European Journal of Soil Science

OPINION

Vital for Sustainable Agriculture: Pedological Knowledge

and Mapping
José A. M. Demattê1 | Budiman Minasny2 | Alfred E. Hartemink3

1Universityof São Paulo, Department of Soil Science, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil | 2Sydney Institute of
Agriculture, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia | 3Department of Soil and
Environmental Sciences, FD Hole Soils Lab, University of Wisconsin-­Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA

Correspondence: José A. M. Demattê ([email protected])

Received: 19 September 2024 | Revised: 8 December 2024 | Accepted: 20 December 2024

Funding: This work was supported by Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo—FAPESP (2014/22262-­0 and 2021/05129-­8).

Keywords: pedology | pedotechnologies | science communication | soil health | soil tillage

ABSTRACT
Over the past 60 years, efforts to enhance agricultural productivity have mainly focussed on optimising strategies such as the
use of inorganic fertilisers, advancements in microbiology and improved water management practices. Here, we emphasise the
critical role of pedology as a foundation in soil management and long-­term sustainability. We will demonstrate how overlooking
the intrinsic properties of soils can result in detrimental effects on soil and overall sustainability. Communication between aca-
demia, extension experts, consultants and farmers often results in an overemphasis on the surface layer, for example, 20 to 40 cm,
neglecting the functions that occur at depth. Soil health and regenerative agriculture must be coupled with an understanding
of how soil functions as a dynamic system. We find that pedological knowledge and digital soil mapping technologies are un-
derused for achieving sustainable agriculture. By bridging the gap between pedology and emerging agricultural technologies, we
can provide land users with the tools needed to make informed decisions, ensuring that their practices not only increase produc-
tion but also preserve the health of the soil for future generations.

1   |   Background Soil is defined differently by scientists, and its definition has

changed over time (Hartemink and Bockheim 2024; McBratney
Global food demand is projected to increase by up to 62% be- and Hartemink 2024). According to Soil Survey Staff (2014),
tween 2010 and 2050 due to population growth, climate change, ‘soil is a natural body comprised of solids (mineral and organic
and other social drivers (Van Dijk et al. 2021), necessitating a matter), liquid, and gases that occur on the land surface, occu-
near doubling of crop production (Tilman et al. 2011). Achieving pies space and is characterised by one or both of the following:
this level of productivity requires improved soil management, horizons, that are distinguishable from the initial material as
genetic cultivars, and climate neutral farming. However, the soil a result of additions, losses, transfers, and transformations of
itself has been overlooked, and it is crucial to refocus attention energy and matter or the ability to support rooted plants in a
on its importance. From a historical point of view, soils were not natural environment’.
given much prominence in the 1990s, but they gained strength
after the 2000s driven by their role in climate change mitigation First, we will clarify some terminologies. Soil attributes refer to
strategies and the advancement of digital soil mapping tech- soil's components, properties or characteristics, such as colour,
niques. While soil science has advanced in general topics, the calcium, potassium (K), clay, sand and mineralogy. Soil types,
field of pedology has been systematically marginalised. or classes, represent the integration of soil attributes within the

© 2025 British Society of Soil Science.

