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Bilingual Speech A Typology of Code Mixing 1st Edition
Pieter Muysken Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Pieter Muysken
ISBN(s): 9780521771689, 0521771684
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 13.11 MB
Year: 2001
Language: english
B IL IN G U A L S P E E C H
A T Y P O L O G Y O F C O D E -M IX IN G

This book provides an in-depth analysis o f the different ways in which

bilingual speakers switch from one language to another in the course of
conversation. This phenomenon, known as code-mixing or code­
switching, takes many forms. Pieter M uysken adopts a comparative
approach to distinguish between the different types o f code-mixing,
drawing on a wealth o f data from bilingual settings throughout the
world. His study identifies three fundam ental and distinct patterns of
mixing - ‘insertion’, ‘alternation’ and ‘congruent lexicalization’ - and
sets out to discover whether the choice of a particular mixing strategy
depends on the contrasting grammatical properties of the languages
involved, the degree o f bilingual competence o f the speaker or various
social factors. The book synthesises a vast array of recent research in a
rapidly growing field of study which has much to reveal about the
structure and function of language.

p ie t e rm u ysk en is Professor of Linguistics and Latin American

Studies at Leiden University. He is co-editor, with Lesley Milroy, of One
Speaker, Two Languages (1995) and has published widely on A ndean
linguistics, creole studies and language contact.
BILINGUAL SPEECH
A TYPOLOGY OF CODE-MIXING

PIETER MUYSKEN

Mg C a m b r id g e
U N IV E R S IT Y PR ESS
PU B L IS H E D BY TH E PRESS S Y N D IC A T E OF TH E U N IV E R S IT Y OF C A M B R ID G E
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

C A M B R ID G E U N IV E R S IT Y PRESS
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB 2 2r u , UK www.cup.cam.ac.uk
40 West 20th Street, New York, n y 10011-4211, USA www.cup.org
10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia
Ruiz de Alarcon 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain

© Pieter Muysken 2000

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2000

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

Typeset in Times 9.5/13pt [c e ]

A catalogue recordfo r this book is available from the British Library

is b n 0521 77168 4 hardback

 CONTENTS

List o f figures page vi

List o f tables vii
Preface xi
List o f abbreviations xiv

1 The study o f code-mixing 1

2 Differences and similarities between languages 35

3 Insertion 60

4 A lternation 96

5 Congruent lexicalization 122

6 Function words 154

7 Bilingual verbs 184

8 Variation in mixing patterns 221

9 Code-mixing, bilingual speech and language change 250

References 279
Author index 298
Subject and language index 304

v
 FIG U R ES

1.1 Schematic representation of the three main styles of

code-mixing and transitions between them page 9
1.2 Schematic representation of two ways of conceptualizing
the relation between various mixing patterns 31
1.3 The present classification of language interaction phenomena
as compared with that of Myers-Scotton and Poplack 32
8.1 Localization of a num ber of contact settings involving
D utch in the triangle alternation, insertion, congruent
lexicalization 245
8.2 Localization o f a num ber of contact settings in the triangle
alternation, insertion, congruent lexicalization 246
8.3 Factors governing the choice o f a particular code-mixing
strategy in different communities 248
9.1 Typology o f language contact phenomena 265

vi
 TABLES

1.1 Classification of code-mixing theories in terms of the notions

of asymmetry, word order, categorical equivalence,
peripherality, and functional elements page 28
3.1 Features of code-mixing and borrowing according to
Sankoff and Poplack (1984) 73
3.2 Language choice for animal names, differentiated for
grammatical context and morphological shape (based on
M uysken, Kook, and Vedder 1996) 91
4.1 Num ber, percentage o f total num ber o f borrowings, and
type-token ratio (TTR) o f French words in Brussels D utch
(Treffers-Daller 1994) 99
4.2 The use of French discourse m arkers in Shaba Swahili/
French bilingual speech 112
5.1 Examples of two paradigm s in sociolinguistic research: the
variation paradigm and the code-mixing paradigm 127
5.2 M ulti-word switches in the Ottersum corpus (based on
Giesbers’ tables 4.3.2 and 4.3.5) 130
5.3 Single-word switches in the Ottersum corpus (based on
Giesbers’ tables 4.3.2 and 4.3.5) 131
5.4 Single D utch elements in the Sranan corpus (based on Bolle’s
tables 5.2 and 5.11) 139
6.1 The classification o f D utch elements in terms of a number
of the criteria listed 159
6.2 M yers-Scotton’s system for distinguishing between system
(s) and content (c) morphemes (1993b: 101) 162
6.3 Functional elements particularly affected in different linguistic
domains 171
6.4 English verbs in a Spanish grammatical context (adapted
from Pfaff 1979:299) 176

