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Acoustic and thermal performance of an innovative façade constructed with

Brazilian plantation wood

Article in Journal of Building Engineering · June 2025

DOI: 10.1016/j.jobe.2025.112348

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 Acoustic and thermal performance of an innovative
façade constructed with Brazilian plantation wood
Rodrigo Scoczynski Ribeiroa,∗, Marc Arnelab , Elias Zeac , Adrià Pastor
Vilab , Noélli Nara Andrade Rodriguesd , Thalita Giglioe , Rafaela Benan
5 Zarae , Jorge Daniel de Melo Mourad
a
Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná (Federal University of Technology),
Graduate Program in Civil Engineering (PPGEC-CT), R. Dep. Heitor Alencar Furtado,
5000 - Cidade Industrial de Curitiba, Curitiba - Paraná - Brazil.
b
Human-Environment Research (HER) group. La Salle, Universitat Ramon Llull (URL).
10 Carrer de Sant Joan de la Salle 42 - 08022 Barcelona, Spain.
c
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Department of Engineering Mechanics, The Marcus
Wallenberg Laboratory for Sound and Vibration Research, Teknikringen 8, SE-100 44
Stockholm, Sweden
d
Universidade Estadual de Londrina (State University of Londrina) - Associated
15 UEM/UEL Postgraduate Program in Architecture and Urbanism (PPU), Rod. Celso
Garcia Cid, PR 445, km 380 – Londrina - Paraná - Brazil.
e
Universidade Estadual de Londrina (State University of Londrina) - Graduate Program
in Civil Enginering (PPGEciv), Rod. Celso Garcia Cid, PR 445, km 380 – Londrina -
Paraná - Brazil.

20 Abstract

The construction industry faces several challenges in adopting sustainable

materials for building components. Engineered Wood Products (EWP) are
emerging as potential alternatives to traditional materials like hollow clay
blocks. This research evaluates an innovative EWP-based façade as a possi-
25 ble replacement for a hollow block wall in terms of acoustic and thermal per-
formance. The study was conducted in a hotel in Guarapuava, Brazil, where
acoustical measurements and thermal envelope simulations were performed.
The measured Weighted Standardized Façade Level Difference (D2m,nT,w ) for
the existing hollow block façade was 37 dB, while the simulated data for the

∗
Corresponding author
Emailsubmitted
Preprint addresses: Journal of Building Engineering (Rodrigo Scoczynski
to [email protected] Ribeiro
March ),
22, 2025
[email protected] (Rodrigo Scoczynski Ribeiro )
30 proposed wood façade reached 42 dB. Indoor sound insulation between rooms
also improved, rising from 46 dB (measured) to 48 dB (simulated) with the
EWP façade. From a thermal perspective, the thermal resistance increased
from 0.50 m2 K/W to 1.86 m2 K/W , which is more suitable for the Brazilian
1M climate zone where the building is located. This study highlights the
35 potential of using Brazilian pine wood in façade elements.
Keywords: Hybrid buildings, Engineered Wood Products, Airborne sound
insulation, Thermal performance

1. Introduction

Reducing construction and demolition waste and developing more sus-

40 tainable construction techniques are increasingly significant global priorities.
In the past decade, researchers have explored alternative materials, technolo-
gies, and design concepts with a smaller environmental impact [1]. To reduce
the carbon footprint of buildings, it is essential to develop materials that can
store carbon and create innovative designs that allow for multifunctional
45 components. Wood, one of Earth’s most abundant natural materials, has
been historically used in construction. Recent advances in engineered wood
products highlight this material’s significant, yet underutilized, potential to
tackle global sustainability challenges [2].
In Brazil, there are still numerous challenges and opportunities for ad-
50 vancing the forest bioeconomy, which could improve the sustainability of the
forest sector and boost the country’s competitiveness [3]. Silva et al. also ob-
served that only a few Brazilian species are currently used to produce Cross
Laminated Timber (CLT) [4]. Among these, Pinus elliottii stands out as one