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determine how soils should be made productive. Inorganic fer-
Summary tilisers are the most commonly adopted practice by farmers in
many parts of the world. This emphasis has massively increased
• In-­depth pedological knowledge is key to long-­term
soil sustainability. food production, but P and K are examples of finite resources
and their use should be optimised for long-­term sustainability.
• Emphasis on fertilisers often neglects the dynamic Nitrogen, despite not being finite, has the potential to pollute
functions beneath soil surfaces. surface and groundwater, and contribute to greenhouse gas
• Bridging pedology and agricultural technology em- emissions. Most fertiliser recommendations are based on the
powers farmers to boost productivity and sustainably. topsoil, that is, less than 40 cm soil depth. Falcão et al. (2024)
• Soil mapping can enhance informed decision-­making, found that among 456 respondents to a questionnaire, farm
improving soil management and productivity. managers rely on nutrient management plans as their main
strategy for achieving high crop yields, with other factors, such
as erosion control, receiving less attention.
three-­dimensional soil body. This comprehensive understanding
is then categorised and named through a taxonomic system. Soil In the past 20 years, soil texture and soil organic carbon have
class mapping or pedological mapping involves delineating the gained attention as indicators of soil quality or health, but the
boundaries of different soil types and producing a map that allows focus has still been limited to the top 40 cm. Can soil water dy-
users to identify their locations. In contrast, soil attribute mapping namics, such as drainage, be fully explained by topsoil texture?
focuses on creating maps that depict the spatial distribution of spe- Can we explore the alternatives to mechanical strategies of till-
cific soil attributes, such as clay content or nutrient levels, across a age without knowing the subsoil condition? While soil physical,
given area. Pedology is the scientific study of soil that studies soil chemical, mineralogical and biological properties are all import-
formation, processes, soil types and how they function as a three-­ ant, they must be considered within the entire soil profile. A ho-
dimensional body. Soil productivity can be defined as the capac- listic understanding of these topics cannot be achieved if the soil
ity of soil to produce crops. Agronomic studies mostly focus on profile and its position in the landscape are not considered. For
the topsoil, whereas pedology includes the B horizon and greater example, three soil classes (Ferralsol, Lixisol and Gleysol) may
depths. The comprehension of the complete soil body, with its at- have similar topsoil properties but their vertical and horizontal
tributes, can provide a better understanding of how the solution water fluxes differ, influencing soil productivity. Furthermore,
dynamics will make the user to decide the correct practice (soil we aim to show how a 3D body function due to its distinct mor-
conservation, tillage, carbon (C) and microorganisms dynamics, phology, mineralogy, chemistry, depth and water drainage that
drainage and others) and, finally, reach the greater productivity. can impact in several topics such as root rot, nutrients absorp-
tion, soil erosion, soil mechanical tillage, microbiotic and carbon
Concepts such as soil quality and soil health have emerged as degradation, which affects all the system since soil health and
frameworks for evaluating the soil's capacity to support produc- productivity.
tivity and sustain ecosystem functions (Bünemann et al. 2018).
These frameworks rely on measurable indicators to assess soil An issue in this discussion is that understanding and applica-
conditions and their ability to perform critical roles, with a pri- tion of soil knowledge vary among academia, farmers, consul-
mary focus on biomass production. There is a growing interest in tants and other stakeholders, leading to inconsistencies in its
measuring topsoil attributes – such as organic matter, clay con- interpretation and use. This disconnect reflects a communi-
tent, or phosphorus (P) levels—as indicators of soil quality and cative and cognitive dissonance between these communities
health that coincide with a range of new measuring techniques. (Bicalho and Peixoto 2016). To bridge this gap, new interdisci-
Although, soil is a complex, three-­dimensional system com- plinary approaches are needed to enhance the understanding of
posed of numerous interrelated physical, chemical and biological the interactions among the various factors that influence crop
properties that collectively enable it to perform a wide range of growth and farm decision-­making (Bouma et al. 1999). Figure 1
ecosystem functions. Restricting soil evaluation to measurable illustrates how soils are perceived by different stakeholders.
topsoil attributes (or only to specific attributes) implies overlook-
ing interactions among deeper soil horizons and morphology All soil science subdisciplines are important for understand-
and is critical to the soil's long-­term functioning (Evangelista ing soil productivity, yet pedology is understudied. Soil science
et al. 2024). Here, we will review how pedology contributes to courses for an undergraduate university degree typically cover
understanding soil productivity by integrating knowledge of soil a broad range of topics, including soil formation, geology, min-
types, properties, and formation processes with practical man- eralogy, soil physics, soil chemistry and soil biology, which
agement strategies. Through a series of case studies, we will are foundational for understanding soil. It is crucial to recog-
present the role the importance of pedology in many disciplines. nise that attributes like clay content represent only individual
We also aim to discuss on how we can effectively manage soil if components of the soil, and not the soil itself. Pedology is the
the agronomic (in all aspects, fertility, mechanical, microbiologi- discipline that provides a holistic understanding of soil as an
cal, tillage) research is largely limited to the topsoil. integrated system. Soil classification, one aspect of pedology,
is the closest we come to defining the soil as an individual en-
tity, combining various characteristics to capture its complex-
2   |   The Importance of Pedology ity and uniqueness. For example, stating ‘Ferralsol’ provides
important, but limited information. If we specify that it is a
Over the past 60 years or so, agriculture has predominantly ‘low base saturation, clayey Rhodic Ferralsol’ the description
focussed on soil chemistry, soil fertility and other strategies to is more detailed. This class provides information on some of its

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FIGURE 1    |    Illustration of how different stakeholders look at soils, the disciplines and towards sustainable actions.