vii
List o f tables

7.1 Verb particle combinations in Sranan-D utch code-mixing

(based on Bolle 1994: 93) 187
7.2 Detailed analysis of occurrences o f doubling with Spanish
verbs that occur in four waynos or more 190
7.3 Non-loans contrasted with low and high frequency loans;
independent occurrences taken together with occurrences in
first position o f a doublet 190
7.4 The constituency o f mixed verbal compounds in Sarnami
(based on Kishna 1979) 199
7.5 The form o f the verb in mixed verbal compounds in Sarnami
(based on Kishna 1979) 201
7.6 The form of mixed verbal compounds involving a verb +
particle com bination in Sarnami (based on Kishna 1979) 202
7.7 The constituency of mixed verbal compounds in American
Greek (based on Seaman 1972) 212
7.8 The use of the Turkish verb yap- ‘do’ in three generations
of Turkish migrants in the Netherlands (based on data in
Backus 1996: 192, table 5.1) 213
7.9 Summary o f the arguments given so far, and their implication
for the nominalization, inflection-carrier, and adjunction
analyses 218
7.10 Classification of the bilingual verbs in the different settings
in terms of the notions insertion (finite, infinitive, compound),
alternation, and congruent lexicalization 220
8.1 Diagnostic features o f the three patterns of code-mixing 230
8.2 Relative proportion of different categories involved in mixes
from Spanish to English in Pfaff (1979) and Poplack (1980)
(discounting 747 single noun mixes in Pfaff’s table 5) 232
8.3 A quantitative survey o f the sample sentences cited in the
major sources for Spanish/English code-mixing in the
United States 233
8.4 Code-mixes in Spanish/English in New York (based on
Poplack 1980: 602), but with the percentages calculated across
the switch directions rather than for the categories switched
in one direction, as in the original table 235
8.5 Directionality of multi-word switches in M oroccan Arabic
(M A )/D utch (Du) code-switching (based on N ortier’s
table 7.4, 1990: 126) 236
8.6 Directionality of single word switches in M oroccan Arabic
 List o f tables

(M A )/D utch (Du) code-switching (based on N ortier’s table

7.15, 1990: 141) 237
8.7 Features of the corpus o f M oroccan A rabic-D utch switching
(based on N ortier 1990) 238
8.8 Single-word mixes in the N airobi corpus (based on Myers-
Scotton 1993b) 239
8.9 EL islands (multi-word mixes) in the N airobi corpus
(based on M yers-Scotton 1993b) 239
9.1 The relation of the three mixing strategies to the processes
of contact-induced language change 274
 PREFACE

This book is an attem pt to analyse the recent work on code-mixing and code­
switching from a single grammatical perspective and to relate it to the general
study of gram m ar contact. Since code-mixing research is being carried out in
many different places and by many different researchers, by necessity my
book cites m any studies by others. R ather than mostly reporting on my own
data, I discuss a great many data sets (many of which were gathered in recent
master’s and doctoral dissertations in the Netherlands) and analyses. The
reason for this is that I feel this is the only way to advance at the present
stage, which is characterized by a proliferation of case-studies in many
locations. Thus I w ant to use this occasion to gratefully acknowledge my
indebtedness to all researchers in the field of language contact studies, and
apologize beforehand for remaining errors in the interpretation of their data
and views.
In early 1981 I was working with two colleagues in Montreal: A nna-M aria
DiSciullo, who had participated in a study of the Italo-Quebecois speech
community and is also a member o f this community, and Rajendra Singh,
expert on Hindi/English code-mixing and an accomplished switcher himself.
We applied the theory of grammatical government to bilingual speech data
and proposed that language mixing was structurally constrained by the
government relation, just then being introduced into generative linguistics. In
later research this constraint turned out to make the wrong predictions, but
the insight behind it still has some value, independent of the theoretical
framework adopted. Here I will try to use notions that are as little theory
specific as possible, although I cannot eradicate my background in theoretical
generative linguistics. This book could not have been written without my
participation in the Network on Code-Switching and Language Contact of
the European Science Foundation (1990-1992). This network involved a
number of meetings which did much to stimulate interest in this area and to
bring together interested researchers. For me it was an intense learning
experience. I w ant to thank all participants with whom I had the opportunity

xi
 ]

Preface

to discuss the issues at hand, Penelope Gardner-Chloros and Georges Liidi

for setting up the network, and W outer Hugenholtz and Pat Cosgrove for
keeping it intact.
I want to dedicate this work to my students. A number of students in
Amsterdam wrote m aster’s and doctoral theses that have been im portant for
me both because of the insights gained and for the rich data sets made
available. In chronological order these include:

