltage gated channel
• It opens in response to a change in membrane potential (voltage).
• They participate in the generation and conduction of action potentials
in the axons of all types of neurons
Membrane potential

• The membrane potential arises from differences in the ionic

composition of the intracellular and extracellular fluids.
• Inside a cell:
The principal cation is potassium K+, and much lower
concentration of Na+.
The principal anions are proteins, amino acids, sulfate, phosphate,
and other negatively charged. Cl- present in relatively low
concentrations.
• Outside the cell:
The principal cation is Na+ and much lower concentration of K+.
Cl- is the main anion with other anions.
Membrane potential

• All cells under resting conditions have a potential difference

across their plasma membranes with the inside of the cell
negatively charged with respect to the outside. This
potential is the Resting membrane potential.
• The membrane potential is -70 mV (means that inside the
cell negative relative to outside).

• In the plasma membrane, there are many different kinds of

selective ion channels; some allow only Na+ to cross, others
allow only K+.
Membrane potential

• The resting potential is generated across the plasma

membrane by:
Movements of sodium and potassium ions across the plasma
membrane.
K+ moves out the cell down its concentration gradient through leak
potassium channels.
A small amount (less than K+) of Na+ enters the cell down its
concentration gradient and electrical gradient (negative inside the
cell) through sodium channels.
Over time, the concentration of intracellular Na+ and K+ does not
change, because the Na+ / K+ -ATPase pump maintains the Na+ and
K+ concentrations at stable levels.
Neural Signals

• All cells have a membrane potential.

• Only certain kinds of cells, including neurons and muscle
cells, have the ability to generate changes in their
membrane potential.
Collectively these cells are called excitable cells.

• Action Potential: a rapid change in the membrane potential

of an excitable cell, caused by stimulus-triggered, selective
opening and closing of voltage-sensitive gates in sodium and
potassium ion channels.
Neural Signals

• A stimuli on neuron, makes the voltage-gated sodium

channel to open, causing an increased inflow of sodium,
which makes the membrane potential less negative and
cause a reduction in the electrical gradient.
A reduction in the electrical gradient across membrane known as
depolarization.

• If the cell responses to depolarizing stimuli reach a

particular level of depolarizing known as threshold
potential, an action potential will be triggered.
Action Potential

1. In the resting state, both the voltage-gated sodium channels and

potassium channels are closed, and the membrane‫׳‬s resting
potential is maintained.
Action Potential

2. Depolarizing phase: the action potential is generated, after the

depolarization (A) reach the threshold potential and causes more
voltage-gated sodium channels to open, and the voltage-gated
potassium channels remain closed. The movement of Na+ to inside
the cell makes the interior of the cell more positive (B).

(A)
Action Potential

(B)
Action Potential

3. Repolarizing: voltage-gated sodium channels closed and voltage-

gated potassium channels open. Potassium ions leave the cell, and
the loss of positive charge causes the inside of the cell to become
more negative than the outside of the cell.
4. Undershoot (Hyperpolarizing): voltage-gated sodium channels
remain closed, and some of the voltage-gated potassium channels
remain open making more loss for K+. Once the voltage-gated
potassium channels close, the resting membrane potential is
restored.
Action Potential

• During the undershoot period, the cell unable to trigger

other action potential, because the voltage-gated sodium
channel have not had time to reopen after the preceding
action potential.

• Cellular accumulation of sodium and loss of potassium are

prevented by the continuous action of the membrane Na+ /
K+ -ATPase pumps.
• A small hyperpolarization of the membrane potential
beyond the resting level called the afterhyperpolarization.

• Once the voltage-gated potassium channel close, the resting

membrane potential is restored.

• Action potentials either occur maximally or they do not

occur at all all-or-none.
Action Potential Propagation

• An action potential generates local currents that tend to

depolarize the membrane immediately adjacent to the
action potential.
Action Potential Propagation

• When depolarization caused by the local currents

reaches threshold a new action potential is produced
adjacent to the original one.