characteristics and functions: deep, clayey from surface to sub- when integrated with taxonomic survey and mapping systems
soil, well-­drained, with excellent microaggregation and micro- (Schoenholtz, Miegroet, and Burger 2000).
pores, no coarse fragments, a low weathering index with high
oxides (haematite), minerals with a high point of zero charge, a Others have used several soil properties to assess soil quality or
predominance of positive charges and no physical impediments. productivity. Vogel et al. (2019) evaluated the potential of soils in
From this, we can infer agronomic implications such as a risk Germany at the farm level to produce wheat using topsoil water
for soil compaction, P fixation, low erosion risk, good drainage, availability, C stock, and soil texture. Huang, Hartemink, and
water retention and workability. Kucharik (2021) evaluated the effect of texture and soil organic
carbon (SOC) concentration as indicators of yield responses of
However, Pedology courses tends to concentrate mostly on soil seven major crops grown in the United States from 1958 to 2019.
formation, morphology and classification and sometimes on soil Clearly, one or a few topsoil properties were not enough to deter-
mapping. Some of these aspects are not connected to the prac- mine crop productivity.
tical implications of soil productivity, leaving an underexplored
link between pedology and agricultural applications (Figure 1). A variety of soil and land evaluation systems, such as ALES
and the FAO land evaluation frameworks, incorporate pedo-
Precision agriculture (PA) gained prominence after 1990 and logical knowledge (Bouma 1989). The core strength of these
is an example of these disconnections. Initially, it focussed systems lies in pedology's holistic approach, which considers
on applying variable rates of fertilisers based on soil vari- the entire soil profile where water and nutrients are absorbed
ability. The U.S. National Research Council expanded this by plants, offering a comprehensive understanding of soil
definition, describing PA as ‘…a management strategy that function and its role in supporting productivity. Digital soil
uses information technologies to integrate data from mul- mapping of entire soil profiles, combined with digital land
tiple sources to inform decisions related to crop production’ suitability assessments, has been demonstrated to be effec-
(Bouma et al. 1999). Despite the wide definition, the focus may tive in identifying agricultural potential in Tasmania (Kidd
have led to uncertain explanations for variable productivity. et al. 2015). However, these foundational works were often
The system primarily focuses on the topsoil, which does not neglected in contemporary practices. This neglect may stem
offer the insights provided by a detailed soil survey. For ex- from the requirement for detailed soil surveys, which are
ample, soil productivity improvements may be closely linked often impractical or infeasible at the farm scale.
to drainage, which depends on both vertical and horizontal
water flow within the soil profile (Schoenholtz, Miegroet, and
Burger 2000). Accurate assessment of drainage potential re- 3   |   The Importance of the Deep Soil
quires detailed observations of the entire soil profile, which
is often not observed by PA techniques. Moreover, delineating Most agricultural crop roots are concentrated in the topsoil.
the natural productive potential of soils can be more precise However, Wild (1988) demonstrated that for wheat, roots at

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FIGURE 2    |    (a) Illustration of the soil water dynamics in a soil profile and its impact on plant development; (b) WDP, water storage capacity
along a profile into two different soils; and (c) results of application of gypsum in the same soils at (b) (Both [b and c], source: Prado 2013).

1 m depth accounted for only 3% of total root mass but contrib- productivity, categorised from A (high potential) to G (low poten-
uted to 20% of the total water uptake. Landell et al. (2003) ob- tial) (Demattê and Demattê 2009). For over 25 years, SEPP has
served that while root density is higher at the surface, surface particularly been used to evaluate soil potential for sugarcane
water often carries nutrients deeper into the soil. If roots extend production and now science has started to seek the same track
into the subsoil, they can continue to absorb water and nutri- over eucalyptus and soybean.
ents, directly impacting plant productivity. In some Ferralsols
with low-­activity clays and a low pH in the subsoil, an anion Low pH in the subsoil creates an unfavourable environment for
exchange capacity (AEC) may be developed, which can be sat- most roots (except tea and pineapple), impairing the absorption
urated with nitrate that can be taken up by deep-­rooting crops of water and nutrients. Figure 2b compares root development
(Hartemink et al. 2000). On the other hand, high base satura- between a high and low base saturation of Ferralsol, with the
tion Rhodic Ferralsols have also been found (Klamt and Van former supporting greater root depth and the latter limiting it.
Reeuwijk 2000). Other topics such as deep soil texture (Shepard Subsoil acidity is a common issue in highly weathered soils, and
et al. 2015) and carbon (Dubeux et al. 2024) may impact culture pedological knowledge can help identify its occurrence and sug-
development as well. These complex combinations of character- gest remediation strategies. For instance, applying gypsum, a
istics and their interpretation come directly from pedologists. At soluble amendment, supplies calcium and sulphur to deeper soil
this point, there is a gap between all communities (Figure 1), layers, promoting root growth (Figure 2c) (Toma et al. 1999).
where are still not well established nor aligned, which may take Figure 3 highlights that roots can extend beyond the 0–40 cm
to incorrect decisions, as observed in the case studies below. layer across different crops.