• Sita Kishna worked on Sarnami (Hindustani) and argued in

detail that there is no difference between insertional code-mixing
and borrowing;
• R ob Cram a and Heleen van Gelderen studied Dutch/English
code-mixing and underlined the importance of hom ophonous
diam orphs in facilitating mixing;
• Jacomine Nortier, in her careful study of Moroccan A rabic/
D utch code-mixing tested many constraints in the literature
against her data and dem onstrated the complete empirical inade­
quacy of the government constraint;
• Jeanine Treffers-Daller showed the importance of peripherality
in Brussels D utch/French code-mixing: many instances turned
out to involve the margins of the clause rather than core
elements;
• Liesbeth Adelmeijer focussed on Dutch/English code-mixing and
argued for the importance of looking at surface rather than
underlying word order in accounting for mixing possibilities;
• Peter Bakker showed in his study of Michif, the language of
C ree-French métis that emerged in the early nineteenth century
in C anada, that out of mixing a whole new language can emerge;
• Silvia Kouwenberg, in her description and analysis of Berbice
D utch Creole, showed the importance of surface convergence
patterns in language change;
• Jette Bolle dem onstrated how diverse the patterns of mixing
become when two languages in contact - Surinamese D utch and
the version of Sranan creole spoken in Amsterdam - are very
similar;
• R osita Huwaë, in her work on Moluccan M alay/D utch language
contact underlines the historical dimension: different layers of
contact varieties coexist in this very complex bilingual community;
• Vincent de Rooij studied Swahili/French mixing patterns and
carefully analysed the French discourse markers in Swahili

X ll
 Preface

bilingual speech, arguing that saliency contributes to the

switching of French conjunctions through paratactic adjunction.

Their work is more explicitly cited in the text and referenced in the
bibliography. I have tried to give detailed citations for examples of code-
mixing cited from various studies, except where I was fortunate enough to be
able to use some of the raw data collected by various researchers. In these
cases I have cited the main publication coming out of that research. Here I
want to thank particularly Rosita Huwaë, Sita Kishna, Vincent de Rooij,
and Jeanine Treffers-Daller for making their data available to me.
I should also mention the work of several fellow researchers from other
Dutch universities: H erm an Giesbers (Nijmegen) carefully collected and
analysed materials on D utch dialect/standard code-switching; Rik
Boeschoten (Tilburg) pointed to the importance of asymmetry in mixing
patterns, particularly of first generation migrants; Ad Backus (Tilburg) was
the first to explore the variety of mixing patterns found in a number of
different networks among several generations o f Turkish migrants; Henk de
Wolf (Utrecht) initiated the m odern study o f Frisian/D utch code mixing;
finally Louis Boumans (Nijmegen) studied the dynamics in the evolving
Morccan A rabic/D utch bilingual community.
Other names o f colleagues that immediately come to mind for special
thanks include René Appel, Hugo Baetens-Beardsmore, Abdelâli Bentahila,
Lynne D rapeau, Penelope G ardner-Chloros, François Grosjean, Helena
Halmari, Roeland van H out, Annick De Houwer, Georges Liidi, Jürgen
Meisel, Lesley Milroy, Carol M yers-Scotton, Carol Pfaff, Petr Pitha, Shana
Poplack, H enriette Schatz, Andrée Tabouret-Keller. In addition I want to
thank a num ber o f generations of undergraduate students at the Linguistics
Departm ent o f the University of Amsterdam for suffering through a series of
confused lectures and seminars full of half-baked ideas. Vincent de Rooij,
Jeanine Treffers-Daller, Carol Myers-Scotton, Rik Boeschoten, Suzanne
Romaine, M artin Haase, and various anonymous readers for the publisher
commented on earlier versions o f this manuscript.
Finally, I w ant to thank the N etherlands Institute for Advanced Studies
(NIAS) for making it possible to complete a first draft of this book during
the academic year 1995/96 in an atmosphere both relaxing and inspiring, and
Pilar van Breda-Burgueno for helping with corrections of the manuscript.
Citi Potts of Cambridge University Press caught a great number of the
remaining errors.
 ABBREVIATIONS

A adjective
ABL ablative case
AC accusative case
A DV adverb
AF affirmative
AG agentive
agr agreement
A LL allative
APPL applicative
ASP aspect
AUX auxiliary
BEN benefactive
C clause
CA U causative
CIS cislocative (near or toward speaker)
CO N J coordinating conjunction
COM P complementizer, subordinating conjunction
CO N N connective
CONSEC consecutive
COP copula
CPR co-preterite
DA dative
DEF definite
D EM demonstrative
D ET determiner
D IM diminutive
DO direct object
DUB dubitative
DUR durative
EL embedded language

xiv
 List o f abbreviations

EMPH emphatic
ESS essive case
Excl exclusive
F feminine
Fr formative
FOC focus
FU future tense
GE genitive
HAB habitual
I- internal (language)
IA intransitive action
ILL illative
IM imperative
IMPF imperfective
IND indicative
INDEF indefinite
INF infinitive
INFL inflection (node)
INS instrumental
INT intensive
IO indirect object
IP inflection phrase
LO locative
M masculine
ML m atrix language
N noun
N C 1 ,2 ,. . . noun class 1,2, ...
NEG negation element
NOM nominalizer
NON-PST non-past (often present) tense
0 object
P adposition
PAR partitive
PA RTI, 2, .... participle 1,2, ...
PERF perfective aspect
PL plural marker
POSS possessive
PP past participle
PP adpositional phrase
PR progressive aspect
xv
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