2
 of the most suitable woods for CLT production due to its favorable interaction
55 with the bi-component polyurethane adhesive used in the process. Addition-
ally, Shin et al. [5] have examined the reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions and energy consumption achieved by replacing exterior walls with
Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) within different buildings in South Korea.
They found that using CLT instead of concrete for the façades led to a 44.6%
60 reduction in GHG emissions and a 49.3% decrease in energy demand.
Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) is a semi-rigid, plate-like Engineered
Wood Product (EWP) typically constructed with an odd number of layers
(commonly three, five, or seven). Each layer consists of boards placed side
by side, with adjacent layers oriented crosswise at a 90°angle to each other.
65 This structure enables CLT to support both in-plane and out-of-plane loads
[6]. For bonding the layers formaldehyde and polyurethane-based adhesives
are used [7]. Different types of fasteners and connections can be utilized
in CLT structural joints, depending on their placement and the loads they
must transfer. Selecting suitable fasteners and ensuring their optimal end
70 distances are critical, as these factors greatly influence the lateral resistance
of CLT panels [8].
A way to introduce Engineered Wood Products (EWP) into the Brazil-
ian construction industry is by using them in hybrid buildings. Traditional
materials like steel and concrete have significantly higher carbon emissions
75 and embodied energy than wood. The embodied energy of timber build-
ings is about 28–47% lower than that of concrete and steel buildings, re-
spectively [9]. Moreover, Becker et al. (2023) [10] examined the reduction
in Global Warming Potential (GWP) in three different one-way floor slab

3
 configurations with steel beams: a conventional concrete slab with concrete
80 topping, a CLT slab with concrete topping, and a CLT slab without topping.
The findings demonstrated that hybrid steel-timber buildings can lower the
GWP of the superstructure frame by 5% to 35% compared to traditional
steel and concrete construction. However, using EWP in place of these ma-
terials also has drawbacks, such as timber floors being prone to springiness
85 and vibration [11], which leads to poor impact sound insulation in the low-
frequency range considering a bare floor [12].
Substituting conventional materials with EWP can also alter the thermal
and acoustic performance of the building envelope. In fact, CLT buildings are
more susceptible to overheating in summer compared to concrete structures,
90 resulting in higher energy demands for cooling during the warmer months [13,
14]. From an acoustic perspective, the Mass Law can be applied to estimate
the airborne sound insulation of CLT panels [15]. As noted by Caniato et al.,
there has been a rapidly increasing trend in studies focused on the thermal
and acoustic insulation of timber buildings [16]. This rise is primarily due to
95 the similar performance of wood to traditional materials while offering the
advantage of lower carbon emissions.
This study aims to analyze the thermal and acoustic performance of an
innovative EWP-based façade in a hotel establishment and compare it with
a façade made of hollow clay blocks and lime cement mortar, classified as
100 a traditional wall type. The structure of the paper is as follows. Section 2
introduces the materials and methods used for the analysis, including the
building layout, the definition of sound reduction indices, the acoustical mea-
surements and simulations, and the thermal analysis. Section 3 analyzes the

4
 measured and simulated results of indoor and outdoor sound insulation, air-
105 borne sound insulation, and thermal performance. Finally, conclusions are
drawn in Section 4.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Building layout and the innovative façade

This study examines a hotel with a basement, ground floor, one technical
110 floor, and ten identical floors, each with 12 rooms. The layout of a typi-
cal floor is depicted in Figure 1, and a 3D view of the building is shown in
Figure 2, highlighting two rooms on the first standard floor that were ana-
lyzed. The building includes three types of walls, while the floors and ceilings
are made of a 15.0 cm concrete slab covered with vinyl. The first standard
115 floor was selected because the T-junction between the technical floor and the
first standard floor represents the worst-case scenario for sound insulation.
In contrast, the upper standard floors have cross junctions that distribute
sound energy more effectively, enhancing sound insulation.
The facade wall comprises hollow clay block masonry with cement mortar
120 coating on both sides, echoing the design of the interior masonry walls. Par-
tition elements are double-leaf walls containing two layers of plasterboards
on each side, enclosed within a double stud metal framing. These walls are
filled with two layers of mineral wool, each 50.0 mm thick and with a den-
sity of approximately 48.0 kg/m3 . The internal drywall is upheld by a single
125 metal structure, featuring one plasterboard on each side containing the same
mineral wool insulation, albeit with only one layer. Their details are given
by Figure 3a.

5
 2.85 m

6.00 m
1.82 m

2.00 m
Façade wall Internal wall/drywall
Partition wall Internal wall/masonry

Figure 1: Ground plan with the analyzed rooms.

10 standard floors

Analzyed rooms
Technical storey
Entrance/ground floor
Parking garage

Figure 2: 3D view of the building.