Adequate conditions for deep root growth may reduce stress

caused by water deficits (Gewin 2010) as greater root mass al- 4   |   The Importance of Soil Maps
lows plants to exploit a larger soil volume and increase the root
contact with the soil solution (Balbinot Jr et al. 2018). This en- Most farmers and consultants focus on applying fertilisers and
hanced root–soil interaction improves nutrient uptake efficiency other strategies without detailed knowledge of the soil type. For
(Goss et al. 1993), supporting plant growth and productivity example, when asked, ‘What soil type do you have?’ a typical re-
(Figure 2a). Heinen et al. (2021) ratified the importance of deep sponse might be ‘clayey’ or ‘high fertility’. Such descriptions are
roots in pine forestry studies as well. insufficient because a soil can be clayey but shallow (e.g., lithic),
or fertile but poorly drained.
In Brazil, Landell et al. (2003) demonstrated that the B horizon
influences productivity, building on research conducted across In practice, these professionals rely on empirical observations to
São Paulo state by Copersucar (1997). This study used soil maps guide soil management for specific soil types (Barrera-­Bassols
combined with sugarcane yield data, revealing a strong correla- and Zinck 2003). However, many have insufficient pedological
tion between soil type and crop yield. Based on this approach, knowledge and require expert advice. Soil maps offer a precise
the Soil Environment Potential Productivity (SEPP) system was and technical understanding of the spatial distribution of soils
developed in Brazil. SEPP integrates soil classification, texture, and may provide insights into where management efforts should
fertility, water retention, soil depth and climate to assess soil be focussed (Figure 1). The maps show the distribution of differ-
potential. It evaluates soil maps for a range of suitability and ent soil types and provide information on potential productivity,

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FIGURE 3    |    (a) Roots of cotton affected by low pH (Mato Grosso State Foundation), (b) chemical impediment for sugar cane roots (São Paulo state,
Brazil), (c) chemical impediment of Eucalyptus roots (Paraná state, Brazil), (d) oat roots in a Cambisol reaching 2 m (Paulo Ivanir Gubiane), (e) size
of coffee roots in sandy, alic soils (São Paulo state, photo, Gabriel Pimenta), (f) roots of coffee reaching 1.8 m (São Paulo state, Brazil), (g) roots of
grass reaching 2 m depth (Fábio Ferreira e Matheus Marque), (h) roots of coffee reaching 2 m depth nuclear photograph (Victor Monseff de Almeida
Campos, Minas Gerais State, Brazil).

FIGURE 4    |    Comparison of the number of publications on agriculture, fertility and pedology with agriculture and soil productivity. Data from
Scopus (2024).

suitability for specific crops, and the proportions of each soil primarily focussing on soil attribute mapping rather than map-
type within an area (Greschuk et al. 2023). This information is ping soil classes (e.g., McBratney, Santos, and Minasny 2003;
crucial for planning crop cultivation costs, assessing land value, Lagacherie 2008; Ma et al. 2019) and soil types (de Arruda
and estimating potential yields. et al. 2016; Ramirez-­Lopez et al. 2018). When examining soil
fertility, we observe a clear upward trend since 1985, with sig-
The scientific literature on pedology and agriculture has nificant growth and an exponential increase after 2014. This
been stable for over 30 years (Figure 4). In contrast, interest trend is similar to many other disciplines, surpassing pedology
in digital soil mapping has grown significantly since 2000, as well.

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5   |   The Role of Pedology in Soil Carbon and Soil of Brazil, Mexico and Paraguay. The land manager could be a
Health Studies farmer, consultant or other stakeholder (Figure 1).