New
Action Potential Propagation

• Action potential propagation occurs in one direction

because the recently depolarized area of the membrane is
in absolute refractory period and cannot generate an action
potential.
• During the action potential, a second stimulus, no matter
how strong, will not produce a second action potential, and
the membrane is said to be in its absolute refractory
period.
This occurs when voltage-gated sodium channels are open and/or
when the inactivation gate of the voltage-gated sodium channel
blocks the channel at the peak of the action potential.
• Following absolute refractory period, there is an interval
during which a second action potential can be produced,
but only if the stimulus strength is considerably greater than
usual.
This is the relative refractory period.
Because of the afterhyperpolarization, the magnitude of the
depolarization needed to reach threshold potential is greater than
normal
Introduction
• There are two types of synapses:
1. Electrical synapses: in this type, the plasma membranes of
the pre- and postsynaptic cells are joined by gap
junctions.
 These allow the local currents resulting from arriving action
potentials to flow directly across the junction through the
connecting channels in either direction from one neuron to the
neuron on the other side of the junction.
2. Chemical synapses: in this type neurotransmitters
released by one neuron diffuse across an extracellular gap
to influence a second neuron‫׳‬s activity.
Functional anatomy of synapses

• Presynaptic: the transmitting

cell.
• Postsynaptic: the receiving
cell.
• Synaptic cleft: narrow extra
cellular space separating pre
and postsynaptic neurons at
chemical synapse.
Functional anatomy of synapses

• Synaptic terminal: a bulb at

the end of an axon in which
neurotransmitter molecules
are stored and release.
• Synaptic vesicles: cellular sac
structure that holds and
releases neurotransmitter at
the synapse.
• Neurotransmitters: chemical
messenger used by neurons
to communicate with each
other or with effectors.
Functional anatomy of synapses

• Postsynaptic density: area in

the postsynaptic cell
membrane that contains
neurotransmitter receptors
and structural proteins
important for synapse
function.
Synapse Action
1. When an action potential depolarizes the membrane of the
synaptic terminal, it:
2. Trigger the open of AXON 1
voltage-gated Ca++
calcium channels in
the presynaptic
2
membrane which
cause an influx of
Ca2+ into the 3
terminal.
3. The influx of calcium
ions triggers the
synaptic vesicles to
fuse with the DENDRITE
presynaptic
membrane.
Synapse Action
4. This followed
exocytosis of the
vesicle contents AXON
(neurotransmitt-
ers) into the
synaptic cleft.
5. Neurotransmitt-
ers diffuse
across the cleft
and bind to the 5
receptors of ion
channels
embedded in 4
the postsynaptic DENDRITE
membrane.
Synapse Action

6. The binding of neurotransmitter molecules to their

specific receptors opens the ion channels. The
resulting movement of ions changes the voltage of
the postsynaptic membrane, either moving the
membrane potential toward the threshold required
for an action potential (an excitatory synapse) or
hyperpolarizing the membrane (an inhibitory
synapse).

 In either case, the neurotransmitter molecules are

quickly degraded by enzymes or are taken up by
another neuron, closing the ion channels and
terminating the synaptic response.
Excitatory Chemical Synapses

• The postsynaptic response to the neurotransmitter is a

depolarization, bringing the membrane potential closer to
threshold
• The usual effect of the activated receptor on the
postsynaptic membrane at such synapses is to open
postsynaptic membrane ion channels that are permeable to
sodium, potassium, and other small, positively charged ions.
Excitatory Chemical Synapses

• These ions then are free to move according to the electrical

and chemical gradients across the membrane.
• The net movement of positive ions is into the postsynaptic
cell, causing a slight depolarization.
This potential change is called an excitatory postsynaptic potential
(EPSP)
Inhibitory Chemical Synapses

• The potential change in the postsynaptic neuron is a

hyperpolarizing graded potential called an inhibitory
postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
Modification of Synaptic Transmission by Drugs
• The great majority of drugs that act on the nervous system do so by
altering synaptic mechanisms.
• Possible action of drugs on a synapse:

A. Release and degradation of the

neurotransmitter inside the axon
terminal.
B. Increased neurotransmitter release
into the synapse.
C. Prevention of neurotransmitter
release into the synapse.
D. Inhibition of synthesis of the
neurotransmitter.
E. Reduced reuptake of the
neurotransmitter from the synapse.
Modification of Synaptic Transmission by Drugs

• Possible action of drugs on a synapse:

F. Reduced degradation of the
neurotransmitter in the synapse.
G. Agonists (evoke same response as
neurotransmitter) or antagonists
(block response to
neurotransmitter) can occupy the
receptors.
H. Reduced biochemical response
inside the dendrite.
Acetylcholine (Ach):
• A major neurotransmitters in the PNS at the neuromuscular
junction, and in the brain.
• Fibers that release Ach are called cholinergic fiber
• Ach is synthesized from choline and acetyl coenzyme A in
the cytoplasm of synaptic terminals and stored in synaptic
vesicles
• Acetylcholinesterase: enzyme located on the pre- and
postsynaptic membranes and rapidly destroyed Ach,
releasing choline and acetate