6
 Hollow clay block

Glass wool

Cement
mortar Plasterboard

Façade wall/
Partition wall Internal wall/drywall
internal wall

(a)
Timber stud 5-layers CLT
(25.0 x 50.0 mm)

Wood panel

Plasterboard

Timber stud
(20.0 x 70.0 mm) Fire resistant
Plasterboard

Innovative EWP-based wall Interior CLT wall

(b)

Figure 3: Illustration of wall elements: (a) existing elements and (b) proposed improve-
ments with EWP.

Two solutions were devised for implementing Engineered Wood Products

(EWP) and replacing the hollow block walls. The innovative facade concept
130 involves a Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) wall design, comprising a wood
panel as the external layer separated by an air cavity and a plasterboard
serving as the internal layer, also with an air cavity. The outer and inner

7
 layers are attached to timber studs at 60.0 cm intervals. The timber stud
materials utilized are sourced from Pinus Taeda, a non-native species of pine
135 wood commonly found in Brazil, while the CLT panel. Figure 3b presents
these two wood-based walls.
De Araújo and Christoforo (2023) [17] noted that out of 98 CLT manufac-
turers worldwide, only two are located in Brazil. Despite Brazil being one of
the largest producers of forest biomass and a significant player in the global
140 forest products market, the development of EWP in the country remains in
its initial stages [3]. Currently, Brazilian CLT is produced exclusively using
Pinus or Eucalyptus wood, bonded with either one-component polyurethane
(1C-PUR) or melamine urea formaldehyde (MUF) adhesives [4, 18, 19].

2.2. Acoustical measurements

145 The acoustical measurements followed the ISO 16283-1 standard for air-
borne sound insulation [20] and ISO 16283-3 standard for façade sound in-
sulation [21].
The standardized level difference DnT for the indoor sound insulation was
calculated by deploying a single sound source at various positions within the
150 emitting room while maintaining fixed microphone placements in both the
emitting and receiving rooms. The measurement setup utilized a Brüel & Kjær
Type 2250 sound-level analyzer, along with a free-field 1/2” microphone of
Type 4189. Pink noise was generated using an omnidirectional loudspeaker
(Type DDC-100 - GROM) with a maximum sound power of 109 dB re 1 pW
155 across the 40 − 8000 Hz frequency range.
Background noise correction was deemed unnecessary since the hotel was
unoccupied then, and the measurements were conducted in an environment

8
 with limited and controlled activities. Additionally, any potential traffic noise
was minimal.
160 Measuring the reverberation time (RT) in the receiving room is also nec-
essary to compute the DnT . This involved capturing six impulse responses
(IR) using a 1/2” free-field microphone (Type 4966-H-041 - Brüel&Kjær)
connected to a CCLD signal conditioner (Type 1704-A-001 - Brüel&Kjær)
and interfaced with a USB sound card (AudioBox USB 96 - PreSonus). The
165 impulse responses were obtained using the ITA-ToolBox [22], taking into
account a 30 dB dynamic range (T30 ).
The weighted standardized sound level difference of a façade (D2m,nT,w )
was obtained by the global loudspeaker method. Figure 4 displays the ac-
quisition of indoor and outdoor sound pressure levels (SPL).

170 2.3. Sound reduction indices

The sound reduction indices are presented in Figure 5. These indices

for the hollow block walls were derived using the prediction model proposed
by [23]. The dynamic elastic modulus was utilized, and its homogenization
across the various layers was conducted as per the methodology outlined
175 in [24].The code used to calculate the sound reduction index for these hollow
block walls was written in MATLAB and can be found in [25]. The physical
and mechanical parameters used in the calculations are listed in Table 1,
′
where fbk is the vertical compressive strength of the blocks, fbk is the hori-
zontal compressive strength of the blocks, ηint is the internal loss factor, and
180 ν is the Poisson’s ratio. The manufacturer provided the compressive strength
values. ηint and ν were determined according to [26] for hollow block walls.
The parameter K was derived from [27], considering the proportion of holes

9
 (a) (b)

Figure 4: (a) Indoor SPL acquisition and (b) outdoor acquisition of the SPL 2.00 m from
the façade.

in the cross-section of the blocks. This coefficient is used to determine the

mechanical resistance of the wall. The dynamic elastic modulus of the cement
185 mortar was set at 7.40 GPa, as specified by [28].
The sound reduction indices of the other elements were determined using
INSUL software [29]. Their mass per unit area (m) and thicknesses are listed
in Table 2. The windows are made of double-pane 6.00 mm glass within PVC

′
fbk (MPa) fbk (MPa) K ηint ν
1.50 0.15 0.45 0.01 0.15

Table 1: Physical and mechanical properties of the masonry wall.