There is a growing body of research on soil carbon, soil Case 1 relates to a farmer with a limited pedological knowledge
health, soil microbes and new inorganic fertilisers. Bünemann in Paraná state, Brazil. The farmer had two sandy fields with
et al. (2018) reviewed 62 studies proposing frameworks for soil different productivity. When asked, ‘Do you have sandy soils on
quality and health, but none of them emphasised the importance your farm’? the farmer responded, ‘Yes, and one is very produc-
of the subsoil. Vidal (2023) provided a compilation of critiques tive’. Upon inspection, both fields had indeed sandy textures.
on soil quality while Fey and Mcdanel (2024) indicate a lack of The farmer explained, ‘We conducted texture analysis down to
pedology point of view in this matter. The key issue is that while 40 cm and applied a good amount of fertilizers’. However, they
we are moving towards new concepts, we may be neglecting the continued, ‘We have another sandy area where we applied the
concept of how soil functions. same treatments, but it didn't produce as well’. To investigate
this further, soil pits were dug in each field. The more productive
Soil carbon sequestration is intricately linked to soil mineralogy field had a 50-­cm sandy horizon (140 g kg−1 clay content) with a
(Rasmussen et al. 2018). The same applies to soil health, which clayey layer underneath (500 g kg−1 clay content), and the soil
tends to lack a deep understanding of soil as a profile. For in- was classified as a Lixisol (Figure 5a). The less productive field
stance, soil carbon is treated as the main indicator, with carbon had a deep (2 m) sandy soil (less than 140 g kg−1 clay in the whole
stock and saturation sometimes estimated based on bulk density profile), and the soil was classified as an Arenosol. The Lixisol
and clay content. Rodríguez-­A lbarracín et al. (2023) demon- retained more water and nutrients in subsoil compared to the
strated that soils with different mineral compositions, such as Arenosol. For 10 years, the farmer tried to improve productivity
goethite and haematite, can have varying carbon stocks, even if on the Arenosol through fertilisation and other strategies (PA as
they have the same clay content. well, accompained by agronomists…) but never looked at what
type of soil they had.
The dynamics of SOC are influenced by the same factors that gov-
ern soil formation, including climate, organisms, parent material, In Mexico (Case 2), a group of farmers/consultants with lim-
relief and time. Consequently, the potential for soil C sequestra- ited pedological knowledge attempted to cultivate sugarcane,
tion and storage is affected by these factors (Padarian et al. 2022). but could not identify the reasons for the low productivity.
The role of mineralogy in determining this potential has been Afterwards, and during fieldwork, we observed that 80% of the
highlighted in previous studies (Gray, Bishop, and Wilson 2015; area was dominated by Gleysols and Planosols, characterised by
Wiesmeier et al. 2010), along with the impact of land use (Adhikari poor drainage and redoximorphic features that lead to root rot
et al. 2014; Hobley et al. 2015) and microbial activity, which influ- (Figure 5b). The land had already been cultivated, resulting in
ences the degree of SOM decomposition (De Beeck, Persson, and low productivity and high plant mortality due to root rot. Such
Tunlid 2021) and C stabilisation (Nicolás et al. 2018). issues should have been identified prior to cultivation. To miti-
gate the problem, one potential solution is to implement a drain-
Many studies are focussing on characterising carbon in mineral-­ age system, provided it complies with legal regulations and the
associated organic matter (MAOM) and particulate organic cost–benefit analysis justifies the investment.
matter (POM) (Lavallee, Soong, and Cotrufo 2020; Minasny and
McBratney 2024). Yet, most literature only discussed the role of In Paraguay (Case 3), stakeholders, based on their moderate pe-
climate and vegetation in controlling their spatial distribution dology knowledge, observed a flat relief suitable for mechanised
(Zhou et al. 2024). Rodríguez-­A lbarracín et al. (2024) found that cropping and decided to cultivate Eucalyptus across 10,000 ha.
the interaction between microbial activities and soil minerals Soil analysis was conducted for 0–40 cm depth and it was found
improves predictions of carbon sequestration. This emphasises to be fertile with an optimal pH, but slightly sandy (230 g kg−1
the significance of minerals, as well as microbiological factors clay). After planting, the stakeholders noticed that the field was
such as the abundance and activities of microbes, alongside flooded during the rainy season, and the cultivated crop did not
MAOM and POM. develop well. Later, observations of soil pits presented sandy tex-
ture up to 60 cm depth, but the subsoil had a high clay content
Soil mineralogy is a major driver of soil dynamics, yet neither (around 600 g kg−1). Additionally, the subsoil had a grey colour,
most farmers/consultants/extension workers (Figure 1) nor stan- was plastic when wet, and hard when dry, with 2:1 minerals.
dard soil laboratories conduct this type of analysis. Admittedly, This is indicative of a Planosol which has periodic water stag-
it is challenging, time-­consuming and expensive to measure, but nation. The subsoil had salinity and sodicity problems as well
soil spectroscopy has been capable of detecting and quantifying (not detected on surface analysis). The soil would probably be
these elements since the 1970s. The fundamentals are known more suitable for rice cultivation. The planted trees, Eucalyptus,
(Stenberg et al. 2010, Viscarra-­Rossel et al. 2016, Rosin et al. experienced stunted growth and failed due to waterlogging
2023), so laboratories should improve and go forward (Demattê (Figure 5c).
et al. 2019; Ma et al. 2023).
In Case 4 (Tocantins state, Brazil), we will compare two farmers
decisions. Farmer 1, lacking pedological knowledge, had been
6   |   Case Studies applying fertilisers to their field for over 8 years and using PA
systems. Despite this, soybean plant growth was inconsistent,
Based on these observations, we will describe some case stud- with yields fluctuating between good and poor. In contrast,
ies relating to land use planning and pedology in several states Farmer 2 (with pedological knowledge), the neighbour of Farmer

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FIGURE 5    |    (a) Case 1-­central Brazil; (b) Case 2 -­Mexico; (c) Case 3 -­Paraguay; the horizons show the soil depths related to where the farmer
looks at, in this case, usually making boreholes to 0–40 cm or maximum 0–60 cm, but the information of the Planosol is below 80 cm; the position
in the landscape shows that it is not completely flat and still has flooding; plants shows different root development due to the redox environment.

1, planned to convert grasslands to soybean cultivation and con- They observed two field-­sites, about 500 m apart (Figure 6b),
ducted a soil survey (Figure 6a). The mapping revealed predom- managed identically but with different levels of crop produc-
inance of Petric Plinthosols in the area and in the whole region. tivity. One field had a very clayey, deep, red Ferralsol, allow-
These soils have a consolidated petroplinthic layer at 60 cm (with ing soybean roots to penetrate over 1.2 m, resulting in high
depth variation along the landscape), restricting water drainage. productivity. The second field had also deep and very clayey
Plant roots may reach this layer but have difficulties to grow fur- soils, but soybean yields were much lower. The farmer noticed
ther due to poor aeration caused by excess water. Additionally, that the low-­y ield area dried out within 1–3 days after rain,
these soils contain large amounts of coarse fragments, with low whereas the high-­y ield area retained moisture over 15 days.
retention of the nutrients. Farmer 2 decided against planting soy- We measured pH in KCl and H₂O and calculated the weath-
beans and maintain grasslands. Meanwhile, Farmer 1, expanded ering index (ki) to a depth of 120 cm. The low-­y ield area had a
their plantation by acquiring additional land, without knowing ki of 0.5, compared to 1.5 in the high-­y ield one. The high-­y ield
the prevalence of the Petric Plintosols, continuing with a low soil was identified as a Rhodic Ferralsol (in this case, with
productivity until reaching unsuitable soil conditions. high and important base saturation for the plant at 120 cm
depth), while the low-­y ield soil was an Acric Rhodic Ferralsol,
In central Brazil (Case 5, state of Goiás), a farmer with a which has a low cation exchangeable capacity and does not
moderate pedological knowledge planted 500 ha of soybeans. retain nutrients nor water despite having about 700 g kg−1 clay.

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FIGURE 6    |    (a) Soil management in Petric Plinthosols and (b) Ferralsols with different chemistry indicators. Areas in Tocantins and Goiás state
of Brazil, respectively.

The farmer had been relying on conventional analysis of pH Ferralsol would be high, it would be suboptimal on the Arenosol.
in CaCl₂ down to 40 cm depth. The pH in CaCl₂ is effective Could the yield on the Arenosol be improved? Instead of compen-
for determining lime and fertiliser requirements but does not sating for the soil's limitations with excessive fertilisers—which
identify the Acric attribute, which requires pH in KCl and primarily benefit surface roots and often leach into the subsoil
H₂O. The response for the productivity issue was in soil min- due to the Arenosol's low pH, water retention and strong drain-
eralogy and not other topics. Once the correct diagnosis was age—pedology provides a better solution. By understanding the
made, appropriate management actions were implemented, mentioned Arenosol's characteristics and functioning, the im-
including soil physical and water conservation practices, tai- pacts of poor fertility and limited subsoil root penetration may be
lored fertilisation, gypsum application to encourage deeper anticipated. Due to this, the farmer could select a more resilient
rooting, maintaining soil cover during the rainy season, and cultivar suited to these conditions, maximising cost-­effectiveness.
improved tillage techniques. Certainly, other practices may be adopted as well.

In another case (6), the farmer was reluctant to create a soil-­ This issue is common in Brazil (Demattê and Demattê 2009;
type map and could not distinguish between them in their field Greschuk et al. 2023), where fertilisers applied to less fertile soils
(Figure 7a). Instead, they focussed on soil attribute maps (such like Arenosols often leach into the subsoil, highlighting the im-
as topsoil clay content, Figure 7b, and P levels, Figure 7c), but portance of integrating pedological knowledge into agricultural
nothing regarding soil types, despite oriented by many fields practices. Despite chemistry, mechanical practices also overes-
experts. The farmer planted the same sugarcane cultivar timate pedological knowledge as well. It is common to perform
across the entire area, achieving an average yield of 70 tonnes/ mechanical subsoiling until 90 or 100 cm depth in Eucalyptus
ha after 5 years, which is a low yield. After being advised cultivated in Arenosols despite their very low risk of compac-
on the value of soil maps, they conducted a detailed survey tion, and this practice should be verified with care since it is
(Figure 7d), revealing significant heterogeneity in soils across high cost and degrades the soil.
the field. This information was used to generate a SEPP map
(Figure 7e), which identified the productivity potential of each A company (Case 7) sought to design an irrigation plan for
site inside the area. Armed with this knowledge, the farmer se- a 40,000-­ha area and initially allocated central pivot systems
lected different cultivars based on technical recommendations (Figure 8a, Phase 1). However, an extension worker with
linking soil types with SEPP and the former PA system. Five a good pedological skill, noticed rocky patches within the
years later, his yield had increased to 82 tonnes/ha. fieldworks. The company decided to conduct a soil survey
that revealed a variety of soil types with differences in depth,
In general, this approach is also applicable to other crops such as texture, drainage, clay activity, fertility and B horizon mor-
corn, soybean, citrus, coffee and eucalyptus. As an example, if phology (Figure 8b). The area was found to be highly complex
we have on the same farm, a high base saturation Ferralsol and a in terms of soil thickness (Figure 8c). Using this data, a de-
low-­fertility Arenosol, farmers might usually plant the same high-­ tailed pedological map was created (Figure 8a, Phase 2). The
yield soybean cultivar in both soils. While productivity on the irrigation plan was revised with the refined soil information,