10
 framing, with insulation values provided by the manufacturer.

Masonry Partition Internal Wall Innovative Internal

Floor/ceiling
wall Wall (Drywall) EWP-based wall CLT wall
m (kg/m2 ) 187.7 354.0 38.0 19.0 82.0 83.0
thickness (m) 0.18 0.152 0.17 0.085 0.268 0.168

Table 2: Physical properties of the building elements.

Figure 5: Sound reduction indices for the building elements.

190 2.4. Building acoustics simulation

After obtaining the sound reduction indices, the next step was to apply
them in a global calculation. Initially, the hotel was modeled using CYPE
Architectural software [30] and then exported to CYPE Open BIM Analytical

11
 Lateral 1 Lateral 2

Lateral 3 Lateral 4

Figure 6: Prediction of the indoor sound insulation in CYPE AcouBAT software [32].

software [31]. The model was subsequently transferred to CYPE AcouBAT

195 software [32] for the acoustic simulation. Four transmission paths and direct
sound transmission paths were considered for the indoor sound insulation
between the two rooms, as illustrated in Figure 6. All the computation is
based on ISO 12354-1 standard [33].
For the façade sound insulation, the predicted D2m,nT,w values were de-
200 termined based on the flanking paths shown in Figure 7.
For heavy elements, classified as type A in ISO 12354-1, which include
CLT and masonry walls, the sound reduction index for flanking transmission
(Rij ) between elements i and j is provided by
!
Ri,situ + Rj,situ S
Rij = + Dv,ij,situ + 10 log10 p s , (1)
2 Si Sj

where Ri,situ and Rj,situ represent the sound reduction indices of the elements,
205 which can initially be approximated by the R values measured in laboratory

12
 Lateral
Lateral11 Lateral 2

Lateral 3 Lateral 4

Figure 7: Prediction of the façade sound insulation in CYPE AcouBAT software [32].

conditions according to the ISO 10140-4 standard [34]. The R values used for
computation were derived from prediction models as shown in Section 2.3. Ss
denotes the area of the separating element, while Si and Sj refer to the areas
of the elements in the source room (i) and the receiving room (j), respectively.
210 Dv,ij,situ is the direction-averaged junction velocity level difference between
elements i and j in situ, considering the vibration reduction index (Kij )
between junctions as specified by
 
lij
Dv,ij,situ = Kij − 10 log10 √ . (2)
ai,situ aj,situ

Here, ai,situ and aj,situ are the equivalent absorption lengths of structural
elements i and j in situ, respectively. lij is the common coupling length
215 between elements i and j.
Figure 8 illustrates the analyzed junctions in the context of the innovative
EWP-based façade. The equations used to calculate the vibration reduction

13
 A
C

Figure 8: T-junctions (A, C, and D) and cross junction (B) within the building.

indices (Kij ) are presented in Table 3. These equations were also applied to
a building with a façade made of hollow clay blocks. Here, M is defined as
′
m⊥i
M = log10 ′ , (3)
mi
′
220 where mi represents the mass per unit area of the i-th element, measured in
kilograms per square meter. This element is part of the transmission path
′
between two points, i and j. The second element, denoted by m⊥i , represents
the mass per unit area of the other element that forms the connection at a
perpendicular orientation to the first element. Again, this is measured in
225 kilograms per square meter.
Finally, CYPE AcouBAT [32] calculates the standardized sound level
difference (DnT ) for each of the flanking paths as
 
′ 0.32V
DnT = R + 10 log10 , (4)
Ss

14
 Junction ID Type Vibration index (Kij )
f


1 3 K12 = 10.0 + 10.0 |M | + 3.3 log 500
A
K13 = 3.0 + 14.1M + 5.7M 2
2
4 f


K12 = 10.0 + 10.0 |M | + 3.3 log 500 = K14
B 1 3
K13 = 3.0 + 14.1M + 5.7M 2
2
f


1 3 K12 = 15.0 + 10.0 |M | − 3.3 log 500
C
f


K13 = 15.0 + 20.0M − 3.3 log 500 ; min = 10dB
2
f


1 3 K12 = 10.0 + 10.0 |M | + 3.3 log 500
D
2 K13 = 3.0 + 14.1M + 5.7M 2

Table 3: Expressions for computing the Kij .

where V is the volume of the reception room in cubic meters.