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FIGURE 7    |    Illustration of an area with different points of view regarding soils and its productivity potential.

resulting in a completely new configuration (Figure 8a, Phase variation in soils but were not able to see subsoil (which indi-
3 -­see circular positions compared with Phase 1). The updated cate the technology limitation, in this case). Although the sens-
placement of the pivots accounted for soil-­t ype variations, en- ing indicate the best places to go in the field to understand the
suring that water requirements and pivot positions were opti- behaviour and, thus, field observation detected rocks in subsoil,
mised based on the soil characteristics, which impacted on the and the area was abandoned. These cases highlight the success
success of the project. and synergistic potential of combining advanced soil sensing
technologies with pedological expertise plus field observations
In Case 8, we demonstrate how new technologies can support for more precise and productive land use.
and enhance pedology. In 2000, a farmer requested a soil map
(Figure 9a). In 2019, with the advent of advanced technologies, Areas with hydromorphic sites (Case 10), in general, must be
the same area was re-­evaluated using the Geospatial Soil Sensing preserved, due to their importance for the water recharge envi-
System (GEOS3) (Demattê et al. 2018). This technique utilised in- ronment. This regulation can vary between countries or regions.
frared imaging to analyse the bare topsoil (Figure 9b), providing In Brazil, many states regulate these types of soils so as to be pre-
new data that enabled the mapping of clay content. A revised soil-­ served. In the current case, in an area of São Paulo state under
type delineation (Figure 9d) revealed that soil productivity had sugarcane cultivation, the farmer followed the law and preserved
been underestimated in 7% of the area, highlighting the value of the area along the net drainage (Figure 10a). Although, using
integrating modern technologies with traditional pedology. the hydromorphic sensing detection system (Mello et al. 2022),
it revealed that, indeed, the hydromorphic site was greater than
In an area of Mato Grosso State, Brazil (Case 9), a farmer sought previously delineated (Figure 10b). The same occurred in Goiás
to grow soybeans (Figure 9e). Initially, field observations were state, Brazil, in areas of soybean cultivation, where these hydro-
conducted (Phase 1), followed by the application of GEOS3 and morphic sites were not detected without these new remote sens-
soil colour analysis (Rizzo et al. 2023, Phase 2). The topsoil anal- ing technologies (Figure 10c,d). In fact, these areas are all under
ysis provided preliminary indications of soil suitability. During agriculture across regions which had to be preserved due to their
Phase 3, field validation confirmed these findings, with Munsell importance for water recharge. The technique is so detailed that,
colour values of about 5 (for hue 10Y) in one area (poorly drained in another site, it could detect the position of the water net drain-
soil) and 3 (for hue 5R) in another (well-­drained soil). Subsoil in- age (Figure 10e,f) validated in the field (Figure 10g).
formation corroborated these results, allowing the farmer to take
the best decision planting rice in the poorly drained area and soy- In Case 11 (Mato Grosso do Sul state, Brazil), a stakeholder
beans in the well-­drained one. In Case 10 (located in Paraguay, planted sugar cane in a Lixisol, which was very sandy from 0
Figure 9f), the opposite occurred. The sensing systems indicated to 50 cm depth and very clayey in the subsoil (Figure 11a) in

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FIGURE 8    |    (a–c) Area in Brazil. Illustration of an area with different points of view regarding soils and its productivity potential (Photo: J.A.M.
Demattê and Jorge T.F. Rosas).