The overall values for indoor and outdoor sound insulation in this study
230 are then obtained according to

10−0.1DnT,direct + 10−0.1DnT,lat.1

DnT,global = −10 log
(5)
+10−0.1DnT,lat.2 + 10−0.1DnT,lat.3 + 10−0.1DnT,lat.4


,

incorporating both direct sound transmission and the four flanking paths.

2.5. Thermal analysis

The thermal assessment was carried out using two distinct methods: ana-
lytical calculations based on ISO 6946 (2017) [35] and simulations performed
235 with the THERM software [36], which is capable of modeling two-dimensional
heat-transfer effects in building components using the finite-element method.
The material properties used for calculating thermal resistance and thermal

15
 capacity are presented in Table 5. The same densities were applied in the
acoustical simulation.
240 The thermal properties of the CLT were adopted from a European manu-
facturer [37, 38], considering that the product is relatively new in the Brazil-
ian market and technical data are not provided by the few companies pro-
ducing CLT panels. This decision was also supported by the fact that the
thermal conductivity of a Brazilian CLT made from Eucalyptus grandis was
W
245 found to be 0.115 mK
according to Nunes et al. (2020) [39], which is close
W
to the 0.12 mK
value of the European product.
Brazil is categorized into six Bioclimatic Zones (BZ), progressively rang-
ing from very cold to very hot. The cold zones, specifically the very cold
zone and the cold zone, are further divided according to the heating thermal
250 load, defined as the amount of heat required to be transferred to the air to
achieve and maintain the desired thermal conditions in a space. The other
bioclimatic zones are subdivided based on relative humidity, culminating in a
total of twelve zones [40]. The distribution of these zones is outlined in Table
4. The building under analysis is situated in the 1M Bioclimatic Zone.
255 The wall was divided into two main sections for the computation, labeled
A and B. Section A was further divided into subsections A1 and A2. In
contrast, section B was split into subsections B1 and B2, as shown in Figure 9.
The upper (Rtot,upper ) and lower (Rtot,lower ) bounds of thermal resistance
were determined as illustrated in Figure 10. These R-value limits were calcu-
260 lated using the parallel path method for the upper limit and the isothermal
planes method for the lower limit. The thermal resistance of the interior sur-
face (Rsi ) and exterior surface (Rse ) are 0.13 (m2 K)/W and 0.04 (m2 K)/W ,

16
Bioclimatic zone % of cities Condition
1R 1.10% Very cold with harsh winter conditions
1M 8.55% Very cold with moderate winter conditions
2R 6.91% Cold with harsh winter conditions
2M 10.29% Cold with moderate winter conditions
3A 5.42% Variable and humid weather
3B 10.79% Variable and dry weather
4A 9.86% Mildly warm and humid
4B 14.02% Mildly warm and dry
5A 14.31% Hot and humid climate
5B 7.95% Hot and arid climate
6A 5.33% Very hot and humid climate
6B 5.48% Very hot and arid climate

Table 4: Brazilian bioclimatic zones according to the national standard [40].

W J kg
Material Thermal conductivity - λ ( mK ) Specific heat - c ( kgK ) Density - ρ ( m3)

Pine wood (Pinus ssp.)[41] 0.15 1340 500

Cross Laminated Timber [37, 38] 0.12 1600 470
Plasterboard [42] 0.21 1000 800

Table 5: Physical properties used for thermal evaluation.

17
 Section: A Section: B

Figure 9: Designed sections for the thermal analysis.

respectively, in accordance with the ISO 6946 standard [35]. Additionally,

RP ine refers to the thermal resistance of pine wood, RP lasterboard to that of
265 plasterboard, RCLT to that of the CLT panel, and RAir to that of the air
layer, which is 0.16 (m2 K)/W for both thicknesses (25 mm and 70 mm) [35]
.
The national standard NBR 15575-4 [43] specifies that the U-value (ther-
mal transmittance) should be less than or equal to 2.70 W/(m2 K) for BZ1M.
270 The U-value is defined as

1
U= (6)
R

where R is the thermal resistance.

Additionally, the Brazilian standard NBR 15575-4 (2021) [43] recom-
mends a Thermal Capacity (TC) greater than 130 kJ/(m2 K) for façade

18
 Upper limit (Rtot,upper):
Rse RPine RCLT RPine Rplasterboard Rsi
A1
Rse RPine RCLT RAir Rplasterboard Rsi
A2
Rse RPine RAir RCLT RPine Rplasterboard Rsi
B1
Rse RPine RAir RCLT RAir Rplasterboard Rse
B2

Lower limit (Rtot,lower):

RAir RAir

Rse RPine RCLT Rplasterboard Rse

RPine RPine

Figure 10: Thermal resistance association for Rtot,upper and Rtot,lower .

walls in climate zone 1M. Calculating this parameter is required [44],

AA1 + AA2 + AB1 + AB2
T CEW P = AA1
. (7)
T CA1
+ TACA2
A2
+ TACB1
B1
+ AB2
T CB2

275 Here, AA1 , AA2 , AB1 , and AB2 represent the areas of the sections perpen-
dicular to the heat flux, while T CA1 , T CA2 , T CB1 , and T CB2 correspond to
their respective thermal capacities.
To compare the façade constructed with hollow clay blocks and cement
mortar, this configuration was also simulated using the THERM software [36]
280 and the ISO 6946 [35] procedures, which took into account sections C1, C2,
C3, and D, as shown in Figure 11.
The physical properties of the hollow clay masonry elements are pro-
vided in Table 6. The values for the cement mortar were obtained from
ISO 10456 [45], while the manufacturer supplied the data for the hollow clay

19
 Air layer
Clay

Cement mortar

Figure 11: Sections of the hollow clay block for thermal analysis - EWP-based wall.

W J kg
Material Thermal conductivity - λ ( mK ) Specific heat - c ( kgK ) Density - ρ ( m 3)

Cement mortar [45] 1.00 1000.0 1800.0

Clay 0.90 920.0 1600.0

Table 6: Physical properties used for thermal evaluation - hollow clay blocks.

285 blocks. The densities used were the same as those applied in the acoustical
analysis to calculate the mass per unit area.
In the same way, the thermal capacity was calculated for the hollow clay
masonry wall as [44],
AC1 + 4AC2 + 3AC3 + AD
T Cmasonry = AC1
, (8)
T CC1
+ 4 TACC2
C2
+ 3 TACC3
C3
+ AD
T CD

where AC1 , AC2 , AC3 , and AD denote the areas of the sections perpendic-
290 ular to the heat flux, whereas T CC1 , T CC2 , T CC3 , and T CD represent their
corresponding thermal capacities.

20
 In the THERM software [36], air layers were modeled as solid elements.
Their thermal conductivities were calculated by dividing a thermal resistance
of 0.16 (m2 K)/W by the corresponding layer thicknesses. This approach was
295 applied to the EWP-based and hollow clay masonry walls. Additionally, dif-
ferent film coefficients were assigned to the exterior and interior boundaries,
1 1
set at 25.0 W/(m2 K) and 7.69 W/(m2 K), corresponding to Rse
and Rsi
,
respectively.

3. Results and Discussion

300 3.1. Acoustic analysis

Figure 12 presents the measured and simulated airborne sound insulation

for the existing scenario, where the façade is constructed with hollow clay
blocks. Measured DnT,w (C; Ctr ) value was 46(−1; −4) dB, and the simulated
value was 44(−1; −5) dB. The expanded uncertainty associated with the
305 single number can be calculated as [46],

U = DnT,w ± kσsitu , (9)

where k is the coverage factor, given as 2.58 for a 99 % confidence level

in a two-sided test, and σsitu is the standard uncertainty, which is 0.9 dB
for in situ measurements [46]. This increases the uncertainty of approx-
imately ± 2.3 dB, indicating that the measured DnT,w could range from
310 43.7 to 48.3 dB. Consequently, it can be assumed that the simulated value
of 44 dB falls within this uncertainty interval, suggesting that the pre-
dicted data closely aligns with the measured data. The spectral distribution
shows some convergence within the low-frequency range and between 800 and

21
 Figure 12: Measured and predicted airborne sound insulation.

1250 Hz. However, the prediction underestimates the measured data at mid-
315 frequencies, while the values are overestimated at higher frequencies (above
1250Hz). As Rindel points out [26], sound insulation computation programs
often have the limitation of assuming ideal workmanship and acoustically
perfect building details—conditions seldom achieved in practice.
Another reason for the discrepancies across the frequency spectrum is the
320 predicted value for the façade constructed with hollow block walls as a flank-
ing element. While prediction models for these types of walls may perform
well at mid-frequencies, they may show discrepancies at other frequencies
due to the complex web structure of the blocks, which limits the accuracy of
the models [23, 47].
325 Figure 13 shows the measured and simulated façade sound insulation