mid-­October (before the rainy season). The stakeholder made a result, gaps in knowledge emerge, both in educational courses
the decision because the topsoil analysis indicated the soil was and in fieldwork. Waiting for government-­provided soil maps,
fertile. A month after planting, heavy rain came. The soil had despite their importance, is no longer a viable option in many
good drainage in the first 50 cm depth layer, but in the subsoil, countries. Farmers can hire consultants, cooperatives can form
pores were blocked by clay illuviation performing poor drainage. partnerships, and numerous strategies can be employed to ob-
This meant the water did not infiltrate and runoff started to flow tain detailed soil maps. Some argue that soil mapping costs are
along the rolling relief. The ground terrace could not hold the prohibitive, but a good detailed soil map is a foundation for ac-
water and broke (Figure 11b) and surface runoff flowed all over curate development. One could argue a good map can be easily
the plantation (Figure 11c). The impact of the resulting sedimen- updated and integrated with other types of spatial information.
tation was dead plants (Figure 11d), and a large erosion gully
appeared with time (Figure 11e) and the environment in rivers Bouma et al. (1999) pointed out that soil science was entering a
appeared. These can be seen in satellite images (Figure 10f) and new era due to emerging technologies. Now, 25 years later, we find
the impact on plant development (Figure 11g). If the stakeholder ourselves at a crucial juncture where technologies (hardware and
knew the type of soil and water function in his 3D body, he software) have gained exponential importance in society. But can
should not plant in a rainy season or use another strategy. they function effectively without a solid foundation in soil science?
It is essential to question the implications of this paradigm shift
for soil science and its integration with other disciplines and in its
7   |   Final Comments communication with farmers and stakeholders (cf. Figure 1).

Most professionals trained in agronomy overlook the impor- We must advance the field of pedology into a new era, em-
tance of soil types and the foundation of soil management. As bracing the digital earth system approach that emphasises soil

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FIGURE 9    |    (a–d) Area in São Paulo state, showing soil mapping and usage of satellite image using method of Demattê et al. (2018); (e) area in
Mato Grosso showing area with different types of drainage by topsoil colour assistance using method of Rizzo et al. (2023) and (f) area in Paraguay
(Photo: Gabriel Pimenta).

knowledge (Hartemink and Bockheim 2024). There are benefits sophisticated GPS system but lacking a clear map—while the
of an earth system science approach to pedology, including (1) a tools may provide detailed data, the inability to interpret and
better understanding of complex systems, (2) a greater ability to apply this information in the context of soil functions dimin-
model global and pedospheric systems, (3) improved prescrip- ishes their utility and effectiveness. We should take advantage
tions for sustainable environmental management and (4) a holis- of ML and artificial intelligence (AI) for the analysis of soil data-
tic programme of instruction in soil science. They also stressed sets, identifying complex patterns beyond traditional methods.
the need for ‘whole pedology’, not the prevalent partial pedology Soil science knowledge should be included into ML, by guiding
in which soil is researched as a material separate from its ori- the models with soil science principles, and knowledge about
gin and element in the landscape, and irrespective of the earth the soil profile (Minasny et al. 2024).
system.
University soil science curricula should incorporate real-­world
We are advocating for the integration of advanced pedo- case studies demonstrating how pedology influences soil health,
technologies, such as pedometrics (McBratney, Santos, and soil productivity, soil security and top food security. Pedology
Minasny 2003), proximal sensing (Viscarra-­Rossel et al. 2016), should extend beyond soil classification nor mapping, with a
remote sensing (Dwivedi 2001) and machine learning (ML) strong emphasis on its relevance to soil functions and services
(Minasny et al. 2024), into soil class and attributes mapping to human addressing global existential challenges. Pedology
(Figure 1). Pedologists bring the field experience into the ML courses should include new technologies and extend it to the
approach and back. But using these technologies without a whole community (Figure 1) to provide them with complemen-
fundamental understanding of soil is akin to navigating with a tary knowledge.

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FIGURE 10    |    (a) An area in São Paulo state, Brazil, with an original image with sugarcane (white areas with straw), (b) the same area applied a
bare soil technique to detect hydromorphic soils, (c) an area in the state of Goiás, Brazil, looking at a soybean plantation in an original satellite image,
(d) the same region with the bare soil technique, (e) area in São Paulo state with original satellite image (yellow line is water drainage flow net), (f)
same region with bare soil, and (g) field validation showing the detected areas where the bare soil image was of hydromorphic sites.

FIGURE 11    |    A site at Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, (a) a profile of a Lixisol, (b) a broken ground terrace with recent plantation of sugar cane, (c) the
erosion, (d) the impact after rain, sediment, (e) the greater erosion, (f) the satellite view of water accumulation in terraces, and the start of erosion and
(g) the result in the cultivated area (dead plants).

formal analysis, validation. Alfred E. Hartemink: investigation, vali-

dation, formal analysis, writing – review and editing.
Author Contributions

José A. M. Demattê: conceptualization, methodology, investigation, Acknowledgements

formal analysis, visualization, writing – original draft, writing – review The first author is grateful to the Brazilian Team, Geotechnology Soil
and editing, validation, funding acquisition, data curation, resources. Science Group (Geocis, https://​esalq​geocis.​w ixsi​te.​com/​english). The
Budiman Minasny: writing – review and editing, investigation, authors also thank the São Paulo State Research Support Foundation

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