22
 Figure 13: Measured and predicted outdoor sound insulation.

values for the wall constructed with hollow clay blocks. The measured
D2m,nT,w (C; Ctr ) value was 37(0; −2) dB, and the simulated value was 39(−1; −4) dB.
Taking into account the same uncertainties for indoor sound insulation,
D2m,nT,w could range between 34.7 dB and 39.3 dB. Therefore, it can be
330 assumed that the simulated data fall within the uncertainty interval, indi-
cating they are similar with a 99 % confidence level. As explained earlier,
the discrepancies across the frequency spectrum are attributed to the leak-
ages inherent to in situ measurements and the absence of a highly accurate
prediction model for hollow block walls.
335 Figure 14 shows the simulated values obtained using the CYPE AcouBAT
software for the innovative EWP-based wall. This new façade design has the
potential to enhance sound insulation from 37 dB to 42 dB for the exterior

23
 and from 46 dB to 48 dB for the interior. Replacing the hollow clay block
façade with the EWP-based one effectively increases sound insulation for
340 both indoor and outdoor paths.

(a) (b)

Figure 14: (a) Façade sound insulation (b) indoor sound insulation.

Wang et al. (2017) [48] conducted field measurements in a CLT building

located in Taiwan, focusing on a façade and a partition wall. The façade
was constructed as a 5-layer CLT wall with a thickness of 162.0 mm, com-
plemented by a waterproof breathable fabric, an air layer approximately
345 4.00 cm thick created by wood studs supporting cement boards. The ce-
ment boards were coated with waterproof material and covered with wood
external cladding secured by stainless steel bars. The partition wall had
a similar configuration but omitted the waterproof breathable fabric and
stainless steel bars, with the wood cladding directly glued to the cement
350 board. The authors measured sound insulation values of D2m,nT,w = 42dB
and DnT,w = 40dB.
The building studied by Wang et al. (2017) [48] utilized CLT for floor ele-
ments, unlike the concrete slab used in the present study. Despite differences

24
 in geometry and flanking contributions, the façade proposed by Wang et al.
355 (2017) [48] exhibited similar sound insulation performance to the innovative
façade developed in this research. However, the partition wall in this study
achieved a higher sound insulation value of 48 dB compared to 40 dB mea-
sured in the pure CLT building analyzed by Wang et al. (2017) [48]. This
improvement is attributed to the change in floor vibration behavior when
360 using a concrete slab instead of a CLT floor. These findings suggest that hy-
brid buildings with concrete flooring offer superior airborne sound insulation
compared to pure-wood buildings.

3.2. Thermal analysis

Table 7 presents the thermal results obtained using various methods. The
365 thermal transmittance, determined from the Rtot value for the EWP-based
wall using Equation (6), is 0.54 W/(m2 K), whereas for the masonry façade, it
is 2.00 W/(m2 K). Both values meet the national standard recommendation
of ≤ 2.70 W/(m2 K)[43].
2 2
Type of façade Rtot ( mWK ) - ISO 6946 RT HERM ( mWK ) T C ( mkJ
2K )

EWP-based wall 1.8563 1.8603 131.09

Hollow clay blocks wall 0.5002 0.4959 174.31

Table 7: Calculated thermal parameters.

Figure 15 displays the THERM results for the EWP-based wall alongside
370 the 2D FEM simulation for the hollow clay block wall. The introduction of
an air layer reduces the heat flux through the wall by interrupting conductive
and convective pathways. The thickness of the air layer is a critical design
parameter for optimizing thermal performance [49].

25
 The relative error between these results and those obtained through an-
375 alytical calculations is less than 1.00 %, demonstrating the accuracy of the
analytical method. A higher U-value indicates greater heat transmission, and
for cities in BZ1M (bioclimatic zone 1M), the recommended U-values are be-
low 1.20 W/(m2 K) under current weather conditions [50]. The hollow clay
block wall exceeded this limit, suggesting it will not effectively retain heat in
380 rooms located in BZ1M, where heating is necessary. The thermal capacity,
representing a material’s ability to store sensible heat, met the requirement
in both cases (e.g., ≥ 130kJ/mK). Materials with high thermal capacity,
such as concrete or brick, can absorb and retain heat within a building,
making thermal capacity a crucial factor in cold weather. While the ther-
385 mal resistance of walls can be improved by lowering the equivalent thermal
conductivity, this often decreases thermal capacity, reducing the material’s
ability to withstand temperature and heat flux fluctuations [51].
Ye et al. (2023) [52] investigated the thermal performance of various wall
assemblies incorporating CLT, specifically designed for cold regions. One of
390 the configurations they examined consisted of a 105.0 mm CLT wall combined
with a 12.0 mm gypsum board, a 10 mm oriented strand board (OSB), a
10 mm fiber cement board, a 40 mm air layer and a drainage wrap 40 mm with
counter battens, resulting in a total wall thickness of 217 mm. The authors re-
ported a thermal transmittance (U-value) of approximately 0.641 W/(m2 K),
395 which is 18.7% higher than the U-value calculated for the wall proposed in
this study. The proposed wall, with a thickness of 204.5 mm, omits the fiber
cement board and is thinner than the wall analyzed by Ye et al. (2023) [52],
yet achieves a lower U-value, making it more suitable for cold regions. This

26
 highlights the advantages of using wood materials in combination with air
400 cavities to enhance thermal insulation performance.

27
 Section: A Section: B

Heat flux (W/m²)

(a)

Sections C1, C2 and C3

Section D

Heat flux W/m²

(b)

Figure 15: Thermal resistance of (a) the EWP-based wall and (b) the hollow clay blocks
wall.

28
 4. Conclusions

This study assessed the acoustic and thermal performance of the façade
in a Brazilian hotel built with hollow clay blocks. An innovative wood-based
wall was proposed as a sustainable alternative. The measured Weighted Stan-
405 dardized Façade Level Difference (D2m,nT,w ) for the original façade was 37
dB, which improved to 42 dB with the sustainable alternative. Indoor sound
insulation between rooms also improved, with the Weighted Standardized
Level Difference (DnT,w ) increasing from 46 dB (measured) to 48 dB (simu-
lated). Acoustic simulations were validated using measured data before being
410 applied to the innovative sustainable wall.
Thermal transmittance (U-values) was simulated at 2 W/(m2 K) for the
hollow block wall and 0.54 W/(m2 K) for the EWP-based façade. The wood-
based façade exhibited enhanced thermal performance relative to the hollow
clay block wall, particularly in Bioclimatic Zone 1M, one of the coldest regions
415 in Brazil. These improvements are attributed to the addition of air layers
and the use of wood materials.
The primary finding of this research is that a façade built with hollow
clay blocks can be effectively replaced by a wood-based alternative. This
alternative incorporates materials such as Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT)
420 and solid pine wood, combined with air cavities, which significantly improve
both acoustic and thermal performance. Future studies aim to validate the
proposed wall in a laboratory setting to measure airborne sound insulation
(e.g., Sound Reduction Index Rw ) and calculate sustainability indicators like
kgCO2eq . A limitation of this study is the assumption of massive solid junc-
425 tions between the façade and flanking elements when calculating sound vi-

29
 bration indices.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Rodrigo Scoczynski Ribeiro: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writ-

ing - Original Draft, Data Curation, Software, Validation, Investigation,
430 Writing - Review & Editing. Marc Arnela: Writing - Original Draft,
Writing - Review & Editing, Software, Supervision, Data curation. Elias
Zea: Writing - Original Draft, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing - Re-
view & Editing, Software, Visualization. Adrià Pastor Vila: Software,
Methodology, Data curation. Noélli Nara Andrade: Conceptualization,
435 Methodology, Writing - Original Draft. Thalita Giglio: Conceptualization,
Software, Methodology. Rafaela Benan Zara: Software, Investigation, Re-
sources. Jorge Daniel de Melo Moura: Methodology, Conceptualization,
Supervision, Resources, Project administration.

Declaration of Competing Interest

440 The authors declare that they have no known competing financial inter-
ests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work
reported in this paper.

Funding

This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento

445 de Pessoal de Nı́vel Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001 and by the
NAPI (Novo Arranjo de Pesquisa e Inovação) Wood Tech of the Araucaria
Foundation - Paraná. The second author thanks the Catalan Government

30
 (Departament de Recerca i Universitats) for the grant 2021 SGR 01396 given
to the HER group.

450 Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the researchers at the Institute of Tech-
nical Acoustics of RWTH Aachen University for developing and distributing
the ITA Toolbox.

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